The example of Reference Letter in English:

Christine Smith
VP Technical Services
XYZ Company
1224 Main St.
Anytown, PA 55555
Dear Ms. Smith:
Are you searching for a software engineer with a proven ability to develop high-
performance applications and technical innovations? If so, please consider my
enclosed resume.
Since 2002, I have served as a software engineer for Action Company, where I have
been repeatedly recognized for developing innovative solutions for multimillion-
dollar, globally deployed software and systems. I am responsible for full lifecycle
development of next-generation software, from initial requirement gathering to
design, coding, testing, documentation and implementation.
Known for excellent client-facing skills, I have participated in proposals and
presentations that have landed six-figure contracts. I also excel in merging
business and user needs into high-quality, cost-effective design solutions while
keeping within budgetary constraints.
My technical expertise includes cross-platform proficiency (Windows, Unix, Linux
and VxWorks); fluency in 13 scripting/programming languages (including C, C++, VB,
Java, Perl and SQL); and advanced knowledge of developer applications, tools,
methodologies and best practices (including OOD, client/server architecture and
self-test automation).
My experience developing user-friendly solutions on time and on budget would enable
me to step into a software engineering role at XYZ Company and hit the ground
running. I will follow up with you next week, and you may reach me at (215) 555-
5555. I look forward to speaking with you.
Sincerely,
Martin Stein
Enclosure

Best Video-Conferencing:
: Since this story originally ran, the worldwide coronavirus outbreak has made
video conferencing an essential component to keeping businesses running. This story
originally ran in 2017, but the advice is as relevant as ever.
Here are 10 do’s and don’ts that I believe elevate the overall experience of a
video conference.
Do: Mute your microphone whenever you’re not speaking -- even if you’re alone in
the room. Background noise can be an annoying distraction and stifle any meeting’s
flow.
Do: Be aware of your video settings. Check if your microphone is muted before
delivering a two-minute monologue that no one will hear.
Related: 17 Things You Need to Know About Remote Work
Don’t: Position your camera too low, too high or hooked onto a different monitor.
Weird camera angles can be very distracting -- and unflattering -- during video
conference calls. Make sure your camera is eye level and on the monitor you plan to
use for the conference.
Do: Make sure your room is well lit (side lighting is the best). Few things are
worse than having a professional meeting while feeling like you're talking to
someone in a dungeon. Use natural light from windows or simply turn on the overhead
light in the room to brighten up the conference.
Do: Wear appropriate clothing. I know it can be tempting — especially if you work
from home — to wear a work shirt and athletic shorts but dress as if you're meeting
face to face. You never know if you're going to have to get up suddenly or if your
camera might fall. So wear clean, professional clothing for your video calls.
Related: 3 Low-Cost Tools for Better Virtual Meetings
Do: Your wall art or decorations should be work-appropriate and your surroundings
clean. If your room looks like a college dorm room after a bender, clean it or find
a different room. This also includes your desk! Avoid having multiple coffee mugs,
dishes and trash on the surface.
Do: Test your microphone before you video call, especially if it's an important
meeting. Test it by video conferencing your colleague before the meeting. Nothing
is worse than trying to share something critical, and not being able to communicate
clearly because your audio clarity and volume are poor.
Do: If you're in a group call without video, introduce yourself before you talk.
Consider something like "Hi it’s Jim, I have a question.” While several programs
will notify you as to who is talking, conference line numbers will not. Therefore,
be polite and introduce yourself.
Related: How to Transition Your Team to Remote Work
Don’t: Check or read emails or peruse articles while on the video call. This also
includes doing additional work beyond the call. It’s easy for other participant’s
to tell if you aren't fully focused and present during the video call.
Do: When you're talking, look into the camera instead of looking at yourself
talking on the computer screen. It will help others on the call feel like you're
100 percent engaged and present.
It’s important to remember that video conferences are essentially in-person
interactions that allow businesses to communicate more effectively.

10 tips for best Video-Conferencing:

1. Make sure to have a stable internet connection
The most important aspect of video conferencing happens to be a stable as well as
fast internet connectivity. Once the connection is slow, it will affect the
conference adversely with visual disruptions and inconsistent audio.
When you are using your laptop, make sure to adopt a LAN cable that will help
guarantee a stable Internet connection. Go for a secure connectivity along with
advanced encryption and password protection in case your only choice is wireless
connectivity.
2. SELECT A GOOD VIDEO CONFERENCING SOFTWARE
A top quality video conferencing software such as ezTalks Cloud Meeting will aid in
facilitating proper business communication. It is possible to download these type
of applications for free which will help maximise the virtual conferences for
higher business returns. Remember to get the latest version of the software and
make sure it is stable and compatible with your OS, so that you can get a smooth
video collaboration during the conference.
3. DRESS PROPERLY
Keep in mind that it is a formal setting and therefore dress accordingly. Being the
representative of your organisation, you should not act and dress that will
jeopardise the prestige of your company. Wearing too many multicoloured outfits is
not recommended during a video conference.
4. SEND AN AGENDA PRIOR TO THE CONFERENCE
It is imperative to include an agenda for the meeting along with the meeting
invitation. This will enable the guests to understand the reason why they have been
invited and also they will be able to prepare appropriately. Distributing a
material via email or in the office will also be a smart idea.
5. KEEP TIME ZONES IN MIND
It is quite common to have participants from different countries considering the
fact that the world has become globalised. Make sure to pick a time that will work
for everyone involved. It is very important to keep time zones in mind,
particularly when you’re sending calendar invitations. Selecting the incorrect time
zones will cause confusion and will affect the productivity of the conference
adversely.
6. GET RID OF ANY DISTRACTION
Prior to the meeting, make certain that there is no obstacle in the line of sight
of your camera which can distract the other participants. Also, make sure that your
cell phone is kept in the silent mode during the conference.
7. BE ACQUAINTED WITH VIDEO CONFERENCE FEATURES
Try to eliminate any background noise while the conference is going on, which
should also minimise any echo from the microphone. Moreover, make it a point to
inform the participants how to mute as well as unmute the microphone and ensure
that all of them are making use of this feature.
8. NEVER SPEAK AT THE SAME TIME
It becomes really challenging when there are lots of guests in the same conference.
You need to practice patience and refrain from speaking while others are expressing
themselves. It is suggested for the host to hold his queries until the end so that
everybody gets an opportunity to voice their opinions. It is up to the host to
manage the conference in order to make it successful.
9. SELECT AN APPROPRIATE VENUE
As a matter of fact, some conferences deserve a more professional setting. It is
suggested to make use of a dedicated conferencing room with high-end video
conferencing equipment, particularly if you are dealing with a new customer or you
might even book a room in order to generate a more reassuring environment.
10. GET A UNIFORM ILLUMINATION ENVIRONMENT
A vital aspect of any successful video meeting will be proper illumination with
minimal glare. Poor lighting could leave your audiences in the dark. Go for natural
illumination; however, make certain that it will not distract the participants on
the opposite side. Furthermore, ensure that there is adequate lighting for the
camera. Try to avoid extremely powerful bulbs and utilise fluorescent light
instead.
CONCLUSION
At present, an increasing number of organisations are resorting to video conference
and as a result, the workers must be prepared for these types of meetings. Try to
keep the above-mentioned video conferencing do’s and don’ts in mind to make your
subsequent video conference successful, which will help increase the efficiency of
the meeting and also avoid any undesirable situation.

Funny Body-Language tips regarding the V-Conf.

The wonderful thing about video conferencing is that you can form meaningful
connections with people through dynamic face-to-face interactions even if your
thousands of miles away. However, if you don’t pay careful attention to your body
language, you might convey some meanings that you didn’t intend. According to
Psychology Today, “55 percent of communication is body language, 38 percent is the
tone of voice, and 7 percent is the actual words spoken.” In order to help you be
as comfortable and confident on video as a Hollywood star, we’ve rounded up several
tips and insights from leading body language scientists and experts.
#1: STRIKE A POSE
Over 41,500,000 people have watched Amy Cuddy’s TED talk regarding how body
language can impact your personal and professional success. Cuddy, a social
scientist and Harvard professor said, “Social scientists have spent a lot of time
looking at the effects of our body language, or other people’s body language, on
judgments. And we make sweeping judgments and inferences from body language. And
those judgments can predict really meaningful life outcomes, like who we hire or
promote.” Cuddy purports that putting your body into a position of power by making
yourself big, stretching out, and taking up space can actually make you feel more
powerful and cause others to perceive you as both confident and capable. In her
research, she found that taking one of five power positions and holding it for two
minutes before meeting with people will increase testosterone levels (energy and
mood-boosting hormone), decrease cortisol levels (stress hormone) and lead people
to judge you more positively. The next time you have an important video conference,
find a private space, like a bathroom stall or stairwell, and strike a power pose
before your meeting. Then, knock ‘em dead with your palpable power and confidence.
#2: SIT-UP STRAIGHT
A recent Forbes article stated that good posture sends nonverbal signals of energy,
enthusiasm, and health. Conversely, poor posture makes people appear uninterested,
uncertain, or lethargic. When it comes to posture during a video meeting, typically
only your body from the waist up is visible, which is by no means a hall pass to
jiggle your legs or indulge in other behaviors that may inadvertently rock your
body and distract viewers. Carol Kinsey Goman, author of “The Nonverbal Advantage:
Body Language at Work” recommends people in a video conference, “Sit up straight,
put both feet on the floor, then take a deep breath and exhale through your mouth
to relax your neck and throat.” By sitting taller, your image will take up more
space on the screen and your voice will project better, enabling everyone to hear
you clearly when you speak. An article in Inc. maintains that when a person leans
back in their chair away from the camera it conveys to viewers that they are bored
and disconnected from what is being discussed. Thus, in addition to sitting up
straight you want to lean forward slightly to the camera to convey you are fully
present. Cuddy maintains that, “Posture not only shapes the way we feel, it also
shapes the way we think about ourselves—from our self-descriptions to the certainty
and comfort with which we hold them. And those self-concepts can either facilitate
or hinder our ability to connect with others, to perform our jobs, and, more
simply, to be present.”
#3: SMILE, YOU’RE ON CAMERA
Allan and Barbara Pease, who wrote “The Definitive Book of Body Language” recommend
people project a warm and non-threatening persona by smiling when meeting people.
For example, whether you are talking to an old client or meeting with a new
employee via video, take a moment to look into the camera, smile and greet the
person at the beginning of the meeting. The Pease’s state that the simple act of
smiling will generate positive feelings toward you from your counterpart and help
to build a trusting relationship. They also found that smiling during a meeting
helps it run more smoothly and have more positive outcomes. In general, the Pease’s
recommend that you smile as often as the other people in the video conference since
mirroring other people’s nonverbal behavior is one way we show them that we are not
only listening, but understanding them. Smiling too often or faking a smile makes
people appear insecure and less credible; however, not smiling at all makes a
person appear cold and stand-offish.
#4: ARM YOURSELF WITH CONFIDENCE
Talking with your hands is a smart way to show people you are passionately engaged
in the subject you are talking about, and being passionately engaged is kind of a
big deal. Lakshmi Balachandra, a Professor at Babson College and expert in business
negotiations conducted a study that analyzed the verbal and nonverbal behavior
videos of 185 venture capital presentations. She found that the strongest predictor
of who was awarded money was not a person’s credentials or their pitch content, but
their confidence and passionate enthusiasm. To make sure you are using your hands
and arms to your advantage during a video meeting, Goman says that when not using
them to gesture, place them on the table “about 8 to 10 inches in front of your
torso so people can see them. Keep them relaxed and separated. Don’t hang onto the
edge of the table, or you will look desperate. Don’t play with your pen or shuffle
papers.” If you are in the habit of crossing your arms, try to refrain from doing
so because research shows crossed arms encourage others to think critical thoughts
toward you. It also makes you appear unapproachable.
#5: ABOUT FACE
Research by the University of Cambridge found that when nervous, people tend to
comfort themselves by engaging in an array of unsightly face-touching behaviors,
from smoothing their eyebrows and tugging at earlobes, to itching their nose or
chewing on their lower lip. If these are guilty pleasures you have a habit of
indulging in, stop it. On camera in a meeting they make you appear insecure,
incompetent, and to some it may even appear that you are lying – yikes! To put your
best face forward, close your mouth and keep the corners of your lips slightly
upturned to avoid appearing frowny-faced, raise your eyebrows slightly upward in
interest, and nod your head periodically to reinforce to viewers that you hear them
and are listening well.
SET YOURSELF UP FOR SUCCESS WITH HIGHFIVE
To ensure you always appear your best during a video conference, start by using a
video conferencing solution that makes it easy, Highfive! Easy-to-use and love,
Highfive all-in-one video conferencing devices feature HD video and audio that
allows you to connect with everyone face-to-face, see and hear their verbal and
nonverbal communication and enjoy a dynamic and immersive video experience every
time.

Over the years, I've done innumerable video conferences, webinars, and calls. But
every time I'm still a little nervous. Here are battle-tested ways I and some
friends and colleagues have found to do well at video -- or, at least, not mess up
too badly.
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE, NUTS AND BOLTS
Does your gear work? Are you sure? Check your camera, your computer, your
microphone, and your internet connection. Then check it again. Hell is doing tech
support with your setup while everyone else is waiting and thinking, "Can you
believe this guy!?"
Oh, and while you're at it, make sure your video service is working well. With,
conservatively, a few million new users using video-conferencing for the first
time, I guarantee there will be failures and slowdowns.
Also, do your best to make sure your video-conferencing software is working well
before the call. That means turning off CPU-heavy background applications,
automatic alerts, and downloads You do not want your video to end up stuttering.
Don't play with your computer or smartphone. You don't want to end up like Matthew
Miller, head of the Fedora Project, who switched to another browser tab and forgot
they were on camera. Whoops.
You can use your built-in webcam and microphone, but if you want your video to
impress, you want to get a decent external webcam, mic, and headphones.
ORGANIZE, ORGANIZE, ORGANIZE
Are you in charge of the meeting? Then organize it. Email an agenda beforehand, so
the conversation doesn't wander all over the freaking place. Stephen Satchell, a
developer at INE, remembers having "a video conference with no agenda or even an
informative topic." The result? "It was rambling chit-chat for an hour, which, if
properly done, would have taken 10 minutes." Don't waste time like this.
That said, put time in for idle chit-chat. I guarantee that no matter how much you
want to have a laser-light focus on your latest gizmo's delivery date, the first
few minutes of every conference call will include "How are the kids/parents/dogs
doing?" and "Can you see me?". Plan for it and then move on to the meat of the
meeting.
Got files or information to share beforehand? Then, Fabio Ramos, senior director of
product marketing at 8x8, a VoIP company, recommends that you: "Share these with
other participants beforehand if possible. You may share information during the
call, but it may be distracting or difficult in some cases for others to use files
while talking with you. Double-check that everyone has the materials and access
they need."
VIRTUAL MEETING ETIQUETTE
It's a business meeting! If you normally wear a suit and tie, wear them. A t-shirt
with Linux commands? Go for it. Pants are optional. Just keep in mind that if you
need to stand up to answer a call of nature, your CEO may not be as impressed with
your Mickey Mouse shorts as your cat.
Do not -- for the love of kittens and puppies -- eat during a conference. That
pepperoni pizza may look tasty on the plate, but it doesn't look good on your face.
Or, on your shirt.
Which, reminds me, check your clothes for lunch remains before turning on the
camera. Ketchup is not a fashion statement.
Be on time. Can't get there until five minutes late? You may be better off not
showing up at all. No one -- and I mean no one -- likes "Beep! Steven has joined
the meeting." Or so I've been told.
Bob Suitor, IBM's VP of Quantum Computing, adds that besides starting meetings
promptly when scheduled, you should strive to "avoid side conversations, and by all
means wrap it up early if you can."
Freelance writer Lisa McGreevy wants to remind you, "There's no need to make a huge
deal if you accidentally drop off and have to reconnect. Just quietly come back to
the room. Don't interrupt with, 'Sorry I dropped off, bad connection, I'm back now!
Sorry!' That's more disruptive than the chime alerting you've reconnected."
Are you talking? No? Then mute your freaking microphone. Rikki Endsley, an AWS
open-source community manager, recommends you "behave as if you were in the room
with the other participants." She added, "I was on a group call last year and we
could hear a participant using the restroom because he clearly was not following
these basic video conference rules." You do not want to be that person.
Seriously. If you're not talking, mute your mic. Freelance writer Mitch Wagner
remembers being in "an editorial meeting and someone else was presenting an article
they were doing and one of the cats was pestering me to be picked up and I finally
said, 'Will you shut up and leave me alone?" It did not end well.
Karanbir Singh, CentOS's project lead, would like to remind you: "Participate as if
you were physically in the same room. And participate completely (aka, no checking
emails or doing other work waiting for someone to say your name, etc). "People
don't like it when they call on you and see you obviously typing away." I mean,
they seriously don't like it.
Adrian Warman, the principal cybersecurity consultant at the UK Ministry of
Justice, adds: "Be really clear about stages in the meeting, discussion points, and
conclusions. Recap often. If you're in a voice-only call, or worse, some are voice-
only, others are video, it's really easy to get lost."
McGreevy sums it up: "Just pay attention. No eating a four-course meal, taking a
phone call, texting, typing the whole time, watching videos, driving, turning your
camera on and off 40 times ("be right back!"), etc. I see this stuff all the time
and it's so distracting. Just. Pay. Attention."
APPEARANCE IS EVERYTHING
Lighting's important. With bad lighting, you're going to look bad. If you're in a
room with a window, aka natural light, face the window. No window? Find a light to
put in front of you. Never sit with your back to a window. Cinematographers can do
great things with backlighting. You can't. You also don't want to sit under a
bright light. You'll get shadows under your eyes, which will make you look tired,
older. It's not a good look.
Make sure your background looks decent. You may like your kid's drawings on the
fridge. Your co-workers? Not so much. You can even set up a dedicated video area
with a green screen and all the trimmings. But many video-conferencing programs,
such as Zoom, enable you to set up a virtual background, so your messy room is
replaced by a much image of you on the International Space Station.
Look up, not down. If you look down at your camera, which is very common with
smartphones, your audience will get a great look up your nose. And, oh, by the way,
have you trimmed your nose hairs lately?
Dogs, cats, and children should not be seen nor heard. That said, as Wagner
reminisced: "When high-level SVP at a multi-billion-dollar vendor says that her
two-year-old daughter was going to bed and insisted she had to say goodnight to me.
So, I said goodnight to her. I don't care how much of a tough investigative
reporter you are -- when the two-year-old girl wants you to say goodnight, you say
goodnight."

Aliaksej Burnosenka
ícone do distintivo
Administrador
· 2 de julho ·
Groups and groupwork
(taken from Internet)
Introduction
In this essay we will examine how certain theories of group work and group dynamics
may be applied within a youth work setting. We will first briefly describe what may
be understood by the terms “group”, and “group work” with specific regard to
groupwork theory. We will then look at Tuckman's theory of group stage development,
describing each stage and relating this theory to practical examples from my own
experience and look briefly at the potential for oppressive behaviour in each stage
and how this can be minimized. Next we will look at what is understood by group
leadership, looking at three broad styles of leadership and how these may be
applied effectively within a youth work setting. We will then look at how
individual roles can develop and inhibit group development.
This essay is illustrated throughout with examples from my own practice experience.
These examples are drawn from two particular groups with which I have been involved
in a leadership capacity.
The first group was a very small group of ten and eleven year olds from Youth
Action Middlesbrough (YAM). The group never consisted of more than eight and was
often as low as four or five. This evenly split mixed sex group was set up for long
term activity based work one evening each week, which would encourage social
interaction and thus help to develop positive social and interpersonal skills. This
was a long-term group and was only terminated after four years of activities,
planned and delivered by two female co-workers and myself.
The second group I have made reference to in my examples, is that of a group of ten
Prince’s Trust Volunteers (PTV). A distinction which may be made between a group
and a team is that “Teams are co-operative groups in that they are called into
being to perform a task or tasks that cannot be attempted by an individual”
(Douglas, 1983, p. 123). The all male team of sixteen to twenty three year old
unemployed volunteers was set up to deliver a sixteen week full-time personal
development programme. This was the first team that had been run by Cleveland Youth
Association and ran to a set PTV skeleton programme that was fleshed out by a co-
worker and myself.
What is a group: defining groupwork
Groups may be defined in many ways, indeed providing an absolute definition of a
group, as with much of the theory around group work, is highly problematic and
contestable. However for the purposes of discussing groupwork within a context of
working with young people we may define a group as a small gathering of young
people. Group work may simplistically be described as the study and application of
the processes and outcomes experienced when a small group comes together.
Konopka (1963) defines groupwork as a method of social work that is utilised in
order to “help individuals to enhance their social functioning through purposeful
group experiences, and to cope more effectively with their personal, group or
community problems”. This definition shows a tradition within groupwork of helping
individuals with problems. Brown provides a modernised and more comprehensive
definition of group work (1994, p.8). He states that “groupwork provides a context
in which individuals help each other; it is a method of helping groups as well as
helping individuals; and it can enable individuals and groups to influence and
change personal, group, organisational and community problems” (original emphasis).
He goes on to distinguish between “relatively small and neighbourhood centred” work
and “macro, societal and political approaches” within community work, explaining
that only the former may be properly classified as groupwork.
Thus the role of groupwork can be seen as one which places emphasis on sharing of
thoughts, ideas, problems and activities.
Stages of group development
Groups, like individuals are each unique with their own experiences and
expectations. However many commentators studying group development and dynamics
have recognised that group development, as a generalisation, is more predictable
than individual behaviour. Thus many theories of group stage development have been
cultivated, some linear, others more cyclical, and it must be stressed that no
definitive model of group stage development exists.
Two of the most useful theories of group stage development are those discussed by
Tuckman (1965), and Rogers paper on encounter groups (1967). These models, like
others (for example Heap, 1977) propose that as groups develop and change they pass
through stages which may be conceptualised. Tuckman's model has been used
extensively within youth work theory and practice and is an excellent model for
attempting to analyse individual and group behaviour. A brief synopsis of each
stage is outlined below, with examples from personal practice.
Stage 1: Forming
The first stage of this group process is joining, referred to as engagement by
Rogers. This phase involves significant testing, and trial and error. Initial
concerns about openness and support within the group are manifested by a lack of
cohesion and a difficulty in sharing thoughts, feelings and experiences with each
other. An internal appraisal of group value and how each individual belongs to the
group are key features of this stage. Anxiety, isolation, inadequacy and
frustration are common emotions felt by group members at this early stage in the
life of a group, as well as being emotionally threatened by members of the group
who are perceived to be stronger or better. Thus the group seeks to create a
comfort zone in which individuals are not keen to upset the status quo for fear of
alienation.
Oppressive behaviour is least likely within the formation stage of a group as
individuals generally look to create a comfort zone and do not wish to rock the
boat. Often frustrations will be built upon between individuals who disagree
strongly, but this will generally not surface until storming begins.
A knowledge and understanding of the feelings and emotions felt by group members in
this stage is helpful, if not essential, to the effective structuring of a
programme to work towards the desired outcome for the group. For example both the
YAM and PTV groups I had experience with were set up to encourage social
interaction and personal development. Having an awareness of group stage theory
enabled my colleagues and myself to structure the early encounters for the groups
to be;
a) fun and enjoyable “to encourage continued attendance;
b) relaxed - offering the promotion of effective communication and allowing members
to get to know each other a little whilst gaining in confidence and trust.
To this end ice breakers, introduction and communication exercisers such as those
provided by Brandes and Phillips (1979), Bond (1986), Leech and Wooster (1986) and
Dearling and Armstrong (1994) were used. As Dynes describes “[games] stimulate the
imagination, make people resourceful and help develop social ability and co-
operation” (Dynes, 1990).
Stage 2: Storming
This stage sees group members begin to confront each other as they begin to vie for
roles within the group that will help them to belong and to feel valued. Thus as
members begin to assert their individual personalities, the comfort of the forming
stage begins to come under siege. Members experience personal, intra and inter
group conflicts. Aggression and resentment may manifest in this stage and thus if
strong personalities emerge and leadership is unresponsive to group and individual
needs, the situation may become destructive to the group's development. Indeed
there is a high potential for individuals to abandon the group during this stage,
as for some the pressures created by the group may become too much of a strain.
The potential for oppressive behaviour is strong within the storming phase as group
members vie for preferred roles and release frustrations built within the forming
period. This personal oppression should be discouraged whilst it is understood that
a degree of conflict is necessary if the group is to further develop.
In the YAM group this stage was represented by a rebellious streak within the young
people and much of the storming was directed towards the adult leaders. Boundaries
within the group were tested as the group explored how far they would be allowed to
go and what they could get away with. One or two individuals in turn challenged
this behaviour as they felt it was unfair and could jeopardize future activities.
The PTV group’s storming phase was altogether different. Two of the group with
strong personalities began to vie for intra-group leadership. Each used their own
abilities to strengthen their claim to lead the group, whilst also sabotaging and
undermining the other’s efforts in an attempt to usurp the leadership role. This
situation caused a degree of infighting and at one point created two sub-groups,
one following each of the “pretender” leaders.
It is important to be aware that conflict will take place within all groups, and if
handled well this conflict can produce benefits for the group in terms of
development, objective and task setting, and ultimate outcome. Thus conflict is not
inherently something to be feared or avoided.
Stage 3: Norming
During this stage the group begin to work more constructively together towards
formal identified or informal tasks. Roles begin to develop and be allocated within
the group and although these may be accepted, some members may not be comfortable
with the role or roles which the have been allocated. During this stage sub-groups
are likely to form in order that a supportive environment is once more created.
Acceptable and unacceptable behaviours within the group are created and reinforced
and thus the “norms” for this group become fabricated.
The storming and norming phases of group development are inextricably linked, as it
is often through the storming and challenging that acceptable group norms become
set.
It is important that a youth worker works hard during this stage to ensure
oppression against individuals within the group do not become the acceptable norm,
as then all group members will oppress these individuals. Thus, individual
oppressions must be challenged and emphasis placed on challenging attitudes and
opinions but not group members.
The YAM group settled into group norms quite quickly, however some of the roles
that were adopted were challenged by the co-leaders as they were seen to be
obstructive to the group and individual’s objectives. One young person (J.) who was
often badly behaved at school, was previously known to other group members. As
these young people expected poor behaviour from J. this was the role which he
adopted. This was challenged within the group context and it was pointed out that
alternatives to this behaviour were available.
Stage 4: Performing
This stage sees the group performing effectively with defined roles, in fact at
this stage it could be said that the group has transformed into a team. It is now
that decisions may be positively challenged or reinforced by the group as a whole.
The discomfort of the storming and norming phases has been overcome and the group
has a general feeling of unity. This is the best stage for a group to complete
tasks, assuming that task, rather than process and individuals, are the focus of
the group.
An excellent example of performing within the PTV group came during a residential
week. One of the group (A.) admitted to a fear of heights and thus did not want to
take part in an abseiling exercise. The whole group supported this decision but
offered encouragement and support in order to promote participation. One individual
(M.) spent time and energy showing leadership and helped A. to overcome his fears.
A. took part in the abseil, being assisted by M. and encouraged by the whole group.
Potential exists within this stage for oppression to begin if one or more group
members does not appear to fit in with the group’s view of its task, or is not
performing as effectively as expected. Again it is important to challenge this if
it occurs and to show how each member can benefit the group, through achievement of
task, leadership, reviewing, moving on, or by monitoring the groups process.
Stage 5: Mourning
The final stage in the life of a group ultimately is its termination. Though often
overlooked, this stage in group development is equally important to positive
outcomes. The ending of a group can be a very unhappy and distressing time for some
members, as they may feel some extent of dependency on the group. Garland et al.
describe some of the typical responses to the ending phase as:
Denial - 'forgetting' the time of the groups termination.
Regression - reverting to a less independent state of functioning.
Need expression - in the hope the group will continue.
Recapitulation - detailed recall of past experiences within the group.
Evaluation - detailed discussion on the value of the group experience.
Flight - destructive denial of any positive benefit of the group, or a positive
disengagement towards other interests.
Potential exists within this stage for members to be oppressed as scapegoats, that
is blamed or at fault for the ending of the group. This can be minimised by
constant focusing and refocusing on group end points and staged celebrations of
group achievements.
With the PTV group it was relatively easy to develop strategies to minimise the
effects of the groups termination. The group’s life span was structured to a tight
time-scale and end point from the outset. This was reinforced by getting the group
to maintain a counting down chart which was marked off each day. The end of the
group was marked by a large presentation to which friends and relatives were
invited. The presentation marked a clear ending for the group from day one, whilst
also serving as a celebration of all the groups achievements during its existence.
Thus the end did not come as a “surprise”, and was something to look forward to.
As we have seen the value of a theoretical understanding of conceptualising this
group stage theory in youth work and other helping professions, lies in enabling
group workers to “tune into the group’s processes and respond appropriately”
(Preston-Shoot, 1987).
📷
Group Leadership
Effective groups should promote the value of all of its constituent members. One of
the keys to establishing this end is competent leadership.
Leadership can be and has been defined in many ways. It is seen as “the act of
commanding and directing, the actions of leaders, the process by which groups
achieve their goals, the antithesis of followership” (Sessoms and Stevenson, 1981,
p. 5). Leadership can be seen as the act of “moving people towards goal
achievement”, and may be viewed as an interaction between leaders, followers and
goals (see Fig. 1, above), thus it may be described as a process (Sessoms and
Stevenson, ibid). Fig. 1. - Source: Sessoms and Stevenson (1981)
So “In a broad sense, leadership may be described as influence” (Barker et al,
1979, p. 224), thus the individual who will often be seen as the leader of a youth
group, that is the adult, often may in fact not be the most influential member of
the group.
📷Effective leadership depends on the balancing of the three variables in diagram
Fig. 2. thus the groups task, individual needs and group maintenance must all be
considered. [Fig. 2. - Source: Adapted from John Adair (1988) Effective Leadership]
Fundamentally within youth work we must recognise the “possibility of all members
contributing to the process by which groups seek and achieve goals” (Barker et al,
1979, p. 226-229). Thus leadership is a dynamic variable and any “person who
performs actions which move a group toward its goal and/or maintain the group more
frequently and more effectively than other group members” may be identified as
group leaders (Barker et al, 1979, ibid.).
Leadership is often described within a context of three differing styles, laissez
faire, democratic and autocratic (or authoritarian).
Simplistically the three styles can be described as;
Laissez faire - letting members do pretty much as they please without the leader
offering judgement on other members decisions. This works best when a well
functioning group, i.e. one than may be in a performing phase, is working towards a
well defined task. This method is exceptionally difficult if more than a handful of
group members are present and is often used within sub-groups developed to perform
specific sub-tasks. For example the PTV team would use this style for brainstorming
specific ideas for projects, as the non-judgemental attitude facilitated more group
responses.
Democratic - consultation and discussion takes place before decisions are made.
This allows group members to have their say but does not guarantee that these
feelings will be acted upon. This style is an ideal method of leadership within
youth work as the group is more likely to contribute to the decision making process
and also the group is more likely to buy-in to decisions which are made. Again this
style works best with smaller groups, the larger the group the longer the decision
making processes will tend to become. It is often preferable to separate a very
large group into sub-groups to ensure all have a chance to input into decision
making and then reconvene all group members into a plenary session where all ideas
can be fed back and shared, resulting in an ultimate group decision. This style was
used within the PTV group in order to achieve a shared sense of belonging within
the group and to get all the members to “buy-in” to completing the tasks in hand.
Autocratic or authoritarian - one leader is the sole person involved in making
decisions within the group, the information is passed on to the group rather than
options being discussed openly. This is a style that I have personally seldom used
as it is not ideal for achieving the educational aims of youth work. However I am
aware that very large groups may find an autocratic leader can speed up a decision
making process. This can be important when issues such as the group’s physical
safety are involved, for example if a group is on expedition on the side of a
mountain and the weather becomes rough, it may become necessary to enforce a quick
decision to retreat, to ensure group safety. The process of this decision making
can then be evaluated and debated once the group is in a safe setting.
Roles within Groups
Each individual within a group has a role to play in the development of that group
to a greater or lesser extent. Through observation, understanding of difference,
awareness of personal resources and effective communication (Douglas, 1995), each
member may affect group processes and individual emotions. Roles develop within
groups both through formal appointment and because of the personal characteristics
and interpersonal relationships that develop between members. Roles which develop
can be constructive and support the group and its members in achieving its goals,
or can be destructive and work against the overall group aims. Individuals within
the group can develop several roles and at times these may conflict. For example a
PTV member who was designated as leader for a specific task, also played a clown
and was fond of practical jokes. The fooling around led to a lack of trust from
other group members creating a conflict with the leadership role.
As the group begins to develop an understanding of four things can be observed:
Observation: the way we behave is based upon what we observe of ourselves, and what
we make of others and their reactions to us.
Differences: personally and socially generated; the effects they have on behaviour
and understanding.
Resources: frequently stemming from difference but are the source of potential
power for a group and an individual.
Communication: considered to be natural but subject to many barriers that remain
largely unknown unless a conscious effort is made to find them:
(Douglas, 1995, p. 80-97)
Through supportive roles, groups may play a part in reducing oppression generated
externally to the group. Groupwork can be used as a medium for oppressed groups to
“help these groups adjust in society”, and moreover to help society to adjust
towards these groups. This can be achieved by “individual rehabilitation” in which
we can “help individuals to adjust to social life and manage “tension “gain
confidence, high self esteem”, and in “getting and keeping employment etc.”.
“Societal or community rehabilitation” involves “helping the society to have
meaningful contact” with individuals and groups which are discriminated against and
oppressed (Osei-Hwedie, Mwansa, and Mufune, 1990, p. 188).
Preston-Shoot describes groupwork creating a “sense of belonging and mutual
identity” encouraging “the formation of relationships which foster mutual
identification and influence”, thus feelings of isolation and singularity with
issues of difference and oppression may be reduced. Also, the group may be
encouraged to use its internal resources to move towards individual or group
“problem-resolution”, reducing feelings of helplessness, building self worth, and
discouraging worker dependency (Preston-Shoot, 1987, p. 6-28). Smith concurs with
this view of the suitability of groupwork, stating “Groups are obvious sites of
interaction and within them a sense of connectedness or community with others can
be fostered” (Smith, 1994, p.111). This “connectedness” is a valuable tool with
which to challenge discrimination and oppression, for as Piven and Cloward argue,
it is only when we act collectively that change can begin (Piven and Cloward,
1993).
Conclusion: Groupwork “double edged sword?
To state that group work is not an exact science is something of an understatement.
As we have seen, it is problematic to even define what is meant by a group as no
absolute definition exists. Similarly most, if not all, concepts within group work
theory can be, and are, contested.
Groups are extremely important in the lives of all individuals. Johnson and Johnson
(1975, p1-2) state “many of our goals can be achieved only with the cooperation and
coordination of others”.
However “the success of any group depends on the ability of its members to exchange
ideas freely and to feel involved in the life and decisions of the group”
(Massallay, 1990). All groups within youth work have goals, i.e. a future state of
affairs. It is important that short term and long term goals are set realistically
if the group is to develop and function effectively. These functions are achieved
through the direction of leadership and the development of individual roles within
each group.
A group is said to be successful if it:
1. accomplishes group tasks;
2. maintains the group internally, and;
3. develops and adapts to improve effectiveness.
(Massallay, 1990)
Groupwork can be used as an effective tool for many youth work situations, not
least of which is as a medium for challenging oppression both within groups and
individuals. Thus, we have seen the emergence and development of girls issue groups
and black young people’s projects that offer mutual support as well as working to
challenge oppression. Yet we have seen that through the development stages of a
groups life there are many opportunities for individuals to develop and focus
oppressive behaviour internally within a group.
A grasp of theoretical understanding of group behaviour and functioning can help to
explain individual and group behaviour, and help us to achieve our ultimate aim as
youth workers, that of informal education. It is important not to treat group work
as an exact science with definitive answers. Indeed many of the questions we must
ask ourselves are unclear, thus the answers are a best guess, or a benchmark that
we can develop on and work around.
Finally, let us consider briefly the historical context of group work development
and the purpose it has not only within youth work, but society at large. As Taylor
reminds us “A moment’s reflection shows that the social groupwork beloved of
liberalism is the product of the American capitalist concern to develop more
sophisticated management techniques” (Taylor, 1987, p. 140). Let us be careful to
use group work to promote democracy and not fall into the trap of using group work
as yet another tool for promoting social control in a capitalistic state.
References & Recommended Reading
Adair, J. (1988) Effective Leadership, London: Pan
Barker, L. L., Cegala, D. J., Kibler, R. J. and Wahlers, K. J. Groups In Process.
New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall
Bond, T. (1986) Games for Social and Life Skills. London: Hutchinson
Brandes, D. and Phillips, H (1977) Gamesters” Handbook Great Britain. Stanley
Thornes
Brown, A. (1994) Groupwork 3rd Edition. Great Yarmouth: Ashgate Publishing
Dearling, A. and Armstrong, H. (1994) The New Youth Games Book. Great Britain:
Russell House Publishing
Douglas, T. (1983) Groups: Understanding People Gathered Together. London:
Routledge
Douglas, T. (1995) Survival In Groups: The Basics of Group Membership. Buckingham:
Open University Press
Dynes, R. (1990) Creative Games in Groupwork. Great Britain: Winslow Press
Garland, J. Jones, H. and Kolody, R. (1968) “A model for stages of development in
social work groups” in Bernstein, S. (Ed.) Explorations in Groupwork. Boston:
Boston University School of Social Work
Heap, K. (1977) Group Theory for Social Workers. Great Britain: Pergamon Press
Konopka, G. (1963) Social Group Work : a Helping Process. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. :
Prentice Hall
Leech, N. and Wooster, A. D. (1986) Personal and Social Skills “A Practical
Approach for the Classroom. Great Britain: RMEP
Massallay, J. L. (1990) “Methods, Techniques and Skills of Youth and Community
Work: Community Action and Group Work” Chapter 4. In Osei-Hwedie, K., Mwansa, L-K.
and Mufune, P. (Eds.) Youth and Community Work Practice. Zambia: Mission Pres
Osei-Hwedie, K., Mwansa, L-K. and Mufune, P. (1990) Youth and Community Work
Practice: Methods, Techniques and Skills. Zambia: Mission Press
Piven, F. F. and Cloward, R. A. (1993) Regulating the Poor : The Functions of
Public Welfare. USA: Vintage Books
Preston-Shoot, M. (1987) Effective Groupwork. Hampshire: Macmillan
Rogers, C. R. (1967) “The process of basic encounter group” In Bugental, J. F. T.
(Ed.) The Challenges of Human Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill
Sessoms, H. Massachusetts, D. and Stevenson, J. L. (1981) Leadership and Group
Dynamics in Recreation Services. USA: Allyn and Bacon
Smith, M. K. (1994) Local Education: Community, Conversation, Praxis. Great
Britain: Open University Press
Taylor, T. (1987) “Youth Workers as Character Builders” Chapter 9. In Jeffs, T and
Smith, M. (Eds.) Youth Work. Basingstoke: MacMillan
Tuckman, B. W. (1965) “Developmental Sequences in Small Groups” in Psychological
Bulletin No. 63 p. 384-399
http://youthworkcentral.tripod.com/sean3.htm

Some tips of how to transform a roup into a Team:

Tip #1: Don’t Pretend to Be a Team, Answer The Question:
Team does not occur because you (or someone in upper management) calls your
department or division a team. Team occurs because you consciously and constantly
choose TEAM. If you are going to be a TEAM, here is a question that everyone on the
team must ask on a regular basis:
“Are we going to be a group or are we going to be a TEAM?”
Asking this question openly and regularly is an important first step in creating
TEAM. Group just happens, it is the natural effect of putting a bunch of people
together - but TEAM is earned.
It is very common these days for departments within organizations to be called
“teams” – e.g. the Customer Service Department is now called the “Customer Service
Team” or the Finance Department is now called the “Finance Team”. But calling your
department a team doesn’t make it so.
If you are a part of a group that is now being referred to as a team, but you have
never done any work to develop a TEAM orientation, the above question is a good
place to start. Begin exploring the choices, behavior and attitudes required to
become a TEAM – and make adjustments to you choices, behavior and attitude openly
and honestly – show your teammates that you are willing to become a true team
player.
Tip #2: Develop A Common Vision & Write Down Shared Goals
Great teams are driven by something bigger than the individuals on the team. There
must be a “common cause” that supersedes self-interest and motivates everyone to
participate fully because of a shared interest.
Ironically, the best place to start when forming shared goals is with personal
goals. The hallmark of a great team is that the everyone on the team recognizes the
strengths and talents of the individuals who make up the team. Teams thrive when
individuals get their needs met – when each person on the team feels seen, heard
and valued.
In groups, individuals are usually trying to just fit in – there is a “get along”
mentality. Standing out, in a group, is discouraged. On a high functioning team,
everyone find ways to stand out and contribute. On high functioning teams,
individuals “cheer” for each other.
Here are some powerful questions to draw out meaningful goals and mutual support:
1) What type of team would you like to be part of?
2) What are a few of your greatest talents or strengths?
3) How would you like to be honored or acknowledged?
4) What are two areas where you’d like to grow?
5) How do you want to feel about going to work?
Tip #3: Develop & Maintain A Standard of Respect
Respect has a range. At the lowest level of respect, individuals “tolerate” each
other. Moving up the “respect ladder”, people maintain a level of civility, where
they demonstrate good manners in relating to one another. But if you want to
develop a high functioning team you must operate and maintain a much higher level
of respect than tolerance and civility. Individuals on high functioning teams hold
one another in “high regard”. This means that they speak highly of each other,
communicate openly, avoid gossip and cheer for one another.
Having “high regard”, as a standard for your team, changes the “operating system”.
While it requires people to be more open and honest, it simultaneously creates an
environment where people can be more open and honest. Adjusting to this standard
can be challenging at first, as unconscious behavior that undermines TEAM is
immediately “called out”. Initially, this level of candor can be challenging, but
over time it become a relief and even exhilarating. Ultimately, maintaining this
respect standard generates a high level of safety and comfort.
Tip #4: Run Great Meetings
What do you feel like when you walk out of a meeting where nothing gets done? Do
you feel your energy depleted? Do you feel frustrated or angry? How about depressed
or even hopeless? Does it feel like the meeting was a waste of time?
The quality of a team can always be assessed by how they interact in the meeting
room. Great teams run great meetings!
The key to running great meetings involves defining the purpose of the meeting and
establishing the best process to achieve the desired results. Having a powerful and
effective meeting becomes the priority of the meeting – the content of each meeting
changes, but this “context” stays the same.
Assessing and evaluating the effectiveness of team meetings is an important part of
maintaining team. Great teams are constantly adjusting their meeting style and
processes to maintain a high level of effectiveness. Meetings should never be a
waste of TIME because TIME = LIFE. Many people think that TIME = MONEY but we
suggest that you treat TIME as something much more important. TIME = LIFE. Great
teams run great meeting and these meeting do not waste your life. So at the end of
each of your meeting we suggest that you ask the question:
“Was this meeting a good use of our LIFE?”
If the answer is NO then you have an opportunity to do something about it.
Tip #5: Communication Skills Must Be Practiced and Honed
The above mentioned “respect standard” (Tip #3) is a prelude to excellent
communication. Developing and maintaining a high level of respect among colleagues
stems from excellent communication. Conversely, excellent communication helps to
maintain and deepen respect.
Communication is widely considered to be a skill. Moreover, it is considered to be
one of the most important skills in business. Like professional athletes who
practice their craft, we recommend that business professionals work on their
communication. We specifically recommend communication programs that emphasize
collaborative models of leadership.
When there is a breakdown in any team, from business relationships, to marriages,
to families, the first place to look is communication. If the individuals do not
communicate effectively there will inevitably be misunderstandings, resentment and
ineffectiveness. Professionals constantly practice and hone their most important
skills – we propose that communication is vital to individual and team success.
How to Turn a Work Group Into an Effective Team
Your work group may be missing an important element if employees haven’t yet
learned to work together as a team. Both motivation and productivity increase when
employees support each other and understand the importance of each of their roles
on the team. Building an effective team is a gradual process and can’t be
accomplished in just one day or week. Although it will take hard work, your group
will become more cohesive, cooperative and effective when they embrace the
principles of teamwork.
1
Meet with the group and explain that working as a team will benefit all members by
increasing motivation, satisfaction and productivity. Ask team members for input
regarding improving group performance.
2
Explain to the group how the work you do benefits the company. Describe each
person’s role in the group. While that might seem like obvious information, some
members of the group may not realize the scope of another team member’s
responsibilities or the importance of your work to the company.
3
Develop several goals as a group. Goals might be to complete an important project
before deadline, increase communication between members or increase sales by a
certain percentage. Establish metrics to determine success and provide them to all
team members. The Free Management Library website suggests creating goals that are
specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound.
4
Decide how the group can accomplish the goals. If you are concerned about meeting a
deadline, take a look at workflow and redesign the process with team input. Plan
weekly meetings, use the company intranet to post updates on projects or hold
informal lunch-and-learn sessions to improve communications.
5
Keep team members informed of the group’s progress in meeting goals. Provide
regular feedback and ask team members to keep you informed of problems or concerns.
Offer solutions to difficult problems and serve as an intermediary if conflicts
arise with other departments or employees.
6
Encourage team members to work together to accomplish goals. Pair team members who
have strengths in different areas to allow them to benefit from the other’s
expertise and experience.
7
Celebrate reaching goals and describe the way each team member contributed to the
success. Thank each team member. Take the group out to lunch or give them gift
cards in appreciation for their work.
WARNINGS
Don’t assume that team members should always take the same roles when working on a
project. If you do this, you may not be making the best use of your teams' skills.
Evaluate skills, interests and strengths at the beginning of the project before
assigning roles. The Tech Republic website suggests assigning people tasks they
perform well and advises letting employees work on projects they enjoy.
TIPS
Allow team members some level of control and responsibility for their parts of the
project. Micromanaging and keeping your eyes on the time clock, rather than on the
results produced, can ruin your attempts to build an effective team.

Features of the Leader (Aliaksej Burnosenka's edition)

He is One of them (passes the "Friend or Foe" filter: trust)
Responsibility
Example (Role-model for the team-mates)
Emotional Intelligence
Active listening
Empathy
Calm under pressure
The ability to make complex ideas easy to understand for everyone
Strategic thinking skills
Creativity
The ability to inspire and convince others
Flexibility
Project planning
Time management
The ability to build trust
Strong communication skills
Positivity
Management skills
The ability to align the employees with the project values and goals
Recruiting skills
+ added by Aura Herlea - Constantinescu: Self-Confidence