On force and tooth movement

iL H. Hixon, T. 0. Aaoen,* J. Arango,* R. A. Clark,*

R. Klosterman,* S. S. Miller,* and W. M. Odom*
Portlannd, Ore.

A n earlier study of force and rate of orthodontic tooth movement

provided enough data to challenge the clinical usefulness of the theories of
optimal force and differential force.2 Unfortunately, certain artifacts (namely,
tipping tooth movement) which confounded the optimal force theory were also
present in our previous data. The problem was primarily mechanical in nature
in that heavy arch wires (0.022 by 0.025 inch) were not sufficiently rigid to
prevent measurable tipping of tooth movement when the applied forces exceed
100 grams. Consequently, the present investigation was undertaken to produce
bodily canine movement so as to provide a better understanding of the relation-
ship between force and the rate of tooth movement.
Tipping tooth movement introduces several variables which mask study of
the relationship between force and rate of tooth movement. Besides the initial
compression of the periodontal ligament (PDL), the most obvious variable is
the unequal distribution of the load along the root. The high load at the alveolar
crest, which decreases to zero at the axis of rotation, is also capable of deforming
the wall of the socket. The magnitude of such bone bending may also -be suffi-
cient to influence interpretation of the data utilized for studying tooth move-
ment.3-g .
This is obviously of some importance for an understanding of initial me-
chanical response of the PDL and bone. It may also have implications for an
understanding of the clinically more important long-term metabolic changes in-
duced in the supporting tissues. t
While bodily tooth movement helps clarify the picture by reducing much of
the initial tissue deformation, it does not permit one to assume that the applied

*Summary of theses submitted for certificate in orthodontics at the University of

Oregon Dental Sohoo1.l
tDeformation of a tooth under load has been measured, but the magnitude of this
“tooth bending” is too small to be of either clinical or theoretical significance to
our study.10

476
Volume 67 Force and tooth movement 477
Number 5

pressure is equally distributed over every square millimeter of the root. One
need only recall the porosity of the alveolar socket and the fact that the com-
pression and the stretching of the PDL cannot be a constant around the curved
surfaces of the tooth and socket, especially on the buccal and lingual aspects of
the tooth. Nevertheless, elimination of some of the variables introduced by
tipping tooth movement should provide a better clinical description of cellular
response to force.
Research protocol

The subjects for this study were six children, 12 to 15 years of age, who
required removal of four first premolars and distal retraction of the canines for
correction of their malocclusions. Canine, second premolar, and first molar bands
were transferred from the patients to plaster models (by means of an impres-
sion) to permit soldering of 0.045 inch tubes to the buccal and lingual surfaces
of the posterior segments (parallel to the occlusal plane and to each other),
soldering of the premolar and molar bands to each other, and placement of
0.045 inch wires through the tubes to then be soldered to the canines (Fig. 1).
Four such units were cemented in each patient for two weeks and left before
activation.
While dividing the elastic traction equally between the buccal and lingual
arches solved the problem of rotation (Fig. l), we were unable to eliminate
tipping of all teeth. Of the twenty-four quadrants under study, a total of nine-
teen teeth (nine maxillary canines, seven mandibular canines, and three man-
dibular molars) met the rather rigid criteria established for bodily tooth move-
ment. After we discovered that tipping sometimes occurred despite two 0.045
inch arches, a simulated system was used to measure the deflection of these wires
(Figs. 2 and 3). This was done with the aid of a traveling microscope which
could detect deflection of less than 3 microns from the rest position. The stan-
dard error of the measurement (S.E. meas.) was 0.017 mm.
The mechanical couple produced by placing one force at the crown and the
other at the apex is probably more severe than that produced in patients because
the PDL and the alveolar bone, even at the crest, ,offer some resistance to de-

Fig. 1, Appliance employed for bodily tooth movement.

 Amer. J. Orthodont.
478 Hixon et al. May 1970

Fig. 2. Laboratory mock-up of appliance to study arch deflection, static, and dynamic
friction.

Fig. 3. Portrayal of how deflection of arch wire was measured when a couple was
generated by the equal and opposing forces. The force at the apex substitutes for the
resistance of the periodontal ligament and bone and probably creates a stronger couple
than occurs in the oral cavity (where the arch bends as shown by the dotted line). Also,
in the mouth, there is tipping of both the canine and the molar even though the premolar
band was soldered to the molar band in this experiment.
Volume
Number
57
5
Force and tooth movement 479

formation. It was rather surprising to note a deflection of 1.5 mm. with opposing
1,000 Gm. forces and a 20 mm. span between the buccal tubes and the canines.12
Fig. 4 portrays the range of deflection at this distance for two 0.045 inch arches
and for forces between 0 and 1,400 Gm. By way of comparison with the usual
clinical situation, the deflection with a 7 mm. span is included for both the
0.045 inch appliance and an edgewise arch.
The deflection of an 0.0215 by 0.028 inch wire with a 7 mm. span between
the brackets is especially worth noting. With this steel arch, which is “heavy”
by clinical standards, there was a 1.0 mm. deflection (which permits tipping)
when 200 Gm. forces were applied. While these findings illustrate one reason
that only two thirds of the canines and one fourth of the mandibular molar
units moved bodily, they also indicate that retraction, even with conventional
(0.014 to 0.022 inch) arches, probably consists of initial tipping movements as
the arch bends, followed by a certain amount of uprighting as the activating
force exhausts itself before reactivation. With the Begg technique there is but
one large “tipping” and one “uprighting” movement, as compared to a series of
such movements with conventional arches.
While describing the mechanical system employed in this study, considera-
tion must be given to how much of the applied force was delivered to the teeth.
This involved study of the loss of force through friction as well as through
decay of the elastics in saliva. The apparatus illustrated in Fig. 2 was also used
to measure the maximum friction encountered in this study. After the addition
of equal weights (from 50 to 1,400 Gm.) to the threads pulling at the occlusal

DEFLECTION OF WIRE (mm.1

Fig. 4. Deflection of two “arch wires,” as portrayed in Fig. 3, with differing force loads.
The deflection of the two 0.045 inch arches with a 20 mm. span is less than with the heavy
rectangular arch and a 7 mm. span.
 Amer. J. Orthodont.
480 Hixon et al. May 1970

s--'-. STATIC PRICTIOU :$ - .007j

v-i

Fig. 5. The static friction and kinetic friction of 0.045 inch appliances are presented as
per cent of applied force.

surface and the apex, additional small increments were then added to the thread
pulling at the occlusal level until the wires moved through the parallel tubes in
the center support. The additional weight necessary to cause movement of the
tooth is plotted in Fig. 5 as a per cent of applied forces to the couple.” The
static friction varied from 10 per cent of the applied force at 50 Cm. to 20
per cent at 1,400 Gm. (S.E. meas. of 0.44 per cent).
When this apparatus was employed in the patient, however, it was sub-
ject to a variety of oral forces, especially from mastication, which produced
other motions and permitted the wire to slide through the tube more easily.
An estimate of this dynamic (or kinetic) friction was obtained by repeating
the above procedure but vibrating the apparatus with an electrical (60 cycle)
vibrator. After computation of the linear regression of the equation describing
the results, the slope was so minute (0.0005) that dynamic or kinetic friction
was accepted as 5 per cent of the applied force, irrespective of the forces of
magnitude.
The force delivered by the elastics which activated the appliance was
*The deviation of the static friction in the 600 Gm. range was tested, but since sepa-
rate regression equations were not significantly different, a single linear model was adopted
for all thirty-six points.
 Volume 57
Xumber 5 Force and tooth movement 481

Per cent of elastic force lost in vivo

Fig. 6. Per cent of elastic force lost under tension in vivo.

measured each time they were applied and again when they were removed
(three times a week). When it was noted that the force decayed more than
15 per cent during the 2- and 3-day intervals, a rather detailed investigation
of elastic force decay (while under tension) was undertaken, utilizing an
Instron tensile testing instrument.13
The primary finding, as shown in Fig. 6, was a rapid initial loss of force
(13 per cent in 3 hours) followed by a slow loss of 3 per cent before elastics
were changed. Although all elastics were latex, the loss was greater for the
lighter (2 ounce) than the heavier (6 ounce) elastics. However, the rate of
decay after the first 3 hours (slope of the lines in Fig. 5) was not different.*
Because of this factor, because the elastics were used in combinations, and
because the elastics were occasionally nicked from mastication, we decided to
utilize the average of the forces that the elastics delivered at the time they
were removed (three times a week) as the single figure which best represented
*From the regression model used, it was possible to test the effects of differing media
(water, air, saliva, and the differences in saliva), the weight of the elastic, the initial
force, the force at 3 hours, the force at 72 hours, and the interaction of these factors.13
After the effects of the media were removed, the slope of the lines did not change and a
comparison of end-point values (after adjusting initial values) gave F,,, = 0.21.
 Amer. J. Ortibodont.
482 Hkon et al. Magi 1970

force applied to the teeth. The average of these forces for the 8-week period
underestimates the average force delivered, but it nearly offsets the loss of
applied force attributable to kinetic friction (5 per cent). Further adjustment
was not deemed meaningful, since the reliability of measurements in cali-
brating the elastics (S.E. meas. = 4 per cent) is larger than the unaccount-
able residual from the effects of friction and elastic decay. It can be said with
considerable confidence, however, that the oscillations of the forces acting on
the teeth during the S-week period rarely exceeded 10 per cent of the figures
given as the “mean” force applied to the teeth.
To provide fixed landmarks against which to measure tooth movement,
tantalum implants were placed in the maxilla and the mandible after the
method of Bj6rk.14-16 Open-mouth head films were then secured with the head
holder rotated 25 degrees toward the film, so that the posterior segment of
each film was approximately parallel to the filnl.2 Measurements of tooth
movement were secured by first scribing a vertical line through an anatomic
landmark on the crown and at the apex of the image of the tooth in the
initial film and repeating this procedure in the final film. By superimposing on
the metallic implants, measurements between the scribed lines (on initial and
final films) then depicted tooth movement through the bone (S.E. meas. =
0.2 mm.). Measurements of relative tooth movement (space closure) were
secured from alginate impressions collected three times a week for the 8-week
period (S.E. meas. = 0.08).
As indicated earlier, only two thirds of the canines and one fourth of the
available molars met t,he criteria established for bodily movement. The re-
quirements were (1) clear initial and final x-rays (25 degree head films) of
the crown and the apex of the tooth under study, (2) the three implants co-
incided with each other within 0.2 mm.@ when the initial and final tooth
movement films were superimposed, (3) the scribed lines through the teeth
before and after tooth movement were within 0.2 mm. of parallel, and (4)
space closure as measured on the film and the casts agreed within 0.5 mm.
Because of the wide variation in canine root area,2’ 17-26it was hoped that a
clinically useful technique (correlation coefficient r = 0.8 or better) could be
devised to estimate the surface area of the roots from their radiographic
image. H By knowing the average force per square millimeter of root area,
one might better describe the cellular response to force and study anchorage
in greater detail.
To this end, another attempt was made to estimate root area from radio-
graphs. This time tracings of the images of roots of mandibular teeth were
made from cephalometric films of a group of adults scheduled for extractions.
After extraction the roots of teeth were painted with a rubber-base impres-
sion material, and the area of the impression measured with a photogenerative
cell in the same manner described previously.2 Since the correlations were
lower than those obtained from intraoral radiographs of roots obtained with a

*With conventional cephalometric techniques, most landmarks are either in the mid-
sagittal plane or are bilateral landmarks from which the midpoint behaves as if it were
in the midsagittal plane. Since implants are in non-midline planes, they reflect even the
slightest change in head position between films.
volume 57 Force and tooth movement 483
Number 6

Table I. Root areas for selected mandibular teeth

Mean. S. D. c. r.
Tooth N (112m.p) (mm.“) (per cent)
Canine 18 302 50 16
First premolar 58 220 31 14
Second premolar 52 234 26 11
First molar 11 525 76 15

16 inch cone, this effort was not pursued. Table I, which presents the data on
root area, again emphasizes large variability (C. V. = 15 per cent) between
persons. Even within this small sample, one canine had but 190 mm.2 root
area and another had 345 mm.2 The clinical significance of this variability lies
in the fact that a given appliance force may exert twice as much pressure per
square millimeter of root area for one patient as for another.

Findings

When the total bodily movement of the mandibular canines (Fig. 7) and
maxillary canines (Fig. 8) is plotted against the force applied to the teeth,
the first and most obvious observation is the wide variation in response be-
tween individuals.* Within a given person there is an observable tendency for
the higher forces to move teeth farther in 8 weeks than can be done with
lighter forces.2s This is reflected by the dotted line which connects the right
and left canine movement for the same person. In all but one pair of maxillary
canines (Patient 3, Fig. 8), the higher force produced a greater movement
than the lighter force.
A comparison of Figs. 7 and 8 also suggests that maxillary canines move
somewhat more rapidly than their mandibular counterparts.
Far more important to an understanding of the tissue response to force is
the time series analysis shown in Fig. 9. Before these are noted, a little more
background on how data were collected will be helpful in interpreting the
results. Whenever one of the molars (in one case, a canine) moved less than
0.2 mm. in relation to the metallic implants during the 8-week period of study,
space closure was attributed to movement of the other tooth.2g The space
closures as measured on the casts (which were taken 3 times a week) were
then plotted against time.t Space closure of less than 0.20 mm. was considered

*Because two canines from one patient (B) from a previous study2 essentially met the
criteria for bodily tooth movement, these data are included to supplement the meager
quantity of information available. The minor deviation from the established criteria is
discussed in another footnote.
tAlthough a more conservative protocol would define the limits of measurement error
as ? 2 S. E. meas. of the radiograph (or ?r 0.40 mm.), the coincidence of the information
derived from the casts with their small S. E. meas. of 0.08 mm. and the radiograph made
0.20 mm. “seem” a reasonable estimate to use at the present state of the art. The inclusion
of data from a previous study to augment our knowledge (Patient B) includes one “blip”
of 0.25 mm. movement the first day. This undoubtedly reflects initial mechanical tipping.
Otherwise, the data appear to reflect the metabolic response to tooth movement. Addi-
tional details are found in an article by Hixon and associates2 which appeared last year.
484 Hixon et al. Amer. J. Orthodoat.
May 1970

5
.

/ *-------- P
/
4
. 2 I/
/I
/I
I L I I . , , 1
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Force (grams) *I+0 days

Fig. 7. Bodily movement of maxillary canines (average for 8 weeks expressed as milli-
meters per week). Whenever data from both the right and left sides of the same patient
were available, the results were identified with a dashed line.

i
1’ P
B
// / 0/ / /
1’
4’ T /’
5*' /

1
w. ,;:sI1 . 1I II I,. 11 1
I,
I, 1,.I I
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 BOO 900 moo 1100
Force (grams) *40 days
Fig. 8. Bodily movement of mandibular canines (average for 8 weeks expressed as milli-
meters per week). Whenever data from both the right and left sides of the same patient
were available, the results were identified with a dashed line.
Volume 57 Force and tooth movement 485
Number 5

3Ol*m% Mood.- 6

6061~. MO”.-.

64.3~~~. @Aand.-6

666pmr. MO,.-3
.2 1. @Aand.-
Ma,.-*
Mend.-P
WQ”d.. I
e I2 16 24 30 36 42 46 S4 P0
DAYS
Fig. 9. Rate curves for canine retraction. The gray zone of 0.20 mm. represents an estimate
of measurement error which includes some tipping and the initial “blip” noted in Patient
B.

as within the zone which included measurement error, that is, movement of
the “stable” tooth, tipping of either or both teeth, as well as comparison of
the PDL and possible deformation of the bone.
To return to the results portrayed in Fig. 9, one can note, aside from minor
tipping the first day, that the mandibular canine movement for one patient
(B) exceeded the measurement error in 14 days, while for another patient
(No. 2) no movement was detected (0.20 mm.) by the end of the 56-day
experiment. For both, the applied force was in the 300 Gm. range. Other force
values initiated bodily tooth movement at intermediate times, irrespective of
whether the force was greater or less than 300 Gm. The slopes of the lines
are too short and too variable to permit a meaningful generalization about the
rate of movement after it has been initiated. One might again note that in
data obtained on both the right and left sides of the same patient (Patients
B and 2), the higher forces initiated a metabolic response slightly sooner and
at a more rapid rate.
The data collected which relate to anchorage and differential force are
also nebulous and are presented more as a guide to future investigators than
to argue a theoretical concept. Fig. 10 displays the usable data regarding the
mesial crown movement of the mandibular molars and premolars in relation
to the distal bodily movement of the corresponding canine.3o The three molars
which moved bodily are those of Patient 2 (at 132 and 354 Cm.) and Patient
3 (at 328 Cm.), while all others manifest measurable (more than 0.2 mm.)
 Amer. J. O&t;;“lp9”
486 Hixon et al.

DIFFERENCE IN CUSPID AND MOLAR MOVEMENT

Movement (id
CuSPlD MOLAR
1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Patient Forc.(@ns) c
2 132

3 328

2 354

4 bo

5 213

5 214

3 650

1 1037

Fig. 10. Distal movement of the canine is portrayed on the left of the vertical line and the
mesial movement of the molar and premolar of the same quadrant is portrayed on the
right. The length of the bars represents millimeters of crown movement in 8 weeks.

mesial tipping of the molar and premolar. Since bodily movement of the
canines was involved in all cases, only these three provide any data which
relate to differential force. The difference between the two sides in Patient 2
and the difference between Patients 2 and 3 at the 300 Cm. level certainly
are not in agreement with the concept of differential force.
As one would expect from the manner of measuring, those molars which
tipped generally showed greater space closure than the three which moved
bodily.

Discussion

As in the previous study, a major conclusion is that the large variation

between patients precludes formulation of simple theories regarding force and
anchorage. Perhaps this is why the more experienced practitioners tend to
“eyeball” forces rather than become deeply entangled in theory.
To begin with, the flexion of most arch wires is such that they are in-
capable of preventing some tipping. Thus, there is a high probability that
initial canine retraction is a tipping movement and the resulting deformation
of the alveolar crestal bone (especially on the distal aspect of the canine with
forces in excess of 100 Gm.) introduces great variation in the physical load
per unit of area in different parts of the root. Even when this is controlled,
one must remember the 2 :1 ratio in root area which introduces a large source
Volume 57 Force and tooth movement 487
Number 5

of variation in load per unit of root area. As yet, the variation cannot be
determined from radiographs with sufficient accuracy (r = 0.8 or better) to
warrant adjustment of data.
When tipping is eliminated and bodily tooth movement ensues, there
appear to be two distinct stages of tooth movement. One is the small initial
mechanical compression of the PDL. This is followed in a couple of weeks by
bone resorption and tooth movement which reflects the metabolic shifts that
undoubtedly involve changes of the DNA, RNA, and enzyme “dynamic
equilibrium ’ ’ of the connective tissue cells. This is the bodily translation of
canines which forms the pattern of tooth movement seen in the right side of
Fig. 7. The variation in initiation as well as the rate of movement is well
known to all clinicians. These data indicate that the major source of variation
is probably not the magnitude of force but variation in metabolic response.
For e.xample, Patient B (from the previous study) continued to show rapid
tooth movement (and good cooperation) so that all treatment was completed
and appliances were removed 13 months after the study began. Another
slightly older patient (not included in this study) showed less than 3 mm. of
space closure (combined molar and canine movement) in the same 13 months
with the same 300 Cm. force and good cooperation.
Besides the variation in local metabolism, most of us are aware of the
changes in rates of general metabolism with age. Another variable involved
in tooth movement related to age is concerned with the rate of facial growth.
In the adult (or the near adult), when facial growth is essentially complete,
the canine must be translated horizontally through bone. In younger children
with an increasing facial height, the canine is erupting and may be moved
“diagonally” through developing bone. In addition to active deposition and
resorption, there is an “occlusal and distal” translation relative to the man-
dible or maxilla.
The data presented here regarding differential force and anchorage are
limited but tend to confirm the earlier conclusion that there is no evidence to
support the theory of differential force. The fact that molars that did not tip
moved less than those that did tends to argue for the use of tip-back bends or
angulated brackets to minimize anchorage loss. Such mechanics overcome
mechanical weakness of the arch and tend to equalize the distribution of force
throughout the molar root and perhaps minimize mesial movement.

Conclusions

1. The mechanical flexion inherent in all arch wires permits considerable

tipping tooth movement. This impedes collection of valid (as distinct from
reliable) data that might be useful in constructing clinically useful theories
of orthodontic tooth movement.
2. Other important observations of this study were the large differences
between patients with regard to root area, time of beginning tooth movement,
and rate of tooth movement. The magnitude of the variation in each of these
factors (none of which can be controlled by the orthodontist) are far more
important than differences in magnitude of force (above 100 Cm.). That the
488 Nixon et al. dwzer. J. Orthodont.
May 1970

higher forces produce more rapid movement than lighter ones is generally
valid within an individual patient, although the contribution of this difference
is small in relation to the metabolic variation between patients.
3. It appears meaningful to distinguish at least two phases of tooth move-
ment : (1) an initial mechanical displacement of tissues and (2) a delayed
metabolic response of the connective tissues. The first stage probably includes
measurable deformation of alveolar bone as well as compression of the PDL
when the applied forces exceed 100 Gm. The variation in the physiologic or
biochemical response of the tooth-supporting apparatus is large. Clinically
measurable response was detected in 2 weeks for some persons, while none
could be found in 8 weeks for other patients.
The authors wish to express their appreciation for the invaluable help, advice, ant1
consolation provided by D. B. Mahler and F. M. Sorenson of the University of Oregon
Dental School.

REFERENCES
1. Hixon, E. H. : Graduate education and the training of orthodontists, AM. J. ORTHOIXINTICS
49: 521, 1963.
2. Hixon, E. H., Atikian, H., Callow, G. E., McDonald, IL W., and Tacy, R. J.: Optimal
force, differential force, and anchorage, AM. J. ORTHODONTICS 55: 437-457, 1969.
3. Muhlemann, H., and Zander, H. A.: The mechanics of tooth mobility, II, J. Periodont.
25: 127, 1954.
4. Muhlemann, H.: Tooth mobility: A review, J. Periodont. 38: 114-686, 1967.
5. Pieton, D. C. A: On the role played by the socket in tooth support, Arch. Oral. Biol.
10: 945, 1965.
6. Picton, D. C. A., and Davis, W. I. R.: Dimensional changes in the periodontal membrane
of monkeys, Arch. Oral. Biol. 12: 1635, 1967.
7. Parfitt, G. J.: The physical analysis of the tooth-supporting structures. In The Mechanisms
of Tooth Support, Bristol, 1967, John Wright & Sons, Ltd., p. 154.
8. Miller, S.: Rotational axes in human incisor teeth, M. S. thesis, University of Oregon
Dental School, 1966.
9. Baumrind, 5.: A reconsideration of the propriety of the “pressure-tension” hypothesis,
AM. J. ORTHODONTICS 55: 12, 1969.
10. Korber, K. H., and Korber, E.: Patterns of physiological movement in tooth support.
In The Mechanisms of Tooth Support, Bristol, 1967, John Wright & Sons, Ltd., p. 148.
11. Miller, S. S.: Bodily retraction of cuspids, Certificate thesis, University of Oregon Dental
School, 1969.
12. Odom, W. M.: The effect of the oral environment on the rate of elastic decay, Certificate
thesis, University of Oregon Dental School, 1969.
13. BjSrk, A.: Facial growth in man studied with the aid of metallic implants, Acta odont.
scandinav. 13: 9, 1955.
14. Bjiirk, A. : Variation in the growth pattern of the human mandible : Longitudinal roent-
genographic study by the implant method, J. D. Res. 42: 400, 1963.
15. Bjiirk, A.: The use of metallic implants in the study of facial growth in children:
Method and application, Am. J. Phys. Anthrop. 29: 2, 1968.
16. Jepsen, A.: Root surface measurement and a method for x-ray determination of root
surface area, Acta odont. scandinav. 21: 35, 1963.
17. Tylman, 5. D.: Theory and practice of crown and bridge prosthodontics, ed. 2, St. Louis,
1947, The C. V. Mosby Company.
18. Brown, R.: A method of measurement of root area, J. Canad. Dent. A. 16: 136, 1950.
19. Kay, S., Forscher, B. K., and Sackett, L. M.: Tooth root length-volume relationships, an
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Number 5

aid to periodontal prognosis. I. Anterior Teeth, Oral Surg., Oral Med. & Oral Path.
7: 735, 1954.
20. Phillips, J. R.: Apical root resorption under orthodontic therapy, Angle Orthodontist
25: 1, 1955.
21. Boyd, J. L., Watt, D. M., MacGregor, A. R., Geddes, M., and Cockburn, A.: A preliminary
investigation of the support of partial dentures and its relationship to vertical loads,
D. Practitioner 9: 2, 1958.
22. Freeman, D. C.: Root surface area related to anchorage in the Begg technique, Master’s
thesis, University of Tennessee, Memphis, 1965.
23. Moss, M. L., Chase, P. S., and Howes, R. I., Jr.: Comparative odontometry of the
permanent post-canine dentition of American whites and Negroes, Am. 5. Phys. Anthrop.
27: 125, 1967.
24. Emmanuelli, J. R.: A study of the effective and total root surface area of extracted
mandibular human teeth (Abst.), AM. J. ORTHODOWICS 56: 437, 1969.
25. Taylor, R. M. S.: Variation in form of human teeth. II. An anthropologic and forensic
study of maxillary canines, J. D. l&s. 48: 173, 1969.
26. Clark, R. A.: Root surface area, Certificate thesis, University of Oregon Dental School,
1969.
27. Arango, Jorge: Rate of cuspid movement as related to force, Certificate thesis, University
of Oregon Dental School, 1969.
28. Klosterman, Robert: Patterns of tooth movement, Certificate thesis, University of Oregon
Dental School, 1969.
29. Aasen, Tore 0.: A study of rate of molar movement as related to force, Certificate
thesis, University of Oregon Dental School, 1969.

611 S.W. Campzls Dr.