International Journal of Sociology Study Volume 2, 2014
org/ijss
Analysis of Brain Drain in the Philippines:
The Case of Professionals
Jinky Leilanie Lu
Research Professor, Institute of Health Policy and Development Studies, National Institutes of Health, University
of the Philippines Manila; Affiliate Faculty- Department of Social Sciences, UP Manila
jinky_lu@yahoo.com
Abstract
Brain drain is the efflux of professionals from developing
countries to industrialized countries. In this study, various
factors for this phenomenon were cited and categorized into
push and pull factors. The Philippines has provided
mechanisms for the migration of its professionals since the
1900s. As shown in the data, most of the Filipino
professionals who migrate are the health professionals,
engineers, teachers and information-technology specialists.
This study was conducted to look into the trend of
deployment of Filipino professionals in these four fields.
This study can provide the baseline data for developing
policies and strategies in preventing brain drain, or in
alleviating the impact of brain drain in the country. This
study is mainly based on review of literature and analysis of
statistics provided by government and related agencies.
Keywords
Deployment of Professionals; Filipino Professionals; Brain Drain;
Migration of Health Professionals; Engineer; Teachers and IT
Specialists
Introduction
The diffusion of highly skilled workers from
developing countries to developed countries has been
a major concern of many nations. This is the brain drain
phenomenon. The highly skilled and better educated
individuals or also known as the knowledge workers,
especially the physicians, engineers, scientists and
other professionals with university training, leave the
country and work abroad (Beine et. al., 2003; Bozeman
et al.,2001). According to Beine et. al., (2003), brain
drain is the ‚international transfer of resources in the
form of human capital.‛ It involves the flight of people
with high level of skills and competence from
developing countries to developed countries (Baruch,
2007 Sako 2002). ‚Brain‛ implies any skill or
competency which is a potential and actual asset while
‚drain‛ pertains to a rate of outmigration at a higher
level than the normal (Bushnell and Choy, 2001). The
‘brain drain’ phenomenon has been perceived as
detrimental to low income countries since the much-
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needed human resources are not tapped. Furthermore,
return of investments on education by the state in the
education sector is not fully realized (Martineau et al.,
2002 (Carrington and Detragiache,1999). As noted by
Marchal and Kegels (2003), direct consequences of
migration, particularly the migration of health
professionals, affect the availability and productivity
of the health system in most of exporting countries.
Alburo and Abella (2002) noted that the Philippines
has been an example of a country that has facilitated
migration of health professionals. The first wave of
labor migration in the Philippines started in the 1900's
when thousands of Filipinos migrated to work in
Hawaiian plantations. Many Filipinos opted to leva
ethe country and work abroad due to poverty brought
about by the Philippine-American war (Candazo,
2001). In the year 1934, the number of Filipino
workers employed in Hawaiian plantations had
reached about 120,000. The second wave is described
as the outflow of professional groups to the United
States. Majority of these professionals were doctors,
dentists, and mechanical technicians. These
professionals were driven to migrate by the desire to
"look for greener pastures." By 1975, there were more
than 250,000 Filipinos who had migrated to the US
(Candazo, 2001).
The Philippines has been losing its most educated and
skilled workers to the most industrialized countries
such as the United States and the Middle East
countries. In fact, Carrington and Detriangche (1999)
noted that the Philippines contributed the largest
number of migrants among the other countries in Asia
and the Pacific to the United States.
Methodology
The study focused on four main professional groups-
the health professionals, engineers, teachers and
information technology (IT) specialists. The sources of
data were the Philippine Overseas Employment
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Administration (POEA), Commission on Filipinos
Overseas (CFO), professional organizations,
Department of Labor and Employment, National
Statistical Development Board, National Economic
and Development Agency, Commission on Higher
Education, and the University of the Philippines.
Thorough and systematic study reviews were done on
available literature, articles, surveys, and other data on
the phenomenon of brain drain.
Specifically, the study tried to look into into the
current and past profile of outmigration of Filipino
professionals, and describe such phenomenon.
Results
Based on the Commission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO),
from the year 2000 to 2009, the occupational group
with the highest number of deployed OFWs belongs to
TABLE 1. 2000-2009 YEAR TRENDS OF OFWS’ MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS
the professional, technical, and related workers group.
This shows that the country is losing its skilled and
educated workers (Table 1).
Among the health professionals, nurses recorded the
highest number of deployed workers. Although, the
statistics do not show a consistent increasing pattern.
In 2005 and 2007, this number suddenly dropped. See
Table 2.
Among the teaching professionals, teachers of
universities and higher education were highly
deployed from the year 2006 to 2009. On the other
hand, the deployment of secondary education teachers
suddenly sloped downward in 2003 and also in the
following years. The trend of other teaching
professionals shows a trend of increase and decrease
along the years. See Table 3.

MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL GROUP

Managerial, Executive, Agriculture, Animal Production Process,
Year ProfessionalTechnical, Clerical Sales Service
and Administrative Husbandry, Forestry Transport Equipment
and Related Workers Workers Workers Workers
Workers Workers and Fishermen Operators, and Laborers
2000 6,154 791 1,625 2,324 964 899 2,025
2001 6,932 932 1,480 2,291 992 965 1,695
2002 8,294 890 1,377 2,830 1,046 979 1,762
2003 7,574 928 1,333 2,886 1,139 920 1,759
2004 9,540 770 1,450 3,426 1,338 1,098 2,198
2005 9,095 1,025 1,454 3,358 1,850 888 1,821
2006 12,526 1,449 1,945 3,564 1,192 1,086 2,260
2007 7,816 1,708 2,153 3,576 1,035 1,201 2,374
2008 7,072 1,553 1,939 3,037 1,188 948 2,188
2009 6,849 2,001 2,451 3,227 1,600 1,217 2,801
Source: Disaggregated and Yearly Data from POEA, 2000-2009

TABLE 2. TREND OF HEALTH PROFESSIONALS DEPLOYMENT FROM 2000 TO 2009

YEAR
Health Professionals
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Dentists 33 58 62 40 89 70 71 102 111 139
Dieticians and Public Health Nutritionists 45 64 98 134 146 75 100 255 293 210
Nurses 7,683 13,536 11,867 8,968 8,611 7,094 13,525 9,178 11,495 13,014
Pharmacists 30 64 57 74 70 99 80 103 55 165
Physiotherapists and Occupational Therapists 235 334 517 371 473 421 716 968 1,171 1,266
Medical Doctors 27 61 129 112 96 97 171 168 217 224
Professional Midwives 55 190 312 276 253 230 367 423 404 391
Veterinarians 5 6 16 11 8 6 14 8 2 8
Source: Disaggregated and Yearly Data from POEA, 2000-2009

TABLE 3. TREND OF TEACHING PROFESSIONALS DEPLOYMENT FROM 2000 TO 2009

YEAR
Teaching Professionals
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Teachers Pre-primary Education 2 1 2 2 4 89 38 31 34 46
Teachers Primary Education 23 32 77 33 15 13 17 16 85 14
Teachers Secondary Education 36 112 218 86 17 11 18 30 65 19
Teachers University and Higher Education 3 17 24 33 53 24 55 102 159 281
Teachers Special Education 0 0 35 36 2 23 28 32 90 12
Source: Disaggregated and Yearly Data from POEA, 2000-2009

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TABLE 4. TREND OF ENGINEERING PROFESSIONALS DEPLOYMENT FROM 2000 TO 2009

YEAR
Engineering Professionals
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Mechanical Engineers 336 384 362 313 384 452 660 873 1,173 1,208
Civil Engineers 267 377 455 351 492 625 1,058 1,621 2,470 2,017
Chemical Engineers 14 29 21 20 17 16 23 23 60 40
Electrical and Electronics Engineers 509 626 570 406 527 512 812 1,105 1,564 1,537
Industrial Engineers 104 135 144 171 239 265 357 456 562 426
Technician Mechanical Engineers 855 933 1,250 765 1,105 880 1,589 2,197 3,114 2,874
Technician Civil Engineers 68 127 135 137 184 222 415 572 733 535
Technician Chemical Engineers 42 32 46 31 35 36 54 80 98 49
Technician Electrical and Electronic Engineers 1,653 1,702 1,405 1,225 1,447 1,282 1,775 2,397 2,934 3,803
Source: Disaggregated and Yearly Data from POEA, 2000-2009

TABLE 5. TREND OF IT-PROFESSIONALS DEPLOYMENT FROM 2000 TO 2009

IT Professionals 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Computer Programmers and Related Workers 469 539 324 212 205 204 325 590 597 425
Systems Analysts 1 42 16 13 12 4 13 34 38 30
Source: Disaggregated and Yearly Data from POEA, 2000-2009

Among the engineering professionals, the group with movement of skilled and educated workers from one
the highest number of deployed workers consisted of nation to another.
the technician, electrical, and electronics engineering.
Locally, the Philippines has been sending out over half
For the other groups of engineers, the trend of
a million Filipinos abroad annually. This outflow of
employment had been generally increasing. See Table
many Filipinos serves as an outlet of diffusion of the
4. For computer programmers and related workers,
workforce plagued by the high unemployment rates in
there is a decreasing trend from 2002 to 2005. It peaked
the country (Alburo and Abella, 2002). This is The
in 2006 but decreased again in 2009. See Table 5.
Philippines was observed to have high unemployment
rate from 2009 to 2010 compared to other Asian
Discussion
countries. See Table 6.
Based on the data, from the year 2000 to 2009, the TABLE 6. UNEMPLOYMENT RATE IN SELECTED ASIAN
occupational group with the highest number of OFWs COUNTRIES FROM 2009 TO 2010
belongs to the professional, technical, and related
Unemployment Rate (%)
workers group. Professionals are driven to leave their Country
2009 2010
country due to differentials in living conditions, Indonesia 8.1 7.4
opportunities for professional advancement, and the Philippines 7.6 6.9
existence of an environment that is peaceful and China 4.3 4.2
Malaysia 4.0 3.7
provides security (Sakp, 2002). Also, many trained
South Korea 3.7 3.7
scientists from less developed countries are attracted Singapore 3.2 2.3
to better standard of living in developed countries. Thailand 1.7 1.5
They are also attracted to the fact that developed Source: Disaggregated and Yearly Data from the National Statistics
countries can offer higher salaries, more advanced Office, Labor Force Survey, 2009-2010

technology, and more stable political environment
(Kupfer et al. 2004).
Political instability, low salaries and lack of
employment opportunities are also common push
factors. Other push factors of migration include crime
and threats of violence, poor facilities and lack of good
education for the children (Kupfer et. al., (2004). In a
study in Turkey, similar factors motivated Turkish
professionals to go abroad. From a source country
perspective, Saravia and Miranda (2004) noted that
lack of job opportunities and low paying jobs in the
country of origin are the major factors for the
Furthermore, from 2000 to 2009, the unemployment
rate in the Philippines had been higher than the
employment growth rate. The country has not been
able to provide sufficient jobs for those years. See
Table 7.
Income plays a significant role in the decisions to
migrate (Giannoccolo, 2004). The Philippines is also
one of the countries with the lowest wage rate earners
(in US Dollar) compared to other Asian countries in
2010 (Table 8). The issues of unemployment and low
wages were major factors in the deployment of
Filipino professionals abroad.

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TABLE 7. EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC RATE FROM 2000 TO 2009 health personnel had been increasingly lured to
GDP Growth Employment Unemployment migration and in fact, accounted the majority of
Year
Rate (%) Growth Rate (%) Rate (%) professional migration. Countries such as the USA,
2000 6.0 1.0 11.2 UK, and Canada received the largest number of health
2001 1.8 6.2 11.1
professionals from all over the world (OECD, 2002).
2002 4.4 3.1 11.4
2003 4.9 1.9 11.4 From the developed country’s point of view,
2004 6.4 3.2 11.8
immigration policies usually favor outmigration of the
2005 5.0 2.2 Not Recorded
2006 5.3 2.0 8.0
highly skilled and educated workers (Davenpot, 2004).
2007 7.1 2.8 7.3 In the US, the largest population of professional
2008 3.7 1.6 7.4 migration among those from Asia and the Pacific was
2009 1.1 2.9 7.5 from the Philippines (Carrington and Detriangche,
Source: National Statistics Office, Labor Force Survey, 2000-2009;
1999). In addition, data from most countries showed
National Statistical Coordination Board, and Bureau of Labor and
Employment Statistics, LabStat Updates, 2000-2009. that those people with tertiary education had the
highest migration rate. Statistics from US also showed
TABLE 8. DAILY AND MONTHLY WAGES IN SELECTED
ASIAN COUNTRIES: 2010
that immigration of people with no more than primary
education was very few (Carrington and Detragiache,
Daily Minimum Wages Monthly Wages
1999). Horton (1994) further showed that Filipino
Country In Country In US In Country In US
Currency Dollar Currency Dollar returnees were those who were less likely educated
18,233.33- 547,000.00- 60.08- than those that remained abroad. Thus, this implies
Indonesia 2.00-3.78
34,000.00 1,020,000.00 112.00 that US and other recipient countries generally harbor
110.51- the better educated people from the sending countries
China 25.00-28.33 3.68-4.17 750.00-850.00
125.24
148.00- 4,440.00- 136.51-
(Carrington and Detragiache, 1999).
Thailand 4.57-6.27
203.00 5,730.00 187.24 The highly skilled people are those that have the
Philippines 263.84
(Metro Manila)
404.00 8.79 12,120.00 opportunity to bargain their skills and knowledge
803.00- 251.50- around the world. They have the chance to choose
Malaysia 26.77-54.63 8.38-17.11
1,679.00 513.33 where to live as they maximize the expected return on
Taiwan 576.00 18.42 17,280.00 552.52 their human capital investments. Highly skilled
South Korea 32,800.00 27.63 984,000 829.02
people value the importance of having better quality
800.00- 586.68-
Singapore 26.67-80.00 19.56-58.67 of living (i.e., clean and safe environment, freedom of
2,400.00 1,760.05
5,032.00- 150,960.00- 1,734.16- choice and movement, secured property rights and
Japan 57.81-72.69
6,328.00 189,940.00 2,180.79 good education where they can raise their children).
Source: National Wages and Productivity Commission, 2010 Countries such as the US and Europe have
One significant push factor of migration of the successfully developed these pull factors and therefore,
professionals is low professional satisfaction in the are good at attracting the highly skilled workers.
home country. This includes lack of continued Likewise, the US has lured the highly skilled with as
education and limited environment for professional clean surroundings, openness to innovation, strong
development (Bundred and Levitt, 2000; Kerse and linkages of research and industry, etc. (Straubhaar,
Ron, 2002). For instance, doctors in low income 2000).
countries experience demotivating factors such as Another reason for brain drain is the oversupply of
poor working conditions (i.e., low pay, lack of supplies, educated professional in developing countries
and work overload), diminishing professional (Lidgard and Gilson, 2001). China and India
autonomy, increasing accountability pressure, strict experienced a sudden increase in the number of
bureaucratic procedures, and lack of recognition, and professionals in the field of IT, thus, supplying needs
reduced social status (Edwards et al., 2002; Jones, 2002; of other countries. In the Philippines, the number of
Smith, 2001). These factors have facilitated the nursing graduates expanded and created
mobility of the professionals, particularly the nurses unemployment for nursing graduates (Melencio, 2008).
and doctors, out of the country (Martineau et al., 2002).
Another Form of Brain Drain
The study showed that the health professionals
recorded most of the number of deployed workers. In The phenomenon of students that choose to stay or not
the study of Martineau et. al. (2002), it was noted that to return to their home countries after completing their

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studies abroad is a form of brain drain. Countries that
are popularly known as destinations of many students
from developing countries are the United States and
Western Europe. In fact, the United States and other
knowledge-based high technology countries have
been accepting foreign professionals and students in
order to increase their level of skilled manpower
(Marchal and Kegels, 2003; Baruch, 2007). The students
opt not to return to their home countries when they
have established their careers and social networks
abroad. One study reported that a large number of
PhD graduates from developing countries tended to
stay in the US after graduating (Solimano, 2002).
Brain drain directly affects the availability and quality
of public service in developing countries. Massive
migration of health professionals can cripple the
quality of health service (WHO, 2001; Wickramasekara,
2002) such as in the case of sub-Saharan Africa, it
hampered the provision of basic health service
delivery system. Particularly, it affected the HIV/AIDS
patients due to the limited number of health service
workers (Scott et. al., 2004).
Brain Drain and Economic Development
The presence of highly skilled people has been crucial
to the growth and wealth of one’s nation. Brain drain
is a social and economic constrain to the economic
development of developing countries. In the case of
brain drain, the subsidy of human capital production
benefits the receiving nantion instead of the host
country. leads to subsidy of the other nation if the
highly skilled people emigrate (Straubhaar, 2000).
Developed countries increase their productivity while
developing countries are left in a ‘poverty trap’
(Mountford 1997). Brain gain and brain drain as a
cycle are developed and may further intensify wealth
gap between the poor sending nations and the rich
receiving nations.
Positive Effect of Migration
How could brain drain have positive effects at all, one
may ask. Mountford stated that there are some
beneficial effects of brain drain such as: 1) migrants
establishing commercial networks abroad, 2) migrants
remitting significant amounts of income or technology,
and 3) migrants returning with greater skills. In all
such cases, the losses in brain drain are offset
(Mountford, 1997; Beine, 2001).
Remittances of foreign exchange to the sending nation
can offset the losses in worker’s migration through
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improvements in household incomes, and local trade
(Kerse and Ron, 2002; Wickramasekara, 2002). Thus,
migration serves as ‚safety valve‛ (Teferra, 2000;
World Bank, 2000). However, this may just be a
temporary relief for developing nations that really
need to improve its local economy in order to absorb
its professionals into the local labor market. Figure 1
shows the staggering amount of OFW remittances in
all major world groups increases.
FIGURE 1. TREND OF OFW REMITTANCES BY
MAJOR WORLD GROUPS
Source: Disaggregated and Yearly Data from BSP, 2003-2009
(in billions of pesos)
Conclusion
The study has shown the outmigration of Filipino
professionals abroad. These include the health
professionals, engineers, teachers and IT specialists.. In
order to prevent a nation from losing its best workers,
the nation should provide mechanisms to employ its
own professionals such as better employment
opportunities and laternatives locally, better matching
of education and skills, professional autonomy, better
technology, professional career development, better
salaries, peace and security, and a strong labour
economy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This is to acknowledge the support of the Commision
on Higher Education-Zonal Research Center (CHED-
ZRC)- University of the Philippines Diliman, and Dr.
Joselito Duyanen.
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