Drilling fluid

By
Eng. Muhammad Abdelraouf
mohamedabdelrouf664@gmail.com
 Agenda

 Drilling fluid functions

 Drilling fluid models
 Drilling fluid types and applications
 Circulating system
 Drilling fluid properties
 Drilling fluid additives and mixing procedures
 Clay chemistry
 Drilling fluid laboratory tests
 Some problems related to drilling fluid
 Drilling fluid pilot test
 Drilling fluid
functions

Create a hydrostatic Prevent the Protect the

Carry the Suspend the drilled Clean, cool hole from producing
pressure to balance
drilled cuttings cuttings while the and lubricate collapse or formation
the formation pore
to the surface circulation is off the bit caving-in from damage
pressure
 Drilling fluid
models

A- Newtonian fluid model:

B- Bingham plastic fluid model:

C- Power law fluid model:

D- Herschel and Buckley fluid model:

 The drilling fluid, usually a non-Newtonian fluid (B,

C, or D)
Thixotropy: the property exhibited by a
fluid that is in a liquid state when flowing and
in a semisolid, gelled state when at rest.
Most drilling fluids must be thixotropic so
that cuttings will remain in suspension when
circulation is stopped.
 Drilling fluid types
and applications

 Any drilling fluid

consists of: gas mud: for very
 Base fluid. Water base mud Oil base mud sensitive
 Inert solids. formations
 Dissolved solids.
 The selection of Petroleum
Spud mud: for top air mud: very high
drilling fluid (diesel): for shale
hole drilling penetration rate
formations
depends on:
 Formation type.
 Cost. Non-petroleum Mist mud: ability to
 The environment Salt saturated mud: to handle some
drill salt sections and (ester): to drill
(land or offshore). production zone formation water
shale formations

Foam mud:
considerable
KCL-polymer mud: additive (foam) is
for shale inhibition required:

Silicate mud: to drill Aerated mud: high

offshore wells instead pump pressure is
of oil base mud required
 Cont.
Water base mud
• More stable than oil base mud
• Require less environmental
considerations
• Lower cost than oil base and
gas base muds
• BUT, it will hydrate clay and
has poor lubricity
Oil base mud
• will not hydrate clays
• Good lubricating properties
Vs. • Normally higher drill rates
• BUT, it is expensive, dirty to
work with, has lower stability
and requires special electric
logs
Gas base mud
• Very high rate of penetration
• Lost of circulation and clay
Vs. hydration are remote
• BUT, it is dangerous to be
handled and requires special
equipment
 Circulating
system

• A vertical pipe Rotary hose • Acting as a

• For storing Mud pumps along the derrick, fluid conduit to
and mixing and joins the the formation
discharge line • A large diameter flexible
the drilling • Usually two hose, connecting the stand
fluid reciprocating from the mud
pumps to the pipe to the swivel or the
pumps are used top drive and allow it to be Drill string,
Mud pits to pump and rotary hose
raised or lowered, while BHA, and the
and mixing circulate the mud is being pumped annulus
hopper drilling fluid Stand pipe
 Cont.
 Circulating system layout:
 Cont.
 Mud return line:
 Remove the drilled cuttings from drilling fluid to maintain its properties (solid control
equipment)
 Disposal of the cuttings (disposal bore)
 Return the (cleaned) drilling fluid to the circulation system

Desander Desilter
Shale shaker
• Can be activated during • Can be activated in Centrifuge
• Removes up to the top hole section
80% of the conjunction with • Remove fine and ultrafine
drilling to maintain low desander (not used solids from 7 to 2 microns
drilled cuttings mud weights with oil-base mud (especially with mud
• Remove cutting in the system) cleaner in oil-base mud
range of 40 to 45 • Remove cuttings in system)
microns the range of 20 to 25
microns
 Cont.

Degasser Mud gas separator

• Remove undesirable gases like Carbone • Can be activated only in kick conditions to
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide to avoid remove large gas volumes from drilling
corrosion and maintain mud weight in fluid
normal drilling condition
 Cont.

Trip tank
• Small mud tank with a capacity of 10 to 15 barrels, usually with 1-barrel or ½ barrel divisions, used to
ascertain the amount of mud necessary to keep the wellbore full with the exact amount of mud that is
displaced by drill pipe. When the bit comes out of the hole, a volume of mud equal to that which the drill
pipe occupied while in the hole must be pumped into the hole to replace the pipe. When the bit goes back
in the hole, the drill pipe displaces a certain amount of mud, and a trip tank can be used again to keep
track of this volume
 Drilling fluid
properties/report

• The density of the drilling fluid is important to maintaining well control

Density, ppg
• The drilling fluids density is measured using a “mud balance”

• This property gives an indication of the amount of solids in mud and the
carrying capacity of the drilling fluid
Plastic viscosity, centipoise (cps)
• Is measured by “viscometer” , the 600 rpm reading minus the 300 rpm
reading

• Gives an indication of the ability of the drilling fluid to suspend cuttings (the
Yield point, lb/100 sqft electrochemical attraction between mud particles) during flowing conditions
• Is measured by “viscometer”, 300 rpm reading minus the plastic viscosity
 Cont.

• This is a measurement that denotes the thixotropic properties of the mud

Gel strength, lb/sqft (10 sec/10 min) and is a measurement of the attractive forces of the mud while at rest
• Measured by “viscometer”, the 3 rpm reading

• For minimizing shale problems, a pH of 8.5 to 11 appears to give the best

pH hole stability and control over mud properties and corrosion
• pH is commonly measured with pHydrion paper, or the pH sensor

• As fluid is lost into the formation, a build up of mud solids occurs on the
Fluid loss (filter cake), 1/32 in. face of the wellbore This is the filter cake to prevent the additional fluid
(ml/30 min) losses (must be thin and impermeable)
• Filtration characteristics of a mud are determined by means of a filter press
 Cont.

• The salt or chlorides concentration of the mud is monitored as an indicator

of contamination
• The salinity of mud should be adjusted according to the formation salinity to
Salt/chloride, ppm avoid clay problems (hydration)
• Clay swelling could occur, if the salinity of mud is too low
• Sloughing will occur, if the salinity of mud is too high
• One or more milliliters of filtrate is needed to perform salt test

• If water contains a lot of calcium or magnesium salts, it is referred to as

Contaminates (Calcium, magnesium) “hard water” and makes it difficult to get bentonite to yield
ppm • One or more milliliters of filtrate is needed to perform calcium test

• This will give an indication as to the effectiveness of the mechanical solids

Sand content, vol.% control equipment
• This is measured by use of a 200 mesh sand screen set
 Cont.

• In order to maintain mud properties, the solid, water and oil content must
be checked continuously
Solid, water, oil content, vol.%
• A retort is used to determine the quantity of liquids and solids in a drilling
fluid

• (for oil base mud) The aniline point is the temperature below which an oil
containing 50% by volume aniline becomes cloudy
Aniline point, ºF • Measured by raising the temperature of a fluid sample. Oils having an aniline
point above 140 ºF are considered acceptable to use

• (for oil base mud) the amount of current required to break the emulsifier
down and allow the saline water to coalesce
Electrical stability, volt
• An electrical probe is inserted into the drilling fluid and the voltage
increased until the emulsion breaks down
 Drilling fluid
additives and mixing

Weighting Viscosifires pH control Filtration/gel Lubricants

material Lost circulation control
additives material (LCM) additives
Barite: gives Bentonite
Caustic
weight up to 22 soda Diesel
Fiber Starch
ppg Organophillic
clay: for oil Potassium
base mud hydroxide Gilsonite
Calcium
carbonate: is Natural Some kinds
preferred in nuts and of polymers
production zone, Polymers (xanthan
seeds
and gives weight gum): is resistant to
up to 13 ppg contaminate by salts
and calcium

Galena (Pb): is PAC: is a semi synthetic

very expensive and polymer modified to be
special for HPHT tolerated to salts and
wells, gives weight calcium contaminates
up to 32 ppg
 Cont.

Shale Calcium Physical

stabilization removers Emulsifiers Thinners Emulsifiers
activators (dispersants) plugging
additives additives additives

Potassium Soda ash Soltex Lignosulfonates

Lime Lignite
chloride

Calcium Bicarbonate Surface active

chloride: for of sodium Steel seal agents
oil base mud
 Cont.
Clay chemistry

 Clays are minerals which in the presence of water and agitation will adsorb water and
break up into colloidal-sized particles.
 Clays are hydrous aluminum silicates composed of alternating layers of alumina and silica.
 Silica is a tetrahedral structure with a silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms at
equal distance from each other.
 Alumina has an octahedral structure consisting of an aluminum atom with six oxygen atoms
arranged in an octahedron around it.
 The structure is the same as the mineral gibbsite [AL2(OH)6].
 The principal clays are: Kaolinites (non-swelling), Illites (swelling), Chlorites (non-
swelling), Smectites or Montmorillonites (swelling and it is common commercial clay to use
in drilling fluid), Attapulgite and Sepiolite (swelling and most effective to use in salt water
muds).
 Cont.
 The clay in its dry state has platelets stacked in face-to-face association,
like a deck of cards, This is “Aggregation”.
 When the dry clay is placed into fresh water with no agitation, the
packets adsorb water, hydrate, and swell.
 Upon agitation, the swollen packets disintegrate into individual plates or
smaller packets of plates, This is “Dispersion”.
 As long as agitation continues, dispersion will be retained and further
dispersion can occur.
 When agitation is stopped, clay platelets will be mutually attracted in
edge-to-edge or edge-to-face association. This forces a structure similar
to a house of cards, termed “Flocculation”.
 If an anionic chemical thinner is added, such as polyphosphate,
lignosulfonate or lignite, etc., it neutralizes the positive edge charges on
clay platelets and the flocculated state is now “Deflocculated”.
 When this deflocculated clay slurry encounters strong ionic contamination
(NaCl, CaSO4, Ca(OH)2, etc.), the deflocculates chemical is often
overpowered - leading again to “flocculation” and even to a sort of
aggregation where water is lost from the clay surfaces.
 Cont.
 The presence and type of exchangeable cations will have an effect upon
the hydration, or swelling ability of a clay.
 Strongly swelling clays, such as montmorillonite, will adsorb a water layer
to the surface of the clay due to the presence of electrical charges on the
surfaces and edges of the clays.
 This water layer will vary in thickness depending upon the type of cation
associated.
 The mechanisms of clay inhibition vary according to the type of inhibitive
product being used:
 Cation inhibiting ions: such as chloride (using salt muds), potassium
(using KCl mud), and calcium (using lime mud).
• Hence the substitution of sodium ions in clay/shale makes its layers more
closer together, and also potassium or calcium ions fits inside the volume
of ion spacing in clay, thereby neutralizing the negative charge in clay
surface with greater length.
 Encapsulation of clay: such as using polymer muds or PHPA (Partially
Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide) mud.
• PHPA bond in clay sites and inhibit the dispersion of solids by
encapsulating the mud particles.
 The use of oil-base mud is very effective in shale inhibition, because clay
will not hydrate in oil.
 Cont.
Mixing procedures

1-Start with clean

the tanks

2-add soda ash to

reduce hardness to
less than 50 mg/l

3-add caustic soda to

increase pH to 9-11

4-add bentonite, and For water base

let it pre-hydrated as mud
much as possible

5-adjust the
concentration of
bentonite as required
and check the
viscometer readings

6-add weighting
material and other
additives
 Cont.

Base Fluids
Emulsifiers Water
Lime CaCl2
Agitation Agitation
1 hr.

For oil
base mud

 Start with maxing viscosifires, emulsifiers and base fluid in one tank and agitate for one hour
 Mix water and CaCl2 in the other tank
 Add water mixture to the first tank slowly
 The emulsifier act at the interface between water and oil phases, and consists of a hydrophilic
side, which will connect to the water phase, and a hydrophobic side, that will connect to the oil
phase in order to make a homogeneous mixture of oil and water (emulsion)
 Agitate till ES of +/- 200 is achieved
 Mix weighting material
 Calculate the material required to build 100 bbl. Of mud with the required oil/water ratio
 Drilling fluid
laboratory tests

 Drilling fluid density test:

 The drilling fluids density is measured using a “mud balance”.
 This balance contains a mud cup on one end of a beam with a fixed counter weight on the
other end of the beam.
 The beam is inscribed with a graduated scale, contains a level bubble and a movable rider.
 During wellsite operations, the mud’s density is checked by filling the cup with drilling fluid
and moving the rider until the level bubble indicates the beam is balanced. The density is
then read using the position of the rider.
 Cont.
 Drilling fluid viscosity (stature) indication test:
 The Marsh Funnel is a simple device for indicating viscosity on a routine basis.
 It is graduated so that one quart (946 cc) of water will flow through the funnel in 26
seconds.
 To run a test, the bottom orifice is covered and drilling fluid is poured over a screen until
the funnel is full.
 When the bottom is uncovered, the time required to fill one quart is recorded (in seconds)
along with the temperature.
 Cont.
 Drilling fluid rheology (plastic viscosity, yield point and gel strength):
 The plastic viscosity (PV) is calculated by measuring the shear rate and stress of the
fluid.
 These values are derived by using a Fann viscometer, which is a rotating-sleeve
viscometer.
 Usually it contains six speeds (600, 300, 200, 100, 6 and 3 rpm).
 The Fann viscometer consists of an outer rotating sleeve and an inner bob.
 When the outer sleeve is rotated at a known speed, torque is transmitted through the
mud to the bob.
 The bob is connected to a spring and dial, where the torque is measured.
 The shear rate is the rotational speed of the sleeve and the shear stress is the stress
(torque) applied to the bob, measured as deflection units on the instrument dial.

o PV= (600-300) rpm

o Yield point= (300 rpm-PV)
o Gel strength= 3 rpm
 Cont.
 API filtration test:
 Filtration characteristics of a mud are determined by means of a filter press.
 The test consists of monitoring the rate at which fluid is forced from a filter press under
specific conditions of time, temperature and pressure, then measuring the thickness of the
residue deposited upon the filter paper.
1- measuring of filter cake:
• 100 psi
• 30 minutes
• 7.5 in2 # 50 Whatman Paper
• Ambient Temperature
2-measuring fluid losses in HPHT wells:
• 30 minutes
• 300°F
• 3.75 in2 #50 Whatman paper
• 500 psi - Differential Pressure (600 psi at top and 100 psi – bottom)
 Cont.
 The retort test (water, oil and solid content):
 A retort is used to determine the quantity of liquids and solids in a drilling fluid.
 A measured sample of fluid is heated until the liquid portion is vaporized.
 The vapors are passed through a condenser, separated by gravity to water and oil and
measured as a percentage by volume.
 The solids are then calculated by subtracting the total from 100.
 Cont.
 Sand content:
 This is measured by use of a 200 mesh sand screen set.
 A measuring tube is filled with mud and water and shaken vigorously.
 The mixture is then poured over the 200 mesh sieve and washed clean with water.
 The sand is then washed into the measuring tube and measured in percent.
 Cont.
 pH test:
 pH is commonly measured with pHydrion paper.
 This paper is impregnated with dyes that render a color which is pH dependent.
 The paper is placed on the surface of the mud which wets the paper.
 When the color has stabilized, it is compared with a color chart.
 An electronic pH meter may also be used.
 Cont.
 Pf/Mf (mud filtrate) and Pm (mud) alkalinity test:
 Pf uses phenolphatelin as indicator, color change at pH 8.3.
 Mf uses methylene orange as indicator, colour change at pH 4.3.
 Pm uses phenolphatelin as indicator, color change at pH 8.3.
 Cont.
 Cont.
 Salinity test (chloride):
 One or more milliliters of filtrate is added to a titration dish and 2 or 3
drops of phenolphthalein solution is added.
 Drops of 0.02 nitric or sulfuric acid solution are then added while
stirring to remove the pinkish color.
 One gram of pure calcium carbonate is then added and stirred.
 Next, 25 - 50 ml of distilled water and 5 - 10 drops of potassium
 chromate solution are added.
 This mixture is stirred continuously while drops of silver nitrate solution
are added until the color changes from yellow to orange red and
persists for 30 seconds.
 The number of milliliters of silver nitrate used to reach the end-point
are recorded.
 Chlorides(ppm) = (ml of silver nitrate x 1000) / ml filtrate.
 Cont.
 Cont.
 Total hardness (calcium and magnesium):
 The total hardness is determined by titration with a standard (0.02 N) Versenate (EDTA)
solution.
 Add 8 N sodium hydroxide to small sample of mud filtrate.
 Notice the change of the color from pink to blue.
 The total hardness then is obtained using the same procedure used in the salinity test.
 Cont.
 Cont.
 Cation exchange capacity (CEC) test:
 Increasing CEC indicates increasing content of reactive clay in the mud - often also seen
by increased YP and Gels.
 If YP and GEL increase without any increase in CEC => indications of flocculation.
 A mixture of 2 cc mud, 15 cc hydrogen peroxide (30%), 0.5 cc’s 5N H2SO4 is used.
 Boil gently for 10 minutes.
 Dilute to 50% with distillated water and add 1 cc methylene blue until the it becomes
white in middle surrounded with blue color.
 The equivalent pound per barrel of bentonite= (Total cc’s Methylene Blue) X (5)
 Cont.
 Electrical stability (for oil base mud):
 The emulsion tester consists of a reliable circuit using a source of variable AC current
(or DC current in portable units) connected to strip electrodes.
 The voltage imposed across the electrodes can be increased until a predetermined
amount of current flows through the mud emulsion-breakdown point.
 Relative stability is indicated as the voltage at the breakdown point.
 Some problems related to
drilling fluid

Lost of circulation Hole cleaning

 Cont.
 What is lost of circulation??
 Lost circulation is one of the major events causing non productive time and high cost to our
drilling operation.
 This problem is most likely in permeable formations (sand), cavernous zones (dolomite and
lime stone) and nature fractures and faults, when the drilling fluid invades the formation.
 The probable location of the loss zone may be determined from knowledge available at the
rig site or/and by using logging methods such as spinner survey, and temperature survey.
 There are four categories of losses:
• Seepage losses: Usually less than 10 bbls per hour.
• Partial Losses: More than 10 bbls per hour with partial returns to surface.
• Severe Losses: More than 100 bbls per hour with some returns to surface.
• Total Losses: Fluid level in hole may not be visible.
 Cont.
 Curing the losses (depending on the losses category):
Seepage losses
• Generally it is acceptable
to continue drilling while
adding 5 – 25 lbs/bbl. of
fine to medium LCM to the
mud on a continual basis.
• If losses continue or
increase, stopping and
spotting an LCM slurry
containing fine to medium
bridging agents (fibers,
granular and flakes) with a
total concentration of 40
lbs/bbl.
• Reduce mud weight if
possible.
Partial losses Sever losses
• The pull‐up‐and‐wait • The pull‐up‐and‐wait
technique should be the technique should be the
first technique used to first technique used.
attempt to regain full
• If the hole will not stand
returns.
full while waiting, an
• If the hole will not stand LCM pill containing large
full while waiting, the bridging agents (up to
technique of mixing an 200 lbs/bbl.).
LCM slurry containing
• If returns are not
fine to medium bridging
regained with this
agents or use LCM pills.
technique, a hard plug
• Reduce mud weight if such as a cement or
possible. oil‐bentonite‐cement is
recommended.
• Reduce mud weight
and/or pump pressure if
possible.
Total losses
• The pull‐up‐and‐wait
technique should be the
first technique used to
attempt to regain full
returns.
• If regain of lost circulation
is not required, proceed to
Mud Cap drilling technique.
• If regain of circulation is
required, use an aggressive
LCM pill consisting of a
combination of large sizes
of particles.
 Cont.
 What is mud cap (drilling blind)??
o A non conventional drilling technique to maintain a floating “cap” of weighted mud in
the annulus across a sensitive or high pressure hydrocarbon zone while drilling ahead with
complete mud losses.
o When drilling with a floating mud cap, circulation continues down the drill string, usually
with water and gel sweeps while weighted mud (75 – 95 PCF) is pumped down the annulus
periodically.
o Mud cap MUST cover zone of risk at all times.
o Water based muds are used as a mud cap. The mud cap can be treated with 3 – 5% KCl and
starch to be inhibitive if necessary and also weighted to control any high pressure zone or
unstable shale.
 Prevention of losses:
1. Set the casing in the appropriate zone (intermediate casing).
2. Minimize downhole pressures (surge).
 Cont.
 Cont.
 Cont.
 Hole cleaning:
 Hole cleaning is utmost important for the success of any drilling operation.
 High drag, improper hole fill-up in trips, and increase in pressure when breaking circulation
can be indicator of poor hole cleaning.
 The results of ineffective hole cleaning vary from packing off to high equivalent circulation
density (ECD), hole fill, mud losses and kick.
 This problem is likely to occur in deviated wells, as the cuttings or/and weighting material
such as barite, tend to sag to the low side of the hole by the effect of gravity.
 Factors affecting hole cleaning:
• Mud weight and rheology parameters (yield point and gel strength).
• Hole angle and drill string eccentricity.
• Annular velocity (should be 120 ft./min to 200 ft./min in hole
Angeles >35º).
 Tools to achieve hole cleaning:
• Increase flow rate – Most effective.
• Increase mud density.
• Change in fluid rheological properties (Improve low shear
rheology in deviated wells).
• Increase DP rotation.
• Drilling fluid sweeps (<35° ‐ Use high viscosity; >35° ‐ High
density).
 Cont.
 The use of sweeps in hole cleaning:
 Best hole cleaning tool is flow rate/velocity.
 Sweeps are purely secondary tools, not primary tools.
 Tandem sweeps are NOT recommended when wellbore stability problems are expected.
 High viscosity for vertical / near‐vertical wells < 35º (yield point 30 lb./100 sqft).
 High density for high‐angle wells – Recommended 15 – 30 PCF above fluid density.
 DP rotation enhances sweep performance.
 If Back-reaming (pumping and rotating the drill string while POOH) is required, always
back-ream to at least a <35° section and circulate the hole clean.
 For deviated wells, a single bottoms up is never enough. Up to 2.5 times bottoms‐ up are
required to clean the well.
 Drilling fluid pilot
test

 Pilot test:
 Pilot testing of drilling fluids is testing performed on proportionately small-scale samples.
 Pilot testing minimizes the risk of sending a fluid downhole that may be incompatible with
the formations to be drilled or that may be ineffective under downhole conditions.
 Generally, pilot testing is concentrated on the physical properties such as rheology and fluid
loss; however, it is important that chemical properties also be evaluated.
 Pilot testing is thus based on the fact that 1 g/350 cu.cm of the sample is equivalent to 1
lb./bbl. (42 gal) of the actual mud system.
 Cont.
 Pilot test equipment:
 A balance that can weight from 0.1 to 300 g and an oven (preferably roller oven) that can
go to approximately 400°F are needed.
 Mud cells (three minimum) made of stainless steel to hold at least 300 cu.cm of mud at
1000 psi, a mixer such as a Hamilton Beach mixer are also needed.
 Mud testing equipment that is accurately calibrated, along with fresh reagents for
titrations are essential for pilot testing.