Ueeneee104a - D.C

UEE30811 - Certificate III
Electrotechnology Electrician
TAFE NSW
Unit UEENEEE104A
SOLVE PROBLEMS IN
D.C. CIRCUITS
Equation Sheet - Symbols obtained from AS1046
Stage 1: This list does not contain all equations in the course and transposition may be required.
A B C D E
1 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑡 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝐕 𝐕 𝟐𝛑𝐧𝐓
2 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑 𝐈= 𝐑= 𝐏=
𝐑 𝐈 𝟔𝟎
𝑉2 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 100
3 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅 𝑃= η%= ×
𝑅 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1
𝜌𝑙 𝑅1 𝐴1 𝑙2
4 𝑅= 𝑅2 = 𝑅ℎ = 𝑅𝑐 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑡)
𝐴 𝐴2 𝑙1
𝑅1
5 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑇
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
1 1 1 1 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2
6 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = + + 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑇 𝑅𝑇 =
𝑅 𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅 3 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑄 𝐴 ∈𝑜 ∈𝑟 1 1 1 1
7 𝐶= 𝐶= 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 = + +
𝑉 𝑑 𝐶 𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶 3
∆∅ 𝑁2 𝐿 ∆∅ ∆𝐼
8 𝐿=𝑁 𝐿= 𝜏= 𝑉=𝑁 𝑉=𝐿
∆𝐼 𝑆 𝑅 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∅ 𝑙
9 𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐼𝑁 𝐵= 𝑆=
𝐴 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝐹𝑚 𝐹𝑚
10 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑘∅𝑛 𝑇 = 𝑘∅𝐼𝑎 𝑇 = 𝐹𝑟 𝐻= ∅=
𝑙 𝑆
Stage 1: equations are also used during stage 2
A B C D E
𝑛𝑃
11 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.637𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 0.707𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝑉𝐿 = √3𝑉𝑃 𝑓=
120
1
12 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.637𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 0.707𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝐿 = √3𝐼𝑃 𝑡=
𝑓
𝑉 𝑉
13 𝐼= 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍 𝑍=
𝑍 𝐼
1 𝑅
14 𝑍 = �𝑅2 + 𝑋 2 𝑍 = �𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 cos 𝜃 =
𝑍
𝑃
15 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜃 𝑃 = �𝑆 2 − 𝑄2 cos 𝜃 =
𝑆
𝑊1 − 𝑊2
16 𝑃 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos 𝜃 𝑆 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑄 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃 = √3 � � 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝜆
𝑊1 + 𝑊2
𝑉1 𝑁1 𝐼2 𝑁1 (𝑉𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿 ) 100
17 𝑉 ′ = 4.44∅𝑓𝑁 = = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑔 % = ×
𝑉2 𝑁2 𝐼1 𝑁2 𝑉𝐹𝐿 1
120𝑓 𝑆% × 𝑓 �𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 − 𝑛� 100 (𝑉𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿 ) 100
18 𝑁𝑠𝑦𝑛 = 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑆% = × 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑔 % = × 𝑇 = 𝑘∅𝐼𝑎
𝑃 100 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 1 𝑉𝑁𝐿 1
19
2𝜋𝑛𝑇 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 100

20 𝑃= η%= ×
60 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1
Stage 2a: This list does not contain all equations in the course and transposition may be required.
Stage 1: equations are also used during stage 2
A B C D E
21
𝐹 𝐼 𝐼 𝐹
22 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐺 − (𝐼 𝑅𝑖 ) 𝐸= 𝐸= 𝐸 = 𝑑2 × cos 𝜃 η=
𝐴 𝑑2 𝑃
23 𝑄𝑐 = 𝑃(tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2 ) 𝑋𝑐 = 𝑅(tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2 )
24
A B C D E
%𝑇𝐴𝑃 %𝑇𝐴𝑃 2
25 𝑉𝑃 Ү = 57.7%𝑉𝑃 ∆ 𝐼𝑃 Ү = 57.7%𝐼𝑃 ∆ 𝐼𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡 =� � × 𝐼𝐷𝑂𝐿 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = � � × 𝐼𝐷𝑂𝐿
100 100
1 1 %𝑇𝐴𝑃
26 𝐼𝑆𝑇 = ×𝐼 𝑇𝑆𝑇 = × 𝑇𝐷𝑂𝐿 𝑉𝑠𝑡 = � � × 𝑉𝐷𝑂𝐿
3 𝐷𝑂𝐿 3 100
𝑇𝑆𝑇 𝑉
𝑉𝑠𝑡
27 𝐼𝑆𝑇 = � � × 𝐼𝐷𝑂𝐿 𝑉𝑠𝑡 2 Constant =
𝑉 = � � × 𝑇𝐷𝑂𝐿 𝑓
𝑉
28
Unit Guide – Assessment
Required skills and knowledge

This describes the essential skills and knowledge and their level, required for this unit.
Evidence shall show that knowledge has been acquired of safe working practices, rationale
and solving problems in the relevant unit. The knowledge and skills shall be contextualised to
current industry standards, technologies and practices.
View the section title page in your class workbook or the complete unit guide for a full
list of the fundamentals covered by each topic within this unit.
Below is a list indicating the content areas to be covered by the required skills and knowledge
specification for this unit:
Note: Topics may not be delivered in the order indicated by the full unit guide.
Additional information pertinent to your learning may also be included during unit delivery.
KS01-EE104A Direct current circuits

TOPIC NUMBER AS
WORKBOOK
SECTION NUMBER CONTENT LISTED IN THE
FULL UNIT GUIDE
Section 1 BASIC ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS T1

Section 2 BASIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS T2
Section 3 OHM’S LAW T3
Section 4 ELECTRICAL POWER T4
Section 5 EFFECTS OF CURRENT T5
Section 6 EMF SOURCES T6
Section 7 RESISTORS T7
Section 8 SERIES CIRCUITS T8
Section 9 PARALLEL CIRCUITS T9
Section 10 SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUITS T10
Section 11 RESISTANCE 2 and FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE T11
Section 12 METERS T12, T13
Section 13 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE T14
Section 14 CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL T15
Section 15 DC Revision Questions T1 – T15
Notes
************************
Contents
Section 1 ‐ Basic Electrical Concepts
Section 2 – Basic Electrical Circuits
Section 3 ‐ Ohm’s Law
Section 4 – Electrical Power
Section 5 – Effects of Current
Section 6 – EMF Sources
Section 7 – Resistors
THEORY EXAM 1 and PRACTIAL TEST 1
Section 8 – Series Circuits
Section 9 – Parallel circuits
Section 10 – Series ‐ Parallel Circuits
Section 11 – Factors Affecting Resistance
Section 12 ‐ Meters
Section 13 – Capacitors and Capacitance
Section 14 – Capacitors in Series and Parallel
Section 15 – Revision Questions
THEORY EXAM 2 and PRACTIAL TEST 2
Section 1
BASIC ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS
KS01-EE104A Direct Current circuits
TOPIC 1 Basic electrical concepts encompassing
 electrotechnology industry
 static and current electricity
 production of electricity by renewable and non-renewable energy
sources
 transportation of electricity from the source to the load via the
transmission and distribution systems
 utilisation of electricity by the various loads
 basic calculations involving quantity of electricity, velocity and speed
with relationship to the generation and transportation of electricity.
 safely connect and test an electrical control circuit for correct
operation.
NOTE:- There are 15 Topics to be covered in this course as specified

in the Unit Guide UEENEEE104A Solve problems in d.c. circuits.
These are covered in the following 14 sections.
The front of each section has a dot point listing of the topic elements
contained within that section. Some elements are covered in more than
1 section. Some sections contain material from several topics.
These elements also a good guide to use when searching for further
material in text books and online.
1: Basic Electrical Concepts 1
Electrical industry
The industry sector covers a wide range of electro technologies, from the installation of a
simple light bulb and switch to sophisticated electrical, electronic and communications
equipment and wiring installations such as a fully automated manufacturing plant with
robots.
It covers a wide number of sectors such as:- domestic (homes, unit, apartments and
villas), rural (hobby farms to large agricultural properties), commercial (small offices and
light industrial units to large office buildings) fire protection (from a 1 room office
building to large shopping centres, office towers, Defence Force and industrial sites),
security (from a 1 room apartment or office to the largest buildings, Defence Force
industrial and government sites), industrial (from very small factories to large sites in Port
Botany), marine (jetties, marinas and boats & ships) and aviation sites (airports
communications, runway lighting and navigation sites), leisure sites (caravan and
camping locations), power generation (coal fired power stations, wind farms, photo-
voltaic sites, natural gas fired power stations, geo-thermal power generation sites,
hydroelectric generation sites etc.), power transmission and distribution companies. The
list is almost endless. If it’s part of modern life, it uses electricity.
It includes the design, installation and maintenance of all types of electrical equipment
from domestic appliances to sophisticated high tech machines and complex systems
servicing the above sectors in permanent and temporary buildings.
Supply Industry Sector

Includes many companies and Authorities such as TransGrid, AusGrid, Endeavour
Energy, Essential Energy. Electricity is generated at many locations, most are
outside major cities, some are in remote areas.
Electricity in NSW is generated from a wide range of fuel sources, including black coal,
natural gas, coal seam methane gas and renewable energy sources such as hydro, wind,
biomass and solar.
NSW has around 18,000 MegaWatts (MW) of installed electricity generation capacity.
Interconnectors with Queensland and Victoria provide additional capacity of about 1100
MW and 1500 MW respectively. A MegaWatt (MW) is a very large unit of electricity,
equivalent to about 150 homes running during the evening ‘peak’ hours.
ELECTRICTY and GENERATION
Electricity as we use it, 230Volts AC, has to be ‘generated’, it does not naturally occur.
During generation we cause large numbers of electrons to move, we call it ‘electricity’.
Electricity is transported from the generation sites, called ‘power stations’ via overhead
power lines and eventually it comes into our homes, shops and business’s; it then is
connected to the ‘loads’ via fixed wiring and sometimes flexible cords & plugs. The
‘loads’ are the devices and equipment we wish to operate.
A typical load is a kettle, when we plug the kettle into a power point and switch it on, we
connect the load in the kettle to the electricity and as electricity flows through the load (an
element inside the kettle) the load gets very hot, heat is transferred to the water and soon
after it causes the water to boil. The loads are the ‘good parts’ which electricity will run,
e.g. the kettle, toaster, frypan, microwave, oven, dishwasher, refrigerator, freezer, air
conditioner, television, computer, games console, room lights, charger for your mobile
phone etc. etc. in fact there is not much in our lives which runs without electricity or is
connected to something which is run by electricity. It is so common in our lives, few
people even think about it until there is a blackout.
The tables below provide a list of major existing, under construction and proposed NSW
power stations larger than 30 MW of installed capacity. A full list of current NSW
generators registered with the Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO) can be found
on the AEMO website. There are over 20,000 MW of power plant proposals (including
over 9000 MW from renewable sources) at various stages of development from concept
to construction. Big things are happening.
To give you an idea of how big and diverse the generation sector is, we shall look at some
facts, all of these sites are major infrastructure sites with values reaching into billions of
dollars.
Major existing NSW power stations (as at 28.11.2011)

Power station Location Owner Technology Capacity
Appin Mine Illawarra EDL Group CSM 56 MW
Bayswater Hunter Macquarie Generation Steam/Coal 2720 MW
Blowering Snowy Snowy Hydro Hydro 80 MW
Broadwater North Coast Delta Electricity BaGasse 30 MW
Capital Wind Farm Tarago Renewable Power Ventures Wind 141 MW
Condong North Coast Delta Electricity BaGasse 30 MW
Colongra Central Coast Delta Electricity OCGT 668 MW
Cullerin Upper Lachlan Origin Energy Wind 30 MW
Eraring Lower Hunter Eraring Energy Steam/Coal 2720 MW
Gunning Wind Farm Walwa Acciona Energy Wind 47 MW
Guthega Snowy Snowy Hydro Hydro 60 MW
Liddell Hunter Macquarie Generation Steam/Coal 2080 MW
Mount Piper Central West Delta Electricity Steam/Coal 1400 MW
Munmorah Central Coast Delta Electricity Steam/Coal 600 MW
*
Murray Snowy Snowy Hydro Hydro 1500 MW
Redbank Hunter Redbank Project Coal Tailings 145 MW
Shoalhaven Nowra Eraring Energy Hydro 240 MW
Smithfield Smithfield Marubeni Gas Cogen 160 MW
****
Tallawarra Wollongong TRUenergy CCGT 435 MW
**
Tower Mine Illawarra EDL Group CSM 41 MW
Tumut Snowy Snowy Hydro Hydro 2116 MW
***
Uranquinty Wagga Wagga Origin Energy OCGT 648 MW
Vales Point Central Coast Delta Electricity Steam/Coal 1320 MW
Wallerawang Central West Delta Electricity Steam/Coal 1000 MW
Warragamba Sydney Eraring Energy Hydro 50 MW
Woodlawn Wind Farm Tarago Woodlawn Wind Pty Ltd Wind 48 MW
Projects with development approval (as at 28.11.2011)
Bamarang Stage 1 Nowra Infratil OCGT 400 MW
Bamarang Stage 2 Nowra Infratil conversion to CCGT Base load
Bayswater B Bayswater Power Macquarie Generation CCGT or Ultra- 2000 MW
Station supercritical Coal
BlueScope Cogeneration Port Kembla BlueScope Cogeneration 225 MW
Plant Steelworks
Boco Rock Monaro Wind Prospect CWP Wind 270 MW
Buronga Mildura International Power Distillate/ OCGT 150 MW
Australia
Capital Solar Farm Tarago Infigen Suntech Solar 50 MW
Capital II Wind Farm Tarago Capital II Wind Wind 60-80 MW
Conroy's Gap Wind Farm Yass Origin Energy Wind 30 MW
Crookwell II Southern Union Fenosa Wind 92 MW
Highlands
Eraring Upgrade Lower Hunter Eraring Energy Coal 360 MW
Glen Innes Glen Innes Babcock & Brown / Wind 81 MW
National Power
Gloucester Gas Project Gloucester AGL Energy CSM 15 MW
Gullen Range Goulburn Epuron subsidiary Wind 241 MW
Kyoto Energy Park Upper Hunter Pamada Wind 102 MW
Solar 10 MW
Hydro 1 MW
Leafs Gully Appin AGL Gas 360 MW
Manildra Solar Farm Manildra Infigen Suntech Solar 50 MW
Marulan Marulan TRUenergy OCGT/CCGT 450 MW
Marulan Marulan TRUenergy OCGT 350 MW
Moree BP Solar Farm Moree BP Solar Solar 150 MW
Mount Piper Power Mount Piper TRUenergy CCGT or Ultra- 2000 MW
Station Extension Power Station supercritical Coal
Munmorah Power Station Munmorah Power Delta Electricity Coal and/or Gas 700 MW[1]
Rehabilitation Station
Nyngan Solar Farm Nyngan Infigen Suntech Solar 100 MW
Parkes Parkes International Power OCGT 120 MW
(Australia)
Richmond Valley Richmond Valley MetGasco CSM 30 MW
Silverton Wind Farm Broken Hill Epuron Wind 1000 MW
Tallawarra Stage B Wollongong TRUenergy Gas 300-450
MW
Taralga Wind Farm Taralga RES Southern Cross Wind 183 MW
Tomago Newcastle Macquarie Generation OCGT/CCGT 790 MW
Wellington Wellington NewGen Power OCGT 660 MW
Wilga Park Narrabri Eastern Star CSM 29-40 MW
Projects in the planning system (as at 28.5.2012)
Adjungbilly Wind Farm Gundagai CBD Wind - CBD Adjungbilly Wind 39 MW
Pty Ltd
Bango Wind Farm Yass/Boorowa Wind Prospect CWP Wind 340 MW
Bannaby Gas Fired Bannaby Snowy Hydro Ltd OCGT 600 MW
Power Station
Birrema Bookham Epuron Pty Ltd Wind 90-264 MW
Bodangora Wind Farm Wellington Infigen Suntech Wind 60-110 MW
Broken Hill Solar Farm Broken Hill AGL Energy Ltd Photovoltaic 50 MW
Collector Wind Farm Collector Transfield Services Wind 120-160
MW
Crookwell 3 Southern Highlands Union Fenosa Wind 45-116 MW
Dalton Energy Project Dalton AGL Energy Gas 750-1500
MW
Eden Biomass Twofold Bay, Eden South East Fibre Exports Pty Biomass 5 MW
Ltd
Flyers Creek Orange Babcock & Brown and NP Wind 80-100 MW
Power
Golspie Wind Farm Crookwell Wind Prospect CWP Wind 340 MW
Hanging Rock Sutton Forrest Loran Energy Products Penrose CCGT 600 MW
Liverpool Range Wind New England Epuron Wind 1800 MW
Farm Tablelands
Narrabri West Ingelgreen Power Partners Generation Biogas 55MW
Nyngan Solar Farm Nyngan AGL Solar 100 MW
Paling Yards Wind Farm Arkstone Union Fenosa Wind 100-180
MW
Rugby Wind Farm Yass Suzlon Energy and Wind Lab Wind 290 MW
Developments
Rye Park Wind Farm Yass Epuron Wind 120-374
MW
Sapphire Wind Farm Glen Innes/Inverell Wind Prospect CWP Wind 485 MW
White Rock Wind Farm Glen Innes Epuron Wind 120-340
MW
Yass Yass Epuron Wind 380 MW
About six per cent of the state's total electricity usage is provided from renewable energy
sources. The NSW Government has set targets through the State Plan to achieve 20%
renewable energy consumption by 2020 in light of the Federal Government's expanded
Renewable Energy Target. Renewable energy in NSW is derived from the following
sources:
hydro (88%)
biomass (5%)
landfill methane (5%)
wind (1%)
solar (1%)
NON RENEWABLE POWER GENERATION
We shall look at some typical examples of each type.
Coal Fired Steam Power Stations
Coal fired power stations are mostly in regional areas, located close to sources of water
and fuel (coal).
Liddel Coal Fired Power Station in the Hunter Valley
2000MW from 4 turbines (3rd largest plant in NSW), uses nearby open cut coal and fresh
water for cooling.
Steam power stations work by harnessing a suitable raw energy source, burning it to
produce steam and turning steam power into electrical energy that is then sent to homes
and industry.
There are several steps involved in the creation of electricity. Note: we don’t magically
create electricity, we transform a source of energy (here we’re using coal) into another
form of energy (electricity) and try to make it as efficient as possible.
Most electricity used in homes and businesses in NSW comes power stations which burn
coal (a non-renewable fuel), it will be some time before the balance changes in favour of
renewable fuels and sources, but if the Federal and State government commitments and
budgets are there, it will happen eventually.
99% of electricity generation is done by turning a ‘generator’, a machine that requires

power to turn at a constant speed, the size of the generator and the power required is
proportional to its’ rated output. The power to turn the shaft comes from a variety of
sources as we will see, the largest being a steam turbine.
Coal is pulverised into a powder and blown into a furnace with large amounts of air, the
furnace produces enormous heat. Large metal pipes are run through the flames and the
water inside the pipes boils causing steam, the steam is kept under great pressure
(imagine sealing the lid onto a boiling saucepan) and piped through to a turbine, which is
like a giant fan. As the steam is released, it forces the blades of the turbine to spin (similar
to blowing on a piece of paper), thus turning the heat energy from burning fuel into
kinetic energy, or movement.
The turbine is connected to a generator by a shaft. The generator in simple terms is a coil
of wire surrounded by large magnets which create a strong magnetic field. As the coil of
wire rotates inside the magnetic field, ‘electricity’ is induced in the coil of wire, it is then
extracted and sent away to consumers.
The boiler water is rather special and expensive, so the boiler steam is cooled when it
leaves the turbine, condensed back into water so it’s easy to pump around the power
station and returned to the boiler to start the process again.
In the RHS photo above, large quantities of cooling vapour can be seen coming from the
4 cooling towers. Raw water from nearby dams and lakes are used in the cooling towers
to cool (condense) the expended steam back into a liquid. As part of that cooling process,
the raw water vaporises when it is sprayed onto the very hot steam pipes and the vapour
given off is what we see rising from the cooling towers.
The actual chimneys that discharge the various combustion gases are the 2 tall slim
towers. In operation it is very hard to see any discharge from these chimneys as the ash
and some by-products are removed to minimise pollution to the environment. Many
people in the past have confused the cooling tower vapour as pollution, the vapour is
effectively pure water as it has been boiled off when it contacted the hot boiler steam
pipes, just like distilled water.
It is important to understand there are 4 major parts to the power station

1. The creation of High Pressure Turbine steam (steam in a closed vessel has
tremendous force)
2. High pressure steam is used as the driving force to turn the turbine & generator
3. The creation of electricity from the spinning generator (to be technically correct it
is called an ‘alternator’ as it produces AC current, but ‘generator’ is an carry over
term from the very early days of creating electricity, so let’s leave it as a generator
for the time being)
4. Transporting the electricity away from the power station, and delivering it to the
customers.
Steam Creation Driving force Electricity Creation & Transport
Generator Steam Turbine
400MWsteam turbine generator

1000 MW steam turbine generator
We will look at several other ways to create steam and / or turn the shaft
of a generator.
GAS FIRED POWER STATIONS

Natural Gas (NG) is an energy source that has been used in Australia for commercial
purposes for more than 100 years. It forms naturally from decayed plant and animal
matter compressed over millions of years far below the earth's surface.
Australia has huge reserves to be found all over the Australasian continent. Natural Gas is
initially extracted from the ground by deep drilling before being filtered, separated, then
piped directly into your home or business.
Coal Seam Gas (CSG) is natural gas found in coal deposits. The coal and gas are formed
from plant matter under pressure over many millions of years. Coal seam gas is used in
the same way as any other form of natural gas for cooking and heating as well as in
industrial processes and electricity generation.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) - a mixture of light hydrocarbons that are gases at
normal temperatures and pressures, but liquefy at moderate pressures or reduced
temperatures. LPG when used as automotive fuel is referred to as LPG Autogas.
LPG occurs naturally in crude oil and natural gas production fields and is also produced
in the oil refining process. Refinery production is from seven refineries across Australia
in NSW, Clyde (Shell – about to close & has 11.6 MW co-generation power) and
Kurnell (Caltex) [7MW co-generation power]
Australia produces currently about 3,300 kt of LPG annually. Of these volumes, 80% is
naturally occurring (i.e. extracted from oil and gas production) and 20% is extracted from
crude oil during the refining process.
Gas-fired power stations in Australia mostly burn natural gas from deep within the earth
or coal seam gas. Gas power stations can be either:-
1. Conventional gas-fuelled boilers and steam turbines to turn electrical generators

(which replace coal with gas as the fuel)
2. Gas turbines turning generators, using jet aircraft type turbines turning generators
3. Internal combustion engines turning generators. In this type, gas replaces the fuel
normally burnt in diesel motors (and on a very small scale, petrol powered
motors), these internal combustion reciprocating motors then turn the generator.
4. Cogeneration plants burning LPG at oil refineries (more on cogeneration later)
Natural gas is used as the fuel to run a jet turbine, and the turbine spins the
generator via a reduction gearbox. Typical sizes are 1 to 125MW . (Very efficient
power plants BUT noisy)
Gas fired power stations are becoming a common type of generation in NSW.
Natural gas or coal seam gas can be used instead of diesel fuel to run a
conventional internal combustion engine generator plant. This plant is
approximately 1 MW.
A small generator using bottled gas as fuel (modified by licenced engineers – do not try
this at home!). This particular 15 kW generator will run on petrol, bottled LPG gas or
Natural gas. Cost - around $3500.
RENEWABLE SOURCES OF POWER GENERATION
Renewable energy comes from sources such as the sun, wind, waves, hydro, geothermal
and organic matter. Generating energy from these sources produces minimal overall
greenhouse gas emissions and reduces other impacts on the environment.
SOLAR POWER
Probably the first form of energy most people think of is – Solar. Solar electricity is
generated by two main technologies: solar photovoltaic (PV) cells and high temperature
solar thermal power systems. In addition, relatively low-grade heat is produced by solar
water heaters for domestic & small commercial use, replacing the need to heat water via
electricity or gas.
Solar Photovoltaic cells (PV Cells or PV Panels)

Solar PV cells convert sunlight directly into low voltage electricity hence the name
‘Photo’ for light and ‘Voltaic’ for electricity. The output from PV panels is Direct Current
(DC - like a battery), this is not suitable for general household use so it is converted into
Alternating Current (AC). An inverter is used to convert the DC to an AC voltage suitable
for supply into the electricity grid.
Solar PV cells are also used to supply electricity in remote areas where grid connection is
not available or would be very costly to install. Remote area power systems use batteries
to store some of the electricity generated during the day for use at night. Although the DC
battery power can be used to supply some DC appliances and DC lights, those items are
not common therefore an inverter is required as part of the system so standard household
appliances can be used. The inverter runs off the batteries continuously to provide 24
hour AC supply. It goes into ‘standby’ mode when no AC power is being consumed.
(inverters can also be connected to your car battery to provide a temporary 230V AC
power source for running power tools or computers etc).
The average size of a household grid-connected solar PV system is about 1.5 kilowatts
(0.0015MW) which has a PV panel area of about 12 square metres. A system of this size
has a cost typically around $19,000 (before rebates or subsidies). This is an expensive
power supply option in comparison to other renewable energy technologies.
Typical roof installation of Photovoltaic cells to produce DC electricity.

The remote NSW town of White Cliffs has an interesting history. The innovative solar
collectors at White Cliffs NSW were built in 1981. They were Australia’s first solar
power station and produced all the towns’ electricity.
The photo above shows the dishes running as photovoltaic cells (their 2nd configuration),
the little PV box at the focal point collects a large amount of energy from the parabolic
dish and converts it into electricity. This is the same concept as flat PV panels that we
normally see on house roofs, but in a highly concentrated form.
At first they were configured as ‘water boilers’ then later reconfigured to PV cells; ‘water
boilers’ are a totally different type of operation. (see photo below). Constructed by
Australian National University, the station consisted of fourteen three-metre parabolic
dishes, each covered by more than 2000 mirrors and mounted on a heliostatic mounting.
The dishes each focused the sun's rays on a collector, where water was boiled. The
resulting steam drove a three-cylinder steam engine & generator plant, delivering up to
25kW. So the end result was steam and a spinning generator, which is a standard form of
power station generation.
Batteries were used to store power and provide 24 hour power to selected buildings in the
township, and an existing diesel generator was retained to provide battery charging when
either low sunlight or strong winds prevented use of the solar station for long periods.
In 1996, the town was connected to the NSW grid and the dishes were converted to
photovoltaic. The dishes were resurfaced, and the ‘water boilers’ were replaced by very
powerful photovoltaic cells. In its’ new form, the station delivered up to 45kW. The
steam engine, batteries, and diesel generator were removed, and any excess output was
fed into the grid. The grid connected power station ran for around 6 years, generating
valuable data on the long-term performance and efficiency of the PV modules. The power
station ceased operation in December 2004, has become dormant and the dishes are now
positioned to the South, away from the sun.
Solar Thermal Power Systems
There is a range of solar systems which concentrate the sun’s energy at a focal point and
use this heat to provide high temperatures for power generation (similar to burning paper
with a magnifying glass). Large-scale systems (hundreds of dishes) generally produce
steam at temperatures and pressures suitable for generating electricity using standard
steam turbines. Waste heat from the turbines can be used for other applications such as
industrial processes, heating buildings, and water desalination.
There is a wide range of solar concentrator designs including parabolic trough, linear
Fresnel reflector, parabolic dish and power tower. The solar concentrators focus sunlight
onto a receiver through which a fluid is passed to transfer the heat to the generation plant.
The heat transfer fluid can be hot oil, molten salts or direct steam. (Search Google:
Gemasolar Power Plant in AndalucÌa, Spain). Some form of heat storage may be included
to enable power generation after the sun disappears. After dark, some burn natural gas to
produce heat for steam, so as to provide 24-hour power generation,.
White Cliffs dishes running as a Solar Thermal Power Station or ‘water boilers’, where
the sun’s rays were focused onto the collector tube which then boiled water inside the
tube. The steam was then used to drive a steam generator.
HYDROELECTRIC
Hydroelectric power in NSW is mostly generated in the Snowy Mountains, although

Warragamba Dam has a small (by comparison) 50MW plant. Warragamba Dam is a little
over 1 hour’s drive from Miller TAFE College. Water power has been around for
thousands of years, so harnessing the energy of moving/falling water is nothing new.
The Snowy Mountains Hydro scheme diagram shows water being caught in various dams
and lakes, then using gravity to trasnport the water to hydro electrci power stations
before being released down rivers and streams.
With a hydro electric generation plant, we replace the steam turbine with a water turbine,
to achieve the same result – providing mechanical power to turn the generator shaft. A
feature of most hydroelectric plants is the vertical shaft rather than a horizontal shaft, as
with most other generators.
Murray 1 Snowy Hydro Power Station near Khancoban, has 10 generators rated at
95MW each.
BIO MASS
Biomass is the name given to all plants and animals (including humans) on earth. Energy
from biomass refers to ways of using plants and animals as energy sources.
Biomass can be converted to energy in two ways:

directly by producing electricity, normally done by burning the biomass (e.g. wood,
sugar cane or waste products) for steam generators.
indirectly by converting it into a liquid or gas fuel.
People have always used plants and animals as renewable energy. Burning wood for
cooking and heating is as old as fire itself. Domesticated animals, such as horses, buffalo
and elephants, have long been used to provide power for transportation and manual work
like farm ploughing or turning rotary equipment. Oils from plants and animals were also
used to provide fuel for cooking and lighting. Oil from the blubber of giant sperm whales
was used widely in lamps and candles for lighting before electric lighting was widely
available. Many crops that are grown for food can also be used to make biofuels.
Cogeneration
Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a power station to
simultaneously generate both electricity and useful heat, so we have 2 useful outcomes.
Some cogeneration power stations use natural gas-powered engines to generate on-site
electricity. The waste heat from the engine is captured to provide heating, or for
conversion to chilled water for cooling through an absorption chiller. When an absorption
chiller is used, the solution is often referred to as tri-generation.
WIND FARMS
Wind farms are now common in rural NSW. Anyone who has struggled to stay upright
in a strong wind is aware of the intrinsic power of the wind. Indeed wind energy has been
harnessed by people for thousands of years (sailing boats are harnessing wind energy).
The windmills with cloth sails used in many European countries are a good example too,
as are the multi-bladed windmills commonly seen on farms and in rural areas of
Australia. The power of the wind is also used to propel sailing ships, cool homes on
balmy summer evenings, and fly kites.
Recent research and development into harnessing the wind means that we can now
generate more electricity using wind energy. Machines that generate electricity from the
wind work in much the same way as the more familiar European windmills of old. These
machines are called wind turbines. Again we use an energy source to turn the generator
shaft.
Diagram of a wind turbine

A wind turbine comprises a tower, topped by an enclosure called a nacelle, and the rotor,
which is the propeller-like structure connected to the nacelle. The nacelle houses an
electrical generator, power control equipment and other mechanical equipment, which is
connected to the rotor.
The rotor blades are often made from light composite materials such as fibreglass. They
are well researched and shaped to maximise the energy harnessed. The wind strikes these
blades, and due to their shape, the wind causes the rotor to spin. When the wind is strong
enough, the rotational energy in the rotor is converted to electrical energy within the
generator.
Towers are commonly made of steel tubes, although some earlier models used steel
lattices. The height of the tower varies from turbine to turbine, and is determined by the
length of the blades, size of the generator, and the need to access the smoother winds
available further from the ground. Wind turbines in Australia are commonly between 50
and 80 metres tall.
Diagram showing the inside of the nacelle
Wind turbines can generate significant amounts of electricity. Wind electrical power is
generally proportional to the speed of the wind cubed. This means that if the wind speed
doubles, the power generated is increased eightfold.
Apart from the actual wind speed at a site, the length of the blades on the rotor also
determine the amount of power produced. The longer the blade, the more wind it can
harness. Wind turbines that are capable of generating 1 MW of electrical energy are now
relatively common.
NSW has an excellent wind resource. Background wind speeds in NSW are comparable
to Northern Europe, where a large portion of international wind generation is currently
installed. NSW has an estimated potential for over 3000 MW of wind energy. Currently,
150 MW has been installed or is under construction. Some examples:-
1: Basic Electrical Concepts Electrotechnology
1
Blayney Wind Farm, in the Central Tablelands of NSW, has 15 wind turbines, each with
a capacity of 660 kW (0.66 MW). It was commissioned in October 2000, and will
produce enough electricity annually to power 3500 homes.
Crookwell Wind Farm was the first grid-connected wind farm in Australia when
installed by Pacific Power in 1998. It consists of eight 600 kW turbines giving a total
capacity of 4.8 MW. Now owned by Eraring Energy, the wind farm supplies electricity to
Country Energy's GreenPower customers.
Hampton Wind Park is a two hour drive from Sydney, past the Blue Mountains. Power
from two 660 kW wind turbines enhances the quality of supply in the surrounding rural
electrical grid. This wind farm supplies electricity to Endeavour Energy's GreenPower
customers.
GEOTHERMAL
Geothermal power stations are being trialled, the biggest at Innamincka, South Australia.
Geothermal uses very hot rocks deep in the ground to convert water into steam. The
steam is extracted and used in conventional steam turbines to drive generators. In some
countries the steam comes out of the ground under great pressure and this is used directly,
but in Australia most experimentation involves pumping clean water into the ground,
letting it flow horizontally through hot rock and extracting the steam a short distance
away.
Exploration involves finding underground “vast blocks of hot rocks" with a special
feature:- fractured rock systems that will allow water to be injected, flow through the
fractures (the water collects heat and changes to steam as it flows through the rock), then
be extracted and returned to surface as steam.
Geothermal power in Australia is little used, but growing. There are many known
locations, and 1 major experimental site in South Australia. Other countries use the heat
from very hot springs, Geysers or Volcanic sources to provide steam for generators.
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1: Basic Electrical Concepts Miller College 1
If Australia does not build a nuclear power station then geothermal has probably the best
potential of the renewable energy sources to produce the very large quantities of energy
(steam) 24/7 “rain hail or shine”, necessary to take over from coal fired power stations.
The generally remote locations will suit the large scale production required and the
distance is manageable for transporting power to the customers.
HOWEVER it will be at least 10 years before a major Geothermal Power Station is built
in Australia. The technical challenges in Australia are immense due to the depth and
hardness of the rock. It will take much time, energy and expenditure to overcome these
challenges. Where it has been successful in other countries, they have tapped into much
shallower heat sources.
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THE FUTURE
There is tremendous energy available in the ocean currents, esp. those that run along the
Eastern & Western Coasts of Australia, which is ideal as this is where a large proportion
of the customers are. For the same speed, seawater has approximately 300 times the
power of wind. An Ocean current at 4knots has tremendous potential for us, the
generators could be below sea level away from ships and there would be no complaints
about noise or visual pollution. However many engineering challenges lay ahead for these
projects as the ocean is a very hostile place for equipment.
WAVE ENERGY
Wave generators and generators which use tidal flows are in use around the world.
Experimental wave energy generator at Port Kembla

TRANSPORTATION OF ELECTRICITY
Refer figure 1.46 page 25 “Electrical Trade Principles
page 25
Power Lines (Transmission and Distribution Lines)

Most electricity customers are located a long distance from generators. The electricity
supply chain thus requires networks to transport power from generators to customers.
To generate, transport and distribute power at 230Volts is impractical, so a ‘transport

system’ has been built, mainly out of poles and wires and TransGrid uses this backbone
network to move power around NSW and into/from other states. To compensate for
various losses in the ‘transmission lines’, electrical power is transformed up to very high
voltages, then ‘transmitted’ over long distances via transmission lines, from regional
generation sites to the customers, who are mostly in the cities.
All of the power stations which are grid connected are pushing electricity into the grid at
the same time, they operate in ‘parallel’. Some operate 24/7, others are only brought ‘on
line’ during peak periods to assist with the short term extra demand eg. 6-9am and 5-9pm,
e.g. Shoalhaven Hydroelectric Power Stations in Kangaroo Valley is a ‘peak load’ power
station.
TransGrid operates 12,492 circuit km of ‘transmission lines’ and cables (massive steel
towers and large aerial cables), with nominal voltages of 500 kV, 330 kV, 220 kV, 132
kV and 66 kV. Further, it operates and maintains 91 substations which include 175 large
transformers providing 45,587 MVA of installed capacity throughout New South Wales.
TransGrid sells power at wholesale prices to the distributers such as Ausgrid, Endeavour
Energy & Essential Energy, these distributers then move it around within the cities, towns
and regional areas using ‘distribution lines’ (smaller poles & wires) with typical voltages
being 33,000V , 22,000V and 11,000V, before selling it to retailers such as Origin Energy
who then sell it to the customers who occupy homes, shops and offices etc. In most
homes we use 230 Volts, but some commercial and industrial customers run their
equipment at 400 Volts, whilst some large industrial customers use ‘high’ voltages, e.g.
3,300 Volt motors. Most customers have one or more transformers near them.

Transmission Lines move power from generators to cities and towns
Within a city we use Distribution Lines

EARLY ELECTRICITY
Electricity has been conspicuous for a very long time. Long before any knowledge of
electricity existed people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts
dating from 2750 BC referred to these fish as the "Thunderer of the Nile", and described
them as the "protectors" of all other fish. Electric fish were again reported millennia later
by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians.
While it had been the early 19th century that had seen rapid progress in electrical science,
it was still a curiosity. The late 19th century would see the greatest progress in electrical
engineering, where the building blocks started to be put in place for it to be generated,
transported and used as we think of it today. Through such people as Nikola Tesla,
Galileo Ferraris, Oliver Heaviside, Thomas Edison, Ottó Bláthy, Ányos Jedlik, Sir
Charles Parsons, Joseph Swan, George Westinghouse, Ernst Werner von Siemens,
Alexander Graham Bell and Lord Kelvin, electricity was turned from a scientific curiosity
into an essential tool for modern life, becoming a driving force for the Second Industrial
Revolution.
Static Electricity is an excess of electric charge trapped on the surface of an object. The
charge remains until it is allowed to escape to an object with a weaker or opposite
electrical charge, such as the ground; this escape is by means of an electric current or
electrical discharge. Static Electricity is named in contrast with Current Electricity,
which has a current flowing through wires or other conductors and transmits energy.
E.g. Removing or preventing a buildup of static charge can be as simple as opening a

window or using a humidifier to increase the moisture content of the air, making the
atmosphere more conductive. Air ionizers can perform the same task.
Items that are particularly sensitive to static discharge may be treated with the application
of an antistatic agent, which adds a conducting surface layer that ensures any excess
charge is evenly distributed. Fabric softeners and dryer sheets used in washing machines
and clothes dryers are an example of an antistatic agent used to prevent and remove static
cling.
Many semiconductor devices used in electronics are particularly sensitive to static

discharge and can be easily destroyed. Conductive antistatic bags are commonly used to
protect such components. People who work on circuits that contain these devices often
ground themselves with a conductive antistatic strap.
In industrial settings such as paint or flour plants as well as in hospitals, ‘anti-static’

safety boots are sometimes used to prevent a buildup of static charge due to contact with
the floor. These anti-static shoes have soles with good conductivity. Anti-static shoes
should not be confused with insulating shoes which electrical workers should wear, which
provide exactly the opposite benefit — some protection against serious electric shocks
from the mains voltage
A spark from a static discharge can easily ignite combustible fuels, gasses and dust/air
mixtures e.g. Aircraft and fuel trucks need to be ‘grounded’ before refueling can
commence.

Sparks in the wrong place, or at the wrong time can have disastrous consequences. Many
fires and explosion have been instigated from an initial static discharge spark.
A grain silo explosion in the USA which killed 5 people.
Petrol station fire started by static electricity whilst refuelling a car.
Which often happens in colder countries when people jump back into the vehicle to keep
warm whilst the car fills. In Australia most pump nozzles are configured so you must
keep the trigger squeezed in to allow fuel out thereby keeping you at the nozzle.

Current Electricity or rather Electric Current is a flow of electric charge
through a conductive medium. In electric circuits this charge is carried by moving
electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and
electrons such as in a plasma.
Our study of electricity will mainly focus on the use of copper wires insulated with plastic
and we will study how large quantities of electrons can be ‘encouraged’ to move back and
forth within the wires, and do some work along the way.
ELECTRO MOTIVE FORCE (EMF) = PRESSURE = VOLTAGE
When studying or working with electric circuits three factors are always considered -
o electric pressure, called _________________ or ___________________________
o electric flow, called ___________________________
o opposition to flow, called _________________________.
EMF or Voltage is the part which causes the Current to flow.
Current is the part that does the work esp. when it flows through a Load. We measure this
flow in Amperes, or as more commonly said, in ‘Amps’
Resistance has 2 parts (a) in the transport system we want the resistance to be as low as
possible, to minimise losses and (b) of the load itself. We vary the amount of resistance to
vary the amount of work we want done e.g. we can alter the ‘strength’ (power) of a kettle
or room heater by varying the resistance of the element. E.g. Less resistance means more
electrons (Amps) can flow through the element, and it more heat is produced.
For the first part of our studies we will ignore (a).
We will spend more time on these topics in future lessons.

Before considering the electric circuit and the relationship between voltage, current and
resistance, consider the everyday phenomena known as pressure, flow and opposition.
Firstly consider what is meant by the term pressure.
Pressure is defined as - _________________________________________________.
A simple example would be the water pressure at a tap. See figure 1.
figure 1
The greater the force applied, the ________________ the resulting pressure.
CURRENT - FLOW
Flow is defined as _____________________________________________________.
For example, as shown in figure 2, the flow of water from a tap.
Figure 2

What then is the relationship between pressure and flow?
The greater the pressure the ____________ the flow.
  Increasing pressure _______________ flow
Decreasing pressure _______________ flow.
Figure 3
Is it possible to have pressure without flow? ____________. See figure 4
Figure 4
Is it possible to have flow without pressure? ____________. See figure 5.
Figure 5
Based on what has been determined so far, we can say
________________________________________________________________________

Resistance - Opposition to Flow
So far we have established the relationship between pressure and flow. Now lets
introduce a third factor, that is, opposition to flow.
Perhaps the most common everyday occurrence of opposition to flow is the kinking of a
hose. See figure 6.
Figure 6
Kinking the hose creates an opposition to flow and thus flow is _________________.
For a given pressure - increasing opposition _____________ flow
decreasing opposition _____________ flow.
For a given opposition - increasing pressure ______________ flow
decreasing pressure ______________ flow.
Figure 7
In this simple arrangement all of the concepts considered are seen in operation -
 the application of pressure causes flow
 the tap provides opposition to flow
 the circuit provides a path for flow to take place
 the amount of flow is determined by the size of the pressure applied and the
level of opposition.

ELECTRICAL UNITS
In the simple circuits shown in figures 1 to 7, it has been seen the concepts of pressure,
flow and opposition to flow can be transferred to an electrical circuit. When referring to
an electric circuit particular names are used to identify each of these quantities and
abbreviations may be used to represent them.
In an electric circuit -
 electrical pressure is known as _____________________
 electrical flow is known as _____________________
 opposition to electric flow is called ______________________.
Table 1 lists the terms for electric pressure, electric flow and opposition to electric flow,
plus the abbreviations and units of measurement for each.
Table 1
Quantity Term Abbreviation Unit of
Measurement
Electromotive
force
e.m.f.
Pressure (More commonly)
Terminal voltage
Electric
Flow Current
Opposition
to Electric Flow Resistance
An example of the way in which these terms and abbreviations are used is –
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
ELECTRICAL LOADS
So far we have seen that Voltage provides the ‘pressure’ to get things moving, we
measure the voltage in Volts (V), once the electrons get moving we measure their
movement as current in Amperes (A) and the thing that slows them down is Resistance,
measured in Ohms.
All loads provide resistance to the current flow, as the current flows through the load
resistance, the current does some work e.g. illuminates a light bulb, we measure that work
in Watts (W). A Watt measures the rate of energy conversion or transfer, we call it power.
We all have seen that a 100W light bulb is brighter than a 25W light bulb. So therefore
within a load, we convert electric current into something else, it might be visible light, it
might be hot water, it might be cold air inside the refrigerator, or a television providing
picture and sound.
For the same voltage, a high resistance only allows a small current to flow, and a low
resistance allows a large current to flow, therefore the lower the resistance, the easier it is
to have current flow through the load. Generally the larger the power rating, the more
powerful it is (and the quicker it can do the same job) e.g. a 2000 Watt kettle will boil the
same amount of water as a 1000Watt in half the time and take twice as much current to do
the work. Therefore we can assume the 2000W kettle has a much lower resistance than a
1000W kettle ( half).
All the items we connect to electricity are electrical loads, from the tiniest standby LED
light to the largest electrical machine, the whole purpose of the electricity system is to
operate the appliances and loads we deem to be important to use. It is much easier and
cheaper to have a State wide electricity grid than for each one of us to operate our own
generator at home. We pay for the privilege of using the electricity from the grid, and in
order for it to be safe for everyone, there are many rules and regulations on how we install
and connect cables, equipment, appliances etc., Hence the need for licenced electricians
and their apprentices.
Some loads are much more efficient at how they use electrical power to achieve the same
outcome. E.g. storage tank electric water heaters (the typical large tanks we see outside
homes) are being phased out because they consume a lot of electrical energy to heat a
tank of water. A ‘heat pump’ hot water system can heat the same amount of water using
about one third the energy. The downside being that heat pump hot water systems cost
several times more than an electric storage HWS tank.
A ‘compact fluorescent’ light bulb can provide the same amount of light as an old style
incandescent light bulb for about one quarter of the energy consumption; again they cost
more. There are various government initiatives to increase energy efficiency across all
industries.

A SIMPLE CIRCUIT
A simple circuit consists of a battery to provide the voltage and current source, a switch
to ‘control’ the load, and a light bulb as the load. At Miller TAFE College we replace the
battery with an Electronic Power Supply, this makes it easy for us to adjust the voltage,
and add circuit protection (which is lithe equivalent of an inbuilt fuse) in case a student
connects the circuit incorrectly.
Your teacher will demonstrate connecting the above circuit and how adjusting the power
supply alters the voltage, current and the brightness of the bulb. This is a major advantage
over a battery. If we were to only use a battery we would only have 1 voltage, say
12Volts, therefore it would be difficult to alter the voltage and brightness of the bulb.
In the above circuit we say the switch and bulb are in series as the current has to go
through them, there is no way around them. We measure the current in Amperes, or as
more commonly said ‘Amps’.
As stated above, we will spend more time on these topics in future lessons.
Ammeter
If we now connect in an Ammeter (A) in line with the switch and bulb, we also say it is
series connected, as the current must go through it, there is no way around it.

Voltmeter
If we now connect a Voltmeter (V) between the positive (+) and negative (-) cables, we say
it is parallel connected as the current has 2 pathways,
1st:- through the switch, ammeter and bulb as before, and
2nd:- through the voltmeter.

PRACTICAL - BASIC ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS

PURPOSE:
This section introduces the student to the application of circuit connection techniques
and the use of basic practical equipment, such as, the power supply, the ammeter and
voltmeter and basic switching.
TO ACHIEVE THE PURPOSE OF THIS SECTION:
At the end of this practical assignment the student will be able to:
 Draw a circuit diagram from a pictorial representation.
 Connect an electrical circuit using a circuit diagram as a guide.
 Adjust applied circuit voltage, measure and record values of circuit current.
 Note observations regarding circuit behaviour.
 Observe correct circuit isolation procedures when working with electrical
equipment.
EQUIPMENT:
□ 1 x variable dc power supply

□ 1 x 0 - 10V analogue voltmeter
□ 1 x 0 - 1A analogue ammeter
□ 1 x single pole switch
□ 1 x 12 volt, 5 watt lamp and lamp holder
□ 4mm connecting leads
UEENEEE104A EVIDENCE GUIDE / RANGE STATEMENT

9.1 OHS risk control work & sustainable energy principles
9.1.A Using methodological techniques to solve d.c. circuit
problems from measure and calculated values
9.1.B Determining the operating parameters of an existing circuit.
9.1.C Altering an existing circuit to comply with specified
operating parameters
9.1.D Developing circuits to comply with a specified function and
9.1.E Dealing with unplanned events

PROCEDURE :
1. Using the wiring diagram of figure 22 and the circuit diagram of figure 23 (both are for
the same circuit), follow the instructions below and on the next page to construct the
circuit.
Figure 22. - A Wiring diagram for a Basic Electrical Circuit
Your teacher will assist you to complete the circuit diagram of figure 23 (below).
Tick off the boxes to the connectionto:-
o power supply positive terminal (+) to one side of switch

o other side of switch to ammeter (A) positive terminal (+)
o ammeter (A) negative terminal (-) to one side of lamp
o other side of lamp to power supply negative terminal (-)
o voltmeter (V) positive terminal (+) to power supply positive terminal (+)
o voltmeter (V) negative terminal (-) to power supply negative terminal (-).
DC 12V, 5W
Power V
Supply Lamp
Figure 23 A Circuit Diagram for Fig 22 above

NOTE :
Fig 22 & 23 are the same circuit; Fig 22 is Wiring Diagram “how it looks when wired
up”, whilst Fig23 a Circuit diagram “a diagram to logical electrical sequences”

Arrange the equipment on the bench in the same relative positions as that shown in figure
22 & 23.
2. Connect the components to form the circuit of figure 22 & 23, using the circuit diagram
of figure 23 as a guide.
NOTE:
Choose leads of a suitable length,
to achieve a neat and tidy appearance.
3. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your circuit and completes the progress table.
Progress Table 1
Attempt 1 Attempt Attempt 3
4. With the circuit switch in the open position, turn on the power supply and adjust to
give a circuit voltage of 2 volts as indicated by the voltmeter.
5. Close the circuit switch and record, in table 1, the value of current flowing in the circuit
as indicated by the ammeter. Also note in table 1 the condition of the lamp, that is,
dark, dull or bright.
Table 1
Circuit Voltage Circuit Current Lamp Condition
volts Amperes
10
6. Increase the circuit voltage to 4 volts. Record the value of circuit current as indicated
by the ammeter and the condition of the lamp in table 1.

9. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your results and completes the progress table.
Progress Table 2
10. Turn off the power supply and disconnect the circuit. Return all equipment to its
proper place, safely and carefully.
OBSERVATIONS:
Study the following questions carefully, circle the correct answer or write the correct word
for your answers in the spaces provided.
1. The lamp filament indicated that electric current was flowing when the circuit switch
was:-
(a) open
(b) closed
2. When the supply voltage was 4 volts, the lamp appeared to be:-
(a) dark
(b) dull
(c) bright
(a) dark
(b) dull
(c) bright
4. Based on your observations, increasing circuit voltage causes the circuit current to:-
(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) remain the same

5. The ammeter was used to measure:-
(a) resistance
(b) voltage
(c) current
6. If the circuit voltage was adjusted to 6 volts:-

(a) the lamp would be brighter than when the voltage was set to 8 volts
(b) the current would be less than when the voltage was set to 4 volts
(c) the lamp would be duller than when the voltage was 4 volts
(d) the current would be less than when the voltage was 8 volts
7. If a lamp having a higher resistance had been used in this practical, the circuit current
would have:-
(a) remained the same
(b) decreased
(c) increased
8. The basic electric circuit was formed using an e.m.f. source, a complete pathway to
allow current to flow from the source positive to the load, through the load, and a
return pathway from the other side of the load back to negative of the e.m.f. source .
An addition to the circuit is a device which provides ON-OFF control.
Identify the devices used in the circuit to provide each of these parts :-
e.m.f. source - ________________________
current pathways - ________________________
load - ________________________
ON-OFF control - ________________________
9. The voltmeter is used to measure ______________ and is ____________ connected:-

(a) current, series
(b) voltage, series
(c) voltage, parallel
(d) current, parallel

10. The ammeter is always connected in _____________________ with the circuit load,
so the load current can be measured:-
(a) series
(b) parallel
Notes:

1: Basic Electrical Concepts Miller College
TUTORIAL - BASIC ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS

NAME:
Please note the following requirements in relation to tutorial work -

 All tutorial work is to be completed on ruled A4 pad paper, with multiple pages
stapled together. Write on one side only of the answer sheets.
 All work is to be completed in ink.
 In the case of multiple choice type questions, the question number and answer
letter are to be written on the answer sheet.
 All relevant equations and working are to be shown in the case of calculation type
questions.
 All diagrams are to be drawn using appropriate drawing instruments. Drawings
are not to be freehand.
SECTION A
In the following statements one of the suggested answers is best. Place the identifying
letter on your answer sheet.
1. A domestic electrician works in the:
(a) Electrical Industry.
(b) Electronics Industry.
(c) Supply Industry.
(d) Communications Industry
2. Electricity is transmitted at:
(a) high voltage

(b) low voltage
(c) high current
(d) high frequency
3. An example of the use of renewable energy is:
(a) Pulverised Coal

(b) LPG gas
(c) Solar PV cells
(d) Diesel fuel

Disclaimer: Printed copies of this document are regarded as uncontrolled.
4. An example of the use of non renewable energy is:
(a) Wind
(b) Natural Gas
(c) Geo-thermal
(d) Hydroelectric
5. Geysers are examples of ______________ energy:
(a) Tidal
(b) Wind
(c) Solar
(d) Geothermal
6. Renewable energy sources:
(a) Are constantly re-produced by the sun

(b) Can easily transmitted over long distances
(c) Are ideal as they all work 24/7 in all weather conditions
(d) Harm the ozone layer
7. Most renewable energy sources can be traced back to:
(a) The ozone layer

(b) Hydro energy
(c) Nuclear fission
(d) Solar Energy
8. When coal is burnt to produce electricity a gas is produced that causes global
warming. The gas is known as:-
(a) Carbon dioxide.

(b) Ozone.
(c) Oxygen.
(d) Methane.

9. The meter used to measure electric current in a circuit is a:
(a) ohmmeter
(b) voltmeter
(c) ammeter
(d) megger
10. The opposition to electric current is termed:
(a) amperes
(b) voltmeter
(c) residual
(d) resistance
11. The unit of electric current is the:
(a) ampere
(b) watt
(c) volt
(d) ohm
12. If the electric pressure applied to a circuit is increased with the resistance remaining
constant electric current will:-
(a) remain the same

(b) decrease
(c) increase
(d) decrease to zero
13. This question refers to figure 24.. The ammeter method of connection is known as;
(a) short circuit connection

(b) series connection
A
(c) parallel connection
(d) open cir V

14. This question refers to figure 24. The voltmeter method of connection is known as -
(a) parallel connection

(b) short circuit connection
(c) series connection
(d) open circuit connection.
15. This question refers to figure 24. Opening the switch in the circuit would have the
effect of -
(a) reducing the circuit resistance.

(b) reducing the circuit voltage.
(c) increasing the circuit power.
(d) stopping the circuit current flow.
16. A battery provides a source of electrical -
(a) resistance.
(b) pressure
(c) displacement.
(d) conductor
17. The meter used to measure electrical pressure in a circuit is a;
(a) ohmmeter
(b) ammeter
(c) wattmeter.
(d) voltmeter.

SECTION B
18. (3 marks)
Draw the circuit diagram of a lamp supplied by a battery and controlled by a switch.
Include an ammeter to measure the circuit current and a voltmeter to measure the
battery voltage note the positive and negative terminals of the ammeter and voltmeter.

Notes:

Section 2 Miller College 2
BASIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
TOPIC 2 Basic electrical circuit encompassing
 symbols used to represent an electrical energy source, a load, a switch

and a circuit protection device in a circuit diagram
 purpose of each component in the circuit
 effects of an open-circuit, a closed-circuit and a short-circuit
 multiple and sub-multiple units

2: BASIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS Miller College 2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
In most circuits some form of electrical protection is provided. Typically we use a fuse or
circuit breaker, and it is there to prevent fires and damage to equipment in case something
goes wrong. When we move into circuits that use dangerous voltages e.g 230V AC, we
shall see that the correct selection of a protective device can also help prevent death by
electrocution.
In an ideal world, nothing would break or malfunction but history has taught us to always
take precautions against accidents or equipment breaking down. The protective device is
best placed just after the source of energy, e.g if we were using a battery as the source
of energy then we place the fuse or circuit breaker just after it in the circuit.
Some standard symbols are shown below.
battery switch resistor lamp fuse
Figure 1. - Circuit Symbols
The circuit diagram is a simplified method of drawing and graphically showing the
components that make up circuit, and the way in which they are interconnected. The old
name for circuit diagrams was ‘schematic diagram’, in many work places these diagrams
will still be referred too by their old name.
The circuit diagram is drawn using -
 standard symbols to represent circuit components
 straight lines, drawn either horizontally or vertically, to represent circuit

conductors.
The circuit diagram for the circuit shown in figure 3 is shown below in figure 2.

Figure 2. - A basic circuit diagram.
Figure 3. - A basic circuit, without fuse, in ‘wiring diagram’ format.
It is important to realise that the wiring diagram and circuit diagram above are the same
circuit, figure 3 shows it as you would expect to see it (or ‘wire’ it) and figure 2 shows it
as a circuit diagram where it can be better understood as we study DC electricity. The
circuit diagram format also allows far more complex information to be shown in a
relatively small space. The difficult part is using the circuit diagram to identify the actual
components and where they are (or should be), but it gets easier the more you do it.
The circuit diagram on the next page is for an electronic car ignition system, and it has a
lot of information in it to enable construction, testing, fault finding & repair. If drawn as a
wiring diagram, it would need several pages to communicate the same information. But
sometimes a wiring diagram makes it easier to actually connect all the components, so
each is useful in different ways.
Circuit diagrams are able to be interpreted by many electricians around the world who
don’t need to speak English or any other common language as the diagrams are drawn in
an internationally standardised format.

Figure 4. - Sample of a complex circuit diagram.
In the space provided below, neatly draw with a ruler or a straight edge, the circuit
connections for a simple DC circuit which consists of a -
 battery
 fuse
 switch
 lamp.

Figure 5. - A simple circuit with 2 lamps in series.
In the space provided below neatly draw the circuit diagram for the circuit arrangement
shown in figure 5 above (note: by convention, the 2 lamps would be drawn on the same
‘leg’ of the circuit diagram).

PURPOSE OF EACH COMPONENT IN THE CIRCUIT
Recapping a little from last lesson:-
A circuit is a closed pathway in which a flow of current takes place. A circuit generally
has a:-
 a source of pressure
 a path to allow flow.
 a load to provide opposition to flow (the load does the ‘work’)
The simple electric circuit, as shown in figure 6, consists of -
 source of electrical pressure - e.g. __________________________
 opposition to electrical flow - e.g. __________________________
 path to allow flow to take place - e.g. __________________________
 on-off control of flow - e.g. __________________________.
Figure 6. - A simple DC circuit with no protective device.

For Fig 7 below:- If we increase the energy supply by connecting 2 batteries in series we
find that the
electrical pressure - ___________________, the current flow will __________________
and the lamp glows ___________________.
Figure 7. - 2 batteries in series as the energy source for 1 lamp.
For Fig 8 below:- If we have just 1 battery but increase the load by adding another lamp
of the same type we find that for a given electrical pressure:-
the current flow will __________________
and the lamp brilliance becomes ___________________.
Figure 8. - 1 battery and 2 lamps (i.e. 2 loads) in series.
When we have 2 loads in series such as Fig 8 above, we are asking the current to push
through the 2 resistances at the same time, it can’t go through 1 only, or go through one,
regroup its’ strength, then push through the next. It has to go through both at the same
time, so the resistance (or work it has to do) doubles. We are slowing down the current by
adding more resistance and our energy source does not have the strength to push the
current through the increased resistance at the same speed as before.

We consider the load(s) as one ‘block’ of resistance and it must push through the ‘block’
to do work, adding more resistance is making it harder for the current to push through the
‘block’. Electrically we consider that the current is pushing through all loads at the same
time at the same speed; and we add up the resistances to determine how much the total
resistance is.
Consider the scenario where you could push a railway wagon along a flat piece of railway
track. The resistance (the effort required to push the wagon) stays the same, you are the
energy source (the voltage) and the speed at which we travel is the current.
If you are a ‘strong’ energy source the speed (current) will be greater than if you are a
‘weaker’ energy source, but in both cases the resistance stays the same.
If I add more students as energy sources (increased voltage) the speed of the wagon will
be increased (same as the current increasing speed ) but the resistance of the load is still
the same.
If we connect several wagons together, the resistance will increase, yet we must push
them as a block, so for the same energy source they will travel slower than 1 wagon. If Iw
ant to retain the same speed as 1 wagon, I must supply more energy.
And that is what happens with electrical current, adding more load is like pushing more
wagons as a block. It obviously takes more effort (voltage) to keep the same speed
(current).
In our circuits above, adding more resistance in series (more load) slows the current down
and the work being done decreases (e.g. the lamp becomes duller). If we want the same
current we must increase the voltage proportionally.
The lamp brilliance (or work being done ) is directly proportional to the speed of the
current through the load, so if we speed up the current we see a brighter lamp. If we slow
it down we see a duller lamp.
OPEN CIRCUIT & CLOSED CIRCUIT
Two terms that are commonly encountered when working with electric circuits are -
 closed circuit (Fig 9) - ____________________________________
 open circuit (Fig 10) - ____________________________________
Switch 1
Switch 2
Lamp 1 Lamp 2
Figure 9 Figure10

SHORT CIRCUIT
A short circuit occurs when we bypass the load or the positive wire (+) touches the
negative (-) wire. The result can be catastrophic as fires can easily start, e.g. 12V car
batteries will explode showering nearby persons and property with dangerous acid.
Switch 1
A B
Lamp 1
Figure 11. A circuit with a short circuit at A and B
If we were to connect a wire across the battery at (A) or across the load at (B), we would
create a short circuit. DO NOT TRY THIS as it’s a very dangerous thing to do.
When a malfunction or accident occurs and a short circuit results, very large currents will
flow as we have bypassed the resistance that previously regulated or controlled the
current flow. With large currents flowing, wires quickly overheat, insulation soon melts,
and then fires may start. For this reason we need to have circuit protection in the form of
a fuse or circuit breaker at the origin of the circuit. Both devices will trip when they
overheat from the large current flowing through them and ‘turn off’ the current flow.
We choose the size of fuse or circuit breaker to be compatible with the cable size,
location and length. E.g. for lighting in homes we often choose a 10Amp cable and
10Amp circuit breaker , the circuit breaker will trip if the current exceeds 10A,(in the
case of a short circuit it will trip almost instantly) the cable will overheat slightly, but if
we have chosen our components correctly there will be no damage to the cable insulation
(the copper can withstand much higher temperatures than the insulation)..
The fuse is a ‘throw away’ component, we will need to install a new fuse after repairing
the circuit, whereas the circuit breaker is a resettable device; once it has cooled down it
can be reset and it will restore voltage and current flow to the repaired circuit.
We also need to consider how we install the cables. If installed in a roof covered by
fiberglass insulation bats, we allow a smaller amount of continuous current than if the
same cable was installed underground, where it could shed heat easily due to the cooling
characteristics of the soil. So in both cases we would choose a fuse or circuit breaker to
limit the amount of continuous current flowing in the cable. Say 10A for roofs and 20A
for underground (1.5mm2 from Table C5 AS3000:2007), in both cases the protective
device will activate very quickly should a short circuit occur. The trick is to pick the right
size amps rating (e.g. 10A, 16A or 20A) for the location, and limit the length. Topics for
2nd and 3rd year studies.

MEASURING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
VOLTMETER
Voltages associated with a circuit may be measured using an instrument called a

voltmeter.
The voltmeter -
 measures the electrical pressure between two points

V
 must be connected across the two points between which the
voltage is to be measured, this is known as a parallel
connection Figure 12
 Voltage is always with reference to another point
 ideally a voltmeter will have very high internal resistance.
The standard symbol used to represent the voltmeter is shown in figure 12.
AMMETER
To measure the current flow in a circuit an instrument known as an ammeter is used.
The ammeter -
 measures current flow in a circuit
 must be connected so the circuit current flows through the

meter, this is known as a series connection A
 should have very low internal resistance. figure 13
The standard symbol used to represent the ammeter is shown in figure 13.
Draw the circuit diagram in the space on the next page (neatly with a ruler or straight
edge) for a circuit which consists of a -
 battery
 fuse
 switch
 resistance
 voltmeter to measure the battery voltage
 ammeter to measure the circuit current.

Draw your circuit diagram above here
USING THE VOLTMETER

The following points should be considered when using a voltmeter:
o Always connect the voltmeter in parallel with the circuit component across
which the voltage is to be measured. Some examples for our simple circuit are
shown next page in Fig 14. In this example, all 3 readings will be the same.

+ + + +
SOURCE V LOA
LOAD V SOURCE LOAD
- - - -
+ +
SOURCE LOAD V
- -
Figure 14
o Always connect the voltmeter with correct polarity.
DC voltmeters are polarised, that is, positive (+) and negative (-).
Red is positive and
Black is negative.
Be sure to connect the positive (red) test lead to the positive end of the
component across which the voltage is to be measured (think of it as the end
the current comes in).
NOTE: If mistakes are made when using an analogue voltmeter, the pointer
will deflect backwards, that is, go to the left of zero and the meter will
possibly be damaged. Normally digital voltmeters will not be damaged, but
indicate a minus voltage e.g. -12 to show you have connected it backwards.
Your teacher will demonstrate during the practical session.
o The positive end of a component is the end into which the current flows from
the energy source.
o When voltmeters with multiple ranges are used to measure unknown

voltages, protect the meter by switching to the highest range first, then
slowly switch down through the range options until a suitable voltage reading
is indicated on the meter scale. A good reading will be taken if the needle sits
somewhere between ½ way & full range.
o If you select too low a scale on an analogue voltmeter, the meter can easily be
damaged by needle over-travel. Normally a digital voltmeter will not be
damaged (unless the scale is several times too small) but will show OL to
indicate it requires adjusting to the correct range.
Miller College uses both analogue and digital voltmeters and ammeters as part of the
Electrical Trade course, please be careful with all our meters. If in doubt please ASK.

READING THE VOLTMETER SCALE
Single Scale Voltmeter
The scale of a 0-10V DC voltmeter is shown in figure 17.
Figure 17
The meter is identified as a voltmeter by the upper case V shown below the scale and that
it is a DC meter by the straight line drawn immediately below the upper case V.
The meter scale is divided into major and minor divisions, with:
 10 major divisions each representing __________ volt.
 each major division divided into 5 parts, giving minor divisions which each
represent __________ volts.
The indicated value if the pointer is at position:

a, is 2V. b, is 5V. c, is 7.4V. d, is 9.5V.
Example:
Determine each of the values indicated by the pointer positions (a-h) shown on the
voltmeter scale of figure 18. Record your answers in the table provided below.
figure 18
Pointer Position a b c d e f g h
Indicated Value

CONNECTING AN AMMETER
The following points should be considered when using an ammeter:
 Always connect the ammeter in series with the circuit component through
which the current is to be measured. See the examples shown in figure 19
+ A -
+ +
CURRENT
SOURCE LOAD SOURCE LOAD
CURRENT
- -
- A +
SOURCE
- +
CURRENT A LOAD
Figure 19
 Always connect the ammeter with correct polarity.

 Miller DC ammeters are polarised, that is, they have a terminal for IN and
OUT. It is important to connect them correctly.
 The red and black terminals are not positive (+) and negative (-) like a
voltmeter, but colours are to indicate IN and OUT or input and output. Please be
careful.
 RED is for input or IN (on some meters you will see 2 red terminals which
means we have a choice, select one which allows for the expected maximum
current in the circuit; e.g. if 3A is expected choose 5A input, not 1A)
 BLACK is for output or OUT (Miller meters only have 1 output terminal)
 Be sure to connect the ammeter so that current flows into the positive
terminal (red) and out of the negative terminal (black)
 If mistakes are made, the pointer will deflect backwards, that is, to the left
of zero and the meter possibly damaged.
 Trace out the path taken by circuit current in order to determine the correct
ammeter connections. Remembering, current flow is always from the source
positive terminal through the circuit to the source negative terminal.
 When an ammeter with multiple ranges is used to measure unknown currents,
protect the meter by switching to the highest range first, then slowly adjust the
range down until a current reading is indicated on the meter scale.

READING THE AMMETER SCALE
Single Scale Ammeter
The scale of a 0-2A DC ammeter is shown in figure 20.
Figure 20
The meter is identified as an ammeter by the upper case A shown below the scale and that
it is a DC meter by the straight line drawn immediately below the upper case A.
The meter scale is divided into major and minor divisions, with:
o 8 major divisions each representing __________ amperes.
o each major division divided into 5 parts, giving minor divisions which
each represent __________ amperes.
o The indicated value if the pointer is at position:
a, is 0.5A. b, is 1.25A. c, is 1.55A. d, is 1.825A
Example:
Determine each of the values indicated by the pointer positions (a-h) shown on the
voltmeter scale of figure 18. Record your answers in the table provided below.
Figure 21
Pointer Position a b c d e f g h
Indicated Value

ENGINEERING NOTATION
We will look at scientific and engineering Notation. We use ‘Notation’ to deal with very
large and very small numbers, often at the same time in our calculations. We will use
Engineering Notation exclusively in our studies.
Multiplying by ten.
If you multiply a number by 10 you simply move the decimal point to the right and add
some zeros to make the number larger.
432 x 10 = 4,320
(Add a zero and move the decimal point once to the right to make the number larger e.g.
4,320)
Which is 432.0 x 10 = 4320.0; We normally don’t write “decimal zero” (.0) on the end of
a number, but it is assumed to be there.
432 x 100 = 43,200.0
(Add 2 zeros and move the decimal point twice to the right to make the number larger.)
432 x 1000 = 432,000.0
(Move the decimal point 3 times to the right to make the number larger.)
So it is very easy to multiply by 10 or multiples of 10.
Dividing by ten.
If you divide a number by 10 you simply move the decimal point to make the number
smaller.
432 /10 = 43.2

(Move the decimal point once to the left make the number smaller.)
Which is the same as 432.0 / 10 = 43.2
432 / 100 = 4.32

(Move the decimal point twice to the left to make the number smaller.)
432 / 1000 = 0.432
(Move the decimal point 3 times to the left to make the number smaller.)
So it is very easy to divide by 10 or multiples of 10.

Scientific Notation.
Very big numbers or very small numbers may be written using

(powers of ten)
Powers of ten is a way of recording the number of times the

decimal point is moved.
To express a number using Scientific Notation you:-
 move the decimal place from its original position in steps

until the number is between 1 and 10.
 The number of times the decimal point is moved is pgs 3 & 558
recorded as a power of 10.
Example 11
0.000 034 The decimal point is moved 5 times until it equals 3.4
3.4 x 10-5 The number of times the decimal place is moved is recorded as x 10-5 The
power is 5 for 5 times and is negative because the original number was
small. ie less than 1.
Example 12
82 000 The decimal point is moved 4 times until it equals 8.2
8.2 x 104 The number of times the decimal place is moved is recorded as x 104 The
power is positive because the original number was large. ie greater than 1.
Scientific Notation is supposed to provide a simple way of writing very small or very
large numbers but there is a better way called Engineering Notation.
Engineering Notation.
Engineering notation is a variation of Scientific Notation that moves the decimal place in
groups of 3, e.g 3, 6, 9 and uses common names for those groups
of 3, therefore making it easier to write the numbers, and say
them.
We use these names all the time. For example:-
 How far is it to the closest railway station?
 What is a typical size of a personal computer hard drive?
 How much beer is in a stubbie?

page 560

Kilo = x 103 So 6 km is 6 x 103 metres. Normally said as 6 Kilo Metres (not 6x103)
Giga = x 109 So 80 Giga Bytes is 80 x 109 Bytes. Said as 80 Giga Bytes
Milli = x 10-3 So 375 ml is 375 x 10-3 litres. Said as 374 milli litres
These common names for powers of ten are called “multiples” and “sub multiples”.
Number Power of 10 Name Abbreviation
1 000 000 000 000 1 x 1012 Tera T
1 000 000 000 1 x 109 Giga G
1 000 000 1 x 106 Mega M
1 000 1 x 103 kilo k
0.001 1 x 10-3 milli m
0.000 001 1 x 10-6 micro 
0.000 000 001 1 x 10-9 nano 
0.000 000 000 001 1 x 10-12 pico 
In engineering notation we only use names of powers in multiples of 3. Other names for
powers such as “centi” and “deca” are not used. This is to reduce the number of names we
have to remember., and to keep a common format.
This means that with engineering notation when moving the decimal point it can only be
moved 3, 6, 9 or 12 times.
To express a number using Engineering Notation you:-
 move the decimal place from its original position, in steps of 3, until the number
is between 1 and 999 inclusive.
 The number of times the decimal point is moved is recorded as a power of 10.
Example 12
0.000 034 Amps The decimal point is moved 3 times, stop and check, if the number is
still less than 1 move another 3 times until the number is between 1
and 999 inc.

34 x 10-6 Amps (The number of times the decimal place is moved is recorded as
x 10-6 The power is negative because the original number was small. ie less than 1.)
Now we make use of the name of the power which enables us to write very big or very
small numbers in short hand.
0.000 034 Amps = 34 x 10-6 Amps = 34 A (34 micro Amps)
Convert the following values to both forms of engineering notation WITHOUT using a
calculator (you will be able to use your calculator shortly)
Value Engineering Notation using a Engineering Notation

power of 10 e.g. 34 x 10-6 Amps using a prefix e.g. 34 A
32 000 Volts (V)
600 000 000V0
. 065 V
0.230 V
11,000 V
133kV
0.000076V
0.4V
0.000875mV
375Amps (A)
0.025MA
8350 uA
485000000000uA
22500A
0.09270mA
0.0194A
10.5A
5544332211mA
22500A
By pressing the ENG button on most calculators, you can have the calculator convert
the number for you to engineering notation. Repeated pressing of the ENG button will
move 1 way using multiples of 3 (e.g. bigger), and SHIFT ENG will move the other
way (e.g. Smaller)
Practice with this number: 123456 (you may need to enter 123456 =)
1. Press ENG and it converts to__________________________________
2. Press ENG again ____________________________________________
3. Press ENG again_____________________________________________
4. Now press SHIFT ENG_____________________________________
5. Press SHIFT ENG again_____________________________________
6. Press SHIFT ENG again_____________________________________
Notice how the powers change, the value of the actual number does not change but how
we express it does. When working with numbers of large differences, it can be handy to
have them all in the same power first.
Now covert the numbers in the chart above using your calculator and see if your answers
are correct.
NOTES:-



PRACTICAL - BASIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

PURPOSE:
This section introduces the student to the application of circuit connection techniques
and the use of basic practical equipment, such as, the power supply, the ammeter and
voltmeter and basic switching.
 Draw a circuit diagram from a pictorial representation.
 Connect an electrical circuit using a circuit diagram as a guide.
 Note observations regarding circuit behaviour.
equipment.
EQUIPMENT:

□ 2 x 24 volt, 5 watt lamp and lamp holder


PROCEDURE :
1. Using the pictorial representation of the circuit shown in figure 1 as a guide, complete
the circuit diagram of figure 20 by neatly drawing the circuit connections required.
Figure 22. - A Basic Electrical Circuit
The circuit diagram of figure 22 should completed as follows (tick off the lines to show
complete) Connect the:-
o power supply positive terminal (+) to one side of switch

o other side of switch to ammeter positive terminal (+)
o ammeter negative terminal (-) to one side of lamp
o other side of lamp to power supply negative terminal (-)
o voltmeter positive terminal (+) to power supply positive terminal (+)
o voltmeter negative terminal (-) to power supply negative terminal (-).
DC 24V, 5W
Power V
Supply Lamp
Figure 23. - Complete the Basic Electrical Circuit
2. Arrange the equipment on the bench in the same relative positions as that shown in
figure 23.

3. Connect the components to form the circuit of figure 1, using the circuit diagram of
figure 23 as a guide.
NOTE:
to achieve a neat and tidy appearance
Progress Table 1
as indicated by the ammeter. Also note in table 1 the condition of the lamp, that is,
dark, dull or bright.
Table 1
Circuit Voltage Circuit Current Lamp Condition with 1x 24V
volts Amperes lamp
10
12
14
16
18

20
by the ammeter and the brilliance of the lamp in table 1.
8. Increase the circuit voltage in steps of 2Volts to a maximum of 20Volts. Record the
value of circuit current as indicated by the ammeter and the brilliance of the lamp in
table 1.
Do not proceed until the teacher checks your results and completes the progress table.
Progress Table 2
10. Now place a 2nd 24V lamp in series with the first lamps and repeat the observations.
Table 1
Circuit Voltage Circuit Current Lamp Condition with 2x 24V lamps
volts Amperes
10
12
14
16
18
20
OBSERVATIONS:

Study the following questions carefully, then write the identifying letters for your answers
in the spaces provided.
1. The lamp filament indicated that electric current was flowing when the circuit switch
was:-
(a) open
(b) closed ..............................................................................................( )
(a) dark
(b) dull
(c) bright .................................................................................................( )
(a) dark
(b) dull
(c) bright ................................................................................................( )
(a) dark
(b) dull
(c) bright ................................................................................................( )
5. Based on your observations, increasing circuit voltage causes the circuit current to:-
(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) remain the same ...............................................................................( )
6. The ammeter was used to measure:-
(a) resistance
(b) voltage
(c) current ...............................................................................................( )
7. If the circuit voltage was adjusted to 6 volts with 1 lamp:-

(a) the lamp would be brighter than when the voltage was set to 8 volts

(b) the current would be less than when the voltage was set to 4 volts
(c) the lamp would be duller than when the voltage was 4 volts
(d) the current would be less than when the voltage was 8 volts .........( )
8. When we connected a 2nd lamp in series, effectively doubling the circuit load (&
resistance), what are your observations about the current drawn and lamp brilliance
compared to only having 1 lamp?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
9. The basic electric circuit is formed using an e.m.f. source, a complete pathway to allow
current to flow and a load. An addition to the circuit is a device which provides ON-
OFF control. Identify the device used in the circuit of this practical session to provide
each of these parts :-
e.m.f. source - ________________________
current path - ________________________
load - ________________________
ON-OFF control - ________________________
10. The voltmeter is used to measure __________ and is __________ connected:-

(a) current, series
(b) voltage, series
(c) voltage, parallel
(d) current, parallel ................................................................................( )

11. The ammeter is always connected in __________ with the circuit in which the
current is to be measured:-
(a) series
(b) parallel
.........................................................................................................( )

Notes:

TUTORIAL - BASIC ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

NAME:

questions.
SECTION A
1. The meter used to measure electric current in a circuit is a:
(a) ohmmeter
(b) voltmeter
(c) ammeter
(d) megger
2. The opposition to electric current is termed:
(a) amperes
(b) voltmeter
(c) residual
(d) resistance
3. The unit of electric current is the:
(a) ampere
(b) watt
(c) volt
(d) ohm

4. If the electric pressure applied to a circuit is increased with the resistance remaining
constant electric current will:-
(a) remain the same

(b) decrease
(c) increase
5. This question refers to figure 24.. The ammeter method of connection is known as;
(a) short circuit connection

(b) series connection A
(c) parallel connection

V
(d) open circuit
6. This question refers to figure 24. The voltmeter method of connection is known as -
(a) parallel connection

(b) short circuit connection
(c) series connection
(d) open circuit connection.
7. This question refers to figure 24. Opening the switch in the circuit would have the
effect of -
(a) reducing the circuit resistance.

(b) reducing the circuit voltage.
(c) increasing the circuit power.
(d) stopping the circuit current flow.
8. A battery provides a source of electrical -
(a) resistance.
(b) pressure
(c) displacement.
(d) conductor

9. The meter used to measure electrical pressure in a circuit is a;
(a) ohmmeter
(b) ammeter
(c) wattmeter.
(d) voltmeter.
SECTION B
10. (3 marks)
Neatly draw the circuit diagram for a lamp supplied by a battery and controlled by a
switch. Include an ammeter to measure the circuit current and a voltmeter to measure
the battery voltage note the positive and negative terminals of the ammeter and
voltmeter.
11. Draw the circuit diagram of a lamp supplied by a battery and controlled by a switch.
Include a fuse to protect the circuit, an ammeter to measure the circuit current and a
voltmeter to measure the battery voltage.
12. Determine the value and quantity measured on each of the following meters

13. Determine the value and quantity measured on each of the following meters -
14. Convert the following number to both formats of Engineering Notation

Number Convert to a multiple using Convert using a prefix (letters only)

123kV
a power of 10 eg 123 x 103
220000Volts
844.4Volts
0.034Volts
0.008 Volts
2380 micro Amps
95 milli Amps
2400 Amps
6350 milli Amps
40000 micro volts
150000000 Amps
0.00743258 Volts
400545486 Amps
1Volt
0.194 milli Amp

NOTES

OHM’S LAW
TOPIC 3 Ohm’s Law encompassing:
 basic d.c. single path circuit.

 voltage and currents levels in a basic d.c. single path circuit.
 effects of an open-circuit, a closed-circuit and a short-circuit on a basic
d.c. single path relationship between voltage and current from measured
values in a simple circuit
 determining voltage, current and resistance in a circuit given any two of
these quantities
 graphical relationships of voltage, current and resistance
 relationship between voltage, current and resistance

3: OHM’s LAW Miller College 3
1. TYPES OF LOAD
In lesson One it was stated every electric circuit is required to have a;
o Source to provide a potential difference which is similar to _______________

.
o Path to carry the current, which is provided by the ________________ .
o Load to provide ___________________ to the flow of current.
Loads can be divided into three basic types (not including semiconductors)
o Resistive - heating elements, simple lamps and resistors.
o Inductive - coils, motors, ballasts (chokes) and transforms.
o Capacitive - capacitors.
In this lesson we will examine the performance of Resistive components only, Inductance
and Capacitance will be covered in later lessons.
2. OHM’S LAW
It has been already pointed out that a potential difference, or electrical pressure is
required to force a current of electricity through a circuit just as water pressure is needed
to cause a stream of water to flow through a water circuit. It was also shown that
resistance is the opposition to the electric flow just as friction in pipes is the opposition to
the water flow.
Thus, in a simple electric circuit three quantities must be considered:
o the potential difference (V) expressed in volts;
o the current (I) expressed in amperes.
o the resistance (R) expressed in ohms;
Dr Ohm was first to formulate the relationship which exists

between these three quantities and his statement, now known
as Ohm's law, can be considered as the basic law of the
electric circuit. Ohm's law is stated -
'Provided that the temperature of a given conductor remains

unchanged, the ratio of the potential difference between its
ends, and the steady current in it is a constant quantity'.
Dr Georg Simon Ohm (16 March 1789 – 6 July 1854)

V
Ohm's law can be expressed algebraically as = a constant quantity, and to this
I
constant quantity the name resistance (R) is given.
Connecting the statement into an equation -
where: V = potential difference between ends of the circuit in volts.
I = current in circuit in amperes
R = resistance of circuit in ohms
The equation derived from Ohm's Law may be transposed in terms of current -
The equation may also be transposed in terms of voltage -
page 34
Fig 1.75
3. OHM’S LAW’S IN RELATION TO CURRENT.
From the second Ohm's Law equation, where it is observed the current in a circuit is -
_______________________________ to the voltage applied to a circuit and
_______________________________ to the resistance of the circuit.
This means the current in a circuit is -

___________________ by raising the voltage and _____________________ by
increasing the resistance.

Example 1
A coil with a resistance of 6 ohms has an applied potential difference of 120 volts. What
is the coil current?
Coil
120V 
figure 1
Example 2
An incandescent lamp has a resistance of 960 ohms. What is the lamp current when it is
connected to a 240-volt supply?
Lamp
240V 
figure 2
Example 3
Two coils, A and B have resistances of 10 and 20 ohms respectively. Determine the
current in each coil when connected separately across -
(a) 120 volt supply, and
(b) 240 volt supply.
 Coil A on 120V
Coil A
120V 
figure 3
 Coil B on 120V
Coil B
120V 
Figure 4

Now we can try the same coils but at double the voltage.
 Coil A on 240V
Coil A
240V 
Figure 5
 Coil B on 240V
Coil B
240V 
Figure 6
Example 3 shows the effect of changing the supply voltage and changing the resistance.
If the supply voltage is doubled, the current is _________________.
Doubling the resistance of a circuit ______________ the current to ______________.
4. OHM’S LAW IN RELATION TO REQUIRED APPLIED VOLTAGE
Where it is required to know the voltage necessary to pass a current through a circuit of
known resistance the equation V = IR can be used as shown by the following example.
Example 4
What potential difference (Voltage) is required to maintain a current of 0.4 ampere in an
incandescent lamp with a resistance of 600 ohms?
0.4 A
Lamp
V=? 
figure 7

Example 5
Determine the lamp current in example 4 when the potential difference across the lamp
terminals is -
(a) 234 volts, and
(b) 300 volts.
 Lamp on 234V
 Lamp on 300V
It will be shown later that the resistance of an appliance remains fixed, except for changes
due to variations of temperature.
If a lamp current is normally 0.4A on a 240V supply, then a reduction of the voltage to
234V, as in example 5 (a), reduces the current to 0.39 ampere. This current reduction of
0.01A will not greatly affect the correct functioning of the lamp.
If the available voltage is too low, the current will decrease to such an extent that the
lamp will not be incandescent. If the voltage applied to the lamp is too high, excessive
current will pass through the lamp filament with the danger that the filament will become
excessively hot and 'burn out'.
5. OHM’S LAW IN RELATION TO RESISTANCE
The last paragraph of the previous section is an explanation of why it is essential to limit
the current in a lamp, or an appliance, to a particular value. If the applied voltage is
known, it is then necessary to determine the resistance which will permit the desired
current in the circuit.
The resistance of a circuit may be obtained from the equation, as shown in the following
example.
Example 6
Determine the resistance of a heater element required to carry a current of 3 amperes
when connected to a 240-volt supply.
3A
240V Heater
element
figure 8

6. CALCULATION OF RESISTANCE
The resistance of a circuit may be determined using a voltmeter, an ammeter and the
application of Ohm's Law.
For example, to determine the resistance of a lamp an ammeter is used to measure the
current taken by the lamp and a voltmeter to measure the voltage applied to the lamp. The
two meter readings are then used in conjunction with Ohm's Law to calculate the
resistance of the lamp.
Example 7
Using measured values of voltage and current, determine the resistance of the lamp
shown in figure 9.
0.2A
A
V 240V Lamp
figure 9
Example 8
Using measured values of voltage and current, determine the resistance of the lamp
shown in figure 10.
A 20A
V 240V Heating
element
figure 10.
Some Problems to work through.

Draw a diagram like example 8 above on spare paper (ask your teacher for some if you
don’t have it), write in the information given in the problem and work out the answer.
Round off your answer to 1 decimal place.
1. Applied voltage is 160V, current is 8.3 A, what is the resistance?

2. A new hot water heater draws 19.2A from a 230V supply, what is the resistance of
the hot water system element?
3. (a) Re Q 2 above: The old hot water circuit wiring in the old house CAN NOT
support 19.2 Amps, it has a safe limit of 16 amps with a circuit breaker fitted, I
need to fit a different element. I go to my vehicle and start looking through the
spare parts box, I start measuring the resistance of my spare elements. What is the
lowest resistance element I could use.
(b)Why not lower.
© Could I use larger?
(d) If I used larger, what would happen?
4. A toaster draws 5A from a 230V supply when toasting 2 pieces of bread in the 1st
toasting bay, what is the resistance of the toaster element?
5. When I put an extra 2 pieces of bread into the above toaster (into the 2nd toasting
bay - it can toast 2 or 4 slices of bread at the same time – 2 elements, 1 for each
bay) I can now toast 4 pieces of bread in the same time, how much current will it
draw?
6. I measure a light bulb, it has 552ohms resistance, how many amps will it draw
when operated on a 230V supply?
7. I put 40 of these light bulbs into my house and turn them all on at the same time,
(add them all together) will it cause my 10A circuit breaker to trip?
8. I have gone to a job where the people are complaining about the water not being
hot enough, and I find the old hot water system in the roof which is rated at 15A
only draws 7.5A (230V supply). What resistance was I expecting and what
resistance did I measure?
9. Re Q8 above: It has 2 elements wound into the one ceramic bobbin element (2
halves making up the 1 element), what do think has happened?
10. Re Q8 & 9 above: What happened to the resistance? Surprising?
11. For more current to flow from the same supply, which way must the resistance go
– increase or decrease?
12. I have a light bulb with 24 ohms resistance and I put in my car (12V) how many
amps will it draw?
13. I now try it in my house (230V), how many amps will it now draw?
14. Will it last a long time if connected to my house 230V supply?
15. A client has just bought a 2nd hand pottery kiln at a garage sale, but doesn’t know
how big it is. I go out to their home and look over the job, I measure the kiln ohms
as 7.188 ohms, if I connect it to 230V, how many amps will it draw?
16. What is the minimum size cable and circuit breaker I must use for the job (your
teacher will discuss standard circuit breaker sizes and selecting the cable size to
suit the circuit breaker) but if you have a good idea about it, write it down 1st.
(hint: the job is very similar to installing a standard upright stove).
17. I measure the current drawn by 1 of the driving lights on my car, it draws 8.3
Amps with the motor off (11.5V) what is the resistance of the bulb?
18. Re Q 17 above, what is the current with the motor running (14V)?
19. If I had a 50Amp alternator, could I run 6 driving lights across the front of my bull
bar?
NOTES


Notes

PRACTICAL - OHM’S LAW

PURPOSE:
This practical is used to demonstrate the application of Ohm's Law to a practical,

single resistor circuit.
 Connect electrical circuits using circuit diagrams as a guide.
 Draw the V-I characteristics for fixed resistors.
 Apply Ohm's Law to a practical circuit.
 Extract and interpret information from graphs.
equipment.
EQUIPMENT:

□ 1 x 10Ω, 10 watt, wire wound resistor


PROCEDURE :
figure 11 and then connect the circuit.
0 - 1A
A

D
Power V 0 - 10V 10 watt
Supply DC
Resistor
Figure 11.
NOTE:
to achieve a neat and tidy appearance.
2. Do not
proceed until the teacher checks your circuit and completes the progress table.
Progress Table 1
as indicated by the ammeter.
Table 1
Circuit Voltage Circuit Current
volts Amperes
2
10

by the ammeter.
6. Repeat the procedure for each of the applied voltages listed in table 1.
7. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your circuit and completes progress table 2.
Progress Table 2
8. Open the circuit switch, then turn the DC power supply off.
9. Connect the circuit of figure 2, by replacing the 10 resistor with an 18 resistor.
0 - 1A
A

D
Power V 0 - 10V 10 watt
Supply DC
Resistor
Figure 12.
10. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your results and completes progress table 3.
Progress Table 3
11. With the circuit switch in the open position, turn on the power supply and adjust to give
a circuit voltage of 0 volts as indicated by the voltmeter.
as indicated by the ammeter.

Table 2
Circuit Voltage Circuit Current
volts Amperes
2
10
by the ammeter.
14. Repeat the procedure for each of the applied voltages listed in table 2.
Progress Table 4
16. Reduce the voltage to zero volts. Turn off the power supply and disconnect the circuit.
Return all equipment to its proper place, safely and carefully.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Use Ohm's Law to calculate the actual value of resistance of the 10 resistor for each
set of voltage and current readings in table 1. Use the equation .
Applied voltage = 2V _____________________________________________
Applied Voltage = 4V ____________________________________________
Applied voltage = 6V _____________________________________________
Applied Voltage = 8V _____________________________________________
Applied Voltage = 10V _____________________________________________

2. Calculate the average value of resistance for the 10 resistor. This is done by adding
the five answers obtained in question 1 and then dividing by 5.
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
RAVERAGE = ___________
3. On the axis provided in figure 3 draw the V- I characteristic for the 10  resistor.
Remember, take the line of best fit when drawing your graph.
1.0
Circuit Current - Amperes
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Applied Voltage - Volts
figure 23.
4. Use Ohm's Law to calculate the actual value of resistance of the 18 resistor for each
set of voltage and current readings in table 2. Use the equation .
Applied voltage = 2V ___________________________________________
Applied Voltage = 4V ___________________________________________
Applied voltage = 6V ___________________________________________
Applied Voltage = 8V ___________________________________________
Applied Voltage = 10V______________________________________________

5. Calculate the average value of resistance for the 18  resistor. This is done by adding
the five answers obtained in question 4 and then dividing by 5.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
RAVERAGE = ___________
6. On the axis provided in figure 24 draw the V - I characteristic for the 18  resistor.
Again, take the line of best fit when drawing your graph.
1.0
Circuit Current - Amperes
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Applied Voltage - Volts
figure 24
7. Do the resistors have linear or non-linear characteristics? Use the graph to help
determine your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
8. What do the slopes of the two characteristics you have drawn represent?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

9. If you were to draw the V - I characteristic for a 33  resistor on the axis of figure 24,
would the characteristic be drawn above or below those for the 10  and 18 
resistors?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
10. Use the graph to determine the current that would flow through the 10  resistor if a
voltage of 7V was applied.
Current = _______________
11. Use the graph to determine the current that would flow through the 18  resistor if a
voltage of 5V was applied.
Current = _______________
12. What voltage would have to be applied to each resistor used in this practical
assignment to force a current of 0.5A to flow through them? Use the graph to
determine your answer.
Voltage across 10 resistor = _______________
Voltage across 18 resistor = _______________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
13. By the application of Ohm's Law, calculate the current that would flow through the
10 resistor if a voltage of 14V were applied.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
14. By the application of Ohm's Law, calculate the voltage that would have to be applied to
the 18 resistor to cause a current of 0.75A to flow.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Progress Table 1
Notes:

TUTORIAL - OHM’S LAW

NAME:

questions.
SECTION A
1. Ohm's Law is only true when:
(a) the circuit consists of metallic conductors

(b) current and voltage are unequal
(c) the voltage exceeds the current
(d) circuit conditions are unchanged
2. If the resistance of a circuit is doubled, the current will be:
(a) the same.

(b) doubled.
(c) halved.
(d) decreased
3. Using the principle of Ohm's Law the resistance of a circuit may be calculated using
the equation:
I
(a) R=
V
(b) R = V.I

V
(c) R=
I
(d) R=V+I
4. If the resistance of a circuit is constant and the voltage applied to the circuit
increased, the circuit current will:
(a) fall to zero

(b) decrease
(c) increase
(d) remain unchanged
5. If the voltage applied to a circuit is constant and the resistance of the circuit is
increased, the circuit current will:
(a) remain unchanged

(b) fall to zero
(c) decrease
(d) increase
Section B:
Blank spaces in the following statements represent omissions. Write the appropriate
information.
6. The current flowing in a circuit is __________ proportional to the applied voltage

and ___________ proportional to the circuit resistance.
7. According to Ohm's Law, increasing the applied voltage causes the circuit current to
___________.
8. Ohm's Law only applies to resistors with linear characteristics provided the
___________ remains constant.
9. When applying Ohm's Law, the voltage applied to a circuit is equal to the product of
the ___________ and the ____________.

SECTION C:
The following problems are to be solved with the aid of a calculator. Answers are to be
correct to two (2) decimal places.
10. A circuit has an applied voltage of 20V and a resistance of 5Determine the circuit
current.
11. A circuit has an applied voltage of 15V and draws a current of 3A. Determine the
circuit resistance. (5
12. A circuit that has a resistance of 15draws a current of 1.6A. Determine the applied
voltage. (24V)
13. A circuit has an applied voltage of 240V and has a resistance of 5000Determine
the circuit current. 
14. A circuit has the following values:  R = 150

 Determine the applied voltage. (22.5V)
15. A circuit is connected to a DC power supply that is set to 12V. If the resistance of
the circuit is 24 determine the current flowing in the circuit. (0.5A)
16. Determine the DC voltage that must be applied to a circuit of 56 resistance to

cause a current of 0.5A to flow. (28V)
17. When a 12V battery is connected to a circuit a current of 0.025A flows. Determine
the circuit resistance. (480
18. A circuit has a current flow of 1.5A when connected to a 12V battery. Determine the
current that will flow if the same circuit is connected to a 15V battery. (1.875A)

19. A test is carried out on a circuit and the results tabulated as shown in table 3.
Table 3
Applied Voltage 0 3 6 9 12
volts
Circuit Current
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
amperes
(a) Draw a graph of the test results using axis as shown in figure 25. Make
each axis 100mm long.
Current - amperes
Applied Voltage - volts
figure 25
(b) Indicate on your graph the value of current when the applied voltage is -
(i) 4V
(ii) 7.5V
(iii)10.5V
(c) Is the graph linear or non-linear.
(d) From your graph determine the voltage applied when the circuit current
was -
(i) 0.2A
(ii) 0.4A
(iii)0.8A
(e) Draw a circuit that will enable you to carry out the above test to achieve
this set of test results. Fully label your circuit, including the value of
resistance used.

(a) (b)
(c) (d)

NOTES

ELECTRICAL POWER
TOPIC 4 Electrical power encompassing:
 relationship between force, power, work and energy

 power dissipated in circuit from voltage, current and resistance values
 power ratings of devices
 measurement electrical power in a d.c. circuit
 effects of power rating of various resistors

4: ELECTRICAL POWER Miller College 4
POWER
In physics, power is the rate at which energy is transferred, used, or transformed.
Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit to a
load or some part of the circuit. The SI unit of power is the Watt (which is equal to passing
an electric current of one ampere through a resistance of one ohm for one second). It is
named in honor of James Watt, the eighteenth-century developer of the steam engine. For
example, the rate at which a light bulb transforms electrical energy into heat and light is
measured in watts—the more wattage, the more power used. (more energy is used per
second for a higher wattage)
“Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, it is merely transformed”
1. ELECTRICAL POWER
Electrical equipment is rated in terms of -
o ____________________________ and
o ____________________________.
For example - light globe- __________________________
hotplate - __________________________
electric motor - __________________________.
Power is ___________________________________ and is measured in __________ ( ).
Suppose, for example, that a motor driven lift is to be selected for raising a certain load. If
the load has to be raised quickly, a more powerful lift and a larger driving motor must be
provided than would be the case if more time is allowed to do the job.
The power supplied to or consumed by a circuit is dependent upon -
o ________________________ and
o ________________________.
To calculate the power associated with a circuit or component, the following equation may
be used –
where: P = power in watts

V = voltage in volts
I = current in amperes
Example 1
Calculate the power supplied to the circuit of figure 1
____________________________________________ I = 4A
V = 10V 
____________________________________________
____________________________________________ figure 1
Example 2
What happens to the power consumed in the circuit of figure 2, if the applied voltage is
doubled compared to figure 1 ?
____________________________________________
I = 8A
____________________________________________ V = 20V 
____________________________________________ figure 2
The power taken by the circuit has increased by ____________________.
Therefore, it can be said –
Power is _______________________ to the voltage _______________
_________________________
What effect does varying the resistance of a circuit have on the power consumed by the
circuit?

Example 3
Calculate the power consumed by the circuit shown in figure 3.
____________________________________________
I = 2.5A
V = 25V 
____________________________________________
____________________________________________ figure 3.
Example 4
Calculate the power consumed by the circuit shown in figure 4..
____________________________________________
I = 1.25A
V = 25V 
____________________________________________
____________________________________________ figure 4
If the resistance of a circuit is doubled, the power taken is _______________.
Therefore, it can be said –
Power consumed is ________________________________ to circuit
resistance._________________________

2. POWER EQUATIONS
The basic power equation is written P = VI. This equation may be modified by the
application of Ohm's Law to give us two other power equations.
P = V x I Watts

Example 5
____________________________________________
I=2A
____________________________________________ V 
____________________________________________
figure 5
Example 6
____________________________________________
I
____________________________________________ V = 12V 
____________________________________________
figure 6.
Example 7
____________________________________________ I = 5A
V = 100V 
____________________________________________
figure 7
____________________________________________
3. ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENGINEERING NOTATION

Power values can range from thousands of megawatts (MW) to less than a microwatt
(1µW). For example, some of today's coal-fired power stations can produce over 2000MW
(2000 megawatts) of power, with each alternator in the power station delivering up to
600MW. An electric passenger train could need more than 1MW of power to pull out of
the station. The sound system at an outdoors pop concert can produce some 50kW
(kilowatts) of sound, needing about 100kW of power to drive the system.
On a much smaller scale, earphones used with portable radio-tape players use only a few
milliwatts (mW) of power for a satisfying sound level. The liquid crystal display in a
calculator or a digital watch takes only a few microwatts of power from the battery.
In other words, as with current, voltage and resistance values, multiples and submultiples
are often used with power values. As the table below shows, engineering notation is also
used when expressing power values, in the same way it's used with voltage, current and
resistance values. Remember that the symbol for mega is the capital letter M, with a small
m for milli.

Table 1
Term Symbol Equals Engineering Notation

megawatt 1,000,000 watts 1MW =
kilowatt 1,000 watts 1kW =
milliwatt 0.001 watts 1mW =
microwatt 0.000 001 watts 1µW =
Calculations involving power values expressed with multiples and submultiples are treated
the same way as Ohm's law equations. This was described in section 3, and by now you'll
know about engineering notation and how to use it in an equation.
Remember - when multiplying values expressed with scientific notation, you add the
exponents. For division, the exponent with the term below the line is subtracted from the
exponent with the term above the line.
Example 8
A calculator is supplied from a 3V battery and takes a current of 70µA. Determine the
power consumed by the calculator.
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_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Example 9
A large factory is connected to a 3.3kV supply and takes 1.2kA when operating at full
production. How much power is taken from the supply?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

4. THE WATTMETER
It has been observed that the power in watts delivered by a generator, or consumed by a
lamp or a motor may be obtained by multiplying the volts by the amperes, that is,
watts = volts x amperes.
However, instead of using two separate instruments, a voltmeter and an ammeter, to obtain
the power consumed in a certain part of a circuit, a single instrument called a wattmeter
may be used.
Although it is not possible to explain the operating principle of the wattmeter at this stage,
it should be understood that a wattmeter is a combination of a voltmeter and an ammeter
using only one pointer. The voltmeter part is of high resistance to enable the line voltage to
be applied to it, and the ammeter part is of low resistance, to carry the line current. The
pointer of the instrument indicates, on a scale, the product of the voltage and the current,
that is, the power.
A wattmeter usually has four terminals, two for the current coil and two for the voltage
coil. Extreme care must always be exercised to use the correct terminals, as an error in this
regard may damage an expensive instrument. Figure 8 shows the basic arrangement for the
wattmeter.
M L
W
V1 V2
figure 8. -
The Australian Standard symbol for the wattmeter is shown in figure 8.

Figure 9 shows the correct method of connecting a wattmeter in the circuit to measure the
power required by the load. It should be noted that the current coil is placed in series with
the load, and the voltage coil is connected in parallel with the load.
M L
W
V1 V2
V Load
figure 9.

Example 10
A heating element which has a power rating of 4.408 kW is designed to operate from a
230V supply. Determine the -
(a) current taken by the element when operating
(b) element resistance.
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5. WORK AND ENERGY
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done (power = work ÷ time). Therefore:-
where: W = work done in joules (J)

P = power in watts (W)
t = time taken to do work in seconds (s)
Energy is the capacity, or ability, to do ___________________.
Energy can exist in many forms, three of which are -

 _____________________ energy
 _____________________ energy
 _____________________ energy.
Work cannot be done without the use of energy. The quantity of energy used is measured
by the amount of work done.
The unit for measurement of both energy and work is the __________________ ( ).
Example 11
If the energy required to raise a mass to the top of a building is 5000J, calculate the power
rating of the electric motor required to do the work in -
(a) 30 seconds
(b) 15 seconds.
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________

Example 12
Determine the work done by a 1kW motor in 75 seconds.
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
6. WORK AND ENERGY IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Current flowing in an electrical circuit will do work. The work is done in overcoming the
resistance of the circuit and is dissipated (given off) in the form of heat.
V I R
Figure 10.
Example 13
A 10 volt battery supplies a current of 5A to a resistor for 1 hour. Find the work done by
the resistor.
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
As determined previously, there are three equations for the calculation of power in a DC
circuit.
By substitution, three equations can be derived for the determination of the work and
energy associated with an electrical circuit.

7. COMMERCIAL UNIT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
The joule is a small unit and is not very practical for the measurement of electrical energy
on a commercial basis.
A more practical unit is the ___________________________ ( ), also referred to as the

'unit' of electrical energy.
To calculate the number of kilowatt-hours used by a circuit -
where: kWh = the number of kilowatt-hours

P = power consumed in kilowatts (kW)
t = time in hours
Example 14
Calculate the energy used in one day by a 240V radiator that has a resistance of 24.
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
8. ENERGY CONVERSION AND LOSSES
All machines and pieces of equipment operate due to their energy input. The purpose of the
machine or piece of equipment is to take the energy fed in and convert it to some other
form of energy. Two very common examples of this process are the -
 electric generator
 electric motor.
In the case of an electric motor, the input is electrical power and the output mechanical
power. As is the case with all machines, not all of the input power is transferred to the
output. Some power is lost in the process, generally in the form of heat. The power lost is
known as the losses. All machines are rated in terms of their output power.
Figure 11. The electric motor

The relationships between the various components of power associated with a machine are
described by the following equations.
Power input: Power output: Losses:
9. EFFICIENCY
A measure of how effectively a machine does its job is described by the efficiency, which
is the ratio of the output power to the input power and is normally expressed as a
percentage value.
To determine the efficiency of a machine or an appliance -
where: % = percentage efficiency

Pout = output power in watts
Pin = input power in watts
Example 15
An electric motor has a mechanical output power of 64.3kW at its shaft. The electrical
power into the motor is 72.8kW. Calculate -
(a) the losses from the motor
(b) the motor efficiency.
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
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______________________________________

Example 16
A motor has a rated output of 3kW and losses of 375W. Determine -
(a) the input power
(b) the motor efficiency.
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
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Notes:

PRACTICAL - ELECTRICAL POWER

PURPOSE:
This practical assignment will be used to verify the Power equation relating to the
resistance, voltage and current of a circuit.
 Connect a electrical circuit containing a voltmeter and an ammeter.
 Measure and record values of voltage, current and power.
 Use measured value of voltage and current to calculate the power dissipated
in a resistor.
EQUIPMENT:

□ 1 x 20 V analogue voltmeter
□ 1 x 0 – 2 A analogue ammeter
□ 2 x 10W resistors - 1 each 38and 18
□ Wattmeter 25 V 5 A


1. MEASUREMENT OF POWER BY VOLT & AMMETER READINGS
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 12, with the ammeter positioned to measure the
total circuit current IT.
0 - 2A
IT
DC
0 - 20V R1 
Power V
Supply DC
figure 12
1. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your results and completes progress table 4.1.
Progress Table 1
2. Set the voltage of the power supply to zero volts (0V). Close S1 then adjust the voltage
output of the power supply to 10 Volts.
Caution resistors get HOT. Take your readings quickly and

carefully. DO NOT TOUCH the resistors.
3. Measure and record, in table 1, the value of current flowing through the 39Ω (R1).
Table 1
Resistance Voltage VT Current IT
V mA
R1 - 39 Ω 10
R2 - 18 Ω 10
4. Open the circuit switch and disconnect the 39 Ω resistor (R1). Replace it with the 18Ω
resistor R2,
5. Close S1 then check the voltage output of the power supply is still 10 Volts.
7. Increase the voltage of the power supply to twenty (20V).
Table 2
Resistance Voltage VT Current IT
V mA
R1 - 39 Ω 20
R2 - 18 Ω 20
9. Open the circuit switch and disconnect the 18 Ω resistor (R2). Replace it with the 39 Ω
resistor (R1).
12. Reduce the voltage to zero volts. Turn off the power supply
13. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your circuit and completes progress table 5.2
Progress Table 2
2. MEASUREMENT OF POWER BY WATTMETER.

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 13, with the Wattmeter positioned to measure
the total circuit power.
M L
(A+) (1A)
W
V1 V2
(V+) (25V)
DC
0 - 20V R1
Power V
Supply DC
figure 13
Progress Table 3
3. Set the voltage of the power supply to zero volts (0V). Close S1 then adjust the voltage
output of the power supply to 10 Volts.
4. Measure and record, in table 3, the value of power consumed by the 39Ω (R1).
Table 3
Resistance Voltage VT Power
V Watts (W)
R1 - 39 Ω 10
R2 - 18 Ω 10
5. Open the circuit switch and disconnect the 39 Ω resistor (R1). Replace it with the 18Ω
resistor R2,
7. Measure and record, in table 3 the value of power consumed by the 18Ω (R2).
8. Increase the voltage of the power supply to twenty (20V).

Table 4
Resistance Voltage VT Power
V Watts (W)
R1 - 39 Ω 20
R2 - 18 Ω 20
14. Open the circuit switch and disconnect the 18 Ω resistor (R2). Replace it with the 39 Ω
resistor (R1).
17. Reduce the voltage to zero volts. Turn off the power supply
18. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your circuit and completes progress table 3
Progress Table 4
19. Check the power supply is turned off and disconnect the circuit. Return all equipment
to its proper place, safely and carefully.
3. CONCLUSION:

1. From the values recorded in table 1. calculate the power consumed at 10 Volts by the
39 Ω and 18 Ω resistors using the power equations
V2
P  VI P  I2  R P
R
39 Ω Resistor (R1)
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2. Compare the results of the 3 power equations are they similar Yes / No
3. What was the effect on power consumption of increasing the current through the
circuit?
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________________________________________________________________________
4. From the values recorded in table 2. calculate the power consumed at 20 Volts by the
39 Ω and 18 Ω resistors using the power equations
V2
P  VI P  I R
2
P
R

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5. What was the effect on power consumption of increasing the applied voltage to each
circuit?
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6. Compare the results of the P  V  I calculations for tables 1 and 2 to the results of
tables 3 and 4, are the results similar? Give a reason for your answer.
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TUTORIAL - ELECTRICAL POWER

NAME :

questions.
 All diagrams are to be drawn using appropriate drawing instruments. Drawings are
not to be freehand.
Section A
The unit of both mechanical and electrical power is the:
(a) volt
(b) joule
(c) watt
(d) ampere
Power in an electrical circuit is measured using an instrument called the:
(e) wattmeter
(f) volt/ammeter
(g) kilowatt hour meter
(h) ammeter.

Two electrical instruments whose readings may be combined to determine circuit power
are the:
(i) voltmeter and wattmeter

(j) ammeter and wattmeter
(k) ammeter and voltmeter
(l) wattmeter and kilowatt hour meter
Power is defined as the:
(m) rate at which work is done

(n) amount of energy required to do work.
(o) ability to do work
(p) heat dissipated when work is done
Electrical equipment is rated in terms of:
(q) voltage and resistance

(r) voltage and power
(s) voltage and current
(t) power and current.
Mechanical power and electric power are:
(u) in no way related to each other

(v) related by a factor of 9.81
(w) the same.
(x) measured using different units.
The current in a circuit that is consuming power can be calculated using the equation.
V
(y) I 
P
V
(z) I 
R
(aa) I  PV
P
(bb) I
V

If the voltage applied to a resistive circuit was doubled, the power dissipated would:
(cc) double.
(dd) decrease to a quarter of the original value.
(ee) halve.
(ff) increase to four times the original value.
If the voltage applied to a resistive circuit is halved, the power dissipated will:
(gg) double.
(hh) decrease to a quarter of the original value.
(ii) halve.
(jj) increase to four times the original value.
The greater the power taken by a circuit from the supply, the:
(kk) greater the heat dissipated.

(ll) lower the heat dissipated.
(mm) lower the work done.
(nn) cooler the circuit conductors
Section B:
information.
Two electrical instruments whose readings can be combined to determine the power
dissipation of a circuit are the __________ and __________.
A wattmeter consists of a ___________ coil connected in parallel with the supply and a
_________ coil connected in series with the load.
An electric motor converts __________ power to ___________ power.
The power dissipated by a resistor is given off in the form of ____________
Power is the ___________ at which work is done.
When connecting a wattmeter to measure the power taken by a circuit, the current coil is
connected in ___________ with the load and the voltage coil in __________ with the
load.

The terminals of the current coil of a wattmeter are usually labelled ___________ and
___________, whereas the terminals of the voltage coil are usually labelled ___________
and ____________.
An electric radiator is rated at 1kW, this means the ___________ power to the radiator is
1000 watts.
An electric motor is rated at 5kW, this means the __________ power from the motor is
5000 watts.
SECTION C
correct to two (2) decimal places. All equations and working are to be shown.
Convert the following quantities to the multiple or sub-multiple required:
0.005 watts to milliwatts (5mW)
130 milliwatts to watts (0.13W)
250 000 watts to kilowatts (250kW)
0.28 megawatts to watts (280 000W)
158 000 watts to kilowatts. (158kW)
A circuit has an applied voltage of 240V and a circuit current of 10A. Determine the
circuit power dissipation. (2400W or 2.4 x 103W or 2.4kW)
A circuit has an applied voltage of 100V and a circuit current of 5A. Determine the power
taken by the circuit. (500W)
A circuit has an applied voltage of 6V and has a resistance of 25k 1.Determine the
circuit power dissipation. (0.00144W or 1.44mW or 1.44 x 10-3W)
A circuit has the following values R = 12kmA. Determine the power supplied.
(0.048W or 48mW or 48 x 10-3W)
Determine the power taken by a circuit that is supplied with a voltage of 110V and draws
a current of 2.5A. (275W)
Determine the DC voltage that must be applied to a circuit of 625resistance to cause a

current ofmA to flow. (100V)

When a 12V battery is connected to a circuit a current of 750mA flows. Determine the
power supplied. (9W)
A circuit has a current flow of 5µA when connected to a 4.5V battery. Determine the
power dissipated. (0.0000225W or 22.5µW or 22.5 x 10-6W)
A circuit has a resistance of 1.5 and a current flow of 14A. Determine the power taken
by the circuit. (294W)
Determine the power dissipated by a 27 resistor when connected to a 240V supply.
(2133W or 2.133kW or 2.133 x 103W)
Draw the circuit diagram of a 12 resistor connected to a 240V supply. Include in your
diagram a/an –
(oo) fuse
(pp) switch to control current flow
(qq) ammeter to measure circuit current
(rr) voltmeter to measure the applied voltage
(ss) wattmeter to measure circuit power consumption.
(tt) Determine the readings on all three meters.
(V = 240V, I = 20A, P = 4800W or 4.8kW)
Notes:

NOTES

EFFECTS OF CURRENT
TOPIC 5 Effects of electrical current encompassing:
 physiological effects of current and the fundamental principles (listed in

AS/NZS 3000) for protection against the this effect
 basic principles by which electric current can result in the production of
heat; the production of magnetic fields; a chemical reaction
 typical uses of the effects of current
 mechanisms by which metals corrode
 fundamental principles (listed in AS/NZS3000) for protection against the
damaging effects of current

5: EFFECTS OF CURRENT Miller College 5
1. ELECTRIC CHARGE
Many years ago the question 'What is electricity?' was frequently asked,
and attempts to answer it were limited to guesswork. Today we have the
electron theory which offers a reasonable explanation of electrical
phenomena.
The electron theory assumes, in general, that atoms of all substances are
page 15
constructed from three kinds of particles -
a)______________________ - containing the smallest negative electric charge.
b)______________________ - positively-charged particle of an atom.
c)______________________ - having no resultant charge.
electron proton neutron
figure 1
As long as the balance between the electrons and protons is not disturbed, the atom is
electrically neutral. The numbers of electrons and protons it contains are equal, so that the
total number of negative charges due to the electrons is exactly neutralised by the positive
charges of the protons.
In principle, the atom may be regarded as a very minute copy of our solar system. The
centre of the atom is called the nucleus and spinning around this nucleus at almost
incredible speed are the planetary electrons. See figure 2.
figure 2
MECHANISM OF CURRENT FLOW
When a potential difference (pd.) is applied to the ends of the copper wire, figure 3, a
movement of electrons takes place from the negative terminal of the cell along the
conductor to the positive terminal.
figure 3
Free electrons are withdrawn from the conductor at its positive end, because the positive
terminal of the cell has a deficiency of electrons. At the same time excess electrons at the
negative terminal of the cell are supplied to the conductor to make good the deficiency
caused by the withdrawal of electrons at the positive end. The transfer of free electrons
takes place from atom to atom and it should be kept in mind that the number of electrons
in the conductor remains constant although the rate of transfer can be increased by
increasing the potential difference between the ends of the conductor.
It is this transfer of electrons which constitutes an electric current in the wire. Conduction
currents are thus due to the motion of free electrons.
The atoms of the conductor do not alter their mean positions and when current exists in a
copper conductor, copper is not transferred from one part of the conductor to another. The
current is attributed entirely to a movement of electrons. Although the electron flow is
actually from negative to positive in the external circuit it must be remembered that the
conventional idea of current direction is from positive to negative.
It has been observed that the presence of an electric current in a metallic conductor has no
effect on the composition of the conductor material. However, the presence of an electric
current in an electrolyte causes the electrolyte to be decomposed. The process of
electrically breaking up an electrolyte is called electrolysis. Pure water is a very good
insulator, that is, if a potential difference is applied to two metal plates immersed in pure
distilled water no measurable current will exist in the circuit.
It is observed however, that if certain chemical substances are dissolved in water the
solution or electrolyte is conductive although not to the same extent as that of a metallic
conductor having the same cross-sectional area. Electrolytes belong mainly to three types
of chemical compounds:
o acids, for example, sulphuric acid;
o bases, for example, caustic soda;
o salts, for example, common salt.
Figure 4 shows an electrolytic cell, that is, a glass vessel containing an electrolyte, a
common salt solution, in which are supported two metal plates connected to a source of
electrical supply. Note, the electrode at which the current enters the electrolyte from the

source of supply is called the anode, whereas the electrode at which it leaves the
electrolyte is called the cathode.
sodium
sodium chloride
figure 4
2. UNIT OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
The ____________________ is a measure of the intensity of electric charge.
One coulomb (1C) equals the charge of 6.25 x 1018 electrons.
The symbol for charge is Q.
page 23
Example 1
A glass rod is charged by rubbing it with silk. The surface charge on the rod is 0.73C.
How many electrons have been removed from the glass?
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CURRENT FLOW
When electrons are moved as a result of a potential difference, the flow is referred to as
'current'. This causes a difference in the number of electrons on each of the conductors.
The conductor which has the most electrons is said to be “negatively charged”. The
conductor which has the least electrons is “positively charged”.
Figure 5 shows two bodies that are electrically charged. The body on the left carries a
charge of -6C and the body on the right -2C.
-6C -2C
figure 5
If the two bodies are joined by a conductor, electrons will flow via the conductor from the
body on the left to that on the right. Electron flow will cease when both bodies carry the
same electric charge.
By convention, it is said that current flows from a point of high potential to a point of
low potential. In the arrangement shown in figure 5, it would be said that current flows
from the body on the right to the body on the left, - 2 being higher in value than - 6.
3. QUANTITY OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
When one coulomb of charge passes a given point in one second, one
unit of current is said to flow. That is,
One ampere = One coulomb/second
Therefore, provided the current flowing in a circuit and the length of

time for which the current flows is known, the quantity of electricity
used can be determined. page 23
where: Q = quantity of electricity or charge in coulombs

t = time in seconds for which current flows

Example 2
A constant current of 1A is maintained in a circuit for 1 hour. Determine the quantity of
electricity used.
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________________________________________________________________________
Example 3
A cell supplies a current of 5A continuously to a circuit for 48 minutes. Determine the
number of coulombs passed through the cell.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Example 4
An electro-chemical separation bath requires 18,000C of electricity in 1 hour. Determine
the current flow.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Example 5
How many minutes would it take a steady current of 15A to supply 1350C of electricity
to a circuit?
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. EFFECTS OF AN ELECRIC CURRENT
An electric current causes a number of effects some of which can be useful, others merely
unwanted by-products.
The four basic effects associated with the flow of an electric current are:
 ______________________ effect
 ______________________ effect
 ______________________ effect
 ______________________ effect page 36
The following provides a brief description of each of the four effects.
HEATING EFFECT
When current flows in a conductor work is done in __________________________.
The work done appears in the form of _______________.
Heat is produced by a conductor because of its __________________. All conductors

have a certain amount of resistance, so heat is always produced when current flows.
The higher the resistance, the greater the amount of heat produced (for a given value of
current). Because of this, the resistance of conductors supplying power to electrical
equipment should be __________________________________________________
If however heat is wanted, as in an electric radiator, the conductor used in the heating
element needs to have a certain amount of resistance. The material used is therefore
designed to have resistance, and to withstand the heat it produces without burning out.
Materials for this purpose include ___________________ (a combination of nickel and

chrome), which is used in electric radiator elements. The material used to make the
filament in an incandescent lamp is another example.

Magnetic effect
Current flowing in a conductor creates a magnetic field which surrounds the conductor.
Current
page 37
figure 6
The direction in which the magnetic field acts depends on the direction of current flow.
Current Current
figure 7 figure 8
When viewed end on, the direction in which the magnetic field acts may be represented as
shown in figures 2.9 and 2.10.
page 37
figure 9 figure 10
The strength of the magnetic field surrounding a straight conductor depends on the
magnitude of the current flowing in the conductor. The larger the current, the stronger the
magnetic field.
To concentrate the magnetic effect, a straight conductor may be wound into a coil.

The Chemical effect
It has been shown that current can flow in conductors made of copper or other metals.
However, an electric current can also flow in certain types of liquids called electrolytes.
Salt water is an electrolyte as it contains salt (sodium chloride) dissolved in water. Acids
and alkalis are also used to form electrolytes.
An electrolyte contains ___________, which are atoms with a positive or a negative

charge. A positively charged ion has less electrons (negative charge) than protons
(positive charge) and a negatively charged ion has more electrons than protons, as shown
below.
For example, in salt water the sodium atoms become positive ions as they each lose one
electron which is taken by the chlorine atoms, making the chlorine atoms (which are now
ions) negative. However, the liquid isn't charged because the number of positive ions
equals the number of negative ions.
Because the ions are charged, they can be attracted by a __________. If two metal
electrodes connected to a voltage source are placed in an electrolyte, the positive ions will
flow towards the negative electrode (cathode) and the negative ions will flow towards the
positive electrode (anode), as shown below. As a result, an electric current flows in the
liquid.
figure 11
In other words, the electrolyte behaves as a conductor.
The more ions there are in the liquid, the better the liquid can conduct an electric current.
If more salt is added to the liquid, more ions are created and the resistance of the liquid is
less. This is why salt water is a better conductor than fresh water.
It's important to understand that an electric current does not itself have a chemical effect,
but that it causes a chemical effect when passed through an electrolyte.

Physiological effect
This effect is the result of passing an electric current through a living organism, such as a
human or an animal. It has a few medical uses, mainly to stimulate a heart by applying a
short burst of current that will shock the heart out of ventricular fibrillation (explained
shortly).
Otherwise this effect is limited to stun-guns, cattle prods, electric fences and to those
countries that still use the electric chair. The purpose of these items is either to produce a
short, sharp electric shock, or for an electric chair, to cause death. So it's important you
understand this effect as your life may depend on it!
Life is kept going by two important body functions -
 breathing (via the lungs)
 blood circulation (via heart-beat).
If either of these stop for more than a few minutes, the brain is starved of oxygen, and
there will be so much damage that death soon follows.
If an electric current passes through the body, the current can interfere with the tiny
electrical impulses that travel through the body's nervous system to control the heart and
lung muscles.
The amount of interference depends on -
 the value of the current
 the time the current flows
 where current flows in the body.
Current which flows through the brain, or the chest region where the heart and lungs are,
is more dangerous than a current passing through two fingers or from one foot to the
other.
If breathing stops after an electric shock, the heart can go into what is called ventricular
fibrillation. This is when the electrical impulses from the brain controlling the heart are
confused enough to be out of step, making the heart quiver and stop pumping blood.
An electric current can also cause terrible burns and make muscles tighten severely.
Death and injury can not only result directly from electric shock, but indirectly. Electric
shocks have caused people to fall off ladders and power poles, flung them into dangerous
chemicals, and made them drop something heavy on themselves, such as the live
appliance they were carrying at the time.
The value of the current causing the shock can determine whether it's lethal.

Table 2.1 shows the effects of various values of current. Remember that a milliamp (mA)
is one-thousandth of an ampere, so the current values are quite small. A current as low as
3 to 4mA can cause pain and a current over 20mA can stop the lungs from functioning.
These values of current will hardly even light a lamp, but could kill you.
Table 2.1
Current Effect
up to 2mA barely perceptible
2mA to 8mA sensation becomes obvious and more painful
8mA to 12mA muscle spasms and greater pain
l2mA to 20mA unable to let go the conductor, can't control muscles
20mA to 50mA if passing through the chest, breathing might stop
50mA to 100mA if near the heart, there'll be ventricular fibrillation
l00mA to 200mA heart stops beating
above 200mA severe burns as well
Skin has a relatively high resistance, but blood is a good conductor. If your skin is wet, it
reduces its resistance, and current can flow through your skin to the low resistance path of
the arteries.
The value of current that flows during an electric shock depends on two things:
 the value of the voltage causing the shock
 the resistance your body offers to the current.
Voltage
There is no such thing as a 'safe' voltage. However, voltages less than 50 V are unlikely to
deliver a lethal shock. The type of voltage also has different effects. Because an
alternating (AC) voltage regularly changes its polarity, it doesn't have the same effect on
the muscles as a direct (DC) voltage. A shock with a DC voltage causes the muscles to
contract, making it almost impossible to let go the live conductor. An AC voltage could
allow you to let go, although this would depend on the value of the current.
NOTE:
If you have to touch an electrical appliance, do so with the
back of your hand instead of the front. If the appliance is
'live', the shock will throw your hand away rather than
make it contract and grip even tighter.

Resistance
Is mainly that of the skin. Wet, sweaty hands have less resistance than dry skin. Standing
on a wet floor allows current to flow through you to the ground by way of the feet.
Standing barefoot is obviously very dangerous - always wear rubber-soled shoes when
working with electricity.
Wet clothes are another hazard when working with electricity, as wet cloth can conduct
an electric current. The resistance of the cloth depends on the type of liquid soaked up by
the material. Remember that tap water with all its usual impurities will conduct
electricity. As we've said before, electricity and water is a dangerous combination!
Here are some basic rules for avoiding an electric shock -
 Think of any appliance, conductor, terminal or equipment as live, until you

have proved otherwise.
 Don't work on an electrical appliance or circuit with wet hands.
 A wet floor is a good conductor of electricity - be extra careful.
 Don't wear metal jewellery (rings, watch) when working with electricity.
 Remember that 'familiarity breeds contempt'. Always have respect for

electricity - it has no respect for you!
5. USES OF THE EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Heating
This effect is used in -
◊ _________________________ ◊ _________________________
◊ _________________________ ◊ _________________________
◊ _________________________ ◊ _________________________
Magnetic
Applications for the magnetic effect include –
◊ _________________________ ◊ _________________________
◊ _________________________ ◊ _________________________
◊ _________________________ ◊ _________________________
The magnetic effect caused by an electric current is perhaps the most useful of all.

Chemical
Applications of the chemical effect of current flow include –
 ______________________________.
In this, the current causes ions of a particular metal (such as chrome, gold or
silver) to flow towards an object immersed in the electrolyte. The object (such
as a car bumper-bar) and another electrode are put into a solution with the
required ions in it, and a voltage is connected to the electrodes, as in figure 6.
The ions are attracted to the electrodes, leaving a metallic coating on whatever
is being plated.
 ______________________________.
In which an electric current going through a bath containing a chemical solution

produces chemicals and metals. Aluminium is made by passing a very large
current through a solution of alumina and cryolite. Chlorine is made by passing
a current through salt water.
 ______________________________.
Charging a battery is another example of the chemical effect, in which the

charge current reverses the chemical action caused when the battery is
discharged. In effect, electrical energy is stored in the battery during charging,
and released by chemical action during discharge. This applies to re-chargeable
batteries like the lead-acid type used in cars, and to nickel cadmium cells.
Physiological
Whilst it obvious than current flow can be dangerous to all living things, the effects of
current have many medical applications such as –
◊ _________________________ ◊ _________________________
◊ _________________________ ◊ _________________________
◊ _________________________ ◊ _________________________

6. PROTECTION AGAINST THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT.
All electrical wiring in buildings constructed in Australia must comply with Australian
Standard AS/NZS3000, commonly know as the wiring rules. This sets the minimum
standard of workmanship. One of its fundamental principles is to protect persons and or
livestock from electric shock, the physiological effect.
AS.3000.2007
page 27

Basic protection is a simple as it sounds. If contact is not made with a “live” source, no
current will be able to take a “path” through a body for current to flow.

Fault protection is normally provided by Automatic disconnection of supply. Protection
devices such as fuses, circuit breakers and R.C.D’s, in conjunction with a system of
earthing, protect persons and live stock from electric shock from metal objects which
have accidentally become “live” because of a fault.
Other methods include
o Class II equipment otherwise known as _________ ____________
o Class III equipment Isolation transformers, motor generator sets and

Uninterrupted Power Supplies.
7. PROTECTION AGAINST THE EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT.
Thermal Effect
Damage from the effects of electric current flow to buildings in the form of fire.
Following on from clause 1.5 (a) AS 3000 states.
Magnetic Effect
Damage from the effects of electric current flow to buildings and wiring in the form of
magnetic stress and or movement.

Chemical Effect
If two dissimilar metals are joined together, such as aluminium and copper cables a
simple cell is formed. Galvanic corrosion will occur and the joint will fail.
8. MECHANISM OF CORROSION.
Corrosion is the reverse to the process of electroplating. Corrosion

decreases the amount of material deposited. All material is made of atoms
in the process of corrosion some of the electrons from these atoms are lost,
this changes the characteristic of the material. A common example is iron.
When exposes to water the iron gives up electrons to the oxygen in the
water to form the red power we call rust.
For corrosion to occur the two dissimilar metals must be in a corrosion page 39
friendly environment. If the metals can be isolated from that environment,
corrosion will not occur. This is the basis of rust proofing.

Corrosive Environments
Refer to textbook for an explanations of each environment.
o Atmospheric - _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
o Immersion - _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
o Structural - _______________________________________________
______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
An example of the sequence of Immersion Corrosion is;
1. ________________ - main metal loses an electron
2. ________________ - the oxygen atom in the liquid (water) picks up the lost
electron.
3. ________________ - the metal oxygen are attracted to each other by the

difference in charges or potential difference (opposites
attract). The combination of iron and oxygen forms a new
molecule, iron oxide (FeO2), rust.
Most people know what rust is, but what they don’t know that it is caused by the
chemical effect of current flow. In most case that current flow is incredibly small.
************************************************

PRACTICAL - EFFECTS OF CURRENT

PURPOSE:
This practical is used to demonstrate three of the four effects of an electric current.
 Connect a circuit consisting of a coil, a resistor and an electrolytic cell.
 Demonstrate that electric current can be conducted by a liquid.
 Demonstrate that current flow through a resistor will cause the
temperature of the resistor to rise.
 Demonstrate that a coil produces a magnetic field when conducting
electric current.
 Use a digital multimeter to measure the resistance of selected circuit
components.
 Observe correct circuit isolation procedures when working with electrical
equipment.
EQUIPMENT:

□ 1 x 0 - 2 - 20V analogue voltmeter
□ 1 x 0 – 1 A analogue ammeter
□ 1 x Digital multimeter
□ 1 x coil with movable steel core
□ 1 x glass beaker and two copper electrodes
□ tap water and salt


PROCEDURE
1. 1.The electrolytic cell consists of a glass beaker and two copper electrodes. Ensure
the electrodes do not touch each other.
2. Fill the beaker with clean tap water to approximately 3/4 of its capacity.
3. Using the multimeter, set to appropriate resistance ranges, measure and record in
table 1, the resistance of the electrolytic cell, resistor and coil.
 Be sure to select the resistance range that gives the most accurate result
 short the ends of the test leads and check the meter zero’s before measuring
resistance.
Table 1
Resistance - Ohms
Cell Resistor Coil
4. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your results and completes the progress
table.
Progress Table 1
figure 11 and then connect the circuit.
0 - 500mA
A
DC Electrolytic 
Power V 0 DC
- 20V Cell 10 watt
Supply Resistor
Coil
figure 11

table.
Progress Table 2
7. Set the power supply controls to give minimum output voltage, then close the circuit
switch.
8. Adjust the power supply to give a circuit voltage of 10V. Observe the circuit
operation and complete table 2 by –
o recording the circuit current as indicated by the ammeter
o tick the appropriate choice in relation to the water, resistor and coil.
Table 2
Circuit Water Resistor Coil
Current (visual observation) (feel) (move steel core)
no magnetic
no visible effect hot
effect
slight bubbling at one slight magnetic
warm
electrode effect
heavy bubbling at one strong magnetic
cool
electrode effect
9. Open the circuit switch and turn the power supply voltage control to minimum.
10. Place a teaspoon of salt into the water and stir gently.
11. Close the circuit switch and adjust the power supply to give a circuit current of 0.1
A. Observe the circuit operation and complete table 3 by -
o recording the voltage applied to the circuit as indicated by the voltmeter
o tick the appropriate choice in relation to the electrolyte, resistor and coil.
Table 3
Voltage (visual observation) (feel) (move steel core)
no magnetic
effect
warm
electrode effect
cool
electrode effect

12. Adjust the power supply to increase the circuit current to 0.3 A. Record the applied
voltage and complete the observations of table 4.
Table 4
no magnetic
effect
warm
electrode effect
cool
electrode effect
13. Adjust the power supply to increase the circuit current to 0.4 A. Record the applied
voltage and complete the observations of table 5
Table 5
no magnetic
effect
warm
electrode effect
cool
electrode effect
table.
Progress Table 3
15. Open the circuit switch, turn the DC power supply off and disconnect the circuit.
16. Using the digital multimeter, set to appropriate resistance ranges, measure and record
in table 6 the resistance of the electrolytic cell, resistor and coil. Be sure to -
o select the resistance range.
o short the ends of the test leads and check the meter zero’s before measuring
resistance.

NOTE:
Take care the resistor will be Hot.
Be careful of burnt fingers
Table 6
Resistance - Ohms
Cell Resistor Coil
17. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your circuit and completes the progress
table.
Progress Table 1
18. Return all equipment to its proper place, safely and carefully.
OBSERVATIONS
1. What effect did the addition of salt to the water have on the current flowing on
the circuit ?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Which is the better conductor of electric current - tap water or tap water with salt
added ?
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. What effect did the addition of salt to the water have on the resistance of the water?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. What happens to the magnetic effect developed by a coil, when the current
through it is increased?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. What happens to the level of chemical action within an electrolytic cell, when
the current through the cell is increased?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
table
Progress Table 1
******************************************************

TUTORIAL - EFFECTS OF CURRENT

NAME:

 All relevant equations and working are to be shown in the case of calculation
type questions.
SECTION A
1. Current flowing through a copper conductor will cause a:

(a) magnetic field around the conductor
(b) chemical reaction within the conductor
(c) decrease in conductor size
(d) decrease in conductor temperature
2. Besides heat, the other effect that is always present when current flows is:
(a) Physiological
(b) Chemical
(c) Magnetic
(d) Electrolytic
3. Chemical reactions are caused when current flows through a/an:

(a) solid conductor
(b) electrolyte
(c) inductor

(d) capacitor
4. An electric motor rotates due to the:
(a) chemical effect of current
(b) magnetic effect of current.
(c) heating effect of current.
(d) physiological effect of current
5. Stray electric currents flowing in the ground often cause:
(a) nitrogen to be drawn from the soil
(b) the ground to warm up
(c) compasses to be incorrect
(d) pipes to corrode.
6. The magnetic effect of current is most noticeable when:
(a) a single conductor is used
(b) conductors are formed in a "hair-pin" shape
(c) conductors are formed into a coil
(d) you hold a magnet near the conductor
7. Which of the four effects of current is the predominant effect used in electroplating
and metal refining:
(a) Magnetic
(b) Heating
(c) Chemical
(d) Physiological
8. A person receiving an electric shock is an example of the:

(b) magnetic effect of current
(c) heating effect of current
9. In determining which of the effects of current will be most pronounced in a circuit,

the nature of the circuit must be taken into account as well as the:
(a) resistance of the circuit
(b) ratio of voltage to current
(c) magnitude of the current
(d) time for which the circuit is energised
10. The operation of a fuse depends on the:
(b) magnetic effect of current
(c) heating effect of current
SECTION B
information.
The ____(11)____ effect of current is used in the electroplating process.
The ____(12)____ effect of electric current in a coil may be used to operate electrical
relays.
Underground pipes and cables are often damaged due to the ____(13)____ effect of
stray electric currents in the ground.
An electric current produces four effects, two of which are always present. They are
____(14)____ and ____(15)____.
A ____(16)____ cell is one that may be recharged. This process is an example of the
____(17)____ effect of current.

Death due to electric shock can occur if sufficient ____(18)____ flows for a long enough
period of ____(19)____ .
The current in a solid conductor produces heat due to increased movement of the
____(20)____.
SECTION C
correct to two (2) decimal places where applicable.
21. A circuit takes a steady current of 5A for 2400 seconds. Determine the quantity of
electricity supplied to the circuit. (12000C)
22. A lighting circuit takes a current of 3.2A for 10 minutes. Determine the quantity of
electricity supplied to the circuit. (1920C)
23. An electroplating bath uses 14400 coulombs of electricity in 10 minutes. Determine

the current in amperes. (24A)
24. A battery takes 14400 coulombs to fully charge at a constant current of 2A.
Determine the time taken in hours to charge the battery. (2 hours)
25. Change the following equations so that -
(a) t is the subject of Q = I.t

(b) I is the subject of Q = I.t
V
(c) V is the subject of I =
R
(d) I2 is the subject of IT = I1 + I2
26. Draw the circuit diagram of a 12Ω resistor supplied from a battery and controlled by
a switch. In your diagram include:
(a) a fuse to protect the circuit,

(b) an ammeter to measure the circuit current,
(c) a voltmeter to measure the battery voltage.
(d) an arrow to show the conventional direction of current flow.

***************************************************

NOTES:

EMF SOURCES
TOPIC 6 EMF sources energy sources and conversion electrical

energy encompassing:
 basic principles of producing a emf from the interaction of a moving

conductor in a magnetic field.
 basic principles of producing an emf from the heating of one junction of a
thermocouple.
 basic principles of producing a emf by the application of sun light falling
on the surface of photovoltaic cells
 basic principles of generating a emf when a mechanical force is applied to
a crystal (piezo electric effect)
 principles of producing a electrical current from primary, secondary and
fuel cells
 input, output, efficiency or losses of electrical systems and machines
 effect of losses in electrical wiring and machines
 principle of conservation of energy

6: EMF Sources Miller College 6
1. PRODUCTION OF AN EMF
Electricity is a form of energy. A basic law, called the Conservation of Energy, says
that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
However, energy can be ____________________ from one form to another.
This means that electrical energy has to come from other sources of
energy, by a conversion process. The most commonly used energy
sources for this are:
 _____________________ energy
 _____________________ energy
 _____________________ energy. page 41
Figures 1, 2 and 3 illustrate the commonly used energy conversion processes.
ENERGY ELECTRICAL
CONVERSION ENERGY
DEVICE OUT
figure 1
ENERGY ELECTRICAL
CONVERSION ENERGY
DEVICE OUT
figure 2
ENERGY ELECTRICAL
CONVERSION ENERGY
DEVICE OUT
figure 3
As you saw in Sections 1 and 2 of this module, a voltage is ‘electrical pressure’ and
current is a flow of electrons. The current does the work (lights a lamp, makes a motor
turn), as a voltage by itself is simply a pressure source. So, electrical energy is a
combination of voltage and current.
Electrical energy is used (or more correctly, transformed) only when current flows.
This means that the energy source to produce the electrical energy is only being used
when current flows. For instance, a battery that's not connected to anything isn't supplying
electrical energy, even though there's a voltage developed across its terminals.
A brief look now at the various ways of producing electricity. All these methods convert
one form of energy into electrical energy.

2. MECHANICAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Mechanical energy is movement. The three main ways to convert mechanical movement
into electrical energy are:
 __________________ between two materials
 __________________ a conductor in a magnetic field
 __________________ stress applied to a piezo-electric crystal.
Friction
Most of us have felt the effect of 'static' electricity. When you walk on a nylon carpet or
slide over a fabric covered car seat you can be 'charged up' to a high voltage. This is
because electrons have either been transferred to you or taken from you.
Static electricity is produced when clouds move in the atmosphere, because of friction
between the cloud and the surrounding air. Once the voltage is high enough, an electric
current can flow through the air between two charged clouds. We see the current as
lightning, caused by the voltage ionising the air. Rubbing certain types of materials
together can also produce static electricity.
The available energy from static electricity is rarely useful, although very high voltages
can be produced.
The Generator
The generator employs the principle of forcing conductors through a magnetic field to
generate a voltage, known as electromagnetic induction. Depending on the type of
machine, the resulting supply may be alternating or direct.
figure 4

The generator must be driven by a prime mover, for example -
 __________________ turbine __________________ turbine
 __________________ turbine __________________ engine.
A voltage can be produced by moving a conductor through a magnetic field. By winding

the conductor into a coil, a higher voltage is produced as there are more conductors in the
field. This diagram in figure 5 shows the principle.
page 46
figure 5
The voltage produced by the electromagnetic effect depends on the -
number of ______________ that move in the magnetic field
 ______________ of the magnetic field
 ______________ of movement.
Note, it doesn't matter whether the magnetic field or the conductor moves - a
voltage is produced if either moves.
Movement between the conductor and the magnetic field is produced by mechanical
energy and its energy source can come from a diesel or petrol engine, flowing water, high
pressure steam that turns a turbine, even human power.
See alos: http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/electricmotors.html#mandg

Select: motors & generators for an animation
Also: video on You Tube:- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYiI6i9Zq4Y

Piezo-electric crystal
Some types of quartz crystals such as quartz and rochelle salt produce a voltage between
opposite sides of the crystal if there's pressure on them. The voltage produced depends on
the amount of pressure.
page 45
figure 6.
Materials that have this characteristic are called _______________________ materials.
These materials are used in -
 load cells
 electronic cigarette lighters and gas lighters
 record player pick-ups
 some kinds of microphones.
The amount of energy produced is very small, so this method is used only when very
small currents are needed.
When used in electronic gas lighters, a piezo-electric crystal produces a spark. The spark
is the result of a very high voltage developed by the crystal when someone operates the
trigger of the lighter.
The pick-up cartridge in many record players has a piezo-electric element. These are
usually called ‘ceramic’ cartridges as the piezo element is made from ceramic materials
rather than with a quartz crystal. The pick-up stylus is connected to the ceramic element,
which produces a voltage caused by the movement of the stylus. Electronic watches also
have a quartz crystal which produces the timing signals for the electronics in the watch.
A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure pressure,
acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical voltage..

Piezoelectric load cell used for weighting equipment. Piezoelectric Sound senor
E.g. a microphone
Piezoelectric accelerometer

3. CHEMICAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Each component in a series circuit dissipates power and the total power delivered to a
circuit is supplied by the circuit power supply. Therefore, it can be stated –
When two different metals are put into a liquid called an electrolyte (an acid or an alkali),
a voltage is developed between the two metals. The emf produced is due to the chemical
activity between the electrodes and the electrolyte.
The basic electric cell, shown below in figure 7 has three components -
 a positive electrode
 a negative electrode
 an electrolyte.
page 44
figure 7
The magnitude of the emf produced depends upon the metals used for the electrodes.
There are two broad categories of cell -
 _________________________ cell - cannot be recharged
 _________________________ cell - can be recharged.
An example of a primary cell is the ___________________ cell which develops a voltage

of approximately _____ volts.
Examples of secondary cells are -
 _____________ cell which develops a voltage of approximately _____ volts
 _____________ cell which develops a voltage of approximately _____ volts.
A ___________________ is a number of cells connected together inside the one package.

A carbon-zinc cell produces 1.5V and a lead-acid cell produces 2V. Therefore, a 6V lead-
acid battery has three cells and a 12V car battery has six. A typical smoke alarm 9V
carbon-zinc battery has six cells, stacked on top of each other.

Each cell is connected to the next cell by a ‘strap’, a small wire in small batteries through
to large lead or copper bars in large battery rooms. In most batteries these straps are
hidden inside the battery case.
A typical 6 cell car battery A typical cordless phone battery (3 cells)
Battery rooms (hundreds of cells) can be massive and worth a small fortune.
A 3rd type of cell is a fuel cell, which is a device that converts the chemical energy from
a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent.
Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols
like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they

require a constant source of fuel and oxygen to run, but they can produce electricity
continually for as long as these inputs are supplied.
Welsh Physicist William Grove developed the first crude fuel cells in 1839. The first
commercial use of fuel cells was in NASA space programs to generate power for probes,
satellites and space capsules. Since then, fuel cells have been used in many other
applications. Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial
and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas. They are used to power fuel
cell vehicles, including automobiles, buses, forklifts, airplanes, boats, motorcycles and
submarines. Fuel cells may be the next big energy source of the future, especially for
transport options which can use an electric motor such as cars, small trucks and buses.
4. RADIENT ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Radiant energy is available in either of two forms -
 _______________ energy
 _______________ energy.
Heat can be used to directly produce a voltage using a device called a _______________.
A thermocouple is simply two different metals joined at a point called the junction. If heat
is applied to the junction as in figure 8, a voltage is developed by the thermocouple. The

other end - the cold end - is not heated and usually has the same temperature as the
surrounding air (ambient temperature).
page 42
figure 8.
The voltage produced depends on the -
 type of materials used in the thermocouple
and the
 difference in the temperature between the ends of the thermocouple.
Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and
control. They are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors,
and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of
temperature measurement, thermocouples are self-powered and require no external form
of excitation.
The most popular/common is the ‘K Type’ above

Type K (chromel {90% nickel and 10% chromium}—alumel {95% nickel, 2%
manganese, 2% aluminium and 1% silicon}) is the most common general purpose
thermocouple with a sensitivity of approximately 41 µV/°C. It is inexpensive, and a wide
variety of probes are available in its −200 °C to +1350 °C range. The junction is made by
welding the wires together at a single point, the other ends connected to the electronics.
Whenever you see a digital readout of temperature, there is a thermocouple at the start of
the measurement process. E.g. In your car, the air (or water, or oil) temperature is being
measured by a thermocouple under the bonnet, the output voltage is then converted by
electronics into the readout you see inside the car. The digital format is widely used
within industry for the setting of alarms (and/or shutting down of equipment) when
temperatures move outside specified limits.
The thermocouple junction is quite small and fragile so they are often encased in various
other devices called ‘probes’ to enable their use with equipment or machinery. Adding

mass to the probe slows down rapid movements in output voltage that can result from fast
cooling & heating cycles, therefore you get a gradual rise or fall in temperature rather
than rapid fluctuations.
There are many different types of thermocouples and they are designated a letter e.g. K, J,
N, R, S, B, T, E. Each has a unique combination of metals and is suited to a particular
purpose or industry. They are the most common form of temperature measurement device
between -2720C and + 16000C. As stated above, K Types are the most common
thermocouple, a typical reference table is below (tens of degrees down LHS + any single
degrees along top; eg 45oC =1.817mV output expected from the probe)
A thermopile is an electronic device that converts thermal energy into electrical energy.
It is composed of several thermocouples connected usually in series or, less commonly, in
parallel. Often used in large gas burner applications where if 1 gas burner flame goes out
accidently, the whole appliance is shut down to stop an explosion.
LIGHT ENERGY
Radiant energy also appears in the form of light energy, which can be used in the
production of an emf.
A device that produces a voltage when exposed to light is called ___________________.

The best known photo-voltaic device is the _____________ cell, which is made from
specially treated silicon.
The Australian Standard drawing symbol for the photo-voltaic cell is shown below.
figure 9.
A single solar cell produces about 0.4V. The size of the cell determines how much current
it can supply. Most solar cell panels have a number of cells and are generally used to
charge a battery.
Satellites are powered by banks of solar cells, and there a number of experimental solar
power stations. Solar cells are also used in country areas to power telephones, houses,
road signs and weather stations. As the main problem is to concentrate the energy from
the sun onto the cells, mirrors which track the sun's movement are often used with the
cells. A solar cell doesn't need any maintenance and produces electricity whenever light is
present.
One PV cell triggers this day/night switch Many cells make up this Photo Voltacic panel
as seen on many houses.
EFFICIENCY
A electric machine (motor or generator) is an energy conversion device. Compared to

other energy conversion devices, electrical machines can be very efficient in converting
electrical energy to mechanical energy or vice versa. The engine in your car only converts
about 30% to 40% of the potential energy in the fuel into mechanical energy. Electrical
machines, especially larger machine, can convert over 90% of the input energy to useful
output. The causes of any inefficiency in any system are the losses in the process. By
understanding the losses and minimising them by good design the efficiency of any

process may be improved. Most losses are converted into heat, therefore most equipment
and machines require cooling. A car has a radiator to remove heat from the engine, a
typical electric motor has a fan on the end to blow air over the body, and sometimes
through the inside motor. Most electric and battery drills have air flowing through the
insides of the motor to cool them. When cooling is lost to a machine, through blockage or
malfunction, the machine will overheat and be terminally damaged with a short period of
time.
The input power, losses and output power for a motor are illustrated below:-
All losses given off as heat

Copper loss
Iron loss
F & W loss
Electrical
Input Mechanical
Power Output
Power
Motor
Input Output
RATED POWER
All electric machines are rated by their output power. A 10 kilowatt motor can deliver 10
kilowatts of mechanical power to its load. The electrical input power will be greater than
10 kilowatts due to losses. Similarly a 10 kilowatt generator can deliver 10 kilowatts to its
electrical load while requiring a prime mover larger than 10 kilowatts to drive it due to
losses.
The losses in a machine may be calculated:
Example
A 400V, 10kW motor takes 30 amperes from the supply when it delivers full rated load at
1400 r.p.m. Determine:
(A) the input power to the motor;
(B) the losses in the motor at full load.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
ENERGY/POWER LOSS
Another subtle loss which can cause major problems and fires is the heat produced in
cabling and wires. All the conductors in the electrical industry have some resistance per
metre of cable, we know that Power (heat) = I2 R, so when we allow more current to flow
in a cable, more heat is generated. This heat is an energy loss in the system; it is not
delivered to the motor or appliance at the end of the cable.
A large part of your studies in 2nd and 3rd year will be how to minimise this heat build-up
for every application, it must be kept within limits otherwise cables will be damaged and
fires will result. A good example is Table C5 below (from the rear of AS3000), if you
look at 2.5mm2 Twin & earth, a very common cable. If protected by a circuit breaker, it
is allowed to carry 16A when installed completely surrounded by thermal insulation or
32A when installed in conduit underground. When underground, it can dissipate far more
heat than when covered by insulation batts in a ceiling, therefore where it can naturally
dissipate more heat, we allow it to carry more current.

Conservation of Energy
Many of the most important and powerful scientific laws are conservation laws - the amount
of some physical quantity or variable is found to remain a constant; it cannot change.
Energy is one of the physical quantities that is conserved in our universe. This can be stated
as follows: Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. The one exception is in nuclear
reactions where mass is turned into energy, and as we have seen, this occurs only in the
centre of stars and in nuclear reactors.
Let's look at an example of an electric light bulb. A light bulb changes electrical energy into
light energy. If we were to measure these energies for one second, we might get energy
numbers that look something like this:
Electrical Light
Energy In Energy Out
100 J (joules) 70 J (joules)
This would suggest that energy is not conserved? Where did the other 30 J of energy go?
Remember that energy can change into more than one form simultaneously. And if you
feel a light bulb it is very hot. The "missing" energy must have gone into heat energy. So,
the actual energies were more like this:
Light
Electrical Energy Out
Energy In 70 J (joules)
100 J (joules) +
Heat Energy Out
30 J (joules)
This propensity for energy to change into more than one type of energy is extremely
common. And the most common energy for this "missing" energy to go to is heat energy.
Since our goal for the light bulb is for all of the electrical energy to go into light energy,
the heat energy is really "lost" energy. What is worse is when it then adds to the cooling
load, so we have to run an air-conditioner longer just to remove the waste heat from light
bulbs or other appliances.

We can rate our light bulb by measuring its efficiency, or percentage of energy that goes
where we want it to go.
The equation for efficiency is:
So for our light bulb above, the efficiency would be 70% as shown below:
Even though we may "lose" energy in the form of heat, the total energy is still the same.
Energy is conserved.
5. VOLTAGE SOURCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Any device that produces an emf can be represented by what is known as its equivalent
circuit.
The equivalent circuit consists of -
 a cell - representing the emf developed (E)
 a series connected resistor - representing the internal resistance of the voltage
source (Ri)
Ri V
E
figure 10
The quantities associated with the equivalent circuit are -
E = emf developed in volts (V).
Ri = internal resistance in ohms (Ω).
V = terminal voltage in volts (V).

When load is connected to the source, a series circuit is formed. Current flows, a voltage
drop occurs across Ri, as shown in figure 11.
Ri VRi VL
E
Figure 11
Equations used in any series circuit (Section 8) can be applied to this circuit:
V=IxR
IT = I1= I 2= I3
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
on any part or all of the circuit.
Example 1
Determine the voltage drops across the internal resistance (VRi) and the load resistance
(VRL) for the circuit of figure 12.
I=2A
Ri = 1 Ω
V RL = 5 Ω
E = 12 V
figure 12.
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

From the results of example 1 it can be seen that the terminal voltage of the source and
the voltage on the load can be determined from the equation:
where: E = the sources developed E.M.F. in volts (V).
V = the source terminal voltage in volts (V)

VRi = the voltage drop across the internal resistance in volts (V).
When ohms law is added to the equation
where: E = the sources developed E.M.F. in volts (V).
V = the source terminal voltage in volts (V)

I = the current flowing in the circuit in amperes (A).
Ri = internal resistance in ohms (Ω).
Example 2
The equivalent circuit of a generator is shown in figure 13. Determine the voltage drop
across the internal resistance (VRi) and the E.M.F. developed (E) for the circuit.
I = 50 A
Ri = 0. 2 Ω
V = 290 V
E= ?V
figure 13.
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Example 3
The equivalent circuit of a battery consisting of 2 x 1.5 volt cells is shown in figure 14.
Determine the
I = 200m A
a) developed E.M.F (E)
b) voltage on internal resistance (VRi) Ri = 0.75 Ω
c) terminal voltage (V). E = 1.5 V
V= ?V
Ri = 0.75 Ω
E = 1.5 V
figure 14.
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________

Example 4
Figure 15. shows a group of 3 thermocouples in a thermopile determine the:
a) E.MF. developed (E)
b) total circuit resistance (RT)
c) total circuit current (IT)
d) voltage drop on each internal resistance (VRi)
e) terminal voltage of the thermopile (V)
I=? A
Ri = 100 Ω
E= 2V
Ri = 100 Ω V= ?
E= 2V RL= 3kΩ
Ri = 100 Ω
E= 2V
figure 15.
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________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

6. VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
The voltage drop across a particular resistor in a series circuit may be determined using
the voltage divider. The advantage of the voltage divider is that voltage drops may be
determined without knowing the circuit current. The basic arrangement for the voltage
divider is shown in figure 16.
R1
VT
R2
At later stages in this course voltage
dividers will be used to explain earth-fault figure 16
loop impedance as per AS300-2007.
Example 5
For the circuit of figure 17, assume the supply voltage is 24 V, R1 has a value of 12 Ω and
R2 a value of 12 Ω. Determine the voltage drop across the resistor R2.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Example 6
For the circuit of figure 17, assume the supply voltage is 24 V, R1 has a value of 6 Ω and
R2 a value of 18 Ω. Determine the voltage drop across the resistor R2.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Example 7
For the circuit of figure 17, assume the supply voltage is 10V, R1 has a value of 1kΩ and
R2 a value of 3kΩ. Determine the voltage drop across the resistor R2.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Notes:

PRACTICAL – EMF SOURCES

PURPOSE:
This practical assignment will be used to verify the laws of series circuits relating to
resistance, voltage and current..
 Connect a series circuit using a circuit diagram as a guide.
 Use a multimeter as an ohmmeter to measure resistance values.
 Observe the effects of an open circuit and a short circuit on the operation of
a series circuit.
 Verify the following laws related to a series circuit -
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
I T = I 1 = I 2 = I3
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
R2 VT
V2  x VT or V2  x R2
R1  R 2 R1  R 2
 Apply Ohm's law to verify the relationship between voltage, current and
resistance for a series circuit.
EQUIPMENT:

□ 1 x 0 - 500mA analogue ammeter
□ 2 x 10W resistors - 1 each 10and 33


1. THE VOLTAGE DIVIDER

1. Connect the 10 Ω and 33 Ω resistors in series as shown in figure 17.
+ 0-500 mA
A
S1 R1 = 10 Ω
DC + 0-20 V
Power VT
Supply
R2 = 33 Ω
figure 17
Progress Table 1
3. Set the supply voltage to minimum.

4. Close switch S1.
5. Adjust supply voltage to 20 Volts.
6. Record the supply current in table 1.
7. Open Switch S1.
8. Reconnect the voltmeter to measure the voltage of V1 as shown in figure 18.
+ 0-500 mA
A
+
S1 R1 = 10 Ω V1
DC
Power
Supply
R2 = 33 Ω
figure 18.
Note: Do not change the power supply setting.

9. Close Switch S1.

10. Record the voltage V1 current in table 1.

11. Open Switch S1.
12. Reconnect the voltmeter to measure the voltage of V2 as shown in figure 19.
+ 0-500 mA
A
S1 R1 = 10 Ω
DC
Power
Supply
+
R2 = 33 Ω V2 0-20 V
figure 19.

13. Close Switch S1.
14. Record the voltage V2 current in table 1.
Table 1
Supply Voltage Supply Current Voltage Drop V1 Voltage Drop V2
Volts (V) Amperes (A) Volts (V) Volts (V)
20 V
15. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your results and completes progress table 2
Progress Table 1
16. Reduce the voltage to zero volts. Turn off the power supply and disconnect the circuit.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Using the results of table 1, calculate the total resistance of the circuit. Use the
equation
VT
RT 
IT
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________________________________________________________________________
2. Calculate the total resistance of the circuit. Use the equation
R T  R1  R 2
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________________________________________________________________________
3. How do the results of questions 1 and 2 compare ?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Using the results of table 1, calculate the Voltage drop across R1 of the circuit. Use the
equation
V1  I1  R 1
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Calculate the Voltage drop across R1 of the circuit. Use the equation
R1
V1   VT
R1  R 2
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________


________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. Using the results of table 1, calculate the Voltage drop across R2 of the circuit. Use the
equation
V2  I 2  R 2
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Calculate the Voltage drop across R2 of the circuit. Use the equation
R2
V2   VT
R1  R 2
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. What is the advantage of using the voltage divider calculation to find the voltage drop
of a resistor over ohms law ?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Notes:

TUTORIAL - EMF SOURCES

NAME:

questions.
not to be freehand.
SECTION A
1. The magnitude of the emf produced by a photo-voltaic cell depends upon the:
(a) size of the electrodes

(b) material from which the electrodes are made
(c) intensity of light to which it is exposed
(d) number of positive and negative electrodes
2. The magnitude of the emf produced at the terminals of a secondary cell depends on
the:
(a) size of the electrodes

(b) material from which the electrodes are made
(c) intensity of light to which it is exposed
(d) (h)number of positive and negative electrodes
3. The open circuit emf produced by a single dry cell is approximately:
(a) 0.5V
(b) 1.0V
(c) 1.5V
(d) 2.0V

4. A common device used to produce a small emf by having two different metals
joined to form a junction is called a:
(a) thermopile
(b) thermocouple
(c) piezoelectric cell
(d) dry cell
5. Certain crystals when placed under mechanical stresses or vibration produce an emf.
The effect is called the:
(a) photoelectric effect

(b) thermoelectric effect
(c) piezoelectric effect
(d) crystalelectric effect
6. A number of thermocouples connected so their emf's add together is termed a:
(a) thermotank
(b) multitherm
(c) thermocouple bank
(d) thermopile
7. The piezoelectric effect produces electrical energy from:
(a) light energy

(b) heat energy
(c) mechanical energy
(d) chemical energy
8. Generally speaking the physical size of a cell increases with:
(a) increase in output current

(b) decrease in output current
(c) increase in output voltage
(d) decrease in output voltage

9. All emf sources are forms of:
(a) current generators

(b) power converters
(c) energy converters
(d) charge storing devices
10. Solar cells are commonly used to power:
(a) outback telephones

(b) spacecraft
(c) experimental electric cars
(d) all of the above
SECTION B
information.
11. The ……………. cell produces an emf when exposed to light.
12. The …………….effect is used to produce an emf in a microphone.
13. …………….are often embedded in the walls of furnaces to detect temperature

changes.
14. An emf may be produced by the piezoelectric effect if a ……………. is vibrated.
15. A device called a ……………. is created where a difference of temperature exists

between two junctions of dissimilar metals.
16. A secondary cell is one in which the chemical reactions are …………….
17. The emf per cell of a standard lead-acid battery is approximately …………….volts.
18. The chemical reactions cannot be reversed in a …………….cell.
19. A generator produces an emf due to the relative motion between a …………….and
a magnetic field.
20. A thermopile consists of two or more ……………. connected in series.
21. The electromagnetic effect is used by a …………….to produce an emf.
22. The photo-voltaic cell produces an emf when exposed to a …………….source.

SECTION C
23. Convert the following quantities to the multiple or sub-multiple required:

(a) 0.005 ohms to microhms (5000µ
(b) 130 milliampers to amperes (0.13A)
(c) 250 000 ohms to megohms (0.25M
(d) 0.28 megavolts to kilovolts (280kV)
(e) 158 000 volts to kilovolts. (158kV)
24. A circuit has an applied voltage of 150V and a resistance of 12k. Determine the
circuit current. (12.5mA or 12.5 x 10-3A)
25. A circuit that has a resistance of 50kdraws a current ofmA. Determine the
applied voltage. (60V)
26. The equivalent circuit of a battery consisting of 2 x 1.8 volt cells is shown in figure
20. Determine the
a) developed E.M.F (E) I = 150m A
b) voltage on internal resistance (VRi)
Ri = 0.5 Ω
c) terminal voltage (E).
E = 1.8 V
V= ?V
Ri = 0.5 Ω
E = 1.8 V
figure 20
27. Determine the voltage drop on resistor R2 of figure 21. Use the voltage divider
equation.
R1 = 300Ω
VT = 50 V
R2 = 100 Ω
figure 21.

RESISTORS
TOPIC 7 Resistors encompassing:
 features of fixed and variable resistor types and typical applications

 identification of fixed and variable resistors
 various types of fixed resistors used in the Electro technology Industry.
e.g. wire-wound, carbon film, tapped resistors.
 various types of variable resistors used in the Electro technology Industry
e.g. adjustable resistors: potentiometer and rheostat; light dependent
resistor (LDR); voltage dependent resistor (VDR) and temperature
dependent resistor (NTC, PTC).
 characteristics of temperature, voltage and light dependent resistors and
typical applications of each
 power ratings of a resistor.
 power loss (heat) occurring in a conductor.
 resistance of a colour coded resistor from colour code tables and confirm
the value by measurement.
 measurement of resistance of a range of variable’ resistors under varying
conditions of light, voltage, temperature conditions.
 specifying a resistor for a particular application.

7: Resistors Miller College 7
1. FIXED AND VARIABLE RESISTORS
Resistors are components intended to insert a known value of

resistance (they provide opposition to current flow) into an electrical
circuit.
Resistors are available in many different types –
o _________________________________________________
o _________________________________________________
o _________________________________________________ page 63
o _________________________________________________.
The generalised voltage-current (V-I) characteristics for resistors are shown in figure.
Current
(amperes)
0
0 Voltage
(volts)
figure 1
FIXED (LINEAR) RESISTORS
A linear resistor is one which has a practically constant resistance. As shown in figure 2,
the straight line represents constant resistance.
0.5
Current - amperes
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Voltage - volts
figure 2
The resistance of the resistor shown in figure 2 would be –

The slope of the V-I characteristic identifies the resistance of the resistor.
R1
0.5
Current - amperes
0.4
0.3
R2
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Voltage - volts
figure 3
Example 1
Determine the values of the resistors R1 and R2, whose characteristics are shown in fig 3.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
When using the V-I characteristic for resistors -
o a steep slope represents a ____________ resistance
o a shallow slope represents a ____________ resistance.
The two general symbols used to represent linear resistors in circuit diagrams are shown
in figure 4.
figure 4

2. RESISTOR SELECTION
The selection of a resistor is based on two factors, the required -
o _____________________________
o _____________________________.
In general, the power rating of a resistor is determined by its physical size, the physically
larger the resistor, the higher the power rating. A higher power rating means the ability to
generate more heat if heating is the desired outcome e.g. A kettle. Or to be able to tolerate
more heat as a secondary aspect of its’ function within a circuit (the primary function may
be to provide ’x’ amount of resistance).
figure 5
Resistors are available in a range of power ratings. The common power ratings are -
}
¼W
½W
1W
}
5W
10W
20W
40W
The current flow to a circuit is to be limited using a resistor. If the voltage across the
resistor is to be 8V and the current through it 0.25A, determine -
(a) the resistance required
(b) a suitable power rating for the resistor.

Some typical resistors
Example 2
A resistor has a power rating of 2W and a resistance of 220. Determine the maximum
voltage that could be applied to the resistor without exceeding its power rating.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Example 3
Determine the required power rating for a 470 resistor which is required to carry a
current of 40mA.
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________________________________________________________________________

RESISTOR IDENTIFCATION
The required values to correctly identify a resistor are -
o _______________________________
o _______________________________
o _______________________________.
Resistors with large physical size have this information printed on the body of the
resistor.
irh irh
PW10 PW5
4K7 10R
K K
204 204
figure 6
3. VARIABLE (NON-LINEAR) RESISTORS
The four common non-linear resistors are the -
o ___________________________
o ___________________________
o ___________________________
o ___________________________.
VOLTAGE DEPENDANT RESISTORS
A voltage-dependent resistor (VDR or varistor) is a component in which the voltage

across the device affects its resistance. VDRs are usually made from silicon carbide
mixed with a ceramic material, formed into either a disc or a rod. The assembly is fired at
high temperature and covered with protective insulation.

V
figure 7
The main use of VDRs is to protect a circuit from a voltage surge. When the voltage
across a VDR goes over a certain value, its resistance very quickly drops to a very low
value. If the voltage surge lasts long enough, the large current flowing in the VDR will
blow the circuit fuse (or trip a circuit breaker) and isolate the circuit from the supply. If
the surge is very brief, the energy in the surge will be dissipated by the VDR without
blowing the fuse.
Current - amperes
0
0 Voltage - volts
figure 8
A VDR is therefore given two ratings -
o ___________________________________
o __________________________________.
Voltage ratings vary from 5V to several hundred volts. A typical voltage rating for a VDR
connected across the 240V AC mains supply is 275V. A VDR is connected across (or in
parallel with) the circuit it is protecting as illustrated below. Notice that the VDR is
connected after the fuse.
Circuit
V
Supply to be
protected
figure 9.
In overhead power supply lines VDRs are used as surge diverters by connecting them
from each line to an metal earth stake driven into the ground. If the lines are struck by
lighting, the VDRs divert the voltage surge to the ground, minimising or preventing
damage to equipment. The shape and size of a VDR determines the amount of energy it
can dissipate. Large VDRs are made by combining a number of smaller ones.

VDRs used as voltage protection devices with low-power electrical or electronic
equipment are about the size of a 10c piece. Surge diverters to protect large electric
motors or mains supply lines are much larger.
The response time of a VDR is _____________________ - important if it's to give

enough protection from a voltage surge caused by a lighting strike. Light-sensitive
devices have a number of uses in electrical and electronic circuits.
LIGHT DEPENDANT RESISTORS
The light-dependent resistor (LDR) consists of a thin ceramic disc sintered with
cadmium-sulphide. (Sintering is the process of using heat to combine two materials.)
Cadmium-sulphide is a photo-conductive material, which means its resistance is affected
by light. A vacuum-deposited metallic grid is applied to the surface of the disc and the
whole assembly then covered in clear plastic.
The resistance of LDRs in complete darkness is over 10MΩ, which falls to less than
100Ω in normal daylight. They are used in light meters and automatic exposure controls
in cameras.
LDRs are also used as a light sensor in automatically controlled lighting installations,
where the increase in resistance of the LDR causes the lights to switch on at sunset. The
LDR is connected to operate a relay, which in turn switches the lights. When it's daylight,
the resistance of the LDR falls, switching off the relay that controls the lights.
The LDR has a time lag between a change in light to a change in resistance. It takes about
10 milliseconds for an LDR to respond to a change from total darkness to daylight. In this
case, the resistance of the LDR drops. However, it takes over one second for the
resistance to increase when the light is removed. Therefore the LDR is not used to detect
fast changes of light. This is useful, as flashes of lightning in the night are too fast to
cause the LDR to turn of the lights.
Resistance - ohms
0
dark light
Light intensity
figure 10.

The construction, response curve and symbol of an LDR are shown below. A typical LDR
is about the size of a five cent piece. As the response curve shows, the LDR is a non-
linear resistor.
figure 11.
4. THE RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
Resistors having a small physical size use a standard colour code to identify the -
o ___________________________
o ___________________________.
Figure 12. shows the layout of the general purpose four band colour code.
figure 12.
page 66
Fig 2.23

Example 4
Using the standard colour code, determine the resistance and the tolerance of the 4 band
resistor shown in figure 13
orange
white
brown
silver
figure 13.
Example 5
For the resistor shown in figure 13, determine the possible range of resistances for the
resistor.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Example 6
Using the standard colour code, determine the resistance and the tolerance of the resistor
shown in figure 14. Also determine the acceptable range of resistance for the resistor.
brown
red
yellow
gold
figure 14.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Example 7
blue
grey
silver
gold
figure15.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Example 8
Determine the colour code for each of the following resistors
(a) 1.8k, 10% ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
(b) , 5% ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
(c) 330k, 20% ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
1 AND 2 % TOLERANCE 5 BAND COLOUR CODED RESISTORS
High tolerance carbon film resistors have a fifth digit to allow a more precise selection.
The process is the same as the four band resistors. BUT the multiplier is 10 times
smaller than a 4 band resistors due to the extra digit.
figure16.

Example 9
brown
red
red
red
red
figure 17.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Example 10
Determine the colour code for each of the following resistors
(a) 1.15k, 1% _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
(b) , % _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
(c) 10k, 2% _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Resistor values range from 0.01 to over 80M. It's not economical for resistor
manufacturers to make every possible value - this would require over 80 million different
values of resistance.
Instead, a standard set of values, called the ________________________ values, is made.

By combining several resistors together, from those available in the ‘preferred values’, we
can achieve any resistance we desire – a sort of ‘mix ‘n match’ system.
The commonly used series of preferred values are the -
o E6 series for resistors having a tolerance of ±20%
o E12 series for resistors having a tolerance of ±10%
o E24 series for resistors having a tolerance of ±5%.
o E48 series for resistors having a tolerance of ±2%. page 67

Fig 2.25
o E96 series for resistors having a tolerance of ±1%.

5. RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
The resistance ranges of a multimeter operate by passing a

current through the resistance being measured. The current is
supplied by a battery inside the multimeter case. Figure 18
shows a typical general purpose analogue multimeter.
When a resistor is connected to the terminals of a multimeter,

current flows and the meter pointer is deflected by an amount
proportional to the value of the current. By Ohm's law, the
lower the resistance the greater the current, so low values of
resistance give a higher deflection. The higher the resistance,
the less the deflection.
figure 18
The two extremes of resistance measurement are the short-
circuit (zero resistance), and the open-circuit.
There's an open-circuit when the ohmmeter probes are held

apart, and the meter pointer will stay at its usual rest
position. This point is usually shown on the scale with the
infinity ∞ symbol.
The mechanical zero of the meter movement adjusts the

pointer for infinite ohms. Do this adjustment first.
When the meter probes are joined, the resistance is a figure 19

minimum and the pointer deflects upscale towards the zero
ohms mark.
The 'zero ohms' potentiometer adjusts the circuit so the

pointer is aligned with the 0 ohms indication on the scale.
This adjustment compensates for the battery voltage
changing over time, and should be done whenever a
resistance measurement is being made. It should also be
checked whenever another resistance range is selected.
Resistance measurement is
always done when power is
removed from the circuit. figure 20
Because current is inversely proportional to resistance, the multimeter resistance scale
follows an inverse law, giving a scale that is expanded on the right and compressed on the
left. You can see this on the scale in figure 21 below.

figure 21
Multimeters have a number of resistance ranges. The best range to use is the one which
lets the pointer deflect as close to full-scale as possible.
When measuring resistance you should -
o ensure the circuit is isolated and dead
o check the mechanical zero is adjusted to infinite ohms, this is done with the test
leads separated
o select the appropriate resistance range
o short the test leads together and if necessary adjust the meter to zero ohms
o connect the test leads across the component or device
o read the meter resistance scale
o determine the value being measured by taking the reading from the scale and
applying the correct multiplying factor, based on the resistance range the meter is
switched to.
Figure 22 shows a typical digital multimeter. The approach to

using a digital multimeter for the measurement of resistance is
similar to that for an analogue multimeter –
o make sure there's no power applied to the circuit while you

are measuring resistance
o plug the test leads into the correct meter terminals, usually
marked +V and COM
o set the meter to the appropriate resistance range
o if the meter is not auto-ranging, select the lowest

resistance range that gives a reading.
figure 22

6. VOLTMETER-AMMETER METHOD OF RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
The voltmeter-ammeter method of measuring resistance is employed for measuring the
resistance of devices whose resistance cannot be measured using an analogue or digital
multimeter, or when their resistance changes between cold ‘out od service’ and hot ‘in
service’. E.g, there is a dramatic difference in the resistance of a light bulb between cold
and when at operating temperature, obviously the current drawn is the proportional to the
hot resistance.
The current in the test circuit is measured by an ammeter while a voltmeter is connected
across the circuit to indicate the potential difference across the appliance. The resistance
is then calculated from Ohm's law expression -
V
R
I
where: R = the resistance of the appliance in ohms
V = the voltmeter reading, in volts
I = the ammeter reading, in amperes.
There are two ways in which this method of resistance determination can be used -
o the __________________________ connection
o the __________________________ connection.
Figure 23 below, illustrates the short shunt connection. In this arrangement the
voltmeter is connected only across the device under test (the most common method)
Supply Rx V
voltage
Short shunt connection is used for low values of resistance compared to the resistance to
the multimeter, typically less than ________________ ohms. If a larger value of
resistance is to be measured, say over 1000 ohms, then the long shunt connection as
shown in figure 24 is used.
A A
Supply Supply
Rx V V Rx
voltage voltage
OR
figure 24.

*****************************************************
Notes:


PRACTICAL - RESISTANCE AND RESISTANCE

MEASUREMENT
PURPOSE:
This practical assignment will be used to verify the resistor colour code and to examine
the operating characteristics of two non-linear resistors - the voltage dependent resistor
(VDR) and the light dependent resistor (LDR).
o Use the resistor colour code to determine the resistance of a selection of

colour coded resistors.
o Use a multimeter as an ohmmeter to measure resistance values.
o State if the measured values of resistance, for a selection of resistors, fall

within specified tolerances.
o Plot the voltage current characteristics for a voltage dependent resistor.
o Use a multimeter as an ohmmeter to measure the variation of resistance for a

light dependent resistor under varying light conditions.
EQUIPMENT:
□ 1 x multimeter (digital or analogue)
□ 1 x resistor colour code panel
□ 1 x 8V VDR
□ 1 x DSCD01 LDR


THE RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

1. Using the resistor colour code determine the resistance value and percentage tolerance
for each of the 12 resistors, R1 - R12, shown in table 1. Record the values in the
appropriate columns of table 1.
For example, a resistor carries the colour bands - red, violet, brown, gold
Applying the colour code red = 2 violet = 7 brown = x 10 gold = 5%

 Resistance value = 27 x 10 = 270 5%
Table 1
Colour Code
Resistance Tolerance Resistance Measured Within
Resistor
1st 2nd 3rd 4th ohms  Range Resistance Tolerance
band band band band ohms ohms yes or no
example red violet brown gold 270  256.5 - 283.5 263 YES
R1 brown black black gold
R2 orange orange black gold
R3 blue grey black gold
R4 brown black brown gold
R5 green blue brown gold
R6 brown red red gold
R7 orange orange red gold
R8 red violet orange gold
R9 grey red orange gold
R10 brown grey yellow gold
R11 green blue yellow gold
R12 orange white green silver
2. Calculate the resistance range for each resistor using the specified resistance value
and tolerance and record the values in the appropriate column of table 1.
For example, 270W -5% = 270 x 0.95 = 256.5 Ω
270 +5% = 270 x 1.05 = 283.5 Ω
Resistance range = 256.5 - 283.5 Ω

table.
Progress Table 1
4. Using the multimeter measure the value of resistance for each of the 12 resistors and
record in table 1.
Note:
Be sure to zero the meter, prior to commencing, if using an analogue
multimeter.
Be sure to zero the multimeter each time you change to a different range.
5. For each resistor, compare the measured resistance with the value specified by the
colour code and the resistance range as determined using the tolerance. State, for each
resistor, if the measured value falls within the specified tolerance by writing 'YES' or
'NO' in the appropriate column of table 1.
table.
Progress Table 2
VDR V-I CHARACTERISTICS

1. Connect the circuit of figure 25. Note, the VDR is not polarised.
0 - 50mA DC
A
DC
V V Digital
Power
multimeter
Supply
0 - 20V DC
figure 25.

table.
Progress Table 2
3. Adjust the power supply for minimum output voltage.

4. Close the circuit switch and with zero volts applied to the VDR measure the circuit
current. Record in table 2.
7. Increase the circuit voltage to 1 volt. Record the value of circuit current as indicated
by the ammeter.
Table 2
VDR
Voltage 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14
volts
VDR
Current
mA
8. Repeat the procedure for each of the VDR voltages shown in table 2.
table.
Progress Table 3
10. Turn off the power supply and disconnect the circuit.
LDR OPERATION
1. Using the multimeter as an ohmmeter, measure the dark resistance of the LDR.
Record the value in table 3.
Table 3
LDR Resistance
ohms
When Dark Under Ambient Light Under Torch Light
2. Measure the resistance of the LDR in ambient light conditions and record in table 3.
3. Shine light from a torch onto the face of the LDR and measure its resistance. Record
in table 3.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Were all of the colour coded resistors within tolerance.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Occasionally the actual measured value of a resistor will not be within the expected
tolerance limits. Does this mean the resistor is of no use?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. On the axes provided, plot V-I characteristics for the VDR. Note, when drawing the
graph take the line of best fit.
50
45
40
35
30
Current - mA
25
20
15
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Voltage - volts
figure 26.

4. From the V-I characteristic of the VDR determine the breakdown voltage.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Does the VDR have a linear or non-linear characteristic?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. What happens to the resistance of an LDR when it is exposed to increased light

levels?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7. Name an application for a VDR and an application for an LDR.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Notes:

TUTORIAL – RESISTANCE AND RESISTANCE

MEASUREMENT
NAME:

questions.
SECTION A
1. Resistors are rated by their value of resistance and the:

(a) maximum voltage applicable
(b) cross-sectional area of wire from which they are made
(c) maximum current flow
(d) power able to be safely dissipated
2. A light dependant resistor has a/an:

(a) non-linear characteristic
(b) linear characteristic
(c) constant characteristic
(d) inverse characteristic
3. A resistor whose resistance remains constant with changes in external conditions is

said to have a/an:
(a) non-linear characteristic.
(b) linear characteristic
(c) constant characteristic.
(d) inverse characteristic

4. The resistance of a voltage dependant resistor at normal working voltages is:
(a) very high.
(b) very low.
(c) determined by the circuit power dissipation.
(d) determined by the current flow in the circuit
5. The preferred value of a 25000 Ω resistor with a 5 % tolerance is:

(a) 22000 Ω.
(b) 24000Ω.
(c) 25000 Ω.
(d) 27000 Ω.
6. A 47 kΩ, 5% resistor would be indicated by the colour band order:

(a) violet, yellow, green, gold.
(b) yellow, violet, orange, gold.
(c) green, blue, red, silver.
(d) grey, red, green.
7. The number of units in one milli unit is one multiplied by:

(a) 106
(b) 103
(c) 10-3
(d) 10-6
8. The basic unit of resistance is the:

(a) mho
(b) siemen
(c) ohm
(d) ampere
9. The number of units in one micro unit is one multiplied by:

(a) 106
(b) 103
(c) 10-3
(d) 10-6
10. The standard unit for the measurement of time is the:

(a) minute.
(b) hour.
(c) second.
(d) milli second.
11. The number of units in one mega unit is one multiplied by:
(a) 106
(b) 103
(c) 10-3
(d) 10-6

12. The standard unit for the measurement of conductance is the:
(a) siemen.
(b) ohm.
(c) ampere.
(d) milli ohm.
13. The unit for the quantity of electricity is the:

(a) coulomb.
(b) volt.
(c) siemen.
(d) ampere.
14. A voltage of 1kV is equal to:

(a) 0.001V.
(b) 1 x 10-3V
(c) 1000V
(d) 0.1V
Section B:
information.
15. The physical difference between a 100 Ω, 10W resistor and a 100 Ω, 1W resistor is its
____________.
16. The resistance of an LDR varies from a high value to a low value as the light falling
on the resistor ___________.
17. Three common methods of construction of resistors are ___________, __________

and ____________.
18. A resistor has a resistance of 470W, with a tolerance of 10%. The colour code for this
resistor would be ____________, ___________, ____________ and __________.
19. A resistor has a resistance of 5R6W, with a tolerance of 1%. The colour code for this
resistor would be ____________, ___________, _____________ and __________.
20. A resistor with a gold fourth band would have a tolerance of ___________.
SECTION C:

21. Using the resistor colour code, determine the resistance and tolerance of the resistor
shown in figure 23. (2200  5%).
red
red
red
gold
figure 23.
shown in figure 24. (680 Ω ±10%)
blue
grey
brown
silver
figure 24
23. A resistor has a power rating of 5W and a resistance of 470Ω. Determine the
maximum voltage that could be applied to the resistor without exceeding its power
rating. (48.47V)
24. Draw the Australian standard symbols for the voltage dependant resistor and the light
dependant resistor.
25. Draw the characteristic curve for a light dependant resistor.
26. Draw the characteristic curve for a voltage dependant resistor.
27. List one application for each of the following devices:

(a) light dependant resistor
(b) voltage dependant resistor
(c) thermistor.

28. A circuit has a current flow of 15A when connected to a 24 V battery. Determine the
current that will flow if the same circuit is connected to a 50 V battery. (31.25A)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
29. Determine the resistance values indicated on each of the meters shown.

*****************************************
NOTES:

SERIES CIRCUITS
TOPIC 8 Series circuits encompassing:
 circuit diagram of a single-source d.c. ‘series’ circuit.

 Identification of the major components of a ‘series’ circuit: power supply;
loads; connecting leads and switch
 applications where ‘series’ circuits are used in the Electro technology
industry.
 characteristics of a ‘series’ circuit - connection of loads, current path,
voltage drops, power dissipation and effects of an open circuit in a
‘series’ circuit.
 the voltage, current, resistances or power dissipated from measured or
given values of any two of these quantities
 relationship between voltage drops and resistance in a simple voltage
divider network.
 setting up and connecting a single-source series dc circuit
 measurement of resistance, voltage and current values in a single source
series circuit
 effect of an open-circuit on a series connected circuit

8: SERIES CIRCUITS Miller College 8
1. WHAT IS A SERIES CIRCUIT ?
Series circuit:– is a circuit in which all components are connected so as to allow only one
path for current to flow.
Switch and lamp in series Lamps in series

figure 1
In a series circuit, every device must function for the circuit to be complete. One bulb
burning out in a series circuit breaks the circuit; same if the switch is opened or a
conductor disconnected.
2. CURRENT FLOW IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
A series circuit has only one current path, therefore there is only ___________________
value. Current (Amps) will be the same value at any point in the series circuit.
R1
IT I1
R2
I2
R3
I3
page 68
figure 2.
The current is like a thick rope of electrons stretching from one end of the circuit to the
other, all the electrons pull each other along. When that column of electrons starts to
move, it moves through all resistances at the same speed, just like pulling a rope around 1
corner of a house, adding another bulb is like now pulling that rope around 2 corners of
the house, adding a 3rd bulb is like now pulling around 3 corners. If we want the rope to
keep moving at the same speed (as for 1 corner) we need to increase the effort; same for
our circuit above, if we want the current to flow through 3 bulbs as fast as it did for 1, we
need to increase the voltage. The voltage is like the pulling power on the rope, it
encourages movement. If we don’t change the voltage, the current will slow down when
we add more resistance.

Total resistance is therefore a factor in how fast current can flow. The final electron speed
(the steady state current flow) is based on the total resistance and the applied voltage.
Change one or the other, up or down and the current will change. Also remember the
resistance of some devices change as they get hotter, e.g light bulbs.
Therefore, the basic rule relating to resistance in a series circuit states –
The current in a series circuit is the __________ in all parts of the circuit.
This statement may be expressed mathematically as -
where: IT = supply current

I1 = current through resistor R1
3. RESISTANCE OF A SERIES CIRCUIT.
Consider three resistors connected in series.
R1
R2
R2
figure 3 page 68
As current flows through the circuit it passes through each resistor in turn. That is, the
total resistance seen by the power supply will be the combination of all resistances.
Therefore, the basic rule relating to resistance in a series circuit states -
The equivalent or total resistance is equal to the __________ of the individual

resistances.

This statement may be expressed mathematically as -
where: RT = total circuit resistance

R1 = resistance of resistor R1
Therefore we could replace the 3 resistors with just one, equal to RT and the same current
would flow.
Example 1
Three resistors having resistances of 5, 4 and 11 are connected in series. Calculate
the total resistance of the circuit.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Example 2 R1
Determine the resistance of the resistor R2 in the circuit 
of figure 4. RT  R2
_____________________________________________ 
_____________________________________________ R3
figure 4.
4. OHM’S LAW AND THE SERIES CIRCUIT

As seen previously, values of voltage, current and resistance may be determined by the
application of Ohm's law. The three equations associated with Ohm's law are –
As is the case with the basic electric circuit, Ohm's law may be applied to a series circuit
to determine values of voltage, current and resistance.
Ohm's law may be applied to –

VT
 an entire series circuit - using total circuit values, for example, R T 
IT
V1
 any individual section of a series circuit - using section values, for example, R 1 
I1
Example 3
For the circuit of figure 5, deterne -

R1
(a) total circuit resistance

VT = 200V  R2

R3
(b) circuit current Figure 5
Example 4
Determine the voltage across resistor R2 in the circuit of figure 6.
R1
1.5A
VT  R2
R3
figure 6
5. VOLTAGE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
Consider the circuit shown in figure 7.
V1
R1
I = 1A 
VT  R2 V2

R4
page 69
V3
figure 7
Assuming the current flowing in the circuit and the value of the individual resistances are
known, the voltages across each resistor may be determined.
These voltages are known as the circuit _______________________________________.

The circuit voltage drops may be determined by applying Ohm's law to each resistor
individually.
o The voltage drop across the resistor R1 is determined by applying Ohm's law using
only values associated with R1 -
o The voltage drop across the resistor R2 is determined by applying Ohm's law using
only values associated with R2 -
o The voltage drop across R3 is determined in the same way, but using only values
associated with R3 -
If each of the individual voltage drops are known, the applied voltage may be determined.
The rule for voltages in a series circuit, known as Kirchhoff's voltage law, is –
The applied voltage is equal to the __________ of the individual voltages.
This statement may be expressed mathematically as –
where: VT = the applied voltage

V1 = the voltage drop across resistor R1
Example 5
For the series circuit shown in figure 8, determine - R1
(a) total circuit resistance 0.6A 
(b) the voltage drop across each resistor VT  R2
(c) the supply voltage. 
R3
Page 6 of 24 Section 8 Version 1 figure
Solve 8. in DC circuits
Problems
Example 6
Determine the voltage drop across the resistor R3 in the circuit of figure 9.
R1
16V
VT = 32V 7V R2
R3
figure 9.
6. EFFECT OF AN OPEN CIRCUIT IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider three lamps connected in series, as shown in figure 11. What would be the
effect on the circuit of say lamp 2 going open circuit?
Lamp Lamp
Lamp Open circuit

Lamp Lamp
figure 10 figure 11
The open circuit would cause the circuit current to _____________________________.
The effects of an open circuit in any part of a series circuit are -
 circuit current is ________________

 the resistance of the circuit is ________________
 the voltage across the open circuit equals the _____________________
 the voltage drop across all other components equals _________________
 all components in the circuit _______________ working.
7. EFFECT OF A SHORT CIRCUIT IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider three lamps connected in series, as shown in figure 13. What would be the effect
on the circuit of say lamp 3 going short circuit?
Lamp Lamp
Lamp Short Lamp
Lamp Lamp
figure 12 figure 13
The short circuit would cause the circuit current to _____________________________.

The effects of a short circuit in any part of a series circuit are -
 the resistance of the circuit is ________________
 the voltage across the short circuit equals _____________________
 the voltage across all other components _________________
 all components in the rest of the circuit work _______________ because of
the increased voltage drop across them.
8. POWER IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

Each component in a series circuit dissipates power and the total power delivered to a
circuit is supplied by the circuit power supply. Therefore, it can be stated -
The total power supplied to a series circuit is equal to the ____________ of
the powers dissipated by each component.
Writing this statement in the form of an equation gives -
where: PT = total power dissipated

P1 = power dissipated by component 1
Example 7
For the circuit shown in figure 14, calculate the -
(a) total circuit resistance. R1
VT 
(b) total circuit current.
125 V R2
(c) voltage drop across R1

(d) voltage drop across R2
figure 14
(e) power dissipated by each resistor
(f) total power dissipated
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. SERIES CIRCUITS IN ELECTRO TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY
There are quite a few uses for series connected components, mostly we never think about
them, e.g. many power tools have their major internal components, the armature and field
windings, connected in series. Many simple Christmas tree lights have sections of bulbs,
say 20 bulbs to a section, which are connected in series - if 1 bulb fails the whole section
stops working. Electric heaters, grillers and water urns which have 3 heat switches (low,
medium, high) will use 2 elements – on the lowest heat setting they connect the 2
elements in series. Remember:- Power (heat out) = I2R, so if we drop the current to ½,
we drop the power (heat out) to half compared to 1 element or to a quarter compared to
both elements in parallel. We will look at Parallel Connection in the next section.

8: Series Circuits Miller College 8
PRACTICAL - SERIES CIRCUITS

PURPOSE:
This practical assignment will be used to verify the laws of series circuits relating to
resistance, voltage and current..
 Connect a series circuit using a circuit diagram as a guide.
 Use a multimeter as an ohmmeter to measure resistance values.
a series circuit.
 Verify the following laws related to a series circuit -
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
I T = I 1 = I 2 = I3
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
resistance for a series circuit.
EQUIPMENT:

□ 1 x multimeter (digital)
□ 3 x 10W resistors - 1 each 5.6, 10 18


1. EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF A SERIES CIRCUIT
1. Using the digital multimeter as an ohmmeter, measure the actual resistance of the
5.6W, 10W and 18W resistors. Record the values in table 1.
Table 1
Specified Resistance Value Actual Resistance Value
Resistor ohms ohms
R1 5.6
R2 
R3 
2. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the three resistors connected in series. Use the
actual resistance values from table 1. Record the value in table 2.
Remember: RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Table 2
Calculated Equivalent Measured Equivalent Measured Equivalent Measured Equivalent
Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance
ohms ohms R2 Open Circuit R2 Short Circuit
ohms ohms
3. Connect the three resistors in series as shown in figure 15, then measure the circuit
equivalent resistance using the digital multimeter as an ohmmeter. Record the value in
table 2.

R1
 R2 
R3

figure 15
4. Open circuit the resistor R2, as shown in figure 16. Then measure the circuit
equivalent resistance. Record the value in table 2.


R1 open circuit
 R2 
R3

figure 16
5. Reconnect the resistor R2.

6. Using a 4mm connecting lead, short circuit the resistor R2 as shown in figure 17.
Measure the equivalent resistance of the circuit and record in table 2.

R1
 R2 
R3
figure 17
Progress Table 1
2. CURRENT IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

1. The current through each resistor is measured to the left hand side of each resistor.
Connect the circuit as shown in figure 18, with the ammeter positioned to measure the
total circuit current IT.
0 - 500 mA
5.6Ω
IT
R1
DC
Power V 0 - 10V R2 
Supply DC
18Ω
figure 18 R3

Progress Table 2
3. Turn on the power supply, close the circuit switch and then adjust the power supply
for an applied voltage of 10V.
4. From figure 18, measure and record, in table 3, the value of the total circuit current.
5. The current in resistor R1 is also measured at this same position record it table 3.
Table 3
Total Circuit Current Current Through Current Through Current Through
IT R1 R2 R3
mA mA mA mA
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 =
6. Open the circuit switch and disconnect the wire on the ammeter –ve terminal at R1 as
shown in figure 19.
0 - 500 mA
5.6Ω
I1
R1
DC
Power V 0 - 10V R2 
Supply DC
18Ω
figure 19 R3
7. Remove the ammeter from the circuit at the ammeters +ve terminal. Restore the
positive circuit conductor to the left hand side of R1 as shown in figure 20.
I1
5.6Ω
R1
DC
Power V 0 - 10V R2 
Supply DC
18Ω
R3
figure 20
8. Disconnect the +ve circuit conductor on the left hand side of R2 as shown in figure 21.
5.6Ω
R1
DC
Power V 0 - 10V R2 
Supply DC
18Ω
R3
figure 21
9. Connect the floating conductor into the +ve terminal of the ammeter.
10. The –ve wire of the ammeter is connected to the +ve side of R2, as shown in figure 22.
5.6Ω 0 - 500 mA
R1
I2
DC
Power V 0 - 10V
Supply DC
R2 
18Ω
R3
figure 22
11. Close the circuit switch, check the supply voltage is 10V and then measure the current
flowing into the resistor R2. Record the value in table 3.
12. Open the circuit switch. Repeat the previous procedure to reposition the ammeter to
measure the current flowing into resistor R3, as shown in figure 23.

5.6Ω
R1
DC
Power V 0 - 10V R2 
Supply DC
18Ω
I3
R3
figure 23 0 - 500 mA
flowing into resistor R3. Record the value in table 3
14. Open the circuit switch.
15. Open circuit the resistor R2 by removing it from the circuit, as shown in figure 24.
5.6Ω
R1
DC
Power V 0 - 10V open circuit
Supply DC
18 Ω
I3
R3
figure 24 0 - 500 mA
16. Close the circuit switch and note the effect the open circuit has on circuit current.
Circuit current with an open circuit = _________

17. Measure the voltage across the open circuit using the voltmeter.
Voltage across the open circuit = _________
18. Compare the voltage across the supply voltage to the voltage across the open circuit.
The voltage across the open circuit ________________ the supply voltage
19. With the open circuit still in place, use the voltmeter measure the voltage drops across
R1 and R3.
Voltage drop across R1 =_________

20. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your results and completes progress table 3
Progress Table 3
3. VOLTAGE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT.
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 25.
0 - 500mA DC

IT
R1
DC
Power Digital mm
VT R2 
Supply 0 - 20V DC

R3
Figure 25
2. Close the circuit switch, turn on the power supply and then adjust to give a circuit
current of 280mA.
3. Measure and record in table 4, the applied voltage VT.
Table 4
Applied Voltage VT Voltage Drop V1 Voltage Drop V2 Voltage Drop V3
volts volts volts volts
4. Open the circuit switch, then reconnect the voltmeter to measure the voltage drop
across the resistor R1, as shown in figure 26. Close switch and record the value in
table 4.

0 - 500mA DC

IT
R1
DC
V1
Power R2 
Supply

R3
figure 26
table 4.
0 - 500mA DC

IT
R1
DC
Power V2 R2 
Supply

R3
figure 27
table 4.
0 - 500mA DC

IT
R1
DC
Power
V3 R2 
Supply

R3
figure 28
7. Open the circuit switch, the using a 4mm connection lead place a short circuit
across the resistor R2, as shown in figure 29.

0 - 500mA DC

IT
R1
DC
Power R2 
Supply

R3
figure 29
8. Note the effect of the short circuit on circuit current.
Circuit current = ___________

9. Using the voltmeter, measure the voltage across the short circuit.
The voltage across the short circuit = _____________

10. Using the voltmeter, measure the voltage drops across resistors R1 and R3.
11. What effect does the short circuit have on the voltage drops across the components
still in circuit?
Component voltage drops are __________________.
12. Do not proceed until the teacher checks your results and complete progress table 4.
Progress Table 4
13. Reduce the voltage to zero volts. Turn off the power supply and disconnect the
circuit.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Based on the results of this practical assignment, what is the effect on equivalent
resistance of connecting resistances in series ?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Based on your results, what can be said about the current in a series circuit ?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Does the sum of the individual voltage drops in a series circuit equal the applied
voltage? Use information obtained during this practical assignment to support your
answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Using your results in table 3, apply Ohm' law to calculate the equivalent resistance of
the circuit. Compare your calculated value to the measured value in table 2.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What are the effects of an open circuit in a series circuit ?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. What are the effects of a short circuit applied to a section of a series circuit?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

TUTORIAL - SERIES CIRCUITS

NAME:

questions.
not to be freehand.
SECTION A
1. In a series circuit the applied voltage is equal to the:
(a) sum of the resistance times the current

(b) sum of the resistance divided by the current
(c) difference of the voltage drops across each resistor
(d) sum of the resistances times the current squared
2. The current in a series circuit is:
(a) equal to the sum of the currents in each component.

(b) is proportional to the resistance of the circuit.
(c) the same in all parts of the circuit.
(d) decreases as it gets closer to the negative terminal of the supply.
3. Connecting resistors in series produces the same effect as increasing the:
(a) supply voltage

(b) cross-sectional area of resistance wire
(c) length of resistance wire
(d) supply current

4. When five lamps are connected in series and the third lamp burns out:
(a) lamps one and two go out, but four and five stay on
(b) all lamps except the third lamp remain on
(c) all lamps go out
(d) the fuse blows.
5. The current in a series circuit, consisting of three resistors of equal resistance, is

12A. If two resistors are short circuited the current will then be:
(a) 36A
(b) 4A
(c) 12A
(d) 0A
6. The voltage drop across each resistor in a series circuit is:
(a) equal to the product of current squared and resistance

(b) proportional to the conductance of each resistor
(c) inversely proportional to the supply voltage
(d) proportional to the resistance of each resistor
7. The total power in a series circuit may be determined by:
(a) multiplying total resistance of the circuit by current

(b) dividing supply voltage by total resistance
(c) subtracting total voltage drop from the supply voltage
(d) adding together the power taken by each component
8. Two resistors A and B are connected in series to a 200V supply. If resistor B has
three times the resistance of A, the voltage drop across resistor B is:
(a) 200V
(b) 50V
(c) 150V
(d) 167V

9. A series circuit is defined as a circuit with:
(a) more than one current path

(b) only one current path
(c) more than one component
(d) more than one supply voltage
10. The equivalent resistance of a series circuit is determined by:
(a) the sum of the individual resistances

(b) the product of the individual resistances
(c) only by the use of Ohm's law
(d) the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances
SECTION B
information.
11. The current in all parts of a ________ circuit has the same value.
12. If three cells each having an internal resistance of 0.4 are connected in series, the
total internal resistance of the battery is ________ ohms.
13. In a series circuit the sum of the voltage drops equals the ________.
14. Two lamps are connected in series across a 240V supply. The voltage across one
lamp is 100V. The voltage across the second lamp would be ________.
15. The total power taken by a series circuit is equal to the ________ of the powers
taken by the individual components.

Questions 16 to 21 relate to figure 30
A B
R1
A1

DC
Power VT R2 
Supply
R3
A3 A2

D C
figure 30
16. The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the ________ of the individual
resistances.
17. The reading on ammeter A1 will ________ the reading on ammeter A3.
18. If the value of the resistor R2 was decreased, the equivalent circuit resistance would
_________.
19. With the switch in the open position, the voltage across the switch would equal
________.
20. Using the negative terminal of the power supply as a reference, complete the
following statements
(a) the voltage at point A would be ________ than the voltage at point C
(b) the voltage at point D would be ________ than the voltage at point B
(c) the voltage at point C would be _________ than the voltage at point D
(d) the voltage at point B would be ________ than the voltage at point C.
21. The power dissipated by resistor R2 would be _________ than the power dissipated
by resistor R1.

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
TOPIC 9 Parallel circuits encompassing:
 schematic diagram of a single-source d.c. ‘parallel’ circuit.

 major components of a ‘parallel’ circuit (power supply, loads, connecting
leads and switch)
 applications where ‘parallel’ circuits are used in the Electrotechnology
industry.
 characteristics of a ‘parallel’ circuit. (load connection, current paths,
voltage drops, power dissipation, affects of an open circuit in a ‘parallel’
circuit).
 relationship between currents entering a junction and currents leaving a
junction
 relationship between branch currents and resistances in a two branch
current divider network.
 calculation of the total resistance of a ‘parallel’ circuit.
 calculation of the total current of a ‘parallel’ circuit.
 Calculation of the total voltage and the individual voltage drops of a
‘parallel’ circuit.
 setting up and connecting a single-source d.c. parallel circuit
 resistance, voltage and current measurements in a single-source parallel
circuit
 voltage, current, resistance or power dissipated from measured values of
any of these quantities
 output current and voltage levels of connecting cells in parallel.

9: PARALLEL CIRCUITS Miller College 9
1. WHAT IS A PARALLEL CIRCUIT ?
Parallel circuit:- is a circuit in which components are connected so as to allow more than
one path for current to flow. It can flow in 2 or more pathways.
Switches in parallel Lamps in parallel

figure 1
2. PARALLEL CONNECTED RESISTORS
Figure 2 shows three resistors connected in parallel
VT R1 R2 R3
page 71
figure 2
The supply voltage VT is applied directly across each resistor. The whole top rail is
Positive (+) and the whole bottom rail is Negative (-), so the supply voltage VT is applied
to each resistor.
Therefore, the basic rule relating to voltages in a parallel circuit states -
Each branch voltage in a parallel circuit is _________________ to the supply voltage.
Based on the arrangement shown in figure 2, the voltages in various parts of a parallel
circuit may be expressed mathematically as -
where: VT = supply voltage

V1 = voltage across resistor R1

The currents that flow in a parallel circuit are known as the supply current and the branch
currents. Note: a dot at the junction means the conductors are connected together
VT R1 R2 R3
figure 3
Each branch current can be determined by the application of Ohm's law, provided the
terminal voltage and branch resistances are known -
Branch current I1 Branch current I2 Branch current I3
If each of the branch currents are known, then the supply current can be determined. (i.e.
the total current coming into the network from the emf source)
Therefore, the basic rule relating to currents in a parallel circuit is -
The supply current in a parallel circuit is equal to the _____________ of the branch
currents.
Mathematically this statement is written –
where: IT = supply current

I1 = branch current through resistor R1
The relationship between currents in a parallel circuit is also expressed by Kirchhoff's

current law, which states -
'The sum of all currents entering a junction equals the sum of the currents leaving the
junction'.

Example 1
For the circuit shown in figure 3, determine the -
(a) voltage across each resistor VT = 100 R1 R2 R3
(b) current in each branch 10 Ω 20 Ω 25 Ω
(c) total circuit current
figure 4
3. EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

When resistors are connected together, they can be replaced by a single resistor with the
same overall resistance as the set of resistors. That is the way compound circuits are
analysed, by replacing groups of resistors with a single resistor, on paper at least. A resistor
that has the same value as a group of combined resistors is called equivalent resistance.
The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit can be determined by the application of

Ohm's law, provided the terminal voltage (VT) and the supply current (IT) are known.
VT R1 R2 R3
RE
figure 5
where: REQ = circuit equivalent resistance in ohms

VT = supply voltage in volts
IT = circuit current in amperes

As circuit current is equal to the sum of the branch currents -
Applying Ohm's law to each current -
As the supply voltage is equal to the individual branch voltages -
Taking out the common term -
Inverting both sides of the equation -
where: REQ = circuit equivalent resistance in ohms

R1 = resistance of branch 1 in ohms
R2 = resistance of branch 2 in ohms
R3 = resistance of branch 3 in ohms page 72
Therefore, the basic rule relating to the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit states -
The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is equal to the reciprocal of the reciprocal
_____________ of the reciprocals of the individual branch resistances.
Note:
The equivalent resistance of a number of resistors connected in parallel is always
_________________ than the lowest of the individual resistance values. If not, recheck!

Example 2
Determine the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit shown in figure 13.5.
IT = 19A
VT = 100 V R1 R2 R3
10 Ω 20 Ω 25 Ω
figure 6
When only two resistors are connected in parallel the equivalent circuit resistance can be
determined using the simpler equation -
Example 3
Determine the equivalent resistance of two parallel connected resistors having values of
47 and 82.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
If in a parallel circuit all resistors have the same value, the equivalent resistance is given
by a very simple equation

Example 4
Four resistors, each of 12 resistance are connected in parallel to a 10V supply.
Calculate -
(a) circuit equivalent resistance
(b) supply current.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. POWER IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT
The total power taken by a parallel circuit is equal to the _____________ of the powers
taken by each branch.
where: PT = total power taken by circuit in watts

P1 = power taken by branch 1 in watts
page 74

Example 5
Two resistors of 20 and 10 are connected in parallel to a 20V supply. Calculate -
(a) equivalent circuit resistance
(b) power dissipated by each resistor
(c) total power dissipated by circuit.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. EFFECT OF AN OPEN CIRCUIT IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Consider three lamps connected in parallel, as shown in figure 7. and 8. What would be the
effect on the circuit of say lamp 2 going open circuit?
Lamp Lamp Lamp Lamp Lamp
figure 7 figure 8
The open circuit would cause the supply current to _____________________________.

The effects of an open circuit in any part of a parallel circuit are -
 Supply (or circuit) current is ________________.
 Current flow in the affected branch_______________.
 The open circuit component ____________________________.

 The equivalent resistance of the circuit is ________________.
 The voltage across the open circuit equals the _____________________.
 The voltage across all other components equals the _________________.
 All other components in the circuit _______________________________.
6. EFFECT OF AN SHORT CIRCUIT IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Consider three lamps connected in parallel, as shown in figure 10. What would be the
effect on the circuit of say lamp 3 going short circuit?
Lamp Lamp Lamp Lamp 1 Lamp 2 Lamp 3
figure 9. figure 10.
The short circuit across lamp 2 would cause the supply to be _____________________ .
This effectively causes a major upset in the circuit. The equivalent resistance is now very
low, almost zero. We can almost forget about the other 2 lamps, whether we include them
into a calculation or not, the REQ is very low. Due to the short circuit the circuit current
would _________________________________________________ and the circuit
protective device, the fuse or circuit breaker, needs to operate very quickly to prevent
major damage and/or a fire.
Remember Power (heat) = I2R, when the current goes up dramatically so does the
heat in all the components of the circuit.

The effects of a short circuit in any part of a parallel circuit are -
 the resistance of the circuit is _____________________________________
 the voltage across the short circuit equals _____________________
 the voltage across all other branches equals ______________________
 all components in the circuit ____________________________________.
PARALLEL CIRCUITS IN THE ELECTROTECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY
Most loads that we connect to 230V are connected in parallel. E.g. the light bulbs in a
house or factory, the socket outlets (we loop in and loop out with Active, Neutral & earth),
appliances, electric motors etc.
Whenever we connect 230V or 400V to any load e.g. a light, socket outlet, any device,
machine or equipment etc., we are connecting that load in parallel with all the other loads
on the supply network.
Within the appliance or machine, there may be series connected components, as discussed
in an earlier section, but when we connect our cable to it, it is in parallel on the supply
network.

PRACTICAL - PARALLEL CIRCUITS

PURPOSE:
This practical assignment will be used to verify the laws of parallel circuits relating
to resistance, voltage, current and power.
 Connect a parallel circuit using a circuit diagram as a guide.
a parallel circuit.
 Verify the following laws related to a parallel circuit -
1
R EQ 
1 1 1
 
R1 R 2 R 3
I T = I 1 + I 2 + I3
VT = V1 = V2 = V3
PT = P1 + P2 + P3
resistance for a parallel circuit.
EQUIPMENT:
1 x variable dc power supply.

1 x multimeter (digital or analogue).
1 x 0-2A analogue ammeter.
1 x 0-1A analogue ammeter.
1 x single pole switch.
3 x 10W resistors - 1 each 18Ω, 33Ω, 39Ω.
4mm connecting leads


1. Using the digital multimeter as an ohmmeter, measure the actual resistance of the
18W, 33W and 39W resistors. Record the values in table 1.
Table 1
Resistor Nominal Resistance Value Actual Resistance Value
ohms ohms
R1 
R2 
R3 
2. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the three resistors connected in parallel. Use the
actual resistance values. Record the value in table 2.
1
Remember: R EQ 
1 1 1
 
R1 R 2 R 3
Table 2
Calculated Equivalent Measured Equivalent Equivalent Resistance Equivalent Resistance
Resistance Resistance R2 Open Circuit R2 Short Circuit
ohms ohms ohms ohms
3. Connect the three resistors in parallel as shown in figure 11, then measure the circuit
equivalent resistance using the digital multimeter as an ohmmeter. Record the value in
table 2.
 R1 R2 R3
  
figure 11.

4. Open circuit the resistor R2, as shown in figure 12. Then measure the circuit
equivalent resistance. Record the value in table 2.
open circuit
 R1 R2 R3
  
figure 12
5. Reconnect the resistor R2.
6. Using a 4mm connection lead, short circuit the resistor R2 as shown in figure 3.
 R1 R2 R3
  
figure 13.
Progress Table 1
8. Using a 4mm connection lead, short circuit the resistor R2 as shown in figure 3.

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 14, with the 0-2A ammeter positioned to
measure the total circuit current IT and the 0-1A ammeter to measure the branch
current I1.
0-2A
IT
0-1A
I1
D
Power Digital mm V
0 - 20V DC R1 R2 R3
Supply
  
figure 14.

Progress Table 2
3. Turn on the power supply, close the circuit switch and then adjust the power supply
for an applied voltage of 12V.
4. Measure and record, in table 3, the value of the total circuit current IT and the branch
current I1.
Table 3
Total Circuit Current Current Through R1 Current Through R2 Current Through R3
A A A A
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 =
5. Open the circuit switch and reposition the 0-1A ammeter to measure the current
flowing through the resistor R2, as shown in figure 15.
0-2A
IT
0-1A
I2
D
Power Digital mm V
Supply 0 - 20V DC R1 R2 R3
  
figure 15.
flowing through resistor R2. Record the value in table 3.
7. Open the circuit switch and reposition the ammeter to measure the current flowing
through resistor R3, as shown in figure 16.
0-2A
IT
0-1A
I3
D
Power Digital mm V
  

figure 16.
10. Open circuit the resistor R2 by removing it from the circuit, as shown in figure 17.
0-2A
IT
0-1A
I3
D
Power Digital mm V
  
figure 17.
11. Close the circuit switch and note the effect the open circuit has on the supply current.
Supply current with an open circuit = _________
12. Measure the voltage across the open circuit using the voltmeter.
Voltage across the open circuit = _________
13. Measure the current flowing in branch 3.

The current in branch 3 has ___________________________________.
Progress Table 3
3. VOLTAGES OF THE PARALLEL CIRCUIT

0-2A DC
IT
DC
Power Digital mm V
0 - 20V DC R1 R2 R3
Supply
  

figure 18.
2. Close the circuit switch, turn on the power supply and then adjust to give a supply
voltage of 12V.
Table 4
Applied Voltage VT Voltage Drop V1 Voltage Drop V2 Voltage Drop V3

12V
across the resistor R1, as shown in figure 19. Record the value in table 4.
0-2A
IT
D
Power Digital mm
Supply 0 - 20V DC V R1 R2 R3
  
figure 19.
0-2A
IT
D
Power Digital mm
Supply 0 - 20V DC R1 V R2 R3
  
figure 20.
0-2A
IT
D
Power Digital mm
Supply 0 - 20V DC R1 R2 V R3
  

figure 21.
Progress Table 4.

8. Please return all equipment to its proper place, safely and carefully.
4. OBSERVATIONS:
1. Based on the results of this practical assignment, what is the effect on equivalent
resistance of connecting resistances in parallel?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Based on your results, what can be said about the currents in a parallel circuit?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Do the individual branch voltages in a parallel circuit equal the applied voltage? Use
information obtained during this practical assignment to support your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Using your results in table 3, apply Ohm' law to calculate the equivalent resistance of
the circuit. Compare your calculated value to the measured value in table 2.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Using your results in table 3, calculate the total power supplied to the circuit.
Use the equation P = I2R
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Using measured values of resistance for each of the three resistors used and the current
values recorded in table 3, calculate the power dissipated by each resistor.
Use the equation P = I2R.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Compare the total power dissipated, as determined in question 5, with the sum of the
individual branch powers as determined in question 6.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the effects of an open circuit in a parallel circuit?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. What are the effects of a short circuit applied to a section of a parallel circuit?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

*********************************************
Notes:

TUTORIAL - PARALLEL CIRCUITS

NAME:

questions.
not to be freehand.
Section A
1. In a parallel circuit the supply current is equal to the:
(a) total power multiplied by the supply voltage

(b) sum of the branch currents
(c) supply voltage divided by the resistance of any one branch
(d) ratio of the branch currents
2. Connecting resistors in parallel produces the same general effect as:
(a) increasing the temperature of a metallic conductor

(b) increasing the cross-sectional area of a conductor
(c) increasing the length of a conductor
(d) decreasing the conductance of a conductor.
3. When three 10Ω resistors are connected in parallel to each other, the voltage drop
across each is:
(a) one third of the supply voltage

(b) supply voltage divided by 10
(c) equal to the supply voltage
(d) supply voltage divided by 30.
4. The lowest value of resistance in any parallel combination of resistors is always:
(a) equal to the equivalent resistance of the combination.

(b) less than the equivalent resistance of the combination.
(c) dependent on voltage and current for its resistance.
(d) greater than the equivalent resistance of the combination.
5. Twenty five resistors each with a resistance of 100 Ω are connected in parallel with
each other. The equivalent resistance of the combination is:
(a) 100 Ω
(b) 2500 Ω
(c) 4 Ω
(d) 25 Ω
6. A parallel circuit is defined as a circuit with:
(a) more than one resistor

(b) more than one current path
(c) only one current path
(d) more than one supply voltage
7. If an extra parallel connected resistor is added to a circuit, the equivalent resistance of

the circuit will:
(a) increase
(b) remain unchanged
(c) decrease
(d) cause the applied voltage to increase.
8. The voltage in a parallel circuit:
(a) is the same in all parts of the circuit

(b) decreases through the circuit from resistor to resistor
(c) greater than the supply voltage
(d) increases with increase resistance.

9. If one resistor in a parallel circuit of three resistors becomes short circuited, the circuit
current will:
(a) remain constant

(b) decrease to zero
(c) decrease by the value of current in the shorted branch
(d) increase to a large value
10. The power dissipation of a parallel circuit is equal to the:
(a) sum of the power dissipation of each branch

(b) product of the power dissipation of each branch
(c) difference of the power dissipation of each branch
(d) power dissipation of each branch divided by the number of branches
Section B:
information.
11. Two electrical instruments whose readings can be combined to determine the power
dissipation of a circuit are the …………….. and ……………... meters..
12. When resistances are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance of the group is
always, …………….. than that of the smallest individual value of resistance in the
group.
13. The current taken by a parallel circuit is equal to the …………….. of the currents in
the separate branches.
14. The voltage across parallel branches of a parallel circuit is …………….. the supply
voltage.
15. To lower the equivalent resistance of a circuit, further resistance may be connected in
…………….. with the original circuit.
16. The total power taken by a parallel circuit is equal to the …………….. of the powers
taken by the individual branches.
17. Two lamps are connected in parallel. The filament of the first lamp open circuits, the
second lamp would ……………...

Questions 18 to 17 relate to figure 22.
A B C
A A A
DC
Power R  R  
Supply VT R3
figure 22.
18. The reading on ammeter A1 will be ……………... than the reading on ammeter A3.
19. If the value of the resistor R2 was decreased, the equivalent circuit resistance would
……………...
……………...
21. Using the negative terminal of the power supply as a reference, complete the
following statements
(a) the voltage at point A would ……………... the voltage at point C

(b) the voltage at point D would be ……………... than the voltage at point B
(c) the voltage at point C would be ……………... than the voltage at point D
(d) the voltage at point B would ……………... the voltage at point C.
22. The power dissipated by resistor R2 would be ……………... than the power
dissipated by resistor R1.
23. If resistor R1 became open circuit, the equivalent resistance of the circuit would be
……………...
24. If resistor R3 became short circuit, the circuit current would ……………... and the
power dissipation would ……………...

SECTION C
25. Determine the equivalent resistance for the circuit

shown in figure 2. (51.16Ω)
R1 R2 R3
26. Determine the current flowing in R1, R2, R3 and   
from the power supply in the circuit of figure 2 if
the supply voltage is 12V. (0.1A, 0.08A, 0.055A, figure 23.
0.235A)
27. Determine the supply voltage for the circuit of figure 23 if the total current flowing in
the circuit was 0.586A (30V)
28. For the circuit of figure 24 determine the -
(a) equivalent resistance. (5 Ω) V = 230 V R1 R2 R3

  
(b) current in each branch (19.2A, 11.5A, 15.33A)
(c) supply current (46A) figure 24.
(d) power dissipated by each branch (4408W, 2645W, 3526W)

(e) total power dissipation (10580W)
29. A circuit is made up of two resistors in parallel and has an equivalent resistance of
15.23 Ω. If R1 has a resistance of 25 Ω, determine the resistance of R2. (39 Ω)
30. For the circuit of figure 25 determine -
(a) equivalent resistance. (4.29 Ω)

(b) applied voltage. (60V) I1= 5A R1 R2 R3
  
(c) current in R2 and R3 (3A, 6A)
(d) supply current. (14A) figure 25.
(e) power dissipated in each branch. (300W, 180W, 360W)

(f) total power dissipated. (840W)

Notes:

SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUITS
TOPIC 10 Series/parallel circuits encompassing:
 schematic diagram of a single-source d.c. ‘series/parallel’ circuit.

 major components of a ‘series/parallel’ circuit (power supply, loads,
connecting leads and switch)
 applications where ‘series/parallel’ circuits are used in the
Electrotechnology industry.
 characteristics of a ‘series/parallel’ circuit. (load connection, current paths,
voltage drops, power dissipation, effects of an open circuit in a
‘series/parallel’ circuit).
 calculation of the total resistance of a ‘series/parallel’ circuit.
 calculation of the total current of a ‘series/parallel’ circuit.
 calculation of the total voltage and the individual voltage drops of a
‘series/parallel’ circuit.
 setting up and connecting a single-source d.c. series/ parallel circuit
 resistance, voltage and current measurements in a single-source d.c. series
/ parallel circuit
 the voltage, current, resistances or power dissipated from measured values
of any two of these quantities

10: SERIES / PARALLEL CIRCUITS Miller College 10
1. THE SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUIT.
In general, all electrical/electronic equipment is composed of a number of components that

are interconnected to form a combination of series and parallel circuits. The most
important point to learn is how to distinguish between the components that are connected
in series and those components that are connected in parallel.
Figure 1 shows three examples of series-

parallel circuits.
+Vcc
12V
220k 10k
R3 Q1
R1 R2 R4
+
R5 22k 1k
VT
R6 -
- Transistor amplifier
Series-parallel connected resistors
TOL R
1
R1
Basic relay control circuit
figure 1
When analysing series-parallel circuits, always remember that the current flow pathway/s
determines whether a component is connected in series or parallel. Begin at the positive
terminal of the supply and apply these two basic rules:
 if the total current has only one pathway to follow through a component, then that
component is connected in series.
 if the total current can split into two or more pathways, via 2 or more branches,
then re-join to be the same total current, then those components are connected in
parallel.

2. THE SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUIT.
Irrespective of how complex or involved the series-parallel circuit, there is a simple three
step method to simplify the circuit to a single equivalent resistance, that is, to reduce or
simplify the circuit.
Once the series-parallel relationships have been determined, the three step method may be
applied. The three step method is:
1. Determine the equivalent resistances of all series connected

resistors.
2. Determine the equivalent resistances of all parallel connected

resistors.
3. Determine the equivalent resistances of the remaining

resistances.
Note: It can be very helpful to redraw the circuit on spare paper, (ask
your teacher for some), each time you break down a major section page 75
into an equivalent resistance, redraw the circuit. It will help you solve
the sections and work out what to simplify next.
Example 1
Determine the equivalent resistance for the circuit of figure 2.
(Hint: 1st solve R2 & R3; 2nd solve R23 & R4; 3rd solve R1, R234, & R5)
R2 R3
R1  
+
 R4
VT 
R5
-

figure 2

Example 2
Determine the equivalent resistance for the circuit of figure 3.
R1 R2 R4 R5
   
+
R3 R6
 
R7 R8
-
 
figure 3

3. OHM'S LAW APPLIED TO THE SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUIT
As is the case with series and parallel circuits, Ohm's law may be applied to all or any part
of a series-parallel circuit.
V V
I in Amperes R in Ohms V  I x R in Volts
R I
Example 3
R3 R5
For the circuit of figure 4 determine the:
(a) circuit equivalent resistance R1  
+
(b) total circuit current  R2 R4
(c) voltage across R35  
VT= 20V
(d) current through R2
R6
-

figure 4

4. POWER IN THE SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Each component in a series-parallel circuit consumes power and the amount of power
consumed by each component depends on the resistance of the component.
As previously discussed, there are three equations which can be used to calculate power:
V2
P  V x I in Watts P  I 2 x R in Watts P in Watts
R
The total power taken from the supply equals the sum of the powers taken by the
individual components.
PT  P1  P2  P3 in Watts
In addition to adding the individual component powers, the total power consumed by a
series-parallel circuit can be calculated using the three power equations as follows:
 PT  VT  I T in Watts
2
 PT  I T  R EQ in Watts
2
VT
 PT  in Watts
R EQ

Example 4
R1
For the circuit of figure 5. +

(a) circuit equivalent resistance. R2
(b) total circuit current. 
(c) voltage drop across each resistor.
(d) power taken by each resistor. VT = 30V
(e) total power consumed by the circuit. R3 R4
 
- figure 5

Example 5 R1
+
For the circuit of figure 6. 
R3
(a) circuit equivalent resistance.
6Ω
R2
(c) voltage drop across each resistor. VT = 30V 
R4 R5
(d) current through each resistor.  
(e) power taken by each resistor.
-
(f) total power consumed by the circuit.
figure 6.

Example 6 (Student exercise if time in class – otherwise as homework)
R1
There is now an open circuit before R4 +

For the circuit of figure 7. R2
Calculate the values for 
VT = 40V
(c) voltage drop across each resistor. R3 R4
(d) power taken by each resistor.  
(e) total power consumed by the circuit.
-
Figure 7

Example 7 (Student exercise if time in class – otherwise as homework)
R1
There is now an open circuit +
Before R2 
R3
For the circuit of figure 8, find 6?
R2
(b) total circuit current. VT = 40V 
R4 R5
(c) voltage drop across each resistor.  
(d) current through each resistor.
(e) power taken by each resistor. -
(f) total power consumed by the circuit.
figure 8.
*************************
Notes:

PRACTICAL - SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUITS

PURPOSE:
This practical assignment will be used to verify the laws of series and parallel circuits
relating to resistance, voltage, current and power and their application to the series-
parallel circuit.
 Connect a series-parallel circuit using a circuit diagram as a guide.
 Determine the equivalent resistance of a series-parallel circuit.
 Measure voltages and currents of a series-parallel circuit.
resistance for a series-parallel circuit.
EQUIPMENT:
1 x variable dc power supply

1 x multimeter (digital or analogue)
1 x 0-500mA analogue ammeter
1 x single pole switch
6 x 10W resistors - 1 each 5.6Ω, 10Ω, 12Ω, 18Ω, 33Ω, 39Ω


1. EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF A SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT
1. Connect the six resistors as shown in figure 8, then measure the circuit equivalent
resistance using the digital multimeter as an ohmmeter.
R2 
R1 R3 

R4 
 R5

R6 
figure 8.
Circuit equivalent resistance = ___________
2. Modify the circuit, to that shown in figure 9.
R2 
0-500mA DC R1 R3 
IT

R4 
DC Digital mm V R5
T
Power 0 - 20V DC 
Supply
R6 
figure 9.
Progress Table 1
4. Turn on the power supply, close the circuit switch and then adjust for a total circuit
current of 450mA.
5. Measure and record the applied voltage VT. VT = _____________
6. Using Ohm's law calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

VT REQ = ____________
R EQ 
IT
2. VOLTAGES IN A SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUIT

1. Check the power supply is adjusted to supply a total circuit current of 450mA.
2. Using the digital multimeter, measure and record in table 1, the supply voltage.
Table 1
VT V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6
3. Using the digital multimeter, measure and record in table 1, the voltage drop across
each of the six resistors R1 - R6.
Progress Table 2
3. CURRENTS IN A SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT

1. Check the power supply is adjusted to supply a total circuit current of 450mA.
3. Reposition the ammeter to measure the current flowing out of the resistor R1 as shown
in figure 10.
R2 
R1 + R3 
I1
+ 
R4 
+
DC Digital mm V R5
Power 0 - 20V DC T 
Supply
‐ R6 
figure 10.

4. Close the circuit switch, then measure and record, in table 2, the current I1 as indicated
by the ammeter.
Table 2
IT I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6
5. Repeat the procedure for each of the resistors R2 - R6. Figure 11 shows the locations
for the ammeter in relation to each resistor. Record the values in table 2.
R2 
+
I2
R1 + R3 
+ I3
I1
+ 
+ R4  R5
+
DC Digital mm I4 
VT
Power 0 - 20V DC +
Supply I5
‐ R6 
+
I6
figure 11.
Progress Table 3
8. Reduce the output voltage of the power supply to zero.

10. Please return all equipment to its proper place, safely and carefully.

4. OBSERVATIONS:
1. Compare the circuit equivalent resistance as measured with the ohmmeter to the value
determined by the applications of Ohm's law. What do the results indicate about the
application of Ohm's law to the entire circuit?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Add the measured voltages V1, V2, V5 and V6. Does the addition of these four
voltages equal the supply voltage? If so, why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Add the measured currents I2, I3, and I4. Does the addition of these three currents
equal the supply current? If so, why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Using Calculate the total power supplied to the circuit. PT = VT x IT.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Using measured values of voltage and current calculate the power dissipated by each
resistor. P = V x I. For example P1 = V1 x I1.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Calculate the total power dissipated by the circuit, by adding the powers dissipated by
each individual resistor. PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 + P6.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Compare the total power dissipated, as determined in question 4, with the sum of the
individual branch powers as determined in question 6.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. What would be the effect on circuit current of an open circuit in resistor R5?
________________________________________________________________________
8. What would be the effect on circuit current of an open circuit in resistor R3?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. What would be the effect on circuit current of a short circuit across resistor R2?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. What would be the effect on circuit current of a short circuit across resistor R1?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

TUTORIAL - SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUITS

NAME:

questions.
not to be freehand.
Section A
1. The voltages in the parallel section of a series-parallel circuit:
(a) are affected by the circuit equivalent resistance

(b) are difficult to determine
(c) are the same across the parallel components
(d) decrease through the circuit from component to component
2. If one resistor in the parallel section of a series-parallel circuit goes open circuit, the
circuit power dissipation will:
(a) remain constant.

(b) decrease.
(c) increase.
(d) decrease to zero.
3. The power dissipation of any circuit:
(a) equal to the sum of the power dissipation of each resistor.

(b) equal to the product of the power dissipation of each resistor.
(c) equal to the supply voltage squared times the circuit equivalent resistance.
(d) depends on the circuit arrangement.
4. In the circuit of figure 12, the supply current is equal to the:
R1
+
(a) value of branch currents.
(b) product of the branch currents. R2 R3
(c) sum of the currents in each resistor.
‐
(d) sum of the branch currents. figure 12.
5. If the resistor R1 in the circuit of figure 12 were to open circuit, the circuit current
would:
(a) remain unchanged.

(b) decrease.
(c) increase.
(d) become zero.
6. If the resistor R3 in the circuit of figure 12 were to short circuit, the circuit current
would:
(a) decrease.
(b) become zero.
(c) increase.
(d) remain unchanged.
7. If the resistor R2 in the circuit of figure 12 were to open circuit, the circuit power
dissipation would:
(a) become zero.

(b) remain unchanged.
(c) decrease.
(d) increase.
8. If the resistor R1 in the circuit of figure 12 were to short circuit, the circuit power
dissipation would:
(a) become zero.

(b) remain unchanged.
(c) decrease.
(d) increase.

9. If an extra resistor was added in parallel with resistors R2 and R3 in the circuit of
figure 12, the equivalent circuit resistance would:
(a) increase.
(b) decrease to zero.
(c) decrease to a lower value.
(d) increase to a much higher value.
10. If the resistance of the resistor R1 in the circuit of figure 12 was to be increased, the
equivalent resistance of the circuit would:
(a) increase.
(b) decrease to zero.
(c) decrease to a lower value.
(d) increase to an infinite value
Section B:
information. Questions 11 to 27 relate to figure 13.
A B C
R1
+ I1

DC I2 I3
Power
Supply VT
R2 R3
 
‐
D
figure 13.
11. Using the negative terminal of the power supply as a reference, compare as either
'greater than', 'less than' or 'equal to' the voltages at the following points.
(a) the voltage at point A would be ______________ the voltage at point C

(b) the voltage at point D would be ______________ the voltage at point B
(c) the voltage at point D would be ______________ the voltage at point A
(d) the voltage at point B would be ______________the voltage at point C.

12. Compare as either 'greater than', 'less than' or 'equal to' the currents at the
following points.
(a) the current through ammeter I1 would be ___________ the current

through ammeter I2.
(b) the current through ammeter I3 would be ___________ the current through
ammeter I2.
(c) the current through ammeter I3 would be __________ the current through
ammeter I1.
(d) the current through ammeter I1 would be ________ the current at point D.
(e) the current at point D would be ________ the current through ammeter I3.
(f) the current in ammeter A2 would be __________ the current at point D.
(g) The power dissipated by resistor R3 would be _________ than the power
dissipated by R2.
13. If the value of the resistor R2 was increased, the equivalent circuit resistance would
___________.
________.
15. The power dissipated by resistor R2 would be ________ than the power dissipated by
resistor R1.
16. If resistor R1 became open circuit, the equivalent resistance of the circuit would be
________.
17. If resistor R3 became short circuit, the circuit current would ________ and the power
dissipation would ________.

SECTION C
18. Determine the equivalent resistance for the circuit shown in figure 13. (20.29
19. For the circuit of figure 14, determine the -

R1
(a) equivalent circuit resistance (209.19 +

(b) circuit current (0.478A)
R2 R3
(c) voltage drop across resistor R1 (57.36V) 100V  
(d) voltage drop across R2 and R3 (42.63V)
‐
(e) currents in resistors R2 and R3 (0.284A, 0.193A) figure 14
(f) total power dissipated (47.8W)
R2
+
20. For the circuit of figure 15, determine the – 
R1 R3
230V
(a) equivalent resistance (8.94  
(b) current in each branch (19.17A, 6.57A) ‐
(c) supply current (25.72A) figure 15.
(d) power dissipated by each component (4408W, 863.3W, 647.47W)

(e) total power dissipation (5915.6W)
21. A circuit is made up of two resistors in parallel and has an equivalent resistance of
15.23Ω. If R1 has a resistance of 25Ω determine the resistance of R2. (39Ω)

******************************************
Notes:

RESISTANCE 2 and FACTORS AFFECTING

RESISTANCE
TOPIC 10 Series/parallel circuits encompassing:
 relationship between voltages, currents and resistances in a bridge

network.
TOPIC 11 Factors affecting resistance encompassing:
 four factors that affect the resistance of a conductor (type of material,

length, cross-sectional area and temperature)
 affect the change in the type of material (resistivity) has on the
resistance of a conductor.
 affect the change in ‘length’ has on the resistance of a conductor.
 affect the change in ‘cross-sectional area’ has on the resistance of a
conductor.
 effects of temperature change on the resistance of various conducting
materials
 effects of resistance on the current-carrying capacity and voltage drop
in cables.
 calculation of the resistance of a conductor from factors such as
conductor length, cross-sectional area, resistivity and changes in
temperature
 using digital and analogue ohmmeter to measure the change in
resistance of different types of conductive materials (copper,
aluminium, nichrome, tungsten) when those materials undergo a
change in type of material length, cross-sectional area and
temperature.

11: Factors Affecting Resistance Miller College 11
1. SHOW HOW LENGTH, CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA AND MATERIAL
EFFECT THE RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTORS
Resistance is the ____________________________________________________.
Due to their atomic structure some materials naturally offer more resistance to the flow of
current than others, for example -
o Silicon - _____________________________________________
o Copper - _____________________________________________
o Rubber - _____________________________________________
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
The resistance of a conductor depends upon four factors -
o ______________________________________________
o ______________________________________________
o ______________________________________________
o ______________________________________________. page 58
LENGTH
Resistance has been already defined as the opposition which a conductor sets up to the
flow of electricity.
If the length of a conducting material of uniform cross-sectional area is increased, a

greater force must be applied to cause the same rate of movement of electrons in the
conductor.
Consider two conductors made from the same material and having the same cross-
sectional area, as shown in figure 1.
Conductor 1 Conductor 2
figure 1.

If the length of a conducting material of given cross-sectional area is doubled, the
resistance must also be doubled.
This means that if 100 metres of 1mm2 copper wire has a resistance of 1.72, then -
o 1 metre of 1mm2 copper wire has a resistance of _____________________________
o 10 metres of 1mm2 copper wire has a resistance of ___________________________
o 50 metres of 1mm2 copper wire has a resistance of ___________________________
o 1 kilometre of 1mm2 copper wire has a resistance of ________________________
Therefore, provided all other quantities remain unchanged -
The resistance of a conductor is ____________________________ to its length.
This can be expressed by the equation:
where: R = resistance in ohms ()

l = the length of the conductor in meters (m).
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA (C.S.A.)
Consider two conductors made from the same material and having the same length, as
shown in figure 2.
Conductor 1 Conductor 2
figure 2

A conductor having -
o a large csa will have a _________________ resistance.
o a small csa will have a _________________ resistance.
Therefore, if the csa of a conductor was -
o doubled, its resistance would ___________________
o halved, its resistance would ___________________.
Hence, provided all other quantities remain unchanged -
The resistance of a conductor is ____________________________ to its csa.

A = the Cross Sectional Area (C.S.A.) of the conductor in meters squared
(m2)
Usually conductors are of circular cross-section and the sizes are sometimes in terms of
diameter (d). The resistance of a conductor has been found to be inversely proportional to
the csa, but the area of a circle varies as the square of its diameter;
that is,
The resistance of a conductor is ____________________________ to the diameter

squared.


d = the diameter of the conductor in meters (m).
VARIATION OF RESISTANCE WITH MATERIAL
Because each different type of conductor has a different atomic structure, each conductor
has a different electrical resistance.
A resistance value exists for all materials - known as the ____________________.
The resistivity for a material is defined as -

"the resistance between the opposite faces of a 1 metre cube at a specified temperature".
figure 3.
The unit of resistivity is the _____________________________ ( ).
The symbol for resistivity is the Greek letter _____________ which is written ______.
o Different materials have different values of resistivity, for example -
o conductors have __________ resistivity.
o insulators have ___________ resistivity.

See page 58 of the text - Electrical Trade Principles - A Practical Approach . 2nd Edition,
for resistivity values of various materials.
Example 1
Determine the resistivities of -
(a) copper = _______________________________
(b) silver = _______________________________
(c) aluminium = _______________________________
(d) nichrome = _______________________________ page 58
(e) tungsten = _______________________________
Provided the length, csa and type of material are known, the resistance of a conductor can
be determined using the equation –

 = the resistivity of the material in ohm-metres (m)
l = length of the conductor in metres (m)
2
A = conductor cross-sectional area in metres squared (m )
It should be noted, the cross-sectional area of conductors and cables commonly used in
2 2 2 2 2
the electrical industry is given in mm , for example - 1mm , 1.5mm , 2.5mm , 4mm ,
2 2 2 2
6mm , 10mm , 16mm and 25mm .
2
When calculating the resistance of a conductor whose csa is given in mm , the csa must
2
be converted to m . Consider a conductor with a csa of 1mm2, as shown in figure 4.
1mm
1mm Area = 1mm2
figure 4.
2. DETERMINE THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR FROM FACTORS
SUCH AS CONDUCTOR LENGTH, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND MATERIAL
Example 2
Determine the resistance of 100m of copper conductor having a cross-sectional area of
1.5mm2.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Example 3
1.5mm2.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The resistance of the conductor ____________________ as the length of the conductor
______________________ .
Example 4
2.5mm2.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The resistance of the conductor ____________________ as the cross-sectional area of
the conductor ______________________
Example 5
Determine the resistance of 100m of aluminium conductor having a cross-sectional area
of 1.5mm2.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The resistance of the copper conductor is _______________ than the aluminium

conductor.

Example 6
Determine the resistance of 100m of a silver conductor having a cross-sectional area of
1.5mm2.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The resistance of the copper conductor is _______________ than the silver conductor.
3. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE CHANGE ON THE RESISTANCE OF

VARIOUS CONDUCTING MATERIALS
The temperature of a conductor is raised when it carries an electric current and this rise in
temperature affects the resistance.
Since the temperature at which electrical conductors, appliances and machinery operate,
varies with the current and depends on the surrounding or ambient temperature, it is
important to know the relation between temperature and resistance.
The amount of change (increase or decrease) in each ohm of the initial resistance of a
material per degree of temperature change is known as the ________________________.
POSITIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
When a rise in temperature causes an increase in resistance the material is said to have a
________________________________________________, referred to as a PTC

characteristic. See figure 5.
Resistance Ohms
0
0 Temperature o C
figure 5.

Most pure metals, for example -
o copper - as used in cables, busbars and machine windings

o aluminium - as used in cables and busbars
o tungsten - as used in the filament if incandescent lamps.
For materials with a positive temperature coefficient of resistance -
o If a materials temperature increases, the materials resistance _________________.
o If a materials temperature decreases, the materials resistance ________________.
For most metals this can be expressed by the equation:-

T = the temperature of the conductor in degrees Celsius (0C)
(PTC – Resistance is Proportional to Temperature)
NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE

When a rise in temperature causes a decrease in resistance the material has a
____________________________________________________, referred to as an NTC
characteristic. See figure 6.
Resistance Ohms
0
0 Temperature o C
figure 6.
Examples of materials having a negative temperature coefficient of resistance include -

o all conducting liquids (e.g. electrolytes)
o semiconductors such as carbon and silicon ( e.g. a simple diode or transistor)
o most insulating materials. (e.g. Ceramic insulators; Cable PVC, Rubber, XLPE)

For materials with a negative temperature coefficient of resistance -

o If a materials temperature increases, the materials resistance ________________.
o If a materials temperature decreases, the materials resistance ________________.

For most non metals this can be expressed by the equation:

T = the temperature of the conductor in degrees Celsius (0C)
(NTC – Resistance is Inversely Proportional to Temperature)
ZERO TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
In some special alloys such as -

o constantan
o eureka
o manganin
the resistance changes very little when subjected to large changes in temperature.
These materials are said to a _______________________________________________.
See figure 7.
Resistance Ohms
0
0 Temperature o C
figure 7.
Note: See page 58 of the text - Electrical Trade Principles - A

Practical Approach . 2nd Edition, to obtain the temperature
coefficient of resistance for various materials.
page 58

If you wanted to make precision resistors, then choosing a metal with virtually no change
in resistance due to temperature change would be a very good choice.
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS OF RESISTANCE, AT 20 DEGREES C

(From http://www.allaboutcircuits.com)
Material Element/Alloy "alpha" per degree Celsius

----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nickel Element 0.005866
Iron…………….. Element………… 0.005671
Molybdenum Element 0.004579
Tungsten ………..Element ………….0.004403
Aluminium Element 0.004308
Copper ………….Element …………0.004041
Silver Element 0.003819
Platinum ………..Element…………. 0.003729
Gold Element 0.003715
Zinc……………..Element…………. 0.003847
Steel* Alloy 0.003
Nichrome ……….Alloy……………. 0.00017
Nichrome V Alloy 0.00013
Manganin ……….Alloy ……...…+/- 0.000015
Constantan Alloy -0.000074
* = Steel alloy at 99.5 percent iron, 0.5 percent carbon
SUPERCONDUCTORS
Conductors lose all of their electrical resistance when cooled to super-low temperatures
(near absolute zero, about -273o Celsius). It must be understood that superconductivity is
not merely an extrapolation of most conductors' tendency to gradually lose resistance with
decreasing temperature; rather, it is a sudden, quantum leap in resistivity from finite to
nothing. A superconducting material has absolutely zero electrical resistance, not just
some small amount.
Superconductivity was first discovered by H. Kamerlingh Onnes at the University of

Leiden, Netherlands in 1911. Just three years earlier, in 1908, Onnes had developed a
method of liquefying helium gas, which provided a medium with which to supercool
experimental objects to just a few degrees above absolute zero. Deciding to investigate
changes in electrical resistance of mercury when cooled to this low of a temperature, he
discovered that its resistance dropped to nothing just below the boiling point of helium.
Superconductivity promises extraordinary capabilities for electric circuits.
If conductor resistance could be eliminated entirely, there would be no power losses or

inefficiencies in electric power systems due to inbuilt resistances. Electric motors could
be made almost perfectly (100%) efficient. Components such as capacitors and inductors,
whose ideal characteristics are normally spoiled by inherent wire resistances, could be
made ideal in a practical sense. Already, some practical superconducting conductors,

motors, and capacitors have been developed, but their use at this present time is limited
due to the practical problems intrinsic to maintaining super-cold temperatures.
This will be an area of great research activity as the potential gains for the electrical and
electronic industries are enormous. As of 2012, the temperature at which materials could
be superconductors has risen to +280C, and will continue to rise.
4. EXPLAIN THE EFFECTS OF RESISTANCE ON THE CURRENT-

CARRYING CAPACITY AND VOLTAGE DROP IN CABLES.
CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY
When current flows through a conductor “work” is done to overcome the resistance.
When ever work is done, as a result heat is produced. This heat can damage the insulation
of a cable. The resistance of the conductor sets how much heat is produced. To reduce
the amount of heat produced the conductor C.S.A. is increased. This is why smaller
cables must only carry small currents and lager cables may carry heavier currents .
Large CSA Cable Small CSA Cable
figure 8.
o P.V.C cables are limited to a maximum temperature of _________ 0C.
o X.L.P.E cables are limited to a maximum temperature of _________ 0C.
VOLTAGE DROP
When an electric cable carries current the resistance of the conductor causes a voltage
drop on that section of cable. This voltage drop is a loss, it reduces the voltage of the
supply applied to the load. The amount of voltage drop is determined by Ohm’s law.
where: V = Voltage in Volts (V)

I = Current in Amperes (A)
R = Resistance in Ohms

RC = 1Ω
I = 20A
Supply Voltage
RL = 11Ω
240 Volts
figure 9.
Example 7
Determine from figure 9. the voltage drop across the load resistor RL.
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Example 8
Determine from figure 9. the voltage drop across the conductor resistance RC
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If the current through the cable resistance is increased the voltage drop on the cable will
_______________ and the voltage applied to the load will ____________________ .
5. PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUITS AND

VOLTAGE DROP IN CABLES
When an electric circuit is wired in a house, shop or factory, a series parallel circuit is
formed. Consider the example of a lighting circuit of a house shown in figure 10.
RC
Supply CB1 S1
230 V
L1 L2 L3
figure 10
o Circuit Breaker 1 provides circuit protection of the conductor and is

___________ connected.
o RC represents the resistance of the cable and is _____________ connected.

o Switch 1 provides on/off control of L1, L2 and L3 and is ___________ connected.
o Lights 1 to 3 are the circuit load. They are connected in _______________ with
each other, but connected in ________________ with the rest of the circuit.
Figure 11 below shows how an ammeter is added to measure the total current and
voltmeters are added to measure supply voltage, voltage drop on the conductor and
load voltage.
RC
IT
Supply CB1 S1
VT VC VL
230 V
L1 L2 L3
figure 11
The circuit of figure 11 can further modified to add switches to control each light
separately as shown in figure 12.
RC
CB1
Supply S1 S2 S3
230 V
L1 L2 L3
figure 12
o CB1 is closed.
o When all switches are open the circuit current flow will be ___________
amperes.
o Voltage Drop (VRC) will equal ____________ volts.
o Voltage Drop (VL) will equal ____________ volts.

o When S1 is closed circuit current will begin to flow. The current flow in RC will
cause a Voltage Drop (VRC). This voltage drop causes to Voltage Drop on each
light (V1) to be ____________ ____________ the supply voltage
o When S1 & S2 are closed circuit current will ______________ causing Voltage
Drop (VRC) to _______________ this causes to Voltage Drop (VL) to ___-
_______.
o When S1, S2 & S3 are closed circuit current will ______________ causing
Voltage Drop (VRC) to ____________________ this causes to Voltage Drop (VL)
to ________________.
o From figure 9 it is observed that as load current increases in a circuit, the voltage
measure at the load must______________________.
Therefore as the current increases, the cables will absorb an increasing amount of
our supply voltage. It must be kept within AS3000 limits otherwise appliances and
equipment, esp. those with motors & electronics, will ‘burn out’ from running on a
voltage which is too low.
Example 9
Figure 13 shows a simplified drawing of the circuit. Only S1 is closed.
RC
Find the;
(a) Total Resistance 
(b) Total Circuit current. Supply R1
(c) Voltage drop V 230 V 
C
(d) Voltage drop VR1
(e) Power consumed by RC figure 13
(f) Power consumed by R1
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Example 10
Figure 14 shows a simplified drawing of the circuit. All switches S1, S2 and S3 are
closed. RC
Find the;

(a) Total Resistance
Supply R1 R2 R3
(b) Total Circuit current. 230 V   
(c) Voltage drop VC
(d) Voltage drop VR1,2,3
figure 14
(e) Power consumed by RC
(f) Total power consumed by R1 ,R2 and R3.
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From examples 9 & 10 it can be determined that increasing the load of an electrical
circuit has the following effects;
 Total circuit resistance is _______________________.
 Total circuit current is _____________________.
 Conductor voltage drop is __________________ .

 Load voltage is ____________________ .
 Power consumed by the conductor is _______________, which in turn

__________ the conductor.
 Power consumed by the load _________________
6. BRIDGE CIRCUITS.
A combination of both series and parallel connections form what is termed a bridge
circuit. These circuits are used widely in electronics and measurement. Various
applications of bridge circuits will be covered in later studies in the second year of the
course.
Figure 15 shows a series circuit, figure 16 shows a parallel circuit and figure 17 shows
four resistors connected in bridge.
R1 R2
+ -
R3 R4
figure17
Figure 3
R1 R2
+ +
 
R1 R2
VT VT 

- -
figure
Figure 151 figure162
Figure
Regardless of how the circuit is drawn a bridge circuit is still just a series parallel circuit
and ohms law can be applied to the circuit

Example 2
For the circuit of figure 4 find.

+
(a) voltage VB to -ve
(b) voltage VD to -ve R1 R3

 
VB VD
(c) voltage VBD VT = 6V
R2 R4
 
-
figure 4
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PRACTICAL – RESISTANCE 2 and FACTORS

AFFECTING RESISTANCE
PURPOSE:
This practical assignment will be used to verify that the resistance of a conductor is
affected by its length, cross-sectional area and the material from which it is manufactured.
o Connect an electrical circuit using a circuit diagram as a guide.
o Adjust circuit current, measure and record values of circuit voltage.
o Apply Ohm's Law to measured values of voltage and current to determine the
resistance of conductors having different materials, lengths and diameters.
o Verify that the resistance of a conductor –
 varies with the type of material from which the conductor is made.
 is directly proportional to its length
 is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.

EQUIPMENT:
1 x variable dc power supply.

1 x digital multimeter.
1 x 0 - 1A analogue ammeter.
1 x single pole switch.
1 x resistance proportionality panel.


1. PROCEDURE :
figure 10,
0 - 1A
A
D Copper
Powe length = Digit
V multimet
Supply diameter =
0 - 2V
figure 10
table.
Progress Table 1
give minimum output voltage.
4. Close the circuit switch and adjust the power supply to give a circuit current of 1A.
5. Using the digital multimeter measure the voltage across the copper conductor and
record in table 1
Table 1
Conductor Circuit Current Conductor Voltage
Details amperes volts
Copper
l = 20m, d = 0.71mm
Copper
l = 10m, d = 0.71mm
1A
Eureka
l = 10m, d = 0.71mm
Copper
l = 10m, d = 0.37mm
6. Adjust the power supply for minimum output voltage, then turn the power supply off.

7. Replace the conductor having 20m of 0.71mm diameter copper wire, with the
conductor having 10m of 0.71mm diameter copper wire.
8. Close the circuit switch and adjust the power supply to give a circuit current of 1A.
9. Using the digital multimeter measure the voltage across the copper conductor and
record in table 1.Repeat the procedure for the other two conductors - 10m of 0.71mm
eureka wire and 10m of 0.37mm copper wire. Record the results in table 1.
table.
Progress Table 2
2. CONCLUSION :
1. Calculate the cross sectional areas for each of the four conductors.
π d2
Use the equation
A
4
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2. Record your answers in the appropriate column of table 2.
3. Determine the measured resistance of each conductor and enter the result as the
measured value in table 2.
V
Use the equation
R
I
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Table 2
CSA Conductor Measured Calculated

Conductor Length Diameter
Conductor Resistivity Resistance Resistance
Material metres mm metres2 ohm-metre ohms ohms
1 Copper 20m 0.71 1.72 x 10-8
2 Copper 10m 0.71 1.72 x 10-8
3 Eureka 10m 0.71 48 x 10-8
4 Copper 10m 0.37 1.72 x 10-8

4. Calculate the resistance of each of the four conductors, taking into account the length,
csa and material of manufacture.
ρl
Use the equation
R
A
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5. Record your answers in the calculated column of table 2.

6. Compare the measured and calculated values of resistance for each of the four
ρl
conductors. What do the results indicate about the use of the equation R  for
A
the determination of conductor resistance?
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7. Does the material from which a conductor is manufactured affect the resistance of the
conductor? Use your results for conductors 2 and 3 to verify your answer.
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8. Based on your results, what is the relationship between the resistance of a conductor
and its length?
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9. Based on your results, what is the relationship between the resistance of a conductor
and its cross-sectional area?
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10. What would be the resistance of a 1mm2 conductor which has a length of 100m and
manufactured from eureka?
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11. What would be the resistance of a 1mm2 conductor which has a length of 100m and
manufactured from copper?
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TUTORIAL – RESISTANCE 2 AND FACTORS

AFFECTING RESISTANCE
NAME:
questions.
SECTION A
1. If all other factors remain constant, the conductor having the least resistance would
be:
(a) 1mm2
(b) 2.5mm2
(c) 4mm2
(d) 6mm2
2. If all other factors remain constant while the length of a conductor is halved, the
resistance of the conductor is:
(a) doubled.
(b) squared
(c) halved
(d) quartered
3. The resistivity of a material:

(a) varies directly with length
(b) varies inversely with cross-sectional area
(c) varies directly with cross-sectional area.
(d) does not vary.

4. The unit of resistivity is the:
(a) ohm.
(b) volt-ampere.
(c) ampere-metre.
(d) ohm-metre.
5. If all other factors remain constant while the cross-sectional area of the conductor is
halved, the resistance of the conductor will be:
(a) doubled.
(b) squared.
(c) halved.
(d) quartered.
6. The element of an electric radiator is most likely to be wound with:

(a) copper.
(b) aluminium.
(c) nichrome.
(d) manganin.
7. Doubling the length of a 1.5mm2 copper conductor will cause the resistance of the
conductor to:
(a) halve.
(b) double.
(c) remain unchanged.
(d) quadruple.
8. The resistance of a conductor is said to be:

(a) proportional to its length.
(b) inversely proportional to its length.
(c) proportional to its cross-sectional area.
(d) inversely proportional to its resistivity.
9. If all other factors remain constant while the length of a conductor is halved, the
resistance of the conductor is:
(a) doubled.
(b) squared
(c) halved
(d) quartered

10. If all other factors remain constant while the cross-sectional area of the conductor is
halved, the resistance of the conductor will be:
(a) doubled.
(b) squared.
(c) halved.
(d) quartered.
11. A material with a negative temperature coefficient of resistance would be:

(a) steel
(b) copper
(c) carbon
(d) manganin
12. As the temperature of an insulating material increases, its resistance:

(a) increases
(b) decreases
(c) remains unchanged
(d) reaches a maximum
13. If the resistance of a conductor increases with an increase in temperature, the

conductor is said to have:
(a) a positive temperature coefficient of resistance
(b) a negative temperature coefficient of resistance
(c) a zero temperature coefficient of resistance
(d) no temperature coefficient of resistance
14. When the temperature of a metal conductor is increased, its resistance:

(a) remains constant
(b) increases
(c) decreases
(d) increases initially, then decreases.
15. Which of the following materials have a negative temperature coefficient of

resistance:
(a) electrolytes and gases.
(b) metals and electrolytes.
(c) gases and metals.
(d) metals, gases and electrolytes.

Section B:
information.
16. The three physical factors that affect the resistance of a conductor are the
……………………..….. from which the conductor is made, its
…………………..and its ………………………..
17. In circuits of long cable runs, larger conductors are used to

………………………..cable voltage drop.
18. The resistance of a circuit is measured in ……………………….., whereas the

resistivity of a conductor is measured in ………………………..
19. Carbon has a ………………………..temperature coefficient of resistance.
20. The amount of change in each ohm of the initial resistance of a material per degree of
temperature change is termed the ………………………..of resistance.
21. A temperature rise in a copper conductor also causes ………………………..in its

resistance.
22. If tungsten is heated, its resistance ………………………..
23. The resistance of all pure metals ………………………..with an increase in

temperature.
24. The temperature coefficient of a material is measured in __________________.
25. The abbreviation NTC stands for ___________ ___________ ____________.
26. The abbreviation PTC stands for ___________ ___________ ____________.

SECTION C:
blue
red
brown
red
figure 11.
shown in figure 11. (620  2%).
28. Determine the resistance of a 200 metre length of 0.65mm2 aluminium conductor. The
resistivity of aluminium is 2.6 x 10-8Ωm. (8Ω)
29. Determine the cross-sectional area of a 100m length of conductor having a resistance
of 80mΩ. The resistivity of the conductor is 1.72 x 10-8Ωm. (21.5mm2)
30. Determine the resistance of a 30m run of 16mm2 copper conductor. The resistivity of
copper is 1.72 x 10-8Ωm. (0.0323Ω)
31. Determine the resistance of a 30m run of 2.5mm2 copper conductor. The resistivity of
copper is 1.72 x 10-8Ωm. (0.206Ω)
32. What length of 2.5mm2 copper conductor is required to make a resistance of 1.2Ω.
Take the resistivity of copper to be 1.72 x 10-8Ωm. (174.4m)
33. The circuit of a 240V, 4.8kW hot water service is shown in figure 11. The water
heater is located 23m from the switchboard. The circuit was wired using 4mm2
copper, twin and earth. Determine the:
(a) resistance of the active conductor, given the resistivity of copper is
1.72 x 10-8Ωm (0.0989Ω)
(b) voltage drop across the active conductor, given the circuit current is 20A.
(1.978V)
active = 4mm
A 2
20

240V
N
neutral = 4mm
2
figure 11
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Notes:

METERS
TOPIC 12 Effects of meters in a circuit encompassing:
 selecting an appropriate meter in terms of units to be measured, range, loading

effect and accuracy for a given application.
 measuring resistance using direct, volt-ammeter and bridge methods.
 instruments used in the field to measure voltage, current, resistance and insulation
resistance and the typical circumstances in which they are used.
 hazards involved in using electrical instruments and the safety control measures
that should be taken.
 operating characteristics of analogue and digital meters.
 correct techniques to read the scale of an analogue meters and how to reduce the
‘parallax’ error.
 types of voltmeters used in the Electrotechnology industry – bench type, clamp
meter, multimeter, etc.
 purpose and characteristics (internal resistance, range, loading effect and accuracy)
of a voltmeter.
 types of voltage indicator testers. e.g. LED, neon, solenoid, volt-stick, series tester,
etc. and explain the purpose of each voltage indicator tester.
 operation of various voltage indicator testers.
 advantages and disadvantages of each voltage indicator tester.
 various types of ammeters used in the Electrotechnology industry – bench, clamp
meter, multimeter, etc.
 purpose of an ammeter and the correct connection (series) of an ammeter into a
circuit.
 reasons why the internal resistance of an ammeter must be extremely low and the
dangers and consequences of connecting an ammeter in parallel and/or wrong
polarity.
 selecting an appropriate meter in terms of units to be measured, range, loading
effect and accuracy for a given application
 connecting an analogue/digital voltmeter into a circuit ensuring the polarities are
correct and take various voltage readings.
 loading effect of various voltmeters when measuring voltage across various loads.
 using voltage indicator testers to detect the presence of various voltage levels.
 connecting analogue/digital ammeter into a circuit ensuring the polarities are
correct and take various current readings.

12: Meters Miller College 12
TOPIC 13 Resistance measurement encompassing:
 Identification of instruments used in the field to measure resistance (including

insulation resistance) and the typical circumstances in which they are used.
 the purpose of an Insulation Resistance (IR) Tester.
 the parts and functions of various analogue and digital IR Tester (selector range
switch, zero ohms adjustment, battery check function, scale and connecting leads).
 reasons why the supply must be isolated prior to using the IR tester.
 where and why the continuity test would be used in an electrical installation.
 where and why the insulation resistance test would be used in an electrical
installation.
 the voltage ranges of an IR tester and where each range may be used. e.g. 250 V
d.c, 500 V d.c and 1000 V d.c
 AS/NZS3000 Wiring Rules requirements – continuity test and insulation resistance
(IR) test.
 purpose of regular IR tester calibration.
 the correct methods of storing the IR tester after use
 carry out a calibration check on a IR Tester
 measurement of low values of resistance using an IR tester continuity functions.
 measurement of high values of resistance using an IR tester insulation resistance
function.
 volt-ammeter (short shunt and long shunt) methods of measuring resistance.
 calculation of resistance values using voltmeter and ammeter reading (long and
short shunt connections)
 measurement of resistance using volt-ammeter methods

1. METER MOVEMENTS.
Both analogue Ammeters and Voltmeters require a Meter Movement. The movements can
be either moving _____________ or moving ______________ type.
figure 1
In a permanent magnet moving coil meter a current passes through a coil and a magnetic
field is produced. This field reacts with the permanent magnet of the meter movement,
causing the needle to move. The higher the current the more movement. A coil spring is
used to return the coil and pointer to the original starting position when the current to the
coil is removed.
In an iron core meter movement the measured

current flows through a field coil which
produces a magnetic field proportional to the
magnitude of current. Suspended in this field
are two iron vanes attached to a pointer. The
two iron vanes consist of one fixed and one
moveable vane. The magnetic field produced
by the current flow magnetises the two iron
vanes with the same polarity regardless of the
direction of current through the coil. Since like
poles repel one another, the moving iron vane
pulls away from the fixed vane and moves the
meter pointer. This motion exerts a force
against a spring. The distance the moving iron
vane will travel against the spring depends on
the strength of the magnetic field. The strength

of the magnetic field depends on the magnitude of current flow.
Moving coil meter movements have a ______________ scale and can only measure
D.C.Moving iron meter movements have a ___________________ scale and can
measure both A.C. and D.C.
By connecting an additional resistor to the meter movement in _______________ the
meter movement can be used as ammeter. By connecting an additional resistor in
____________ with the meter movement it can be used as a voltmeter.
PARRALAX ERROR
Analogue meters are more accurately read when viewed from the front. Precision meter
movements have a mirror built into the face of the meter, when the needle lines up with its’
reflection, parallax error is minimised.
A simple everyday example of parallax can be seen in the dashboard of motor vehicles that
use a needle-style speedometer gauge. When viewed from directly in front, the speed may
show exactly 100 kmh; but when viewed from the passenger seat the needle will appear to
show a slightly different speed (higher if the needle rotates clockwise), due to the angle.
TYPES OF METERS
There are many different types of voltmeters and ammeters used in the Electro technology
Industry, some are portable, some are fixed like our bench meters. Some clamp on, some
must have a direct connection to the conductors. Some are proximity testers, they do not
require any connection to the cables, you just wave them near the cables. Your teacher will
provide some samples from our store and discuss the use and merits of each.
2. THE AMMETER
When measuring circuit current the ammeter must always be connected in

_______________ with the load being measured
Ammeters have a very ________________ internal resistance similar to conductors.

R1
+ IT I1
R2
I2
R3
‐ I3
figure 3
Meter movements only require a few milli amps to cause the pointer to swing to its Full
Scale Deflection (F.S.D.). To increase the range of an ammeter a resistor called an "Shunt"
is connected in parallel with the meter movement. The current flowing in the shunt is equal
to
Remember, externally the ammeter is connected in series but internally the "Shunt"
resistor is connected in parallel.
This Shunt is made from manganin. Manganin has a Zero Temperature Co-efficient. This
means that a variation in temperature will not change the reading of the meter.
ISh = ? A
RSh = 0.101 Ω
I =1A
T
F.S.D. = 0.01 A
RMov = 10  RL
IL = 1 A
figure 4
It should be noted that the voltage drop across both the shunt resistor and meter movement
are the same because they are connected in parallel. This voltage can be calculated by
ohms law;
Example 1
Calculate the voltage drop across the meter movement and shunt resistor in figure 4.
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Example 2
Calculate the current flowing in the shunt resistor of figure 4.
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Example 3
Calculate the value of the shunt resistor in figure 4.
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3. THE VOLTMETER
When measuring circuit voltage, the voltmeter must always be connected in
_________________ with the load being measured.
Voltmeters have a very ________________ resistance similar to insulators.
Never confuse voltmeter and
ammeter connections !
+
VT VT R1 V1 R2 V2
‐
figure 5
The same meter movement used in the ammeter is also used in the volt meter. A resistor
called a "multiplier" is connected in series with the movement to increase its resistance.
+
I = 1.01 A
T
R Movement = 10  M F.S.D. = 0.01A
IL = 1 A
RL = 10  RMultipier = ? Ω
‐
figure 6
The voltage drop across both the meter movement and the multiplier resistor may also be
calculated using ohms law;
Example 4
Calculate the voltage drop across the meter movement in figure 6.
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Example 5
Calculate the voltage drop across the multiplier resistor in figure 6.
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Example 6
Calculate the value of the multiplier resistor in figure 6.
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Remember Ohm’s Law: once we know the Volts and Amps, we can calculate the
resistance.
4. THE LOADING EFFECTS OF METERS

Normally the loading of meters are almost negligible. It is however important to
understand how a meter can change the values of the circuit under test. When measuring
current, if the resistance of the load is a low value similar to an ammeter the voltage drop
across the load will be similar to the voltage drop across the ammeters shunt. This in turn
will lower the voltage applied to the load.
+ A
R= 2 
IL = 2A
24 V RL V
R = 10 
figure 7
Example 7
Calculate the voltage drop across the meter movement in figure 7.
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Example 8
Calculate the voltage drop across the load in figure 7.
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If the value of resistance is extremely high like that of a voltmeter, the current drawn by
the voltmeter may be similar to that of the load, therefore increasing the reading on the
ammeter.

+ A
+
+
V 24 V
R = 10,000  R = 10,000 
‐
figure 8
Example 9
Calculate the current in the load resistor of figure 8.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Example 10
Calculate the current in the meter movement of figure 8.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Example 11
Determine the total circuit current for figure 8.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. ACCURACY
Accuracy is the degree of conformity of a measured or calculated quantity to its

actual (true) value. It is calculated as a percentage of error in the meter reading to the
actual value.

Example 12
Calculate the accuracy of a meter which reads 245 volts on a 230 volt supply.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Digital multimeters generally take measurements with superior accuracy to their analogue
counterparts. Analogue multimeters typically measure with three to five percent accuracy
Standard portable digital multimeters claim to be capable of taking measurements with an
accuracy of 0.5% on DC voltage and current scales. Mainstream bench-top multimeters
make claims to have as great accuracy as ±0.01%. Laboratory grade instruments can have
accuracy's in the parts per million
6. RESOLUTION
Resolution of analogue multimeters is limited by the width of the scale pointer,
vibration of the pointer, parallax observation errors, and the accuracy of printing
scales. Mirrored scales and larger meter movements are used to improve resolution; two
and a half to three digits equivalent resolution is usual (and may be adequate for the limited
precision actually necessary for most measurements).
The resolution of a multimeter is often specified in "digits" of resolution. For example, the
term 5½ digits refers to the number of digits displayed on the readout of a multimeter.
It is important when using any meter to select a suitable range to suit the value
being measured.
When using a analogue meter the needle should move past half scale.
When using a digital meter to measure 10 volts the 20 V range would give better
resolution than the 200 V range.
7. SENSITIVITY
The current load, or how much current is drawn from the circuit being tested may
affect a voltmeters accuracy. A small current draw usually will result in more precise
measurements. With improper usage or too much current load, a ammeter may be damaged
therefore rendering its measurements unreliable and substandard.
Meters with electronic amplifiers in them, such as all digital multimeters and transistorised
analogue meters, have a standardised input impedance usually considered high enough not
to disturb the circuit tested. This is often one million ohms, or ten million ohms.
Sensitivity of a voltmeter is expressed as the resistance of the meter at a given voltage.
ie in ohms per volt (Ω/V). The higher the voltage, the higher the resistance should be.

Example 13
Calculate the sensitivity of a analogue volt meter with a resistance of 20 kΩ when on the
20 V range.
_________________________________________________________________________
Example 14
Calculate the resistance of a analogue volt meter with a sensitivity of 1k Ω /V, when on
the 2V range
_________________________________________________________________________
The sensitivity of a meter is also a measure of the lowest voltage, current or resistance that
can be measured with it. For general-purpose digital multimeters, a full-scale range of
several hundred milli volts AC or DC is common, but the minimum full-scale current
range may be several hundred milli amps.
Table 1 – Comparison of meter characteristics.
Voltmeters Ammeters
Characteristic
Analogue Digital Analogue Digital
Resistance 20,000  10 M <1 < 0.1 
Accuracy ± 5 - 10 % ± 2% ± 5 - 10 % ± 2%
Resolution 0.2 V 0.001 V 0.2 A 0.01 mA
Sensitivity 1,000 /V 10 M 100 mV/A 6mV/A
8. LONG SHUNT AND SHORT SHUNT CONNECTIONS
(VOLT / AMMETER CONNECTION METHOD TO MEASURE RESISTANCE)

This method uses a voltmeter and ammeter to measure the voltage drop across the load and
the current through the load, from OHM’s Law we can calculate the resistance. Because
both instruments ‘load’ the circuit, their position is important.
To reduce errors and therefore increase accuracy volt meters and ammeters are connected
in either short shunt or long shunt. If the resistance of the load is a low value which causes
a high current to flow use the short shunt connection. If the resistance of the load is high so
a small current flow use the long shunt connection.

+ A
+
+
RL V
-
figure 9
Figure 9 - Short Shunt: where the current is a high value, the extra current drawn by the
voltmeter (a very small amount) has a negligible effect on the readings and the calculated
result.
+
+ A
+
RL V
‐
figure 10
Figure 10 – Long shunt: where the current is a low value, similar to what the volt meter
will draw, the voltmeter is connect before the ammeter so its’ current is not measured by
the ammeter and cause a large error in the calculated result.
+
+ A
+
V RL V
‐
figure 11
When the load resistance is less than ___________ ohms use Short Shunt.
If the load resistance is a larger value use Long Shunt

Remember
o Small load resistance use ________________________________
o Large load resistance use ________________________________
9. MEASURING RESISTANCE USING THE BRIDGE METHOD
A Wheatstone Bridge is displayed in figure 12. It is used to measure low values of

resistance with very high accuracy. It can be used to find the length of a cable when it’s not
possible to otherwise measure it, it can also be used to find the distance to a short circuit, if
not obvious e.g. underground.
R1 B R2
+ G -
RX R3
D
figure 12
The Wheatstone bridge measures an ‘unknown resistance’ by balancing two branches of a

bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. R1 and R2 are of known
values and connected in series. The resistance of R1 is adjustable. Rx is the unknown
resistance to be measured and is connected is series with R3 which is also a known value of
resistance.
If the ratio of the two resistances in the known branch (R1 / R2) is equal to the ratio of the
two in the unknown branch (Rx / R3), then the voltage between the two midpoints (B and
D) will be zero and no current will flow through the galvanometer VG.
A galvanometer is a very sensitive volt meter with a centre zero. R1 is varied until this
condition is reached. The direction of the current indicates whether R1 is too high or too
low. Therefore, if R1, R2 and R3 are known to high precision, then Rx can be measured to
high precision. Very small changes in Rx disrupt the balance and are readily detected by
movement of the galvanometer from zero.
At the point of balance, the ratio of R1 / R2 = Rx / R3 or

Example 2
1. Determine the equivalent resistance for the circuit of figure 6.
R1 R2
10 Ω 40 Ω
+ G -
RX R3
?Ω 100 Ω
figure 6
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___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________

10. TYPICAL ELECTRICIAN’S MULTIMETER
This will measure a wide range of voltage resistance and current. Dial is turned to
select he desired range, the meter will auto scale so the measured result is displayed
correctly but if very small measurements are taken, a different dial position is selected. For
current measurement, the leads re plugged into different holes (Danger: circuit must be
interrupted). It has a light switch and will record Highest & Lowest measurements.
This a very popular type of multimeter with electricians as it measures Voltage and
Resistance on the 1st setting, (called auto ranging), plus automatically selects the correct
scale; It also gives out a loud buzzing sound for resistances under about 50ohms. If
required it can measure resistance more accurately on the Ohms setting. Plus it will trip
safety switches from inside the building.
11. TYPICAL ELECTRICIAN’S CLAMP-ON AMMETER
To avoid the danger, inconvenience and time involved interrupting the circuit to make a
current measurement, electricians generally use clamp on ammeters. At the cheaper end of
the scale they read AC only, and are accurate within +/- 1A at best. This is OK for a lot of
general electrical work. At the top end for scale they read AC & DC, and are far more
accurate, plus the PROVO meters we have at MILLER TAFE will also take the voltage
reading via 2 leads, and give us Power, VA, Phase Angle, Power Factor, Horse Power ,
KiloWatts (all terms you will learn about when you study AC theory in 2nd year).
A typical clamp meter, this one can also read voltage and resistance if leads are used.
12. SAFETY CATEGORIES

Only buy or use Cat III or Cat IV meters. The higher the better.
In addition to multimeters being destroyed by the accidental connection (for some

‘cheaper’ meters e.g. if you select Ohms and connect to 230V or select 10V and connect to
230V). It’s just as common to find damaged meters dealt a knock-out blow by a
momentary high-voltage spike or transient that hits the multimeter input without warning.
Voltage spikes and transients
As distribution systems and loads become more complex, the possibilities of transient
over-voltages increase. Motors, power conversion equipment like variable speed drives and
Solar Power Invertors can be major spike generators, while lightning strikes on
transmission lines cause hazardous high-energy transients. These ‘invisible’ and largely
unavoidable transients occur regularly on low-voltage power circuits, often peaking at
thousands of volts. In these cases, you’re dependent for protection on the safety margin
built into your meter.
The voltage rating alone won’t state how well that meter was designed to survive transient
impulses. You need to be aware to the category rating of your meter.
The rules of real estate apply equally to Overvoltage Installation Categories: location,
location, location. The closer you are to the consumer or service mains, the better category
required.
Definition Examples
 Origin of installation’, ie, low-voltage
connection to utility power;
 Electricity meters, primary overcurrent
Three-phase at utility protection equipment;
CAT
connection, any outdoor  Outside and service entrance, service drop
IV
conductors from pole to building between meter and
panel;
 Overhead line to detached building.
 Equipment in fixed installations, eg,

Three-phase distribution, switchgear and polyphase motors;
including single-phase  Bus and feeder in industrial plants;
commercial lighting  Feeders and short branch circuits, distribution
CAT
panel devices;
III This the minimum
 Lighting systems in larger buildings;
category for most  Appliance outlets with short connections to
electricians. service entrance.
 Appliances, portable tools, household and

similar loads;
CAT Single-phase receptacle
 Outlet and long branch circuits;
II connected loads
 Outlets at more than 10 m from CAT III
source;

 Outlets at more that 20 m from CAT IV

source.
 Protected electronic equipment;

 Equipment connected to (source) circuits
where measures are taken to limit transient
CAT overvoltages to appropriately low level;
Electronic
I  High-voltage, low-energy source derived from
a high winding resistance transformer, eg,
high-voltage section of a laser copier/printer.
13. INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
When we measure Insulation Resistance (commonly called a ‘Meggar Test’), we are really
measuring how well we are holding the electrons inside our cables, equipment and
appliances. It is undesirable to have them ‘escape or leak out ’. In reality it is difficult to
hold them all within old cables and equipment, but there are limits on what is acceptable
loss. A major loss will result in a short circuit and a blown fuse or worse, arcing and fires.
Or worst still (as you’ll learn in 2nd year) an electrocution.
The tool we use for this test is called an Insulation Resistance Tester, commonly called an
‘I.R. Tester’ or ‘Meggar’ (Meggar is the brand name for the famous company which
pioneered these testers).
AS 3000:2007 Section 8 has various mandatory tests which must be done on cabling and
equipment before it is put into use, Section 8.3.6 provides guidance and limits for these
tests. The I.R. test basically says:- we must stress the wiring at 500V DC, and check the
Insulation Resistance , it needs to be at least 1 M Ohm or better (for most general wiring
and equipment; there’s a couple of exceptions).
What the IR Tester does is check ‘leakage’, lots of leakage gives us a low number
(unacceptable); nil or a very small leakage gives a high number (acceptable). On new
wiring or equipment you would expect very little leakage and you should investigate
further if your testing returns low numbers, (even 5M Ohm would be a poor number on a
new job, even though it’s 5 times the minimum limit; depending upon the job, you may be
expecting 100M ohms). Digital IR testers are good, but many electricians prefer Analogue
as much information can be gleaned from the way the needle reacts; often the readings are
not ‘steady’ or at one stationary value, they can jump around.

Digital style IR tester Analogue style IR tester
Best of both worlds – Digital with an Analogue indicator scale across the top of the screen
I.R. Testers are one of the main tools for electricians, without it he’s useless. It is used to
check cables and equipment are satisfactory to connect and put into service. to track down
faults when circuit breakers trip (or fuses blow), and when customers have safety switches
which won’t reset. There are a lot of problems that can only be tracked down with an IR
tester. Once repaired, the circuit or equipment is tested again, proven to be acceptable then
put back into service.
They require some care, they are not cheap and it is extremely important that electricians
get accurate results and interpret the results correctly. Do not drop them, or store them
where they can be damaged by vibration, heat (do not store in a hot part of your vehicle),
and sunlight. Turn them off when not in use (if there is an off button – otherwise it’ll have
an auto off ability). Always carry fresh batteries, some brands use up batteries surprisingly
quickly, and you never want to be caught out on a job with flat batteries ( for any tool!).

Most I.R. testers have a battery test function; this should be checked before beginning any
job as nearly flat batteries will give misleading results. Some I.R. testers have ‘scales’
which means you may have to double or halve the reading you see to calculate the correct
reading. Read the instructions and look for clues such as “1000V 2x”
Most IR testers can also test ‘low Ohms’ as well. When conducting other tests such as
resistance of earthing conductors, we need meters which measure small amounts of
resistance very accurately. AS3000:2007 8.3.5.2 gives us another mandatory test which
says the MAXIMUM resistance is 0.5OHM (1/2 an ohm!!) for the main earthing conductor
(the cable which goes from the meter-box to the main earth electrode) and the equipotential
bonding conductor (the cable which goes to the copper water pipes, concrete mesh, pool
fence etc.) These small measurements are well beyond the capability of the average
electrician’s multimeter, so we use the low ohms range built into most IR testers.
Because of these fine tolerances and very low values, the IR tester MUST be ‘zeroed’ on
each range, your teacher will show you how to do this when you use them. They must also
be regularly checked against known resistances to ensure they are still working and
measuring correctly. This is called calibration, and a IR Tester ‘test block’ is available for
the purpose from suppliers. I.R. Testers should be checked at least every 3 months.
Calibration:- AS3000:2007 8.3.6.1 says that an IR Tester has to hold +20% and -10% of
its’ nominal voltage when measuring a 1M Ohm resistor at 500V DC. So on the 500V DC
range, you connect it to a 1M Ohm test resistor and a DC voltmeter, press the button and it
should read 1 M Ohm on its’ scale PLUS hold its’ voltage somewhere between 450V and
600V on the DC voltmeter. A simple test easily done by an electrician or apprentice.
Mostly we use the 500V DC range, however THE WIRING and/or EQUIPMENT IS
ALWAYS DE-ENERGISED BEFORE USING AN I.R. TESTER otherwise you may
destroy the meter and/or electrocute yourself. It is a test only done on ‘dead’ cables &
equipment. You will probably be electrocuted if you try to perform an IR Test on a ‘live’
circuit. In special circumstances we use the 250V range (say on circuits with electronics
such as light dimmers or surge divertors built in), or the 1000V range (sometimes when
testing phase to phase on 3 phase circuits), you will learn more about IR testers and how to
use them in 2nd and 3rd year studies. The 500V DC we inject to stress the cables, is
calculated to give the cabling 50% more ‘electrical’ stress than they would receive in
normal service, so it shows up any weak points. (In 2nd year you will learn the peak AC
voltage is around 339V; 339V x 150% = 508V). Note : over-voltage spikes are frequently
stressing our wiring. Any weakness and it eventually fail. The spikes come from other
sources such as motors, refrigerators, air conditioners etc. turning on and off, lightning,
switching operations at substations and factories., even from lighting such as fluorescent
lights and high bay/low bay industrial lighting.
Be careful of the test leads of any multimeter or I.R. tester. Do not touch any bare metal
component. Always perform a check of the leads before using them, look for nicks, cuts,
scrapes etc. Ensure the connections feel firm, not loose or likely to fall out. Give them a
‘buzz check’ before and after use to ensure they haven’t broken during use.
During your career, you WILL HAVE several instances where test leads and meters
will fail without warning. Good one minute, faulty the next.Always check for correct

operation BEFORE and AFTER every use. Especially when checking a circuit is ‘dead’.
After checking the circuit is ‘dead’, you should then check the meter on a different live
source to ensure it is still working OK.
14. VOLTSTICKS / TEST PENS / TEST SCREW DRIVERS
Don’t trust your life to any of these NON-CONTACT testers. Whilst they are handy to use,
ALWAYS ALWAYS ALWAYS use a good quality Voltmeter or Test Lamps to test
for dangerous voltages (anything over 50V AC / 120V DC) before you start working on
wiring, appliances, switchboards or equipment etc.
TEST BEFORE YOU TOUCH is the Electrician’s mantra.
There have been several deaths, some near fatal electrocutions and many electric shocks
received by workers due to these ‘tools’. No brand is guaranteed 100% safe 100% of the
time.
ADDITIONAL READING FOR STUDENTS – Extracts from the Coroner’s report

(Full copy at www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/.../Leismanninquest.../Leismanninquest.doc)
Article I. INQUEST INTO THE DEATH OF JEFFREYJAMES

LEISEMANN
Brief Facts
At the time of his death, Jeffrey Leisemann was employed by the Royal Automobile Club
of Australia (“the Club”) as the Building and Maintenance Manager. He was responsible
for the maintenance and upkeep of the Club as well as the supervision and co-ordination of
the Garage area. He was also responsible for the supervision of staff in both areas.
Specifically, he supervised Mr Burgess, a qualified electrician, and Mr Galante, a general

handyman. According to both these men, they all had their separate areas of work – they
never performed the same work as a team.
On 20 October 2004, Mr Leisemann had lunch with his colleagues in the dining room.
During that time he was informed by one of the house cleaners that Room 601 was then
vacant. Apparently, the conversation over lunch was quite general. Mr Leisemann did not
mention what he was going to do afterwards. Around 2.15 pm Mr Burgess observed Mr
Leisemann lying immobile on the floor in front of the centre air conditioning unit of Room
601. Mr Burgess called out to him, shook his arm and patted him on the back. Receiving
no response, Mr Burgess then went to get assistance from Mr Galante……………
……….. I heard considerable evidence about what Mr Leisemann may have been doing at
the time of his death. From photographs taken of the scene, I note that the sliding door to
one of the air conditioning units in Room 601 was open. The cover to the motorised valve
adjacent to the unit within the bulkhead had been removed, thus exposing energised
contacts at the top. The thermostat control had been removed from its position inside the
bulkhead to a position outside.
Various tools were found including screwdrivers, pliers and a torch. An electronic
thermostat used for checking temperature was located adjacent to the thermostat control. A
proximity volt tester, specifically a Cabac Voltfinger, was located on the floor about 18
inches from Mr Leisemann’s head by Mr Burgess
According to tests undertaken by Mr Rayner from Energy Australia, all of the possible live
sources such as the frame of the air conditioning unit, the fan unit, the exchange unit, pipe
work and thermostat control were earthed. The one area that was energised was the top of
the motor control valve. Hence, a reasonable conclusion is that Mr Leisemann came into
contact with that area……
……I note that Mr Galante commented that, he had regularly noticed a volt stick in Mr
Leisemann’s pocket. Whether this was provided by the Club or not, Mr Leisemann quite
openly carried it with as part of his work equipment……
Condition of Voltfinger
The Cabac Voltfinger that was initially seen in the vicinity Mr Leisemann’s head by Mr
Burgess, was first examined by Mr Rayner on 20 October 2004. The Cabac Voltfinger was
of the type that was supposed to show a warning red glow when in the proximity of an
electric current. Mr Rayner noted that if the Voltfinger was rolled between the fingers in
the middle of the room away from any electric current the indicator light would illuminate.
If it was placed near a known electrical source, sometimes it would indicate and sometimes
it would not.
Subsequent tests of the Voltfinger by Mr David Fraser from Testsafe revealed initially that
the Voltfinger showed no warning indication in the presence of an electric current.
However, the functioning of the instrument improved after a brass shim was inserted,
thereby ensuring maximum battery contact. As a result of these tests, Mr Fraser concluded

that, at best, the Voltfinger would have been operating only intermittently at the time of
that Mr Leisemann used it on 20 October 2004.
Mr Gallante gave evidence that Mr Leisemann usually carried the Voltfinger in his shirt
pocket. Its location near his head at the time of his death is indicative of the fact that he had
used the Voltfinger prior to his death. Hence, I am satisfied to the requisite standard that
the malfunctioning of the Voltfinger contributed to Mr Leisemann’s death……
Notes

Notes

PRACTICAL - METERS
PURPOSE:
This practical assignment will be used to enhance a students understanding of the
characteristics of typical voltmeters and ammeters
 Select appropriate test equipment fort a given task..
 Select a suitable range for an accurate reading of test equipment.
 Measure voltages and currents of a series-parallel circuit.
EQUIPMENT:

□ 1 x digital multimeter
□ 1 x 0-1A analogue ammeter
□ 1 x 10W resistor – 2,200 Ω


12: METERS Miller College 12
1. METER CHARACTERISTICS.
1. Connect the digital ohmmeter to the panel type voltmeter as shown in figure 12.
Digital Ohmmeter (20kΩ)
V.Ω. com

+ -
V -
0-2-20 Vdc Panel Voltmeter
figure 12
2. Use the digital ohmmeter to measure the resistance of both the 0- 2V and 0-20V
ranges and record results in table 2.
Table 2 - Analogue Voltmeter - Panel type
Range
2V 20 V
Resistance
3. Using figure 12 as a guide disconnect the panel type volt meter and reconnect a
separate digital voltmeter.
4. Use the digital ohmmeter to measure the resistances of both of the 2V and 20V D.C.
Table 3 – Digital Multimeter – VDC
Range
2V 20 V
Resistance

5. Using figure 13 as a guide disconnect the panel type volt meter and reconnect a panel
type ammeter.
Digital Ohmmeter (200 Ω)
V.Ω. com

A+ -
A -
0-50-500 mAdc Panel Ammeter
figure 13
6. Use the digital ohmmeter to measure the resistance of both the 50 mA and 500 mA
DC ranges and record results in table 4.
Table 4 - Analogue Ammeter - Panel type
Range
50 mA 500 mA
Resistance
7. Using figure 13 as a guide disconnect the panel type ammeter and reconnect a separate
digital multimeter and select ADC range.
8. Use the digital ohmmeter to measure the resistance of both the 200 mA and 2 A DC
Table 5 – Digital Multimeter – ADC
Range
200mA 2A
Resistance

Progress Table 1
2. LONG AND SHORT SHUNT CONNECTIONS.

1. Complete the connections required for a short shunt connection in fig. 14.
digital ammeter
(300 mA)
+
A +
D.C. + -
Power R L  V Panel Voltmeter
Supply (20 V)
-
-
figure 14.
Progress Table 2
3. Check that the power supply is set to zero volts before turning it on
4. Turn on the power supply and carefully set the supply voltage so that the voltmeter
reads 18 volts.
5. Measure and record the current in table 6.
6. Turn of the power supply. DO NOT CHANGE THE VOLTAGE SETTING.
7. Complete the connections required for a long shunt connection in fig. 15.
digital ammeter
(300 mA)
+
A +
D.C. + -
Power R L  V Panel Voltmeter
Supply (20 V)
-
-
figure 15.

Progress Table 3
9. Carefully move the voltmeter to be long shunt connected.

10. Turn on the power supply. BE CAREFUL NOT TO CHANGE THE VOLTAGE
SETTING.
11. Measure and record the current in table 6.
12. Measure and record the voltage of the 0-20 V voltmeter in table 6.
Table 6
Voltage (VL) Current (IL)
Short Shunt 18 V
Long Shunt
13. Reduce the voltage setting of the power supply to zero.

14. Turn off the power supply.
15. Disconnect the circuit and return equipment to its correct place.
3. OBSERVATIONS:
1. Compare the results tables 2 to 5, which meter has the highest resistance.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Compare the results tables 2 to 5, how does the resistances of the voltmeters compare
to the ammeters.
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_____________________________________________________________________

3. Using the results of tables 2 to 3, calculate the sensitivity of each of the four
voltmeters.
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Using the results of table 6, calculate the resistance of the load resistor from the
readings of the volt and ammeters for both long and short shunt connections.
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
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5. Which method of connection long or short shunt is the closest reading to 2.2 kΩ.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

TUTORIAL – METERS
NAME:-

questions.
not to be freehand.
Section A
2. An increase in the size of a cable supplying a fixed load will cause the voltage drop on
that cable to:
(a) decrease
(b) increase
(c) stay the same
(d) continually change.
3. The best material for an ammeter shunt would be:
(a) copper
(b) aluminium
(c) manganin
(d) carbon
4. The voltmeter sensitivity or the resistance of a voltmeter is given in terms of:
(a) volts per ohm

(b) ohms per volt
(c) volts per ampere

(d) ampere per volt.
5. The basic moving coil meter movement can be used to measure larger currents if used
in conjunction with a:
(a) shunt resistor

(b) multiplier resistor
(c) series resistor
(d) loading resistor.
6. The basic moving coil meter movement can be used to measure higher voltages if
used in conjunction with a:
(a) shunt resistor

(c) parallel resistor
(d) loading resistor.
7. A voltmeter has an accuracy of 1% at a full range scale of 300 V. If the meter is

reading 300 V the actual voltage value could be between:
(a) 299-301V
(b) 200 - 400 V
(c) 291 V
(d) 297 - 303V
8. An Ammeter has an accuracy of ∓ 2% at a full range scale of 100 A. If the meter is

reading 100 A the actual current value could be between:
(a) 99 – 101 A
(b) 102 A
(c) 98 – 102 A
(d) 96 – 98 A
9. Referring to figure 16. The purpose of S1, R1, R2 and R3 is to:
(a) extend the range of the ammeter

(b) short out the ammeter
(c) be used as a multiplying resistance
(d) load the circuit.
figure 16.
10. The resistance material used to extend the range of an ammeter should be made of a
material which has the characteristics of a:
(a) Voltage Dependent Resistor

(b) Negative Temperature Coefficient resistor
(c) Zero Temperature Coefficient resistor.
(d) Positive Temperature Coefficient resistor.
11. If a voltmeter has low sensitivity, this means the voltmeter is:
(a) very accurate

(b) not accurate
(c) more likely to load the circuit.
(d) not sensitive to voltage changes
12. The question refers to figure 17 The current flowing in resistor Rsh is
(a) 1 mA
(b) 6 mA
(c) 8 mA
(d) 14 mA.
figure 17
13. Referring to figure 17. The voltage drop across resistor Rsh is equal to:
(a) Ic x Rsh
(b) Ic x Rc
(c) Ish x Rc
(d) I x Rsh
14. An AVO-7 multimeter has a sensitivity of 500 ohms/volt. Determine the resistance of
the meter when used on the:
(a) 25 V range
(b) 1000 V range.

15. Referring to figure 18. Determine the:
figure 18
(a) voltage across R2
(b) voltage across R2 if the voltmeter has a resistance of 20 MΩ
16. Question 15 refers to figure 19, determine:
figure 19
(a) the value of the current through Rsh.

(b) the voltage drop across R2
(c) the power rating of R1

CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
TOPIC 14 Capacitors and Capacitance encompassing:
 basic construction of standard capacitor, highlighting the: plates, dielectric

and connecting leads
 different types of dielectric material and each dielectric’s relative
permittivity.
 identification of various types of capacitors commonly used in the
Electrotechnology industry (fixed value capacitors - stacked plate, rolled,
electrolytic, ceramic, mica and Variable value capacitors – tuning and
trimmer)
 circuit symbol of various types of capacitors: standard; variable, trimmer
and polarised
 terms: Capacitance (C), Electric charge (Q) and Energy (W)
 unit of: Capacitance (Farad), Electric charge (Coulomb) and Energy (Joule)
 factors affecting capacitance (the effective area of the plates, the distance
between the plates and the type of dielectric) and explain how these factors
are present in all circuits to some extent.
 how a capacitor is charged in a d.c. circuit.
 behaviour of a series d.c. circuit containing resistance and capacitance
components. - charge and discharge curves
 the term ‘Time Constant’ and its relationship to the charging and
discharging of a capacitor.
 calculation of quantities from given information: Capacitance (Q = VC);
Energy (W =½CV2); Voltage (V = Q/C)
 calculation one time constant as well as the time taken to fully charge and
discharge a given capacitor. (τ = RC)
 connection of a series d.c. circuit containing capacitance and resistor to
determine the time constant of the circuit

13: CAPACITORS Miller College 13
1. THE CAPACITOR.
The capacitor is a device capable of storing energy in the form of an electric ___________.
The capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator, as shown in figure 1.

The two conductors are known as the 'plates' and the insulator is referred to as the
'dielectric'.
figure 1
Typically, the plates are some form of conducting foil separated with a thin layer of
dielectric material. See figure 2.
dielectric
figure 2
Capacitance is measured in a unit known as the _________________ ( ). However, most

capacitors have a capacitance which is measured in microfarads (µF), where 1µF equals
one millionth of a farad, as the farad is too large to be practical.
One microfarad is written __________, and equals ______________
The Dielectric of a Capacitor
As well as the overall size of the conductive plates and their distance or spacing apart from
each other, another factor which affects the overall capacitance of the device is the type of

dielectric material being used. In other words the "Permittivity" (ε) of the dielectric. The
conductive plates are generally made of a metal foil or a metal film but the dielectric
material is an insulator.
The various insulating materials used as the dielectric in a capacitor differ in their ability to
block or pass an electrical charge. This dielectric material can be made from a number of
insulating materials or combinations of these materials with the most common types used
being: air, paper, polyester, polypropylene, Mylar, ceramic, glass, oil, or a variety of other
materials.
The factor by which the dielectric material, or insulator, increases the capacitance of the
capacitor compared to air is known as the Dielectric Constant, k and a dielectric material
with a high dielectric constant is a better insulator than a dielectric material with a lower
dielectric constant. Dielectric constant is a dimensionless quantity since it is relative to free
space.
The types of dielectric material include:
o polyester - for general purpose capacitors (k = 2.8 -4.5)

o paper - used in capacitors which operate at mains voltage (k =2.3)
o oiled paper – used for higher voltages (k = 4)
o electrolytic - chemically formed, high capacitance for small physical size, polarised
o tantalum - chemically formed, very small size for high capacitance, polarised
o ceramic - for high capacitance in a physically small size
o polystyrene (k = 3) and polypropylene (k =1.5) - high stability capacitors
o air - for low value capacitors and variable capacitors. (k = 1; all capacitors are
compared to air)
An interesting (and sometimes dangerous) situation occurs with ‘charge’ being stored in our
electrical cables when there is no connection or load between them (copper conductors
separated by a dielectric). It is possible for our electrical cables to store charge, esp.longer
cable runs and often after Insulation Resistance testing. After conducting an IR test, cables
should be discharged; most IR Testers do this automatically for you after you release the test
button (on some models - if you look carefully you’ll see a little neon light illuminated
during the discharge). You should always treat any capacitor as charged and dangerous.
NEVER touch the terminals until proven ‘dead’ by discharging. An old workshop trick was
to toss a charged capacitor to an apprentice – with resultant shock to apprentice. Large
capacitors can kill!! Esp. those used for power factor correction). Don’t fall for it!

It is best to discharge a capacitor through a resistor, shorting out the terminals with a bare
screwdriver or wire can damage the capacitor, esp. the larger ones, plus cause eye and
hearing injuries.
Figure 3 shows a polyester capacitor, and figure 4 an electrolytic capacitor.
figure 3. figure 4.
Figure 5 shows a variable capacitor which has aluminium plates and air as the dielectric
figure 5.
Capacitors which have air as the dielectric material have very low values of capacitance,
typically in the picofarad range. Where –
One picofarad is written __________, and equals ______________ .
Polyester and other small capacitors often have capacitance values measured in nanofarads.
Where –
One nanofarad is written __________, and equals ______________ .
The capacity of a capacitor is its ability to store an electric charge.
As stated previously, the unit of capacitance is the farad which is defined as follows:

A capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when an applied voltage of one volt
causes the capacitor to store a charge of one coulomb.
A LITTLE BACKGROUND INTO WHAT WE CALL “ELECTRICITY”
ELECTRIC CHARGE
Many years ago the question 'What is electricity?' was frequently asked,
and attempts to answer it were limited to guesswork. Today we have the
electron theory which offers a reasonable explanation of electrical
phenomena.
The electron theory assumes, in general, that atoms of all substances are
page 15
constructed from three kinds of particles -
a)______________________ - containing the smallest negative electric charge.
b)______________________ - positively-charged particle of an atom.
c)______________________ - having no resultant charge.
electron proton neutron
figure 1
As long as the balance between the electrons and protons is not disturbed, the atom is
electrically neutral. The numbers of electrons and protons it contains are equal, so that the
total number of negative charges due to the electrons is exactly neutralised by the positive
charges of the protons.

In principle, the atom may be regarded as a very minute copy of our solar system. The
centre of the atom is called the nucleus and spinning around this nucleus at almost
incredible speed are the planetary electrons. figure 2.
MECHANISM OF CURRENT FLOW
When a potential difference (pd.) is applied to the ends of the copper wire, figure 3, a
movement of electrons takes place from the negative terminal of the cell along the
conductor to the positive terminal.
figure 3
Free electrons are withdrawn from the conductor at its positive end, because the positive
terminal of the cell has a deficiency of electrons. At the same time excess electrons at the
negative terminal of the cell are supplied to the conductor to make good the deficiency
caused by the withdrawal of electrons at the positive end. The transfer of free electrons
takes place from atom to atom and it should be kept in mind that the number of electrons in
the conductor remains constant although the rate of transfer can be increased by increasing
the potential difference between the ends of the conductor.
If you like, think of a long piece of rope inserted through a 4m length of conduit, as the rope
is pulled out one end it must travel through the pipe and into the pipe at the same speed. But
at all times, the actual quantity of rope inside the conduit stays the same at 4m.
It is this transfer of electrons which constitutes an electric current in the wire.

Conduction currents are thus due to the motion of free electrons. They ‘jump’ from one
atom to the next, and as they leave an atom, a following electron takes its’ place and hence
there is a long line of electrons ‘jumping’ across atoms at the same speed, all following the
first electron at the same speed. If the first electron stops, all the others behind it stop, if the
first electron speeds up to 10 times as fast, all the others behind do exactly the same thing,
just like out piece of rope going through the conduit above.
The atoms of the conductor do not alter their mean positions and when current exists in a
copper conductor, copper is not transferred from one part of the conductor to another, just
free electrons. The current is due to a movement of electrons. Although the electron flow is
actually from negative to positive in the external circuit it must be remembered that the
conventional idea of current direction is from positive to negative.
Conventional Current Flow assumes that current flows out of the positive terminal,
through the circuit and into the negative terminal of the source. This was the convention

chosen during the discovery of electricity, and used successfully for a very long time. In
recent times the scientists discovered: They were wrong!
Electron Current Flow is what actually happens, and it has been found that electrons flow
out of the negative terminal, through the circuit and into the positive terminal of the source.
Both Conventional Current and Electron Flow are used by industry. Many textbooks are
available in both Electron Flow and Conventional Current formats. Be careful when reading
information from overseas books or the internet as both formats will be used.
In fact, it makes no difference which way current is flowing as long as it is used

consistently. The direction of current flow does not affect what the current does. For our
studies we will use Conventional Current Flow.
It has been observed that the presence of an electric current in a metallic conductor has no
effect on the composition of the conductor material. However, the presence of an electric
current in an electrolyte causes the electrolyte to be decomposed. The process of electrically
breaking up an electrolyte is called electrolysis. Pure water is a very good insulator, that is,
if a potential difference is applied to two metal plates immersed in pure distilled water no
measurable current will flow between the plates.
It is observed however, that if some chemical substances are dissolved in the distilled water,
the water changes from no current flow to allowing current to flow. The solution or
“electrolyte” as it is now called, is conductive although not to the same extent as that of a
solid metallic conductor having the same cross-sectional area. Electrolytes belong mainly to
three types of chemical compounds:
o acids, for example, sulphuric acid;
o bases, for example, caustic soda;
o salts, for example, common salt.
Figure 4 shows an electrolytic cell, e.g. a glass vessel containing an electrolyte, a common
salt solution, in which are supported two metal plates connected to a source of electrical
supply. Note, the electrode at which the current enters the electrolyte from the source of
supply is called the anode, whereas the electrode at which it leaves the electrolyte is
called the cathode. Figure 4 below.

1. UNIT OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
The ____________________ is a measure of the intensity of electric charge.
One coulomb (1C) equals the charge of 6.25 x 1018 electrons.
The symbol for charge is Q.
page 23
Example 1
A glass rod is charged by rubbing it with silk. The surface charge on the rod is 0.73C. How
many electrons have been removed from the glass?
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CURRENT FLOW
When electrons are moved as a result of a potential difference, the flow of electrons is
referred to as 'current'. This causes a difference in the number of electrons on each of the
conductors. The conductor which has the most electrons is said to be “negatively charged”.
The conductor which has the least electrons is “positively charged”. Figure 5 shows two
bodies that are electrically charged. The body on the left carries a charge of -6C and the
body on the right -2C.
-6C -2C
figure 5
If the two bodies are joined by a conductor, electrons will flow via the conductor from the
body on the left to that on the right. Electron flow will cease when both bodies carry the
same electric charge. Eg. if you build up a charge of static electricity, you have an
imbalance compared to your surroundings, when you discharge and a receive a ‘shock’, it is

just the flow of electrons equalising, so now you & your surroundings are both at the same
‘charge’ or voltage level.
By convention, it is said that current flows from a point of high potential to a point of low
potential. In the arrangement shown in figure 5, it would be said that current flows from the
body on the right to the body on the left, - 2 being higher in value than - 6.
2. QUANTITY OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
When one coulomb of charge passes a given point in one second, one
unit of current is said to flow. That is,
One ampere = One coulomb/second
Therefore, provided the current flowing in a circuit and the length of

time for which the current flows is known, the quantity of electricity
used can be determined. page 23
where: Q = quantity of electricity or charge in coulombs

t = time in seconds for which current flows
Example 2
A constant current of 1A is maintained in a circuit for 1 hour. Determine the quantity of
electricity used.
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Example 3
A cell supplies a current of 5A continuously to a circuit for 48 minutes. Determine the
number of coulombs passed through the cell.
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Example 4
An electro-chemical separation bath requires 18,000C of electricity in 1 hour. Determine the
current flow.
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Example 5
How many minutes would it take a steady current of 15A to supply 1350C of electricity to a
circuit?
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CAPACITOR SYMBOLS
Figure 6 shows the Australian Standard symbols for a variety of capacitors, these include -
(a) fixed capacitor
(b) electrolytic capacitor
(c) variable capacitor
(d) trimmer capacitor.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
figure 6.
Typical applications for the various types of capacitor include:

o fixed, non polarised - small value (up to 10µF). Electronic circuits such as audio
amplifiers, radio and TV. Used in mains suppressors (to filter out spikes), power
factor correction.
o fixed, polarised - values range from 1µF to 20,000µF. Used particularly in power
supplies to produce a smooth DC voltage (filtering). Also used in timing circuits to
give long time delays.
o variable - used in radio and TV tuning circuits to tune to a particular station, also
used in other applications requiring an exact capacitance value only obtainable by
adjustment.
2. CAPACITANCE
As shown in the graph of figure 7, the charge stored by a capacitor increases proportionally
as the charging voltage is increased.
Charge - Coulombs
0
Voltage
figure 7.
The unit of electric charge is the coulomb, which is identified with

the symbol Q.
The ratio of the charge stored by a capacitor to the voltage across its
plates is a constant and is the property of the capacitor called
capacitance.
page 92-93
fig 2.98-108
where: C = capacitance in farads

Q = charge in coulombs
V = voltage in volts

Example 1
A 100µF capacitor has a voltage of 25V across its plates. What is the charge stored by the
capacitor?
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Example 2
A capacitor requires 47µC of charge to be deposited on its plates to raise the voltage across
the plates to 100V. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.
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3. CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR
Charge is a displacement in the number of electrons i.e. A different number on one

plate compared to the other.
Consider a capacitor, connected to a battery through a change-over switch, S, and a centre-
zero ammeter, as shown in figure 8. The capacitor is said to be in a ‘discharged state’: thus
the number of electrons on each plate are equal – no difference.
1 S +
2
3
+
V
figure 8
Switch S is now moved to position 1 connecting the battery direct to the capacitor plates.
The plates will assume the same potential and polarity as the battery.
The positive terminal of the battery has a deficiency of electrons. Electrons will now be
drawn away from the upper plate of the capacitor giving it a positive charge (less negative).
The negative terminal of the battery has an excess of electrons, when connected to the
capacitors lower plate, electrons will move into the lower capacitor plate, giving it a
negative charge. The numbers of electrons on the upper and lower plates of the
capacitor are no longer equal. The capacitor is now charging.

This electric charge of the capacitor plates will cause the external orbits of the electrons of
the dielectric material be distorted due to the attraction of the negative electrons to the
positively charged plate. This is called polarisation of the dielectric. See figure 9.
1 S +
2
3
+
V
figure 9
Electrons will flow until the orbits of the dielectric can no longer be stretched for the
amount of force (voltage) applied. Any further flow would require an increase in ‘electrical
force’. As there no longer any movement of electrons, the ammeter returns to its centre-zero
position (current has stopped flowing). This is known as the “steady state condition”. It is
now charged to that voltage level.
If the battery is now disconnected from the capacitor by moving the switch into position 2,
as shown in figure 10, then the capacitor remains charged. That is each of the two plates
retain their individual charges. The dielectric (an insulator) prevents electrons from the
negative plate returning to the positive plate of the capacitor.
The atoms in the dielectric remain in their stressed (polarised) condition. This distortion is
set by the amount of energy stored in the dielectric and is what provides the required force
to discharged the capacitor.
1 S +
2
3
+
V
figure 10.
If the switch S is moved to position 3, there will be a flow of electrons from the capacitors
lower plate (negative) back through the meter in the opposite direction to the capacitors
upper plate (positive). This will cause the meter to deflect in the opposition direction whilst
current flows. Electrons will continue to move until the numbers of electrons on the
upper and lower plates are again equal. This is known as “discharge”. When the
capacitor has been fully discharged, the electron flow will drop to zero and the ammeter will
return to its centre-zero position. The discharge circuit is shown in figure 11.
1 S +
2
3
+
V
figure 11.
Once the discharge operation is completed and the charge on the capacitor reduced to zero,
the external orbits of the dielectric atoms would return to their normal, unstressed position.
4. FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on three factors -
o _________________________________
o _________________________________
o _________________________________.
figure 12
The capacitance of a capacitor is -
o directly proportional to the area of the plates - that is, if plate area is increased
capacitance is increased, and if plate area is decreased capacitance is decreased.
o inversely proportional to the distance between plates - that is, if the distance
between the plates is increased the capacitance decreases, and if the distance
between the plates is decreased the capacitance increases.
o directly proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric material - that is, the higher
the permittivity of the dielectric material the higher the capacitance.
The equation used to calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is:
where: C = capacitance in farads

ε = permittivity of the dielectric in farads per metre
A = area of plates in square metres.
d = distance between the plates in metres

Table 1 shows the permittivity of various dielectric materials. The important point here is,
the higher the permittivity the higher the capacitance.
Table 1
Dielectric Material Permittivity (F/m)
Air 8.85 x 10-12
Paper 22.125 x 10-12
Transformer Oil 35.4 x 10-12
Mica 44.25 x 10-12
Porcelain 53.1 x 10-12
page 91
Ceramic (Strontium -9
66.375 x 10
Titanate)
Example 3
Two metal plates each 200mm x 200mm are separated by a sheet of plastic 0.5mm thick.
Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor if the permittivity of plastic is 26.55 x 10-12F/m.
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Example 4
Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor in example 3 if the plastic dielectric was replaced
by a ceramic dielectric.
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5. CAPACITORS IN A DC CIRCUIT
When a capacitor is connected to a DC, supply current flows to charge the capacitor. This
charging current flows only for a short time and then falls to zero.

If a capacitor is connected as shown in figure 13 the following circuit operations would
occur:
centre-zero ammeter
figure 13
o increasing the supply voltage gives a momentary positive deflection on the ammeter.
o decreasing the supply voltage gives a momentary negative deflection on the
ammeter.
Current flows only when the voltage across the capacitor is _____________________.
6. THE R-C CIRCUIT

When a capacitor is connected across a DC supply, the capacitor charges by taking a charge
current from the supply. See figure 14. Under these conditions the capacitor charges almost
_______________________ to the supply voltage.
V C
I charge
-
figure 14
The R-C circuit consists of a resistor and a capacitor connected in series across a DC supply.
If a resistor is connected in series with the capacitor, the charge time will be ___________.
In the circuits of figure 15:
+ +
R R
V = 10V V = 10V
C V C V
- V = 0V - V = 10V
figure 15

o when the switch is first closed, there is ____________ voltage across the capacitor.
o as the capacitor charges, a current flows and the voltage across the capacitor _____.
o when fully charged the voltage across the capacitor ________ the supply voltage, and
the charge current drops to ______________.
o the voltage across the resistor now equals _____________ volts.

The time taken for the capacitor to charge depends on the values of resistance and
capacitance. The time taken is:
o directly proportional to the capacitance
o directly proportional to the resistance.
The time constant for the R-C circuit is equal to the product of the resistance (R) and the
capacitance (C).
By definition -
The time constant for the R-C circuit is the time taken for the voltage across
the capacitor to reach 63.2% of the supply voltage.
The time constant for an R-C circuit may be calculated using the equation:
where: T = time constant in seconds (S)

R = resistance in ohms (Ω)
C = capacitance in farads (F)
Note: A Time Constant is like a ‘block of time’, we can make it shorter or longer by
changing the value of either the capacitor OR the resistor.
Example 5
+
For the circuit of figure 16, after closing the switch 1
determine the : S1 R = 1MΩ
V = 24V
(a) circuit time constant.
C = 2µF
(b) voltage across the capacitor when fully charged.
figure 16

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The curve shown in figure 17 illustrates the rise in capacitor voltage during the capacitor
charging period. Examination of the curve reveals that the capacitor takes '5 equal time
constants' to fully charge. (or 5 ‘blocks’ of time)
99.3
98.2 95 99.3%
98.2%
95%
86.5
Capacitor Voltage - Volts
86.5%
63.2
63.2%
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time - Seconds
figure 17
At the instant that power is applied to an R-C circuit, the voltage across the capacitor is
zero. As a result, the voltage across the resistor will equal the supply voltage and the current
will be at its maximum value. (Imax = V/R)
As time progresses for charging:

o voltage across the capacitor rises
o voltage across the resistor decreases
o circuit current falls, eventually dropping to zero.
The curves of figure 18 show the capacitor voltage and the circuit current with respect to
time. Note that the current curve is the mirror reverse of the voltage curve.

figure 18 (a) Capacitor Voltage versus time of a RC circuit (charging)
figure 18 (b) Capacitor inrush Current versus time of a RC circuit (charging)
If the battery is replaced with a short circuit and the circuit switch is closed, a charged
capacitor will discharge via the resistor (see figure 19.)
o The capacitor provides the potential to force current to flow.
o The initial value of the discharge current will be a maximum, eventually falling
to zero.
o As the capacitor discharges, the voltage across it also falls to zero.
I discharge R
+
C
figure 19

The curves of figure 20 illustrates the capacitor discharge characteristics:-
o Capacitor voltage falls to zero as the capacitor discharges.
o Discharge current falls to zero as the capacitor discharges.
figure 20 (a) Capacitor Voltage

when discharging
figure20 (b) Capacitor Current

when discharging
From the curves of figure 20, it should also be seen that it takes '5 time constants' before the
capacitor voltage and discharge current fall to zero. Note that the shape of the charge and
discharge curves for current in an R-C circuit are identical.
Example 6
An R-C circuit consists of a 1k resistor connected in series with a 47µF capacitor. If the
voltage across the charged capacitor is 50V, determine:
(a) the circuit time constant.
(b) the voltage across the capacitor, one time constant after charge has commenced.
(c) the circuit current, one time constant after charge has commenced.
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7. UNIVERSAL TIME CONSTANT CHART

The shape of the curves presented for the R-L and R-C circuits are identical and because of
this, they can be represented using the 'universal time constant chart', as shown in figure 21.
figure 21
The universal curves A and B are applied in the following way.

o capacitor charging - curve A represents the capacitor voltage
- curve B represents the capacitor current
o capacitor discharging - curve B represents the capacitor voltage and current.
The universal time constant chart can be used to determine the instantaneous value of
current in R-C circuit
Example 8
For the circuit of figure 22, determine:
(a) the circuit time constant.
+
(b) the voltage across the capacitor 25mS after the initial
appl S1 R = 10k
V = 24V
(c) the current flowing in the circuit 25mS after the
C = 1µF
initial application of power.
-
figure 22
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Example 9
For the circuit of figure 23, assume the switch has been closed to the supply voltage for
more than 5 time constants and the circuit is in a steady state condition.
determine:
(a) the circuit time constant
+
(b) the voltage across the capacitor 3s after the switch
S1 R = 15k 
has been moved to the ‘discharge’ position as
V = 35V
shown in figure 23.
C = 100µF
(c) the current flowing in the circuit 3s after the switch -
has been moved to the discharge position.
figure 23
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PRACTICAL - CAPACITORS AND

CAPACITANCE
PURPOSE:
This practical assignment will be used to examine the operation of the R-C circuit.
 Connect an R-C circuit using a circuit diagram as a guide.
 Observe the direction of capacitor current during charge and discharge.
 Measure voltages associated with an R-C circuit.
 Draw the voltage-time characteristic for an R-C circuit.
EQUIPMENT:

□ 1 x R-C time constant panel
□ 1 x 60-0-60µA analogue ammeter
□ 1 x 560k, 1W resistor
□ 1 x digital stopwatch
□ 1 x component mounting block
□


1. R-C CIRCUIT CURRENT FLOW
1. Using the R-C time constant panel, connect the circuit as shown in figure 24.
60-0-60µA
charge 560k
A
discharge
S1
DC digital C1
Power V mm
10µF
Supply 20V DC
figure 24
Progress Table 1
3. With the charge/discharge switch in the discharge position, turn on the DC supply
and adjust for a circuit voltage of 10V.
4. Switch the charge/discharge switch to the charge position and note the direction of
ammeter deflection. That is, positive or negative.
The ammeter deflection was _________________

5. With Switch the charge/discharge switch to the discharge position and note the
direction of ammeter deflection. That is, positive or negative.

6. Based on your results what is the direction of current flow during charge and
discharge?
7. During charge, it appears that current flows ___________ the capacitor.
8. During discharge, it appears that current flows ___________ the capacitor.
9. Switch the charge/discharge switch to the charge position and note what happens to
the magnitude of current with time.
The charge current is ____________ initially, then ____________ with time.
10. If necessary, repeat the procedure several times. Switch the charge/discharge switch to
the discharge position and note what happens to the magnitude of current with time.
The charge current is ____________ initially, then ____________ with time.

Progress Table 2
2. R-C CIRCUIT TIME CONSTANT

1. Refer to the circuit as shown in figure 24.
2. Calculate the time constant for the circuit of figure 24. The equation is T = R x C.
1 Time constant = ____________
3. Assuming a supply voltage of 10V, determine the voltage across the capacitor after
one time constant. The equation is VC = 0.632 x VSUPPLY.
VC = ____________
4. With the charge/discharge switch in the discharge position, turn on the DC supply and
adjust for a circuit voltage of 10V.
5. Switch the charge/discharge switch to the charge position and measure the time taken
for the capacitor voltage to reach 6.32V. Repeat a number, if necessary, to obtain an
accurate result.
Time taken = ____________
6. Switch the charge/discharge switch to the discharge position, then add Capacitor C2
to the circuit as shown in figure 25. Note, the overall capacitance now equals 20µF.
60-0-60µA
charge 560k
A
discharge
S1
DC digital C1 C2
Power V mm 10µF 10µF
Supply 20V DC
figure 25
7. Calculate the time constant for the circuit of figure 25. The equation is T = R x C.
8. Assuming a supply voltage of 10V, determine the voltage across the capacitor after
one time constant. The equation is VC = 0.632 x VSUPPLY.
9. With the charge/discharge switch in the discharge position, turn on the DC supply and
adjust for a circuit voltage of 10V.

10. Switch the charge/discharge switch to the charge position and measure the time taken
for the capacitor voltage to reach 6.32V.
Time taken = ____________
Progress Table 3
3. GROWTH OF VOLTAGE ACROSS A CHARGING CAPACITOR

60-0-60µA
charge 560k
A
discharge
S1
DC digital C1
Power V mm
10µF
Supply 20V DC
figure 26.
2. With the charge/discharge switch in the discharge position, check the DC supply is
adjusted for a circuit voltage of 10V.
3. Switch the charge/discharge switch to the charge position and measure the voltage
across the capacitor after one time constant. That is, after 5.6 seconds. Record the
value in table 2.
Table 2
Capacitor Voltage
After 1 After 2 After 3 After 4 After 5 After 6 After 7
time constant time time time time time time
5.6 secs constants constants constants constants constants constants
11.2 secs 16.8 secs 22.4 secs 28 secs 33.6 secs 39.2 secs
4. Switch the charge/discharge switch to the discharge position.

5. Switch the charge/discharge switch to the charge position and measure the voltage
across the capacitor after two time constants. That is, after 11.2 seconds. Record the
value in table 2.

6. Repeat the procedure for each of the time constants shown in table 2.
7. Switch the charge/discharge switch to the discharge position.

60-0-60µA
charge 560k
A
discharge
S1
DC digital C1 C2
Power V mm 10µF 10µF
Supply 20V DC
figure 27
9. Repeat steps 2 -7. Record your results in table 3.
Table 3
Capacitor Voltage
After 1 After 2 After 3 After 4 After 5 After 6 After 7
time constant time time time time time time
11.2 secs constants constants constants constants constants constants
22.4 secs 33.6 secs 44.8 secs 56 secs 67.2 secs 78.4 secs
10. Reduce the supply voltage to zero and turn off the supply,
Progress Table 4
12. Disconnect the circuit and return all equipment to its proper place.

4. CONCLUSION
1. What are the directions of current associated with a capacitor when it is charging and
discharging ?
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Does the capacitance of a capacitor affect the time constant of an R-C circuit?
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
3. What effect does the length of a time constant have on the rate at which the capacitor
charges?
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4. Is the level of current flowing to or from a capacitor, during charge and discharge,
constant or variable? If variable, in what way does it vary?
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
5. If a voltmeter is connected across a charged capacitor, the voltage across the capacitor
will slowly decrease. Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. On the axes provided below, draw the voltage-time characteristic for the circuit of
figures 26 and 27.
10
7
Capacitor Voltage - Volts
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time - Seconds
figure 28
7. On the graph drawn for question 6, mark the time constant and associated capacitor
voltage for each circuit.
8. What happens to the voltage across the resistor in an R-C circuit as the voltage across
the capacitor increases?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
9. What would be the effect on the operation of the circuit of figure 24 of replacing the
560k resistor with a 1M resistor?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
*************************

TUTORIAL - CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

NAME:

questions.
not to be freehand.
Section A
1. Capacitors are classified by the material used in their:
(a) plates.
(b) dielectric.
(c) electrodes.
(d) casing.
2. The unit of capacitance is the:
(a) coulomb
(b) henry
(c) farad
(d) ohm
3. A device used for storing electric charge is the:
(a) resistor
(b) inductor
(c) capacitor
(d) reactor.

4. Decreasing the dielectric thickness of a capacitor:
(a) increases the capacitance
(b) increase the voltage it will withstand
(c) decreases its capacitance
(d) has no effect on its capacitance.
5. Which of the following cannot be used as a dielectric:

(a) air
(b) paper
(c) carbon
(d) polyester
6. Decreasing the plate area of a capacitor:
(a) increases its capacitance
(b) does not effect its capacitance
(c) decreases its capacitance
(d) increases its dielectric strength
7. Increasing the capacitance in an R-C circuit will cause the time constant to:
(a) remain the same
(b) increase
(c) decrease
(d) reach a maximum value on charging
8. In an R-C circuit, after a period of one time constant from initial switch on, the
voltage across the capacitor will be:
(a) 100% of the supply voltage
(b) 63.2% of the supply voltage
(c) 50% of the supply voltage
(d) 36.8% of the supply voltage
9. Increasing the resistance in an R-C circuit would cause the time constant to:
(a) reach a maximum value on charging
(b) remain the same
(c) increase
(d) decrease

10. The practical unit of capacitance is the:
(a) micro-coulomb
(b) milli-farad
(c) micro-farad
(d) farad.
Section B:
information.
11. Capacitors are classified by their _____________material.
12. The unit of capacitance is the _____________ .
13. A capacitor is said to be fully charged when the charging current becomes ________.
14. One microfarad is equal to _____________ farads.
15. The three factors that effect the capacitance of a capacitor are the type of
___________, the _____________ of the plates and the _____________ the plates.
16. The time constant of an R-C circuit is a measure of the time taken to _____________
or _____________ a capacitor.
17. _____________ type capacitors have large values of capacitance for a small physical
size.
18. In an R-C circuit, the time taken to fully charge the capacitor is approximately ______
time constants.
19. In a circuit containing resistance and capacitance in series the time taken for the
capacitor voltage to reach 63.2% of its maximum value is known as the ___________
of the circuit.
20. The arc created by contacts opening an energised circuit may be suppressed by
connecting a _____________ across the contacts.
21. The charge stored by a capacitor depends on the capacitance of the capacitor and the
_____________ to which the capacitor is charged.

SECTION C
The following problems are to be solved with the aid of a calculator. All equations and
working are to be shown.
22. Determine the charge on a 47µF capacitor when connected to a 12V supply.
(564µC)
23. A 100µF capacitor is to store a charge of 0.005 coulombs. Determined the voltage that
has to be applied to the capacitor. (50V)
24. Determine the capacitance of a capacitor that is required to store a charge of 250µC
when connected to a 20V supply. (12.5µF)
25. If a capacitor stores a charge of 15mC when connected to a 10V supply, what charge
will be stored when connected to a 32V supply? (48mC)
26. An R-C circuit consists of a resistance of 120kΩ and a capacitance of 36µF.

Determine the -
(a) time constant of the circuit (4.32 seconds)
(b) time taken for the capacitor to fully charge. (21.6 seconds)
27. An R-C circuit has an applied voltage of 24V. What is the voltage across the capacitor
after one time constant. (15.17V)
28. If the time taken to fully charge a 470µF capacitor is 28.2 seconds, determine the -
(a) time duration for one time constant (5.64 seconds)
(b) value of the series resistor. (12kΩ)

29. The time constant for an R-C circuit is 33 seconds. If the series resistor has a value of
1MΩ, what is the value of the capacitor? (33µF)
30. A 500µF capacitor is connected in series with a 4kΩ resistor, and the circuit is
connected to a 20V dc supply. For this circuit determine the -
(a) time constant (2 seconds)
(b) circuit current at the instant the capacitor starts to charge (when Vc = 0V)
(5mA)
(c) circuit current when the capacitor is fully charged (0A)
(d) capacitor voltage after 3.2 seconds using the universal time constant curve
(15.6V)
(e) time required for the capacitor voltage to reach 10V - use curve (1.32
seconds).
(f) resistor voltage after 3 time constants - use curve (0.8V)
(g) circuit current after 2.5 seconds - use curve (1.5mA)
(h) time taken for the circuit current to drop to 2mA - use curve (1.8
seconds)
NOTES:

NOTES:

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
TOPIC 15 Capacitors in Series and Parallel encompassing:
 hazards involved in working with capacitance effects and the safety

control measures that should be taken.
 safe handling and the correct methods of discharging various size
capacitors
 dangers of a charged capacitor and the consequences of discharging a
capacitor through a person
 factors which determine the capacitance of a capacitor and explain how
these factors are present in all circuits to some extent.
 effects of capacitors connected in parallel by calculating their equivalent
capacitance.
 effects on the total capacitance of capacitors connected in series by
calculating their equivalent capacitance.
 Connecting capacitors in series and/or parallel configurations to achieve
various capacitance values.
 common faults in capacitors.
 testing of capacitors to determine serviceability.
 application of capacitors in the Electrotechnology industry.

14: Capacitor in Series and Parallel Miller College 14
1. CAPACITORS IN SERIES.
Capacitors are connected in series when the supply voltage is too high
to be applied to a single capacitor.
Figure 1 shows three capacitors connected in series and in circuit with

a battery. When the switch is closed, excess electrons from the
negative terminal of the battery will transfer to plate F giving it a
negative charge. This charge will repel free electrons on plate E to
plate D thus plate E is positively charged and plate D negatively
charged. Similarly, plate C becomes positively charged, plate B
negatively and plate A positively charged.
page 95
A B C D E F
+ - + - + -
+ -
Battery
figure 1
It is evident that the charge on each capacitor must be the ______________ because the
same electron displacement occurs in each capacitor.
In addition, as there is only one current path the charging current is the same throughout
which means the total charged stored in the circuit will be ___________________ the
charge stored in each capacitor.
The total charge stored in the circuit is determined by the equivalent capacitance and the
applied voltage.
The charge stored by each capacitor can be determined by multiplying the voltage across the
capacitor by the capacitance.

If the area of each set of plates is equal, then it can be noted that the space between the two
outermost plates is effectively increased, which decreases the equivalent capacitance of the
series combination to a value less than the smallest capacitor in the combination. This is
shown in figure 2.
d1 d2
C1 C2
d1 + d 2
C EQ
figure 2
The equivalent capacitance for a number of series connected capacitors may be calculated
using the equation –
C1 C2 C3
Example 1
10µF 15µF 25µF
For the circuit of figure 3, calculate the:
(a) equivalent circuit capacitance
(b) total charge stored by the circuit
V = 100V
(c) voltage across each capacitor. + -
figure 3.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Example 2 C1 C2 C3
For the circuit of figure 4, calculate the:
8µF 12µF 24µF
(a) equivalent circuit capacitance
(c) voltage across each capacitor
V = 400V
+ -
figure 4
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
Capacitors are connected in parallel when the capacitance of a single capacitor is
insufficient for a required purpose.
In the arrangement shown in figure 5, assuming the distance between the two sets of plates
to be equal and that they are of equal depth, then the plate areas x and y simply add together
so that the final and resultant effect is that of a large capacitor with a plate area equal to the
sum of the plate areas of the individual capacitors.
+
y
C1 C2
x
-
x+y
C EQ
page 96
figure 5
The equivalent capacitance of parallel connected capacitors is given by:
The total charge stored by capacitors connected in parallel equals the sum of the individual
charges:
The total charge stored may also be determined using the equivalent capacitance and the
supply voltage:
To determine the individual charges on each of the capacitors, the capacitances and the
supply voltage must be known:
Example 3
+
For the circuit of figure 6, calculate the: C1 C2 C3
(a) equivalent circuit capacitance 50V
5µF 10µF 15µF
(b) total charge stored by the circuit -
(c) charge in each capacitor.
(c) voltage across each capacitor. figure 6
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__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Example 4 +
C1 C2 C3
For the circuit of figure 7, calculate the: 85V
25µF 50µF 75µF
(a) equivalent circuit capacitance -
(c) charge stored by each capacitor.
(d) voltage across each capacitor. figure 7
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

3. CAPACITOR FAULTS & TESTING
The capacitor can present three unserviceable or faulty conditions:
o ______________________________
o ______________________________
o ______________________________.
If it is a case of short circuit or open circuit, the capacitor is

unserviceable because it cannot store charge. A leaky capacitor has a
page 96
weakened dielectric and, therefore, it has a lower resistance than
normal.
A further point to bear in mind is a change in capacitance value over time. This is especially
noticeable with electrolytic capacitors. As they age, they dry out and their capacitance tends
to decrease. This can cause faults such as hum in audio equipment, bending of straight edges
in a television screen and general instability in operation.
Capacitors can be tested with an ohmmeter set to the R x 1000 range or the highest
resistance range on the meter.
With a good capacitor the needle -
o moves quickly towards the low resistance side of the scale as the capacitor
charges
o then slowly drops back towards infinity.

The final resting point of the needle indicates the insulation resistance of the capacitor . The
insulation resistance of a capacitor varies with the size, but approximately 1 Meg ohm and
upwards is common.
If the capacitor has a short-circuit condition, the ohmmeter will go to zero and stay there.
If the capacitor is open circuit, then there will not be any charging action and the ohmmeter
needle will read a very high resistance.
4. CAPACITORS USED IN THE ELECTROCTECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY
Capacitors are widely used, often found in appliances such as electronics, or connected to
single phase motor so they can help start large loads. They are sometimes used inside power
tools to reduce arcing & wear on the brushes. Almost every fluorescent light has one fitted
for power factor correction. Large sites, and distribution substations use large banks of
capacitors for power factor correction, which is a way of improving the efficiency of the
electrical system.

Notes

PRACTICAL - CAPACITORS IN SERIES

AND PARALLEL
PURPOSE:
This practical assignment will be used to examine the operation of series and parallel
connected capacitors.
 Connect an R-C circuit using a circuit diagram as a guide.
 Use an LCR meter to measure the capacitance of capacitors.
 Connect capacitors in series.
 Connect capacitors in parallel.
 Examine the voltage relationships in series and parallel capacitor circuits.
EQUIPMENT:

□ 1 x LCR meter
□ 1 x AVO8 analogue multimeter
□ 3 x 250V capacitors - 1 each 4.7µF, 6.8µF and 10µF
□ 3 x component mounting blocks


1. MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE
1. Using a 4mm connection lead short circuit each of the three capacitors in turn.
2. Using the LCR meter set to the 20µF range measure the actual capacitance of each of
the three capacitors. Record the values in table 1.
Table 1
Nominal Capacitance Value Actual Capacitance Value
µF µF
C1 = 4.7
C2 = 6.8
C3 = 10
Progress Table 1
2. CAPACITORS IN SERIES
1. Using the actual values of capacitance recorded in table 1, calculate the equivalent
capacitance of the three capacitors connected in series.
1
C 
EQ 1 1 1
 
C1 C 2 C 3
Calculated Equivalent Capacitance = ____________

2. Connect the three capacitors in series as shown in figure 8.
4.7µF
C LCR meter 6.8µF

20µF range
10µF
figure 8
3. Using the LCR meter measure the equivalent capacitance of the three series connected
capacitors.
Measured Equivalent Capacitance = ____________
AVO8 1mA DC C 1 = 4.7µF
+
A
+
DC digital mm
Power 20V DC V C 2 = 6.8µF
Supply
C 3 = 10µF
figure 9
Progress Table 2
6. With the circuit switch in the open position, turn on the DC supply and adjust for an
applied voltage of 18V.
7. Close the circuit switch and note the deflection of the ammeter. That is, large or small.
8. Based on your observations would you say the charge current to the capacitors was
high or low?
Charge current was _________________
9. Disconnect the voltmeter from circuit, then use as a floating voltmeter to measure the
voltage across each capacitor. Record your voltages in table 2.
Table 2
Applied Voltage Capacitor Voltage Capacitor Voltage Capacitor Voltage
VT V1 V2 V3
volts Volts volts volts
18V
Progress Table 3
11. Turn off the power supply, then disconnect the circuit.
12. Using a 4mm connection lead short circuit each of the three capacitors.
3. CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
1. Using the actual values of capacitance recorded in table 1, calculate the equivalent
capacitance of the three capacitors connected in parallel.
Use the equation CEQ = C1 + C2 + C3
Calculated equivalent parallel capacitance, CEQ = _________

2. Connect the three capacitors in series as shown in figure 10.
C LCR meter C1 C2 C3
200µF range
4.7µF 6.8µF 10µF
figure 10.
3. Using the LCR meter measure the equivalent capacitance of the three parallel
connected capacitors.
Measured equivalent parallel capacitance, CEQ = _________
4. Reconnect the circuit as shown in figure 11.
AVO8 1mA DC
+
A
+
DC digital mm
Power 20V DC V C1 C2 C3
Supply 4.7µF 6.8µF 10µF
figure 11.
Progress Table 4
6. With the circuit switch in the open position, turn on the DC supply and adjust for an
applied voltage of 18V.
7. Close the circuit switch and note the deflection of the ammeter. That is, large or small.
8. Based on your observations would you say the charge current to the capacitors was
high or low?
Charge current was _________________
9. Disconnect the voltmeter from circuit, then use as a floating voltmeter to measure the
voltage across each capacitor. Record your voltages in table 3.
Table 3
Applied Voltage Capacitor Voltage Capacitor Voltage Capacitor Voltage
VT V1 V2 V3
18V

Progress Table 4
11. Turn off the supply and disconnect the circuit.

12. Using a 4mm connection lead short circuit the three capacitors.
13. Please return all equipment to its proper place.
4. CONCLUSION
1. Compare the measured and calculated values of equivalent capacitance for the series
circuit? What do the results indicate about the use of the equation
1
CEQ  1 1 1
 
C1 C 2 C 3
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Based on your observations, was the charging current to the series circuit a high or a
low value? What does the magnitude of charging current indicate about the circuit
capacitance?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Does the sum of the voltages across the capacitors in a series circuit equal the applied
voltage? Use your results to verify your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

4. Compare the measured and calculated values of equivalent capacitance for the parallel
circuit. What do the results indicate about the use of the equation;
CEQ = C1 + C2 + C3?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Based on your observations, was the charging current to the parallel circuit a high or a
low value? What does the magnitude of charging current indicate about the circuit
capacitance?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. Calculate the total charge supplied to the circuit and the charge on each capacitor for
the series circuit.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7. Calculate the charge on each capacitor and the total circuit charge for the parallel
circuit.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Notes:

TUTORIAL - CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND

PARALLEL
NAME:

questions.
not to be freehand.
Section A
1. If three equal capacitors are connected in series and charged, the charge on each
capacitor will be:
(a) one third of the total charge.

(b) equal to the total charge.
(c) three times the total charge.
(d) independent of the total charge.
2. Two, 2µF capacitors connected in parallel will have a total capacitance of:
(a) 4µF
(b) 2µF
(c) 1µF
(d) 0.5µF

3. Two, 4µF capacitors connected in series will have a total capacitance of:
(a) 8µF
(b) 4µF
(c) 2µF
(d) 0.25µF.
4. A capacitor is a device used for:
(a) storing an electric charge.

(b) generating an electric charge.
(c) converting a.c. to d.c.
(d) creating reactance in a d.c. circuit
5. Increasing the capacitance in an R-C circuit will cause the time constant to:
(a) reach a maximum value on charging.

(b) remain the same.
(c) increase.
(d) decrease.
6. In an R-C circuit, after a period of one time constant from initial switch on, the
voltage across the capacitor will be:
(a) 36.8% of the supply voltage.

(b) 100% of the supply voltage.
(c) 63.2% of the supply voltage.
(d) 50% of the supply voltage.
7. Increasing the resistance in an R-C circuit would cause the time constant to:
(a) decrease.
(b) reach a maximum value on charging.
(c) remain the same.
(d) increase.

8. The practical unit of capacitance is the:
(a) farad.
(b) micro-coulomb.
(c) milli-farad.
(d) micro-farad
Section B:
information.
9. To increase the capacitance of a capacitor, you would ___________ the plate area, or
___________ the distance between the plates.
10. When capacitors are connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance of the circuit
will ___________.
11. Capacitance is measured using a unit called the ____(4)____, but a more practical unit
is the ___________.
12. When capacitors are connected in series, the equivalent capacitance of the circuit will
___________ .
13. To increase the capacitance of a circuit, capacitors are connected in ___________, and
to reduce the circuit capacitance they are connected in ___________ .
14. Long cable runs with cables such as two core insulated and sheathed have capacitance.
This is because the cable consists of ___________ separated by an ___________.
15. In an R-C circuit, the time taken to fully charge the capacitor is approximately
____(11)____ time constants.
16. In a circuit containing resistance and capacitance in series the time taken for the
capacitor voltage to reach 63.2% of its maximum value is known as the ___________
of the circuit.
17. The arc created by contacts opening an energised circuit may be suppressed by
connecting a ___________ across the contacts.
18. The charge stored by a capacitor depends on the capacitance of the capacitor and the
___________ to which the capacitor is charged.

SECTION C
The following problems are to be solved with the aid of a calculator. All equations and
working are to be shown.
19. Determine the charge on a 47µF capacitor when connected to a 12V supply.
(564µC)
20. A capacitor has a capacitance of 20µF and when connected to the supply stores a
charge of 0.004C. Calculate the –
(a) applied voltage (200V)
(b) average charging time, if the charging current was 20mA. (0.2S)
21. What would be the equivalent capacitance of four capacitors with capacitances of 2,
4, 6 and 12µF that are connected in –
(a) series (1µF)

(b) parallel (24µF)
22. Two capacitors having a capacitance of 8 an 12µF respectively are connected in

parallel across a 250V supply. Determine the –
(a) equivalent capacitance of the group (20µF)

(b) charge stored on each capacitor (0.002C, 0.003C)
(c) voltage across each capacitor. (250V)
23. Three capacitors having capacitances of 20, 40 and 100µF, are connected in parallel
across a 400V supply. Determine the –
(a) equivalent capacitance (160µF)

(b) total charge stored (0.064C)
(c) charge stored on each capacitor. (0.008C, 0.016C, 0.04C)
24. How many 5µF capacitors would be required to give a capacitance of 65µF when
connected in parallel? Also determine the total charge taken when the group is
supplied from a 130V supply. (13, 0.00845C)

25. Three capacitors A. B and C, having capacitances of 6, 9 and 18µF, are connected in
series across a 200V d.c. supply. Calculate the –

(c) charge stored on each capacitor (0.0006C)
(d) voltage drop across each capacitor. (100V, 66.7V, 33.3V)
26. Three capacitors having capacitances of 4, 6 and 12µF are connected in series across a
120V supply. Calculate the –

(c) charge stored on each capacitor (0.00024C)
27. Three capacitors are connected in series have an equivalent capacitance of 10µF. If
two of them have capacitances of 30 and 60µF, determine the capacitance of the third
capacitor. (20µF)
28. Determine the number of 4µF capacitors which must be connected in series to produce
an equivalent capacitance of 0.25µF. (16)
29. Four capacitors, each having a capacitance of 10µF, are available. Draw neat diagrams
showing how they would be grouped to give –
(a) maximum capacitance.

(b) minimum capacitance.
Also calculate the maximum and minimum values of capacitance. (40µF,
2.5µF)
**************

NOTES:

DC Revision Questions
Unit UEENEEE104A – Solve problems in DC

circuits
D.C. Revision Work Book
Solve Problems in DC circuits Topic 15 Version 1 Page 1 of 110

SECTION A pg 3 - 38
SECTION B pg 39 - 59
SECTION C pg 60 - 109
Page 2 of 110 Topic 15 Version 1 Solve Problems in DC circuits

SECTION A
QUESTION 1.
The resistance of a metallic conductor is governed by its length, cross-sectional
area, temperature and the:
(a) type of material used.
(b) number of free electrons.
(c) voltage applied to it.
(d) heat dissipation.
QUESTION 2.
A material with a large number of free electrons is a good:
(a) conductor
(b) insulator
(c) semi-conductor
(d) resistor
QUESTION 3.
Conductor resistance causes temperature rise and power loss in a conductor,
this shows up as:
(a) temperature gradient along the conductor.
(b) power surge along the conductor.
(c) voltage drop along the conductor.
(d) increase in voltage along the conductor.
QUESTION 4.
Current in a circuit is directly proportional to:
(a) resistance.
(b) temperature.
(c) voltage.
(d) capacitance.
QUESTION 5.
Electric shock effects are governed by the value of the voltage, the current that
flows, the current path through the body and the:
(a) type of footwear worn.
(b) length of time of application.
(c) health of the victim.
(d) moisture in the air.

QUESTION 6.
If the length of a conductor is doubled, the conductor resistance is:
(a) doubled.
(b) halved.
(c) stays the same.
(d) increases by a factor of four.
QUESTION 7.
If the cross sectional area of a conductor is doubled, the conductor resistance is:
(a) doubled.
(b) halved.
(c) stays the same.
(d) increases by a factor of four.
QUESTION 8.
As the temperature of a copper conductor increases its resistance:
(a) increases.
(b) decreases.
(c) remains unchanged.
(d) reaches a maximum.
QUESTION 9.
The resistance of a conductor is:
(a) inversely proportional to both its length and cross sectional area (csa).
(b) directly proportional to both its length and cross sectional area.
(c) inversely proportional to its length and directly proportional to it’s csa.
(d) directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to it’s csa.
QUESTION 10.
As a general rule, the size of a resistor determines its:
(a) power rating.
(b) age.
(c) type.
(d) voltage rating.
QUESTION 11.
A thermister with a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) will:
(a) increase its resistance with an increase in temperature.
(b) decrease its resistance with an increase in temperature.
(c) increase its resistance regardless of what the temperature does.
(d) have no change in resistance regardless of temperature change.

QUESTION 12.
Current in a series circuit is:
(a) different through each component.
(b) is proportional to the resistance.
(c) is inversely proportional to the voltage.
(d) the same through each component.
QUESTION 13.
Kirchhoff’s current law states that:
(a) the algebraic sum of all currents in a circuit is equal to zero.
(b) the algebraic sum of all currents in any one direction equals the
currents in the other direction.
(c) the current leaving a battery is dependent on the size of the battery.
(d) the algebraic sum of currents entering or leaving a node at any instant
is zero.
QUESTION 14.
If a resistor in a series circuit developed a short circuit across itself, the circuit
current would:
(a) increase.
(b) decrease.
(d) drop to zero.
QUESTION 15.
In a parallel circuit the supply current equals the:
(a) total power divided by the total resistance.
(b) sum of the resistances divided by the voltage.
(c) current in each branch.
(d) sum of the individual branch currents.
QUESTION 16.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that in any closed loop the:
(a) algebraic sum of all the voltages drops is equal to zero.
(b) algebraic sum of all the voltages drops is equal to the applied voltage.
(c) algebraic sum of all the voltages drops is equal to the applied voltage
minus the biggest drop.
(d) algebraic sum of all the voltages drops is equal to the applied voltage
minus the smallest drop.

QUESTION 17.
If there is an open circuit in a component in a parallel circuit the total current
taken by the circuit will:
(a) increase.
(b) decrease.
(d) double.
QUESTION 18.
Three resistors R1,R2 and R3 are connected in a series-parallel combination,
and R2 is equal to R3. If the total circuit flows through R1 and the currents
through R2 and R3 are equal then:
(a) R1 must be in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3.
(b) R2 and R3 are in series with R1.
(c) R1 must be in parallel with the series combination of R2 and R3.
(d) R1 and R2 are in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3.
QUESTION 19.
If the series resistor became open circuit in a simple series-parallel circuit, the
circuit current would:
(a) drop to zero because of the break in the circuit current path.
(b) be limited by the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination.
(c) decrease to the current taken by the parallel combination.
(d) increase to the current taken by the parallel combination.
QUESTION 20.
To ensure an accurate reading when using an ohm-meter it is important to:
(a) select the highest range.
(b) select the lowest range.
(c) check the zero reading.
(d) estimate the value being measured.
QUESTION 21.
If a short circuit occurs in a parallel branch of a group of series-parallel
connected resistors the:
(a) total circuit resistance will decrease to zero.
(b) total circuit current will increase.
(c) total circuit resistance will increase
(d) voltage drop across the series resistor will decrease..
QUESTION 22.
A varistor (VDR) is a component whose resistance changes with:
(a) heat.
(b) moisture.
(c) voltage.
(d) light.

QUESTION 23.
Capacitors consist of two conducting electrodes separated by an insulating
medium called a:
(a) dielectric.
(b) diacroic.
(c) resistivity.
(d) electrolytic.
QUESTION 24.
Capacitors can store an electric charge whose magnitude depends on:
(a) plate thickness and plate size.
(b) cross sectional area of plates and their separation.
(c) cross sectional area of plates and plate material.
(d) plate thickness and plate material.
QUESTION 25.
The energy of a capacitor is stored in:
(a) the magnetic field within the dielectric.
(b) the magnetic field around the capacitor leads.
(c) the electric field across the circuit.
(d) the electric field across the dielectric.
QUESTION 26.
A capacitor consists of:
(a) two insulated plates separated by a conductor.
(b) two conductive plates separated by a conductor.
(c) two conductive plates separated by an insulator.
(d) two conductive plates separated by a conductive spacer.
QUESTION 27.
The quantity of charge held in a capacitor is dependent on the capacitance of the
capacitor and the:
(a) voltage.
(b) current.
(c) time.
(d) plate area.
QUESTION 28.
If the length of a cable is doubled, and its diameter is doubled, the resistance of
the cable is:
(a) halved
(b) unchanged
(c) doubled
(d) quadrupled

QUESTION 29.
Any conductive material which increases its resistance when it is heated, is said
to be a:
(a) NTC
(b) PTC
(c) thermocouple
(d) non-pure element
QUESTION 30.
The unit of resistivity is the:
(a) ohm metre
(b) ohm per metre
(c) ohm metre squared
(d) ohm per metre squared
QUESTION 31.
Which of the following components of an atom has no resultant charge:
(a) electron
(b) neutron
(c) proton
(d) nucleus
QUESTION 32.
The transmission of electrical power is opposed by the resistance of the
conductors, and results in a loss of power. Which of the following is the equation
normally used to calculate this power loss:
(a) P = I²/R
(b) P = 1²R
(c) P = V²/R
(d) P = V²R
QUESTION 33. (1 Mark)

Figure 1 refers to which type of resistor:
Potentiometer
(a) Potentiometer
(b) VDR
(c) Thermistor Figure 1
(d) LDR

QUESTION 34.
A simple voltage surge diverter can be made by using:
(a) Potentiometer
(b) VDR
(c) Thermistor
(d) LDR
QUESTION 35.
If five lamps are connected in series, and the fourth lamp develops a short circuit
across itself, all lamps will:
(a) be off
(b) glow brighter
(c) glow as normal, except lamp 4 which will be off
(d) glow brighter, except lamp 4 which will be off
QUESTION 36.
A series circuit contains a number of different valued resistors. The resistor with
the largest current flowing through it will be:
(a) the smallest resistor
(b) the largest resistor
(c) the resistor with the smallest voltage drop
(d) none. Each will have the same current
QUESTION 37.
A parallel circuit, which contains three resistors each of 10 ohms, develops an
open circuit in one resistor. The total resistors of the circuit will:
(a) remain uncharged
(b) decrease
(c) increase
(d) become infinite
QUESTION 38.
Connecting more resistors in parallel produces the same general effect as:
(b) increasing the cross-sectional area of a conductor
(d) decreasing the conductance of a conductor

Question 39 to 41 refers to figure 2 below
QUESTION 39.
If an open circuit developed in R3, the resulting circuit current would be:
(a) zero amperes, because of the open circuited resistor
(b) zero amperes, because the fuse blows
(c) 3 amperes
(d) unchanged at 5 amperes
QUESTION 40.
If a short circuit developed in R2, the resulting circuit current would be:
(a) zero amperes, because the fuse blows
(b) 3 amperes
(c) unchanged at 5 amperes
(d) 15 amperes
QUESTION 41.
If the fuse was blown and the switch was open, what voltage would be measured
across the open switch terminals?
(a) Zero volts
(b) 5 volts
(c) 7.5 volts
(d) 15 volts
QUESTION 42.
Conduction of electric current through a gas is achieved by:
(a) breaking of covalent bonds
(b) the kinetic energy theory of gas
(c) dislodging protons from the nucleus of gas atoms
(d) ionisation of the gas
QUESTION 43.
The basic moving coil meter movement can be used to measure larger current, if
used in conjunction with a:
(a) series resistor
(b) multipler resistor
(c) shunt resistor
(d) loading resistor
QUESTION 44.
A major advantage that digital multimeters have over most analogue multimeters,
is:
(a) that it requires an easily obtainable 9 volt battery to operate
(b) the settling time of the indication to change in the measured value
(c) that they cannot be damaged by using a wrong function setting
(d) the very high input impedance which reduces circuit loading effects
QUESTION 45.
Decreasing the capacitance in an RC circuit, will cause the time constant to:
(a) remain the same
(b) decrease
(c) increase
(d) reach a maximum value
QUESTION 46.
When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is:
(a) always greater than the largest capacitors
(b) always smaller than the smallest capacitors
(c) equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the capacitors
(d) equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the capacitors
QUESTION 47.
Polarized capacitors:
(a) can explode if connected incorrectly
(b) can be used in a wider range of applications
(c) include electrolytic and ceramic capacitors
(d) include tantalum and ceramic capacitors
QUESTION 48
If the voltage applied to a circuit is halved, the circuit current will:
(a) remain constant
(b) decrease to zero
(c) halve
(d) double
QUESTION 49
If the voltage applied to a circuit is doubled, and the resistance of the circuit is
halved, the circuit current will:
(a) remain constant
(b) halve
(c) double
(d) quadruple

QUESTION 50
The circuit draws 3A when connected to a 120V supply. What is the resistance
when the same resistance is connected to 150V supply:
(a) 60Ω
(b) 500Ω
(c) 400Ω
(d) 300Ω
QUESTION 51
The resistance of a conductor is:
(a) directly proportional to both its length and CSA
(b) inversely proportional to both its length and CSA
(c) directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to CSA
(d) inversely proportional to its length and directly proportional to CSA.
QUESTION 52
A copper conductor’s resistance differs from the resistance of an aluminium
conductor of similar length and CSA due to what factor?
(a) Permittivity
(b) Resistivity
(c) Conductivity
(d) Inductance.
QUESTION 53
When a pure metal such as copper is heated, what is the effect on its resistance?
(a) It remains unchanged
(b) It decreases
(c) It increases
(d) It could increase or decrease depending on current flow.
QUESTION 54
When a 4mm² cable is compared to a 1mm² cable of similar length:
(a) the 4mm² cable has greater resistance
(b) the 4mm² cable will have less voltage drop for the same current
(c) the 4mm² cable will draw less current for the same voltage
(d) the 4mm² cable will get hotter for the same current.
QUESTION 55
When selecting a resistor for a particular application, what are the two most
important ratings?
(a) Resistance and power
(b) Power and voltage
(c) Power and current
(d) Voltage and resistance.

QUESTION 56
Which of the following describes the application of a VDR? It is used:
(a) as a device to measure the quantity of light
(b) in temperature measuring devices
(c) to protect equipment from voltage surges
(d) to protect motor windings from overheating.
QUESTION 57
What term is used to describe a variable resistor used to control current?
(a) Transistor
(b) Varistor
(c) LDR
(d) Rheostat.
QUESTION 58
What is the definition of a series circuit?
(a) A circuit that has only one voltage source
(b) A circuit that has only one current path
(c) A circuit that has more than one resistor
(d) A circuit that has only resistors of the same value.
QUESTION 59
When an open circuit occurs in a series circuit:
(a) the total resistance decreases
(b) the total current increases
(c) the total voltage appears across the open circuit
(d) current will flow up to the open circuit and then stop.
QUESTION 60
For the circuit of Figure 1, the voltage drops across R1, R2 and R3:
(a) are caused by different currents

(b) add up to the supply voltage
(c) are inversely proportional to current
(d) are the same as the supply voltage.

QUESTION 61
If resistor R1 in the circuit of Figure 1 becomes short circuited, the total
resistance will ___________ the total current will and the total
power dissipated will
(a) increase, decrease, decrease
(b) decrease, increase, decrease
(c) increase, decrease, increase
(d) decrease, increase, increase.
QUESTION 62
When an open circuit occurs in one branch of a parallel circuit:
(a) equivalent circuit resistance increases
(b) current flowing in the other branches increase
(c) voltage across the open circuit decreases
(d) power developed across the open circuit increases.
QUESTION 63
For the circuit of Figure 2, the voltages across each resistor will:
(a) be the reciprocal of the total voltage

(b) add up to the total voltage
(c) all be the same
(d) be different if resistors are different values.
QUESTION 64
For the circuit of Figure 2, the total current from the supply will be:
(a) the sum of the branch currents
(b) the same as the current in each branch
(c) the addition of the reciprocals of each branch current
(d) less than the current in the branch with the lowest resistance.
QUESTION 65
For the circuit of Figure 2, the value of resistor R1:
(a) can be found by dividing the total voltage by the total current
(b) will be greater than the total equivalent resistance
(c) can be found by subtracting the value of R2 and R3 from the total
equivalent resistance
(d) can be found by dividing one third of the total voltage by total current.

QUESTION 66
A decrease in the thickness of the dielectric of a capacitor would:
(a) increase its capacitance
(b) cause it to draw less current
(c) increase its power rating
(d) increase its voltage rating.
QUESTION 67
What would the ammeter in Figure 3 read?
(a) 25 Amps
(b) 19 Amps
(c) 11 Amps
(d) 8 Amps.
QUESTION 68
The long shunt method of resistance measurement is used when the resistor
under test has a:
(a) low power rating
(b) high power rating
(c) low resistance value
(d) high resistance value.
QUESTION 69
The basic moving coil meter movement can be used to measure higher currents
if used in conjunction with a:
(a) shunt resistor
(c) voltage divider
(d) digital meter.
QUESTION 70
The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is determined by:
(a) the sum of the individual resistors
(b) the product of the individual resistors
(c) the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the resistors
(d) the use of ohm’s law only.
QUESTION 71
If the voltage applied to a circuit is doubled the power consumption of that circuit
will be:
(a) halved
(b) doubled
(c) quartered
(d) quadrupled.
QUESTION 72
Before using an analogue ohmmeter to measure resistance it should be:
(a) set to the highest range
(b) set to the lowest range
(c) adjusted to read infinite resistance
(d) adjusted to read zero resistance.
QUESTION 73
Connecting capacitors in parallel:
(a) has the effect of increasing the total capacitance
(b) has the effect of decreasing the total capacitance
(c) has no effect on the value of the total capacitance
(d) is dangerous and will damage the capacitors.
QUESTION 74
It is most likely that the voltage across a blown fuse is:
(a) equal to the voltage across the load
(b) half of the voltage across the load
(c) zero
(d) equal to the supply voltage.
QUESTION 75
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the:
(a) cross sectional area of the conductor
(b) voltage applied to the conductor
(c) length of the conductor
(d) current flowing through the conductor
QUESTION 76
If a conductor has a negative temperature coefficient, its resistance will:
(a) increase with an increase in temperature
(b) decrease with an increase in temperature
(c) be unaffected by a change in temperature
(d) remain constant throughout the negative temperature range

QUESTION 77
As the temperature of a copper conductor increases, its resistance will:
(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) remain the same
(d) increase or decrease depending on the direction of the current flow
QUESTION 78
When selecting a resistor for a circuit, the two factors which must be considered
are:
(a) the resistance and the current rating
(b) the resistance and the voltage rating
(c) the current and the voltage rating
(d) the resistance and the power rating
QUESTION 79
A series circuit is one in which there is:
(a) only one current path
(b) more than one current path
(c) equal voltage applied to each component connected in series
(d) only one component
QUESTION 80
Six identical lamps are connected in series and draw 2 amperes from a 12 volt
d.c. supply. If one lamp became open circuited, the current in the other five
lamps would be:
(a) 2 amperes
(b) 2.4 amperes
(c) 4.8 amperes
(d) zero amperes
QUESTION 81
The equivalent resistance of a series circuit is equal to the:
(a) resistance of the highest individual resistor
(b) supply voltage multiplied by the supply current
(c) supply voltage divided by the supply current
(d) resistance of the lowest individual resistor
QUESTION 82
In a parallel circuit, the current flowing through each resistor is:
(a) the same
(b) determined by the number of resistors in parallel
(c) determined by the value of each resistor and the voltage applied
(d) limited by the size of the power supply

QUESTION 83
Three identical 8 ohm resistors are connected in parallel to a 24 volt d.c. supply.
If one of the resistors became open circuited, the current through each of the
remaining resistors would be:
(a) 1.5 amperes
(b) 3 amperes
(c) 6 amperes
(d) zero amperes
QUESTION 84
A circuit consists of two resistors (each 10Ω) connected in parallel to a 20 volt
d.c. supply. If a third 10Ω resistor is connected in parallel, the current drawn from
the supply would:
(a) decrease
(b) remain the same
(c) increase
(d) overload the power supply
QUESTION 85
To increase the range of a moving coil voltmeter, an appropriate resistor could be
connected in:
(a) parallel with the moving coil
(b) series with the moving coil
(c) parallel with the component being measured
(d) series with the component being measured
QUESTION 86
When measuring the insulation resistance of a final subcircuit, you should use:
(a) an ohmmeter
(b) a Wheatstone Bridge
(c) any moving coil meter
(d) a megger
QUESTION 87
Before using an analogue ohmmeter to measure resistance, it is important to:
(a) estimate the value of the resistance to be measured
(b) select the highest range
(c) select the lowest range
(d) zero the meter
QUESTION 88
A capacitor is an electrical device that could be used to:
(a) store an electric charge
(b) induce a voltage
(c) convert alternating current to direct current
(d) convert direct current to alternating current

QUESTION 89
If the distance between the plates of a capacitor is halved, its capacitance will:
(a) be halved
(b) be doubled
(c) be increased by four times
(d) remain the same
QUESTION 90
A 20k ohm resistor is connected in series with a 100 microfarad capacitor to a 20
volt supply. After 10 seconds, the voltage across the capacitor will have risen to
approximately:
(a) 6.3 volts
(b) 12.6 volts
(c) 18.9 volts
(d) 20 volts
QUESTION 91
In the atomic structure of an atom, a negative charge is exhibited by the:
(a) atom
(b) neutron
(c) electron
(d) proton
QUESTION 92
An atom which has lost or gained an electron is termed:
(a) an ion
(b) an isotope
(c) an atom
(d) a neutron
QUESTION 93
A material that requires a relatively large amount of energy to remove electrons
from the outer shell or energy level is termed:
(a) a conductor
(b) an insulator
(c) a semi-conductor
(d) a neutral material
QUESTION 94
A solution capable of conducting an electric current is called:
(a) an electrolyte
(b) an electrolysis
(c) a dielectric solution
(d) an hydroelectric solution

QUESTION 95
If the resistance of a circuit is doubled, (voltage constant) the power consumed
by the circuit will:
(a) be doubled
(b) be halved
(c) increase by four times
(d) decrease by four times
QUESTION 96
If the voltage applied to a circuit is doubled, (resistance constant) the power
consumed by the circuit will:
(a) be doubled
(b) be halved
(c) increase by four times
(d) decrease by four times
QUESTION 97
The two effects of an electric current which are always present whenever current
flows are:
(a) chemical and magnetic
(b) heat and physiological
(c) chemical and physiological
(d) heat and magnetic
QUESTION 98
Heat flows from a body of higher temperature to a body of a:
(a) lower temperature
(b) smaller mass
(c) larger mass
(d) constant temperature
QUESTION 99
The best method of accurately measuring a resistance of 0.04 ohms would be:
(a) an ohmmeter
(b) a megger
(c) a Wheatstone Bridge
(d) the voltmeter-ammeter method using the long shunt connection
QUESTION 100
The resistance of an ideal voltmeter would be:
(a) less than 10Ω
(b) between 10Ω and 1,000Ω
(c) between 1,000Ω and 10,000Ω
(d) infinity

QUESTION 101
Which one of the following units is an S.I derived unit:
(a) ampere
(b) newton
(c) kilogram
(d) metre
QUESTION 102
A cable with a slightly smaller cross sectional area, but carrying the same load
current, is to replace an existing cable in a circuit. The new cable will:
(a) operate at a higher temperature
(b) be able to carry more current
(c) have the same voltage drop
(d) cause a smaller voltage drop
QUESTION 103
Resistors are specified by their value of resistance and by their maximum:
(a) voltage rating
(b) power dissipation
(c) current rating
(d) heat dissipation
QUESTION 104
The largest resistor in a series circuit, will have the:
(a) smallest current
(b) smallest voltage drop
(c) largest current
(d) largest voltage drop
QUESTION 105
The resistivity of a conductor depends on its:
(a) length
(b) cross sectional area
(c) material composition
(d) diameter
QUESTION 106
A power supply is to be constructed from a number of identical battery cells.
Connecting three cells in series would, relative to one cell:
(a) triple the voltage of the supply and triple the internal resistance of the
supply.
(b) triple the internal resistance of the supply but with no change voltage.
(c) reduce the internal resistance of the supply to a third without changing
the voltage.
(d) triple the voltage of the supply but without changing the internal
resistance.

QUESTION 107
The ability of a device to store an electric charge best describes the electrical
property of:
(a) inductance
(b) resistance
(c) capacitance
(d) conductance
QUESTION 108
If the voltage applied to a parallel network of FOUR (4) equal resistors is
doubled, the power dissipated by the resistor network is:
(a) doubled
(b) quadrupled
(c) quartered
(d) halved
QUESTION 109
The standard unit of electric power is the:
(a) coulomb
(b) ampere
(c) watt
(d) volt
QUESTION 110
The light emitted by an incandescent lamp is due to:
(a) extreme temperature of the filament
(b) electromagnetic effect
(c) ionisation of the gas within the bulb
(d) electrolysis
QUESTION 111
A primary cell is one that:
(a) can be recharged
(b) cannot be recharged
(c) can have its electrolyte readily changed
(d) uses nickel and cadmium as electrodes
QUESTION 112
Electric shock initially affects the body’s:
(a) arterial system
(b) muscular system
(c) skeletal system
(d) nervous system

QUESTION 113
If an open circuit occurs in one branch of a parallel circuit the total resistance of
the circuit will:
(a) decrease
(b) remain the same
(c) increase
(d) become infinite
QUESTION 114
Resistors A and B are connected in parallel. Resistor A has half the resistance of
Resistor B. The current flowing through Resistor B is:
(a) one half of the supply current
(b) twice as much as the current flowing in resistor A
(c) two thirds of the supply current
(d) one third of the supply current
QUESTION 115
If the value of resistor R1 in the circuit of Figure 1 is increased, the equivalent
circuit resistance between A and B will:
(a) increase A
(b) decrease
(c) remain the same supply
(d) cannot tell without knowing circuit values B
QUESTION 116
If the resistor R2 of Figure 1 (previously) was short circuited, the overall power
consumed by the circuit will:
(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) remain the same
(d) cannot tell without knowing circuit values
QUESTION 117
A Wheatstone bridge is best suited to measuring:
(a) insulation resistance
(b) very low voltage
(c) low values of resistance
(d) low values of current

QUESTION 118
If three lamps are connected in series, and the middle lamp develops an open
circuit, there is no current in:
(a) lamp one only
(b) any of the lamps
(c) lamp three only
(d) lamp two only
QUESTION 119
Increasing the resistance in a series RC circuit will:
(a) maximise the voltage drop across R at switch-on
(b) maximise the voltage drop across C at switch-on
(c) increase the total circuit current
(d) reduce the time constant of the circuit
QUESTION 120
If all other factors remain unchanged, changing the dielectric of a capacitor from
air to mica will increase the capacitance because mica has a higher value of:
(a) permittivity
(b) retentivity
(c) resistivity
(d) permeability
QUESTION 121
To measure the current in a load, the load should be connected in:
(a) series with a voltmeter
(b) parallel with a voltmeter
(c) series with an ammeter
(d) parallel with an ammeter
QUESTION 122
The two effects that are always present when an electric current flows are:
(a) magnetic and chemical
(b) chemical and physiological
(c) magnetic and heat
(d) heat and chemical
QUESTION 123
A high rupturing capacity fuse operates by:
(a) melting the silica inside the cartridge to stop current flow
(b) heating the bimetal strip to interrupt the circuit current
(c) melting the fuse element to isolate the circuit
(d) heating the thermal contacts to open the circuit

QUESTION 124
If the voltage applied to a resistor is halved, the power dissipated will:
(a) double
(b) decrease to a quarter
(c) halve
(d) increase by four times
QUESTION 125
Power in a d.c. circuit can be determined by multiplying together the readings
from two separate instruments. These instruments are the:
(a) wheatstone bridge and ammeter
(b) ammeter and ohmmeter
(c) voltmeter and wattmeter
(d) ammeter and voltmeter
QUESTION 126
The ability to do work is termed:
(a) power
(b) velocity
(c) force
(d) energy
QUESTION 127
Power may be defined as the:
(a) force over a given distance
(b) rate at which work is done
(c) total electrical energy
(d) ability to store energy
QUESTION 128
At a given value of electrical pressure, a closed switch:
(a) prevents current flow
(b) will de-energise the load
(c) isolates the power
(d) allows current to flow
QUESTION 129
Motors and generators are rated in terms of their:
(a) full-load output power
(b) no-load output power
(c) full-load input power
(d) no-load input power

QUESTION130
Current flow in a solid conductor is the result of the movement of:
(a) negative ions
(b) neutrons
(c) protons
(d) free electrons
QUESTION 131
A solution capable of conducting an electric current is called:
(a) a semi-conductor
(b) an isotope
(c) a dielectric
(d) an electrolyte
QUESTION 132
The piezoelectric effect is used to convert:
(a) heat energy to electrical energy
(b) light energy to electrical energy
(c) magnetism to electrical energy
(d) mechanical energy to electrical energy
QUESTION 133
A practical use for the magnetic effect of current is a:
(a) relay
(b) radiator
(c) primary cell
(d) electrolysis bath
QUESTION 134
An electric motor rotates as a result of the:
(a) piezoelectric effect of current
(b) chemical effect of current
(c) mechanical effect of current
(d) magnetic effect of current
QUESTION 135
The chemical effect of current can be used to:
(a) operate a contactor
(b) recharge a secondary cell
(c) store an electric field
(d) create a thermocouple

QUESTION 136
A device that produces an electromotive force proportional to temperature is a:
(a) thermistor
(b) varistor
(c) thermocouple
(d) thermostat
QUESTION 137
A rheostat is a type of:
(a) voltage dependent resistor
(b) variable resistor
(c) photoresistor
(d) heating resistor
QUESTION 138
Three resistors of equal value are connected in parallel across a 24 V supply.
The voltage across the third resistor will be:
(a) OV
(b) 8V
(c) 18V
(d) 24V
QUESTION 139
The chemical effect of electric current flow can cause:
(a) corrosion of underground pipes
(b) electrical disturbances to data signals
(c) overheating of cables
(d) induced voltages in cables
QUESTION 140
The practical unit of electrical energy is the:
(a) kilowatt second
(b) kilojoule second
(c) kilojoule hour
(d) kilowatt hour
QUESTION 141
Two 60 ohm resistors are connected in parallel to a 120 volt supply. If one
resistor becomes open-circuited the current in the other resistor will be:
(a) 0 ampere
(b) 0.5 ampere
(c) 2 amperes
(d) 4 amperes

QUESTION 142
If the output of a motor is 6 kilowatts and the input power is 8 kilowatts, then the
efficiency of the system is:
(a) 2%
(b) 25%
(c) 50%
(d) 75%
QUESTION 143
If a resistor in the parallel section of a series-parallel circuit becomes open circuit,
the total circuit current will:
(a) remain constant
(b) increase
(c) drop to a lower value
QUESTION 144
If a resistor in the series section of a series-parallel circuit is replaced with one of
much higher resistance, the total circuit power will:
(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) remain unchanged
(d) drop to zero
QUESTION 145
When converting chemical energy to electrical energy, to increase the output
voltage:
(a) several cells can be connected in parallel
(b) a lower concentrate of acid can be used
(c) larger electrodes can be used
(d) several cells can be connected in series
QUESTION 146
An analogue multimeter has a sensitivity of 500 ohms/volt. The internal
resistance of the meter when used on the 50 volt range is:
(a) 0.1Ω
(b) 10Ω
(c) 500Ω
(d) 25 000Ω
QUESTION 147
If a voltmeter has low sensitivity, this means the voltmeter is:
(a) highly accurate
(b) not very accurate
(c) made with a high internal resistance
(d) made with a low internal resistance

QUESTION 148
The best method of accurately measuring a very low value of resistance would
be by using:
(a) a Wheatstone bridge
(b) an insulation resistance tester
(c) the long shunt voltmeter/ammeter method
(d) an analogue ohmmeter on a high range
QUESTION 149
Before using an analogue multimeter to measure resistance it is important to:
(a) adjust the meter to read zero
(b) ensure supply is connected to the resistor
(c) estimate the resistance value
(d) check the pointer is reading infinity
QUESTION 150
A resistor has 6R8 stamped on its body. This means the resistor is:
(a) 6 watts, 8 ohms
(b) 6 ohms, 8 watts
(c) 6.8 ohms
(d) 6.8 watts
QUESTION 151
A light dependent resistor, when exposed to light:
(a) decreases its resistance at a non-linear rate
(b) increases its resistance at a non-linear rate
(c) decreases its resistance at a linear rate
(d) increases its resistance at a linear rate.
QUESTION 152
The instrument used to measure the power consumed by an electric circuit is
a/an:
(a) Ammeter
(b) Voltmeter
(c) Ohmmeter
(d) Wattmeter.
QUESTION 153
The standard unit for conductance is the:
(a) Ohm-metre
(b) Siemen
(c) Mho
(d) Coulomb.

QUESTION 154
The efficiency of an electric circuit may be defined as the ratio of the:
(a) output power to the input power
(b) input power to the output power
(c) power losses to the output power
(d) power losses to the input power.
QUESTION 155
The piezo-electric effect causes certain crystals to produce a voltage when they:
(a) are placed under a light source
(b) have mechanical stress applied
(c) are heated above the ambient temperature
(d) are moved through a magnetic field.
QUESTION 156
Electric current through a copper conductor is a result of the movement of:
(a) free electrons
(b) negative ions
(c) positive ions
(d) copper atoms.
QUESTION 157
The resistance of a conductor is said to be:
(a) inversely proportional to its resistivity
(b) proportional to its area
(c) inversely proportional to its length
(d) proportional to its length.
QUESTION 158
A material having a positive temperature co-efficient of resistance:
(a) does not change its resistance with a change in temperature
(b) decreases its resistance with a decrease in temperature
(c) decreases its resistance with an increase in temperature
(d) increases its resistance with a decrease in temperature.
QUESTION 159
In a series circuit containing three resistances, if a short circuit occurred across
one of the resistances:
(a) the total resistance of the circuit would fall to zero
(b) the total current flowing through the circuit would fall to zero
(c) the current through the short circuited resistor would fall to zero
(d) the supply voltage would fall to zero.

QUESTION 160
A series circuit is defined as a circuit which has:
(a) only one power supply
(b) only one load
(c) only one control switch
(d) only one current path.
QUESTION 161
To convert volts into kilo-volts:
(a) multiply the volts by 1000
(b) divide the volts 10
(c) multiply the volts by 10
(d) divide the volts by 1000.
QUESTION 162
If a resistor in the parallel section of a series-parallel circuit became open
circuited, the voltage drop across the parallel section would:
(a) increase
(b) equal the supply voltage
(c) remain constant
(d) decrease.
QUESTION 163
The severity of an electric shock is mostly dependent upon:
(a) the value of the current flowing through the body
(b) the time the current is flowing in the body
(c) the path taken by the current flowing through the body
(d) all of the above.
QUESTION 164
Increasing the plate area of a capacitor:
(a) decreases its capacitance
(b) decreases its dielectric strength
(c) increases its capacitance
(d) increases its dielectric strength.
QUESTION 165
Power may be defined as the:
(a) ability to do the required work
(b) rate at which the work is done
(c) energy required to complete the task
(d) force exerted on the object.

QUESTION 166
Conduction of an electric current through a gas is achieved by:
(a) ionisation of the gas
(b) polarization of the gas
(c) equalization of the gas
(d) separation of the gas.
QUESTION 167
Connecting resistors in parallel produces the same general effect as:
(b) increasing the cross sectional area of a conductor
(d) decreasing the conductance of a conductor.
QUESTION 168
The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is:
(a) greater than any branch resistance
(b) equal to the sum of the branch resistances
(c) smaller than any branch resistance
(d) increases with an additional branch.
QUESTION 169
For a fuse to operate as intended, it uses:
(a) the chemical effect of current
(b) the heating effect of current
(c) the magnetic effect of current
(d) the physiological effect of current.
QUESTION 170
In an R-C circuit, when first turned on and knowing the capacitor is fully
discharged, the capacitor is said to be fully charged after:
(a) 1 time constant
(b) 2 time constants
(c) 5 time constants
(d) 10 time constants.
QUESTION 171
Increasing the capacitance in an R-C circuit will cause the:
(a) maximum value of circuit current to increase
(b) time constant of the circuit to increase
(c) time constant of the circuit to decrease
(d) maximum value of circuit current to decrease.

QUESTION 172
If the voltage applied to a series circuit is doubled and the circuit resistance is
also doubled, the circuit current would:
(a) halve its value
(b) double its value
(c) remain constant
(d) fall to zero.
QUESTION 173
Resistors are rated by their value of resistance and the:
(a) voltage they can safely withstand
(b) current they can safely conduct
(c) power they can safely dissipate
(d) material they are made from.
QUESTION 174
A Capacitor may be defined as a device used to:
(a) store an electric charge
(b) create an electric charge
(c) control an electric charge
(d) utilize an electric charge.
QUESTION 175
If all other factors remain constant while the diameter of a conductor is doubled,
the resistance of the conductor will:
(a) double
(b) quadruple
(c) halve
(d) quarter.
QUESTION 176
100 mA in amperes would be:
(a) 0.01 amperes
(b) 0.1 amperes
(c) 10 amperes
(d) .001 amperes
QUESTION 177
The practical unit for electrical energy is the:
(a) kilowatt hour
(b) kilojoule hour
(c) kilowatt second
(d) kilojoule second

QUESTION 178
A 56k ohm resistor has a resistance of:
(a) 560 ohms
(b) 5.6 ohms
(c) 5600 ohms
(d) 0.0056 ohms
QUESTION 179
Voltage applied to a circuit with the switch closed will:
(a) prevent current flow
(b) isolate the supply
(c) allow current to flow
(d) disconnect the load
QUESTION 180
Commercial billing of electrical accounts is charged per:
(a) watt
(b) watt second
(c) kilowatt hour
(d) kilojoule hour
QUESTION 181
Two conductive materials separated by insulating material would be:
(a) an inductor
(b) a capacitor
(c) a rheostat
(d) a resistor
QUESTION 182
Current flow in an electrical circuit may occur when:
(a) electrons can move freely
(b) electrons are held tightly in their orbit
(c) protons and neutrons are balanced
(d) protons can move freely
QUESTION 183
A meter connected in parallel with the load would be:
(a) a wheatstone bridge
(b) a voltmeter
(c) a wattmeter
(d) an ammeter

QUESTION 184
Current flowing in a series circuit will:
(a) be greater in lower value components
(b) be the same value in all components
(c) increase as it passes through each component
(d) decrease as it passes through each component
QUESTION 185
As the temperature of motor windings increases the current in the windings will:
(a) reduce
(b) increase
(c) remain the same
(d) continually change
QUESTION 186
Resistance of a conductor is dependent on it’s:
(a) applied voltage, current, and cross sectional area
(b) applied voltage, length and the type of material
(c) length, cross sectional area, and applied voltage
(d) length, cross sectional area and the type of material
QUESTION 187
Two effects that always occur when an electric current flows are:
(a) physiological and heat
(b) heat and magnetic
(c) chemical and physiological
(d) magnetic and chemical
QUESTION 188
Piezo-electric devices may be used:
(a) in microphones
(b) in motors
(c) in thermo-couples
(d) in semi-conductors
QUESTION 189
Doubling the length of a cable where all other characteristics stay the same will
cause the resistance of the cable to:
(a) halve
(b) double
(c) stay the same
(d) increase four times

QUESTION 190
Two 10 ohm resistors are connected in parallel to the supply. If another 10 ohm
resistor is placed in parallel with the first two resistors the circuit current would:
(a) decrease
(b) increase
(c) stay the same
(d) fall to zero
QUESTION 191
If a resistor in the parallel section of a series-parallel circuit becomes open circuit,
the total current will:
(a) remain constant
(b) increase
(c) decrease to a lower level
QUESTION 192
Heat will be produced when current flows in:
(a) a pure capacitor
(b) a pure inductor
(c) a pure resistor
(d) all of the above
QUESTION 193
The material to be selected when a semiconductor type material is required is:
(a) copper
(b) plastic
(c) iron
(d) silicon
QUESTION 194
Electrical pressure is measured in:
(a) volts
(b) current
(c) resistance
(d) capacitance
QUESTION 195
Current in a circuit is directly proportional to:
(a) resistance
(b) voltage
(c) conductance
(d) resistivity

QUESTION 196
An electric shock is an example of:
(a) the heating effect of an electric current
(b) the magnetic effect of an electric current
(c) the physiological effect of an electric current
(d) the chemical effect of an electric current
QUESTION 197
The resistance of a typical ammeter will be:
(a) under 1 ohm
(b) under 10 ohms
(c) above 50,000 ohms
(d) above 1 mega ohm
QUESTION 198
A common device used to produce a small voltage by having two different metals
joined to form a junction is called:
(a) a diode
(b) a thermocouple
(c) a piezo-electric cell
(d) a photovoltaic cell
QUESTION 199
Specifications for purchasing a resistor would be:
(a) resistance value, current rating and tolerance
(b) power rating and current rating
(c) voltage rating and power rating
(d) resistance value, tolerance and power rating
QUESTION 200
Doubling the resistance in a series connected circuit will cause the current to:
(a) double
(b) halve
(c) stay the same as it was
(d) increase four times
QUESTION 201
An open circuit in one branch of a parallel circuit will cause the total circuit
resistance to:
(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) not change
(d) consume more power

QUESTION 202
A circuit consists of three resistors. Resistors Ri and R2 are connected in
parallel. R3 is connected in series with the parallel combination. If R2 was short
circuited the total circuit current would:
(a) remain unaltered
(b) fall to zero
(c) increase
(d) decrease
QUESTION 203
An instrument having a voltage coil and a current coil would be:
(a) a wheatstone bridge
(b) an ammeter
(c) a voltmeter
(d) a wattmeter
QUESTION 204
The voltage generated by an insulation tester is usually in the range of
(a) 1.5 to 3volts
(b) 10 to 100 volts
(c) 500 to 1000 volts
(d) 5000 to 50,000 volts
QUESTION 205
Increasing the capacitance of an RC circuit will cause the time constant to:
(a) remain the same
(b) increase
(c) decrease
(d) reach a maximum value on charging

SECTION B
QUESTION 1.
When a one kilogram body is moved a distance of one metre the force involved
is
QUESTION 2.
Electric energy is charged by the supply company at a rate called a tariff. This
tariff is a rate in cents per _____________________ used.
QUESTION 3.
The ohm is the unit for electrical ______________________
QUESTION 4.
The unit of electric current is the ________________________
QUESTION 5.
If the voltage applied to a resistor is doubled the power dissipated by the resistor
will be _____________________________
QUESTION 6.
For the SI unit for energy, it means that energy is measured in ______________
QUESTION 7.
Power is defined as the at which _____________ is done.
QUESTION 8.
One limited form of protection from electric shock is the use of a core-balance
transformer. This device is usually referred to as an _______________________
QUESTION 9.
The four effects of an electric current are the _____________ effect, the
_____________ effect, the ______________________ effect and the
_________________ effect.
QUESTION 10.
List the four commonly used methods to produce an emf.
____________________, __________________, _______________________
, _________________

QUESTION 11.
The total resistance of a series circuit is the _____________________ of the
individual resistances.
QUESTION 12.
The total resistance of a parallel circuit is than the value of
the smallest resistor.
QUESTION 13.
If the total resistance of a circuit is doubled, the circuit current will
QUESTION 14.
A voltage of 0.0012 volts, expressed in millivolts, equals ____________mV.
QUESTION 15.
Capacitors are rated according to their ________________ value, their
__________________ and their type of____________________
QUESTION 16.
When purchasing a specific resistor, the two main characteristics that must be
stated, are:
1)
2)
QUESTION 17
If all other factors remain unchanged, what would happen to the resistance of a
conductor, if the conductor’s diameter is halved:
QUESTION 18
When purchasing a specific capacitor, the two main characteristics that must be
stated, are:
1)
2)
QUESTION 19
To lower the total resistance of a circuit, further resistance maybe connected in
________________________________ with the original circuit.

QUESTION 20
When resistors are connected in series, maximum power dissipation will always
be from the resistor with the _______________________________ resistance.
Question 6 to 8 refers to Table 1 below
QUESTION 21
Determine the value for a resistor with coloured bands in the following order:
i) Grey, Red, Yellow, Gold =
ii) Yellow, Violet, Black, Silver, Red =
QUESTION 22
Determine the coloured bands for a resistor with the following values:
i) 3.92 MΩ ±1% =
ii) 0.65Ω ± 10% =

QUESTION 23
Determine the resistance range for the following two resistors:
i)6.7k ohm ±1% = __________________ to ________________
ii)18R ohm ±10% =__________________ to _________________
QUESTION 24
Give an example of either a device or equipment that uses a photo-resistor:
QUESTION 25
Give an example of either a device or equipment, that uses a thermistor:
QUESTION 26
The main function of the instrument called “a megger” is to measure
_____________ resistance.
QUESTION 27
A voltage divider circuit is generally regarded as what type of circuit.
QUESTION 28
An electric current produces four effects, two of which are always present. They
are & .
QUESTION 29
The effect of electric current is used in the electroplating process
QUESTION 30
The ______________________ effect is used to produce an e.m.f. in a
microphone.
QUESTION 31
The ________________________effect is used to ignite the gas in an electronic
(cigarette) lighter.

QUESTION 32
Discuss what effect, if any, a high resistance connection at point X, would have
on the operation of the circuit.
QUESTION 33
Which one of the four effects of current covers the effect of electrocution on the
human body.
QUESTION 34
The term _______________________ is used to describe a person or device’s
ability to do work.
QUESTION 35
A _____________________is the meter that measure the amount of power used
by a device.
QUESTION 36
An atom with a loss of________________________ is termed a positive ion.
QUESTION 37
The _____________________ is the practical unit of capacitance.
QUESTION 38
If a load is placed across part of a voltage divider circuit, it would be known as a
____________________________ connected circuit.
QUESTION 39
Give one example of either a device, or equipment, which uses the physiological
effect of current:

QUESTION 40
Draw in the space below the correct symbol for the following:
The resistor colour code below may be used for Questions 44 and 45.

QUESTION 41
The pressure in an electric circuit is measured using a/an
__________________________
QUESTION 42
The resistance of a/an ____________________________is low because it is
connected in ___________________________________________ with the
load.
QUESTION 43
An application that uses the chemical effect of an electric current is
________________
QUESTION 44
An electric motor uses the _____________________________ effect of an
electric current.
QUESTION. 45
The resistance of a VDR varies with changes in _______________________.
QUESTION 46
If all other factors remain constant and the CSA of a conductor is halved, its
resistance will
QUESTION 47
The equivalent resistance of FOUR (4) resistors connected in parallel would be
less than the

QUESTION 48
Using the information provided in Table 1, complete the following table:
QUESTION 49
Briefly explain the difference between a resistor that has five coloured bands and
one which has only four.

QUESTION 50.
If the cross sectional area of a conductor is doubled, and the length is also
doubled, the resistance of the conductor would _____ _
QUESTION 51
(a) Use the colour code table provided to determine the value of a resistor which
has the following colour bands: Yellow, Violet, Red, Gold.
(b) What would be the possible resistance range for the resistor, based on its
tolerance?
QUESTION 52
List TWO (2) common household appliances, which use the power dissipation
property of resistors to operate.
(a)
(b)
QUESTION 53
The equivalent resistance of several resistors connected in series is always
__________________ than the largest individual resistor value in the circuit.
QUESTION 54
In a series circuit the algebraic sum of the voltages around a closed loop (i.e.
circuit) is equal to _______________________
QUESTION 55
The type of circuit in which the equivalent circuit resistance is less than the
smallest individual resistance of any resistor is a ______________________
circuit.

QUESTION 56
The quantity of charge held in a capacitor is dependent on the
_________________ of the capacitor and the __________________________
QUESTION 57
The zero end of the scale of an analogue ohmmeter is found at the
____________________ end of the multimeter.
QUESTION 58
The use of a short-shunt connected ammeter and voltmeter in a circuit is best for
measuring _________________ values of resistance.
QUESTION 59
List TWO (2) factors, beside the area of the plates, that will determine the
capacitance of a capacitor.
(a) __________________________
(b) __________________________
QUESTION 60
TWO (2) examples of non-linear resistors are:
(a) __________________________
(b) __________________________
QUESTION 61
TWO (2) practical electrical insulating materials are:
(a) __________________________
(b) __________________________
QUESTION 62
There are a number of effects of electricity, one of which is the heating effect.
Name TWO (2) other effects.
(a) __________________________
(b) __________________________
QUESTION 63
An electrical device installed to protect people from electric shock is known as:

QUESTION 64
A secondary cell is one that ________________________________be
recharged.
QUESTION 65
The current capacity of a group of primary cells connected together can be
increased by connecting them in _________________
QUESTION 66
Ideally, the internal resistance of a voltmeter is as _________________as
possible, while the internal resistance of the ammeter is as
__________________as possible.
QUESTION 67
Give TWO (2) examples of polarised capacitors:
___________________________ and ________________________________
QUESTION 68
The variable resistor that you could use to control a 10 A current in a circuit is
known as a ______________________________
QUESTION 69
Convert the following to the units shown, using the correct prefix and unit
abbreviations:
(a) 0.4 17 micro-farads to nano-farads _______________________________
(b) 37.45 micro-amperes to milli-amperes
(c) 36876 joules to kilo-joules
(d) 774 micro-henries to henries _________________________________
(e) 63.4 x 10 kilo-grams to grams
QUESTION 70
Express the following in engineering notation using the best correct prefix
symbol.
(a) 1.25 x 10 watts ________________________________________________
(b) 0.00037 amperes
(c) 0.064 x 10 seconds ______________________________________________

QUESTION 71
Draw the connections necessary on Figure 1 below, so that current through
resistor R1 will be 2 amperes.
QUESTION 72
Convert the flowing multiples and submultiples back to the base units:
(a) 710 MJ is equal to Joules
(b) 8.2 kΩ is equal to Ohms
(c) 1200 µF is equal to Farad
(d) 24.5 mA is equal to Amperes
QUESTION 73
A resistor with a resistance of 4.7 MΩ is equal to kΩ
QUESTION 74
When heat is applied to an electrolyte, its resistance will
QUESTION 75
The current flowing in a circuit is proportional to the applied
voltage and proportional to the circuit resistance.
QUESTION 76
The prefix used for a unit multiplied by 10⎯⁶ is

QUESTION 77
Transpose the following equations for the subjects shown:

QUESTION 78
Draw the standard symbols for the following electrical components:

QUESTION 79.
The value of the unknown current in Figure 2 below is
QUESTION 80.
Electrical cells can be classified into two types. The type of cell that can be
recharged is termed a cell.
QUESTION 81.
A series circuit consists of two resistors having values of 68Ω and 82Ω. The
smallest voltage drop will occur across the ____________ resistor.

QUESTION 82.
Use the resistor colour code in Table 1 below to answer the following questions.
State the resistance and tolerance percentage of the following four band resistors
with the colour bands indicated:
(a) Green, Blue, Yellow, Gold
Resistance:
Tolerance:
(b) Brown, Red, Orange, Silver

Resistance: _______________________
Tolerance: ________________________
(c) State the colour code of a four band resistor having a value of 47Ω and a
tolerance of 10%:

QUESTION 83
The effect of electric current is used in the electroplating
process.
QUESTION 84
A wattmeter consists of a coil connected in parallel with the
supply and a coil connected in series with the load.
QUESTION 85
A generator produces an emf due to the relative motion between a
and a magnetic field.
QUESTION 86
The unit for electrical energy is the
QUESTION 87
The conductivity of copper is than the conductivity of
aluminium.
QUESTION 88
The chemical reactions cannot be reversed in a cell.
QUESTION 89
The total power consumed by a circuit is the of the power
dissipation of each of the individual circuit components.
QUESTION 90
If a resistor in a parallel circuit became open circuit, the total circuit resistance
would and total circuit power consumption would
QUESTION 91
Power in an electrical circuit would be measured by a/an
QUESTION 92
An electrical stove uses the effect of an electrical current.
QUESTION 93
The resistance of a PTC resistor with an increase in
temperature.
QUESTION 94
An atom that has gained an electron is called a/an

QUESTION 95
The current in a series circuit that has an open circuit would be
QUESTION 96
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to it’s
QUESTION 97
Any material that will allow current to flow will have the characteristics of
resistance and
QUESTION 98
The ratings required on an electrolytic capacitor are and
QUESTION 99
Current is proportional to voltage and
proportional to resistance.
QUESTION 100
In the space provided connect a 15 ohm resistor to a 20 volt supply.
Include a control device and protection.
The meters to be connected in the circuit are to be a voltmeter measuring the

load voltage, an ammeter for measuring load current, and a wattmeter to
measure the total power.
NOTE: Use the correct symbols.

QUESTION 101
Use the resistor colour code in Table 1 below to answer the following questions.
(a) State the resistance and tolerance percentage of the following four band
resistors with the colour bands indicated:
Red, Violet, Orange, Gold.
Resistance
Tolerance
Brown, Red, Orange, Silver.
Resistance
Tolerance
(b) State the colour code of a four band resistor having a value of 82 1 and a
tolerance of 10%.

QUESTION 102
In the space below draw the correct symbol.

QUESTION 103
Change the subject for the following formulae.
P=I²R
Find I
XL=2πfL
Find f
1÷CT = (1÷C1 + 1÷C2 + 1÷C3)

Find C3
Z2 = R2 + X2
Find X
IT = I1 + I2 + I3
Find I3
R2 = (R1A1I2)÷(A2I1)
Find I2

Eg = (ΦZnP)÷60a
Find n
QUESTION 104
The graph below represents a 5Ω resistor. Calculate the voltage required to
cause a current of 3 amperes to flow.
Voltage would be

SECTION C
QUESTION 1.
If a force of 520 N is exerted on a body and moves it 4.3 metres.
a) calculate the amount of work done.
b) If the body took 5 seconds to cover the distance, what power was being used?
QUESTION 2.
A 5 kW motor has an operating efficiency of 78%. What is the input power
requirement.

QUESTION 3.
Find the length of Nichrome wire required to wind a 250 ohm resistor, if the
resistivity of Nichrome wire is 112 x 10¯⁸ ohm/m with a csa of 0.01mm².
QUESTION 4.
The copper winding of an electric motor has a resistance of 242 ohms at 15°C.
What is its resistance at 40 °C. (a0 for copper is 0.00427 ohm / °C).
QUESTION 5.
Two capacitors, a 10 uF and a 5 uF are connected in series. Find the equivalent
capacitance.

QUESTION 6.
In the circuit below the voltage across the capacitor rose to 15.1 volts in one time
constant of 34 seconds. Determine the value of the resistor ‘R’.
QUESTION 7.
The current through two series connected resistors is 250 mA when connected to
a 14 volt d.c. supply. If the resistance of one resistor is 25 ohms, determine the
value of the second resistor.

QUESTION 8.
Two resistors are connected in parallel to a 24 volt d.c. supply. The resistance of
one of the resistors is 48 ohms. If the total current leaving the supply is 750 mA.
What is the value of the second resistor.
QUESTION 9.
Calculate total circuit current for the circuit below for the following conditions:
a) with Switch A open and Switch B closed.
b) with Switch B closed and Switch A closed.

QUESTION 10.
Shown below is the voltage charge/discharge curves for a capacitor. Using these
curves, calculate the following:
A capacitor in a RC circuit becomes fully charged to 80 volts in a time of 10
seconds.
a) What would have been the voltage across the capacitor after 5 seconds.
b) When a discharge is initiated, after the capacitor has been fully charged, what
will be the voltage across the capacitor after 7.25 seconds.

QUESTION 11
The diagram drawn in figure 4 below shows the components of a circuit. Draw
the connections that are required to meet the following description:
a) R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, (0.5 mark)
b) R3 and R4 are connected in parallel, (0.5 mark)
c) R5 and R6 are connected in series, (0.5 mark)
d) The series connected group of resistors are connected in between the
two parallel groups of resistors, (0.5 mark)
e) The ammeter A1 is to measure the circuit current, (1 mark)
f) The ammeter A2 is to measure the current flowing into R3, (1 mark)
g) The voltmeter V1 is to measure the voltage drop across R2, (1 mark)
h) The voltmeter V2 is to measure the voltage drop across R5, (1 mark)
i) The circuit is to be protected by the fuse, (0.5 mark)
j) The circuit is to be control by the switch S1, (0.5 mark)

QUESTION 12
What would be the resistance of a copper 2.5mm² conductor with a length of 0.1
kilometres? (p for copper = 1.72 x 10¯⁸ ohm.metre)
QUESTION 13
A conductor having a cross-sectional area of 1.5 mm² and a length of 0.75km
has a resistance of 400 ohms. Calculate the resistance of a similar conductor
having a cross-sectional area of 2.5 mm², and a length of 300m.
QUESTION 14
Calculate the shunt resistance needed to allow a 10mA (10) ammeter movement
to accurately read a current of 1 A.

QUESTION 15
With reference to figure 6 below, calculate the:
(a) total resistance of the circuit.
(b) current in the 680 ohm resistor.
(c) power consumed by the 680 ohm resistor.

QUESTION 16
(a) total resistance of the circuit.
(b) power dissipated in the 120 ohm resistor.
(c) current through the 60 ohm resistor.

QUESTION 17
(a) (i) Charging current at 1 Time Constant.
(ii) Voltage drop across the 12OΩ resistor at one time constant after the
switch closes on charge.
(b) Discharge current, flowing through the 480Ω resistor, at one time constant
after the fully charged capacitor is switched to discharge.
(c) Plate area of the capacitor, if the dielectric has a thickness of 0.06mm and
a permittivity of 26x10⎯⁸

QUESTION 18
Note ALL resistors in figure 10 below have the same value, 30 ohms
(a) equivalent resistance of figure 10 as seen by the power supply.
(b) current flowing through the resistor R3.
(c) voltage drop across the resistor R4.

QUESTION 19
If the efficiency of a 7.5 kW, 240 V d.c. motor is 90%, calculate the current drawn
from the supply when operating at its rated load.
QUESTION 20
How much would it cost per week to run a 6 kW electric room heater for six hours
per day if the cost of electricity is 20 cents per unit?
QUESTION 21
Determine the resistance of a 75 m length of 2.5 mm² copper conductor if the
resistivity of copper is 1.72 x 10⎯⁸ ohm metres.

QUESTION 22
The resistance of a heating element is 100 ohms at 20°C. Calculate the
resistance of the element at its operating temperature of 1000°C if the
temperature co-efficient of resistance of the heating element is 0.002 ohms per
degree Celsius.
QUESTION 23
A conductor with a length of 60 m and a csa of 1.5 mm² has a resistance of 0.3
ohms. Determine the resistance of a similar conductor whose length is 75m and
csa is 2.5mm².
QUESTION 24
Two resistors of 10 ohms and 25 ohms are connected in parallel. If the current
through the 10 ohm resistor is 5 amperes, how much current is flowing through
the 25 ohm resistor?

QUESTION 25
A series circuit consists of three resistors (R1 = 47 ohms, R2 = 82 ohms and R3
68 ohms respectively) and is connected to a 100 V d.c. supply.
Using Standard symbols, draw a diagram to illustrate this circuit and include in
your diagram:
(a) a voltmeter to measure the supply voltage
(b) a voltmeter to measure the voltage across R2 and
(c) an ammeter to measure the current flowing through R3
(d) determine the reading on the voltmeter across R2

QUESTION 26
Three resistors of 150 ohms, 180 ohms and 220 ohms are connected in parallel
to a 100 V d.c. supply. Calculate:
(a) the equivalent resistance of the circuit
(b) the current taken from the supply
(c) the power consumed by the 180 Ω resistor.
QUESTION 27
A 24 V lamp is to be dimmed using a switch and a series resistor. The circuit is
connected to a 24 V d.c. supply.
(a) Draw a circuit diagram to show how the switch would be connected in the
circuit.
(b) If the lamp, when dimmed draws 0.8 A at 16 V, calculate the resistance and
minimum power rating of a suitable series resistor.

QUESTION 28
For the circuit shown in Figure 1, calculate:

(a) the current drawn from the supply
(b) the voltage dropped across R5
QUESTION 29
Determine the resistance of a 6mm² circular aluminium conductor 250 metres in
length (Resistivity of aluminium = 2.85 x 10⎯⁸ ohm.metres).

QUESTION 30
The resistance of the copper wire field winding of a 24 V motor was found to be
2.46 ohms at an ambient temperature of 18 °C. Under operating conditions the
temperature of the winding rose to 55 °C. Calculate the percentage change in
field current through the winding.
(Temp coefficient of Cu = 0.00393).
QUESTION 31
Three resistors are connected in series to a 120 volt d.c. supply. R1 is 120 ohms,
R2 is 150 ohms and R3 is 330 ohms:
(a) Sketch the circuit using Australian Standard symbols, and include a switch,
an ammeter for circuit current and a voltmeter to measure voltage across R3.
Show polarities for the meter connections.
(b) Determine the circuit current:
(c) Determine the voltage drop across R3:
(d) Determine the power dissipated by resistor R2:

QUESTION 32
THREE (3) resistors of 1800 ohms, 2200 ohms and 800 ohms are connected in
parallel across a 100 V supply. Determine the:
(a) equivalent resistance of the group:
(b) current in the 1800Ω resistor.
(c) power consumed by the 220Ω resistor.
QUESTION 33
In Figure 2 (above), calculate the:
(a) equivalent circuit resistance:

(b) current inR4:
(c) voltage drop across R2:
(d) total power used by the circuit:

QUESTION 34
If the power consumed by the circuit of Figure 4 is 10 W, determine the:

(a) total equivalent resistance of the circuit:
(b) value of resistor R1:
(c) voltage across R4:
QUESTION 35
The d.c. voltage across resistor R2 in the circuit shown in Figure 5 below is to be
measured. The following two voltmeters are available and both are set to the 50
V d.c. range:
• a digital voltmeter with an input resistance of 10 MΩ
• an analogue voltmeter with a sensitivity of 50 kΩ per volt
Show, from the readings that would be obtained on each voltmeter, which would
provide the more accurate voltage reading across resistor R2 compared to the
reading expected.

QUESTION 36
Calculate the equivalent capacitance of three capacitors; 4µF, 6µF and 1200 nF
connected in:
(a) series:
(b) parallel:
(c) If 10 V d.c. is applied to the series circuit of the question above, calculate the
total charge stored.
QUESTION 37
In Figure 7 the switch is closed to position A at t = 0 seconds. 300 ms later the
switch is switched to position B. Determine the current through the resistor after
500 ms have elapsed. (ie. 200 ms after being switched to B)

QUESTION 38
Calculate the efficiency at 70% full load of a 50 kW electric motor which has fixed
losses of 650 watts and variable losses at 70% full load of 1800 watts.
QUESTION 39
Three resistors with the following values are connected in parallel and supplied
from a 120 V d.c. power supply.
R1 120Ω
R2= 180Ω
R3= 150Ω
Calculate:
(a) the equivalent resistance of the circuit
(b) the current drawn by resistor R3
(c) the power consumed by resistor R2

QUESTION 40
Three resistors of 47Ω, 100Ω and 33Ω respectively are connected in series to a
generator. The current drawn from the generator is 2 Amperes.
(a) Determine the generator terminal voltage V
(b) Calculate the voltage across the 100Ω resistor.
(c) Calculate the power consumed by the 47Ω resistor.
(d) Determine the circuit current if the 100Ω resistor becomes short-circuited.

QUESTION 41
Five resistors, each having a value of 150Ω are connected in parallel to a d.c.
power supply. Calculate the total current drawn from the power supply if the
terminal voltage is 200 V.
QUESTION 42
The resistance of a coil of copper wire is 27Ω at 20°C. Determine the coil’s
resistance at 100°C. The temperature coefficient of resistance for copper is
0.00393 at 20°C.
QUESTION 43
Calculate the resistance of a 2.5 km length of aluminium conductor with a
cross-sectional area of 6 mm². The resistivity of aluminium is 2.83 x 10⎯⁸.

QUESTION 44
An electric radiator is rated at 1200 W when connected to 240 V. Calculate the
resistance of the heating element.
QUESTION 45
A 500 metre drum of 1.5 mm² copper building wire has a resistance of 5.7Ω.
Determine the resistance of 750 metres of 1.0 mm² copper building wire.
QUESTION 46
A 12Ω resistor is to be manufactured using 0.4 cross-sectional area nichrome
wire. Determine the length of nichrome wire required. Nichrome has a resistivity
of 1.122 x 10⎯⁶Ω/m.

QUESTION 47
A switch, a l2kΩ resistor and a 200µF capacitor are connected in series to a 24V
d.c. power supply.
(a) Calculate the time constant for this circuit.
(b) Determine the voltage across the capacitor after ONE (I) time constant.

QUESTION 48
This question refers to Figure 4. A 500 volt generator supplies a motor with a
current of 80 amperes. The voltage at the motor terminals is 480 volts.
(a) Determine the voltage drop in the connecting cables.
(b) Calculate the total cable resistance connecting the motor and the generator.

QUESTION 49.
Refer to the diagram labeled Figure 5, to answer the following:
(a) Calculate the total resistance of the circuit.
(b) Calculate the total circuit current.
(c) Determine the voltage drop across resistor R4.

QUESTION 50
Two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series to a 200 V d.c. power supply.
The total capacitance of the circuit is 96µF and capacitor C1 has a value of 120
µF.
(a) Determine the value of capacitor C2.
(b) Calculate the total charge on the circuit.
(c) Calculate the voltage across capacitor C1.

QUESTION 51
Draw the connections necessary to complete the circuit in Figure 1 using the
following instructions:
• R1 is paralleled with R2.
• R3 is paralleled with R4.
• The R1/R2 and R3/R4 combinations are in series.
• An ammeter is to measure the current in R3.
• A voltmeter is to measure the voltage across R1.
• The circuit is to be supplied from a l2volt DC source.

QUESTION 52
Draw the circuit symbols for the following electrical components:

QUESTION 53
Use the resistor colour code in the Table below to answer the following
questions.
(a) State the resistance and the tolerance percentage of the following four band
resistor with the colour bands indicated:
Yellow Violet Orange Red
Resistance:
Tolerance:
(b) If a colour coded resistor has a resistance value of 2.2 kΩ and a tolerance of
5%, what are the colours that would represent this?
(c) If a resistor has a specified value of 100,000 Ω and has a tolerance of 10%,
what would be the acceptable range of resistance for this resistor?

QUESTION 54
Determine the resistance value indicated on the meters shown in Figure 2 &
Figure 3.

QUESTION 55
Transpose the following equations for the subject indicated:

QUESTION 56
In the circuit of Figure 4, determine the current flowing in R4.

QUESTION 57
Four resistors as illustrated in Figure 5 are supplied from a 24 volt d.c. source.
Calculate:
(a) The equivalent resistance of the circuit.
(b) The current flowing through resistor R3.
(c) The power dissipated by resistor R4.

QUESTION 58
Three resistors as illustrated in Figure 6 are supplied from a 12 volt d.c. source.
Calculate:
(b) The current flowing through resistor R3.
(c) The power dissipated by resistor R1.

QUESTION 59
Calculate the voltage across resistor R2 in the voltage divider circuit of Figure 7.

QUESTION 60
Using the values given in Figure 8, determine:

(b) The current flowing through R6.
(c) The voltage across R3.
(d) The total power consumed by the circuit.

QUESTION 61
An incandescent lamp has a cold resistance of 1400Ω. If 20 are connected in
parallel in a circuit, what would be the total resistance of the circuit?
QUESTION 62
A copper cable has a resistance of 2Ω at 25 °C. Given that the temperature co-
efficient of resistance for copper is 0.00393Ω/°C, what is the resistance of the
cable if the cable temperature increases to 75 °C.

QUESTION 63
What is the resistance of a coil of wire which has a length of 185 metres, if the
resistance of 75 metres of the same wire is 6.8Ω?
QUESTION 64
A conductor has a resistance of 1.54Ω and a csa (cross sectional area) of 2.5
mm². Determine the resistance of a second conductor having the same length
and made of the same material, but having a csa of 10mm²
QUESTION 65
A 16 mm² copper conductor is 125 metres long. Calculate the resistance of this
cable given that the resistivity of copper is 1.72 x 1 0⎯⁸ Ωm.

QUESTION 66
An R-C circuit consists of a 68 kΩ resistor connected in series with a 100 µF
capacitor. Determine the time constant of the circuit.
QUESTION 67
An R-C circuit has a time constant of two seconds. Using the universal time
constant curve and knowing the capacitor was fully discharged before switch on:
(a) What percentage of the supply voltage will be across the capacitor after a
time period of two seconds after switch on?
(b) What percentage of the supply current will be flowing after a time period of
four seconds after switch on?
(c) What percentage of the supply voltage will be across the resistor after a time
period of five seconds after switch on?

QUESTION 68
From the circuit illustrated in Figure 9, determine:
(a) The total capacitance of the circuit.
(b) The total charge stored.
(c) The voltage across each capacitor.

QUESTION 69
From the circuit illustrated in Figure 10, determine:
(a) The total capacitance of the circuit.
(b) The total charge stored by the circuit.
(c) The charge stored by each capacitor.

QUESTION 70
Three resistors are to be connected in series to a 100 volt supply.
R1=15Ω, R2=25Ω, R3=10Ω.
(a) Draw the circuit.
(b) Calculate the circuit current.
(c) Calculate the voltage across R2.
(d) Calculate the power consumed by R3.

QUESTION 71
The circuit in Figure 2 represents a parallel circuit.
Calculate the following circuit values.
(a) The supply voltage.
(b) The current I2.
(c) The resistance of R2.
(d) The power consumed by R1.

QUESTION 72
Calculate the resistance of a 4 mm² copper conductor when its length is 500
metres. (p for copper 1.72 x 10¯⁸ Ω.m).
QUESTION 73
A coil is to be wound using a copper conductor. The coil will have a resistance of
50Ω at a temperature of 25°C. Copper has a temperature co-efficient of
resistance of 0.004/°C.
(a) Calculate the resistance of the coil when it is operating at 75°C.
(b) If the supply voltage is 200 volts calculate the current when the coil is at:
(i) 25°C.
(ii) 75°C.

QUESTION 74
A 2kW DC motor is to be connected to a 240 volt supply. The efficiency of the
motor is 80%. Calculate the full load current of the motor.
QUESTION 75
A room heater has a rating of 2.4 kW and runs for three hours every night. If the
cost of power is charged at nine cents per kilowatt hour, calculate the cost over a
13 week period.

QUESTION 76
(a) Calculate the time constant of the circuit.
(b) Calculate the voltage across the capacitor after one time constant.
(c) Calculate the circuit current after one minute.

QUESTION 77
(a) Calculate the total circuit resistance.
(b) Calculate the voltage across the 6kΩ R1 resistor.
(c) Calculate the voltage drop across the 7kΩ R3 resistor.
(d) Calculate the power consumed by the 1kΩ R4 resistor.

QUESTION 78
The circuit in figure 6 below represents a series/parallel circuit.
Calculate each of the following values.
(a) Calculate the total circuit resistance.
(b) Calculate the total circuit current.
(c) Calculate the current in R3.
(d) Calculate the power consumed by R1.


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UEE30811 - Certificate III

Stage 1: equations are also used during stage 2

2𝜋𝑛𝑇 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 100

Stage 1: equations are also used during stage 2

23 𝑄𝑐 = 𝑃(tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2 ) 𝑋𝑐 = 𝑅(tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2 )

Required skills and knowledge

KS01-EE104A Direct current circuits

Section 1 BASIC ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS T1

BASIC ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS

KS01-EE104A Direct Current circuits

TOPIC 1 Basic electrical concepts encompassing

NOTE:- There are 15 Topics to be covered in this course as specified

Supply Industry Sector

ELECTRICTY and GENERATION

Major existing NSW power stations (as at 28.11.2011)

We shall look at some typical examples of each type.

Coal Fired Steam Power Stations

Liddel Coal Fired Power Station in the Hunter Valley

99% of electricity generation is done by turning a ‘generator’, a machine that requires

It is important to understand there are 4 major parts to the power station

Steam Creation Driving force Electricity Creation & Transport

Generator Steam Turbine

400MWsteam turbine generator

1000 MW steam turbine generator

GAS FIRED POWER STATIONS

1. Conventional gas-fuelled boilers and steam turbines to turn electrical generators

RENEWABLE SOURCES OF POWER GENERATION

Solar Photovoltaic cells (PV Cells or PV Panels)

Typical roof installation of Photovoltaic cells to produce DC electricity.

Solar Thermal Power Systems

Hydroelectric power in NSW is mostly generated in the Snowy Mountains, although

Biomass can be converted to energy in two ways:

indirectly by converting it into a liquid or gas fuel.

Diagram of a wind turbine

Diagram showing the inside of the nacelle

Solve Problems in DC circuits Version 1 Section 1 Page 21 of 48

Page 22 of 48 Section 1 Version 1 Solve Problems in DC circuits

Solve Problems in DC circuits Version 1 Section 1 Page 23 of 48

Experimental wave energy generator at Port Kembla

Page 24 of 48 Section 1 Version 1 Solve Problems in DC circuits

Refer figure 1.46 page 25 “Electrical Trade Principles

Power Lines (Transmission and Distribution Lines)

To generate, transport and distribute power at 230Volts is impractical, so a ‘transport

Solve Problems in DC circuits Version 1 Section 1 Page 25 of 48

Transmission Lines move power from generators to cities and towns

Within a city we use Distribution Lines

Page 26 of 48 Section 1 Version 1 Solve Problems in DC circuits

E.g. Removing or preventing a buildup of static charge can be as simple as opening a

Many semiconductor devices used in electronics are particularly sensitive to static

In industrial settings such as paint or flour plants as well as in hospitals, ‘anti-static’

Solve Problems in DC circuits Version 1 Section 1 Page 27 of 48

A grain silo explosion in the USA which killed 5 people.

Petrol station fire started by static electricity whilst refuelling a car.

Page 28 of 48 Section 1 Version 1 Solve Problems in DC circuits

ELECTRO MOTIVE FORCE (EMF) = PRESSURE = VOLTAGE

o electric pressure, called _________________ or ___________________________

o electric flow, called ___________________________

o opposition to flow, called _________________________.

EMF or Voltage is the part which causes the Current to flow.

We will spend more time on these topics in future lessons.

Solve Problems in DC circuits Version 1 Section 1 Page 29 of 48

Firstly consider what is meant by the term pressure.

Pressure is defined as - _________________________________________________.

o electric pressure, called _ or ___________

9. The voltmeter is used to measure __ and is connected:-