Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Clay Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/clay

Research paper

Genesis of the Eastern Iranian bentonite deposits T

a,⁎ a,b c d
Soroush Modabberi , Alireza Namayandeh , Massimo Setti , Alberto López-Galindo
a
School of Geology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Enghelab Square, P.O. Box 14155-6455, Tehran, Iran
b
Department of Geosciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
c
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e dell'Ambiente, Università degli Studi di Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
d
Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra (CSIC-Universidad de Granada), Avda. de las Palmeras, 4, 18100 Armilla, Granada, Spain

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Numerous bentonite deposits are located in Southern Khorasan (Eastern Iran), especially in Ferdows and Sarayan
Bentonite clay counties. We studied the genesis of these bentonites at seven deposits (Chah-Taleb, Chah-Keshmir, Chah-
Diagenetic alteration Golestan, Chah-Pirouz, Gholeh-Gelia, Kharman-Sar and Khal-Kooh) using petrological, mineralogical and geo-
Iranian bentonites chemical data (including X-ray diffraction and fluorescence, and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry)
Montmorillonite
from both bentonites and parent rock samples. The deposits mainly consist of Na-montmorillonite and opaline
Volcaniclastic rocks
Eastern Iran
silica, with lesser amounts of quartz, feldspars, carbonates, halite, zeolites, and illite. The studied deposits
formed in a volcanic arc setting and their magma series are calc-alkaline, except for the Kharman-Sar deposit,
which is tholeiitic in composition. The presence of significant amounts of opaline silica indicates a low fluid flow
rate in these systems, in spite of the high leaching of alkalis.
The strata-bound nature of the studied deposits, as well as the high amount of montmorillonite, the presence
of gypsum layers alternating with those of bentonite and the lack of hydrothermal alteration suggest that these
Iranian bentonite deposits were formed through diagenetic processes in lagoon environments, by means of the
alteration of intermediate to acidic precursors, trachy-andesite to rhyolite, belonging to two volcanic provinces:
one pyroclastic realm in Ferdows, and another volcaniclastic in Sarayan.

1. Introduction
The term bentonite is used for clayey material mainly composed of
smectite group phyllosilicates (Grim and Güven, 1978), which include
calcium and sodium montmorillonite, saponite, nontronite, hectorite,
and beidellite, among others (Murray, 2007).
Bentonites have numerous useful applications in industry as gel-
lants, binders and absorbents for two main reasons. Firstly, the rela-
tively high specific surface area and reactivity of phyllosilicates, in-
cluding the smectite group, make them some of the most important
minerals in controlling transport and distribution of contaminants and
nutrients in a natural environment (McBride, 1994; Pabalan and
Turner, 1996; Tournassat et al., 2003; Sparks, 2003; Sposito, 2008;
Robin et al., 2015; Namayandeh, 2018). Secondly, the rheological
properties, absorbing capacity, plasticity, high specific surface area,
CEC and swelling properties of the smectite group minerals in general,
and sodium montmorillonite in particular, mean they have many
practical applications in industry (Grim, 1962; Hartwell, 1965; Grim
and Güven, 1978; Patterson and Murray, 1983; Harben and Bates,
1984; Elzea and Murray, 1990; Cara et al., 2000; Allo and Murray,
2004; Abdel-Motelib et al., 2011; Carretero et al., 2014; Modabberi
et al., 2015).
Bentonite deposits are found in many countries, especially in USA,
Germany, Greece, Spain, Turkey and of course, Iran. The deposits of
economic interest are normally formed by the diagenetic or hydro-
thermal alteration of volcanic glass, or by sedimentary processes in salt
lakes and sabkha environments, where smectites can be associated with
sepiolite and/or palygorskite (Yildiz and Kuscu, 2004, 2007; Christidis
and Huff, 2009; Arslan et al., 2010; Karakaya et al., 2011; Agha et al.,
2013).
The diagenetic alteration of volcanic ash causes the formation of
bentonites after the reaction of the glass with pore waters shortly after
deposition and subsequent burial in sedimentary basins, and the re-
sulting smectites depend on the original Al and Mg contents and the
partial removal of some constituents, in particular alkalis and alkaline
earth elements. During alteration, silica polymorphs and zeolites may
also originate as alteration products (Hay and Guldman, 1987; Senkayi
et al., 1984; Mariner and Surdam, 1970; Taylor and Surdam, 1981;

Corresponding author.
⁎

E-mail addresses: modabberi@ut.ac.ir (S. Modabberi), anamayandeh@vt.edu (A. Namayandeh), massimo.setti@unipv.it (M. Setti),
alberto@iact.ugr-csic.es (A. López-Galindo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2018.10.011
Received 29 August 2018; Received in revised form 16 October 2018; Accepted 20 October 2018
0169-1317/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Modabberi et al.
Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the research area. a) group 1, b) group 2, c) group 3 and d) group 4 bentonite deposits.
Steefel and Van Cappellen, 1990; Christidis, 1998; Hora, 1998; Yildiz
and Kuscu, 2004, 2007; Karakaya et al., 2011).
Hydrothermal alteration is also an important process for bentonite
formation, and includes the deuteric alteration of pyroclastic rocks by
gases and vapors after emplacement (Grim and Güven, 1978; Christidis
and Huff, 2009). Hydrothermal bentonite deposits are described in
Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Greece, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Spain, and
Turkey (e.g. Christidis et al., 1995; Christidis, 1998; Terkado and
Fujitani, 1998; Celik et al., 1999; Yalcin and Gumuser, 2000; Lombardi
et al., 2003; Caballero et al., 2005; Ddani et al., 2005; Abdioglu and
Arslan, 2005; Yildiz and Dumlupinar, 2009; Karakaya et al., 2011).
Typical examples of well-known diagenetic bentonites are the deposits
in Wyoming, Montana and Texas in the USA, the Fuller's earths in
England and the bentonites in Bavaria, Germany (Christidis and Huff,
2009).
57
Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67
> 70 bentonite deposits have been discovered in Iran and are at
present in production. According to the internal reports of the Ministry
of Industry, Mines, and Trade of Iran and Hastorun et al. (2016), Iran is
the eighth leading producer of bentonite in the world with a 2.7% share
of production. Annual production is about 2 MT for all industrial clay
minerals, of which around 420,000 t are bentonite. The mines vary in
size from millions of tonnes to small-scale private mining operations.
Most of the products are consumed in the oil industry as drilling mud
and in purification processes. Recently, Modabberi et al. (2015) re-
searched the application of Iranian bentonites in the pharmaceutical
industry. However, no substantial research has been reported on Ir-
anian bentonites and only a few papers have been published.
Iranian bentonite deposits occur in six geological structural zones
(Hejazi and Ghorbani, 1994; Ghorbani, 2007; Modabberi et al., 2015):
1) Semnan - Toroud zone; 2) Alborz – Azarbaijan zone; 3) Eastern Iran
S. Modabberi et al.
Fig. 2. Generalized geological map of the Lut–Sistan region, in eastern Iran (with small modifications from Pang et al., 2013). The location of bentonite deposits in
Sarayan and Ferdows are shown by open boxes.
zone; 4) Central Iran zone; 5) Tafresh – Takab zone; and 6) Zagros zone.
In this research, we examined the bentonite deposits located in Eastern
Iran, close to Sarayan and Ferdows towns (South Khorasan province).
There are > 15 known bentonite mines in this area, most of which have
been active during the last decade. Some mines are not active now
because of their low reserves or quality. Seven mines were studied,
three located in Ferdows (Gholeh-Gelia, Kharman-Sar, and Khal-Kooh)
and four around Sarayan (Chah-Taleb, Chah-Keshmir, Chah-Golestan,
and Chah-Pirouz) (Fig. 1).
Our study considers the mode of genesis of the bentonite deposits in
South Khorasan through detailed field studies, and mineralogical and
geochemical analyses of bentonite samples and probable source rocks.
58
Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67
2. Geological setting and morphology of bentonite deposits
The study area is located in the Lut structural zone according to
Stöcklin (1968), where Tertiary magmatism, and especially Eocene-
Oligo-Miocene magmatism, is the most profound and widespread
magmatic activity in Iran, mainly manifested as volcanic rocks in most
structural zones of the country (Berberian and King, 1981). Camp and
Griffis (1982) described the tectonic setting and petrogenesis of the
igneous rocks in the Sistan Suture Zone. Recent papers published by
Pang et al. (2012 and 2013) described the geodynamic evolution of the
Lut-Sistan region in eastern Iran through detailed field and isotopic
studies. They showed Middle Eocene to Late Oligocene occurrence of
basaltic to rhyolitic volcanic and sub-volcanic rocks, mostly of calc-al-
kaline to high-K calc-alkaline affinity, along with minor intrusive
S. Modabberi et al.
Fig. 3. Representative picture of the morphology of bentonite alternating with
the parent rock.
bodies (Fig. 2). Tarabi et al. (2018) also described the petrogenesis of
volcanic rocks in Momen-Abad, located in the Sistan Suture zone, which
shows petrographical similarities to the study area.
The bentonite deposits occur in various volcanic series ranging in
composition from basalt to andesite, trachyandesite and rhyolite.
Deposits can be grouped by location and physical and chemical char-
acteristics: 1) Chah-Taleb (ST, 33°28′50.64″N, 58°33′1.26″E) and Chah-
Keshmir (SK, 33°29′24.45″N, 58°31′51.39″E); 2) Chah-Golestan (SG,
33°37′9.17″N, 58°31′40.93″E) and Chah-Pirouz (SP, 33°38′49.43″N,
58°31′24.23″E); 3) Gholeh-Gelia (FGH, 33°40′48.76″N, 58° 3′15.84″E)
and Kharman-Sar (FKH, 33°43′19.01″N, 58° 4′12.73″E); and 4) Khal-
Kooh (FKHS, 33°49′52.09″N, 58°10′54.68″E) (Figs. 1a–d).
The representative morphology of the bentonite alternating with the
parent rocks is shown in Fig. 3, and is more or less similar in all the
deposits studied. Group 1 deposits show strata-bound geometry within
Eocene volcanic rocks, and contain white-colored bentonites with 2 cm
thick, cross-cutting gypsum layers. The alteration of parent rocks is
more intense in the Chah-Taleb deposit, mainly expressed as calcifica-
tion and silicification with traces of Fe oxidation.
The Chah-Golestan deposit (Group 2) is the largest bentonite mine
in eastern Iran, where strata-bound outcrops with varied textures and
colors are observed. The color of bentonites gradually changes from
white to green, red, and pink in open pit faces. Due to the alteration by
Fe-bearing solutions, most quarry faces are red. Alteration of volcanic
rocks to bentonite is irregular and parent rock is extensively altered to
bentonite with a popcorn-like texture in some parts of the deposit.
However, the gradual alteration of parent rock to bentonite is obvious
at the Chah-Pirouz deposit, and the ore body has a strata-bound dis-
position with two horizons. The bentonite of the lower horizon is white
and the parent rock (60 cm thick) is located at the top of this horizon.
The upper bentonite horizon is predominantly green and overlies the
parent rock. Secondary gypsum veins (around 2 cm thick) and quartz
grains were observed in these bentonite horizons and in the parent
59
Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67
rock.
The Group 3 deposits are related to Lower Eocene volcanic rocks
and also have strata-bound geometry, but the parent rock presents a
volcanic breccia texture. In the Gholeh-Gelia deposit, the lower layer of
the bentonite horizon is white and shows a conchoidal fracture, and the
upper layer is mixed with volcanic tuff; also, quartz and biotite grains
are abundant. The bentonite color in the Kharman-Sar deposit is green
and the ore body has a network fabric.
Finally, at the Khal-Kooh deposit (Group 4) at least 3 bentonite
horizons with various colors are distinguished: light brown (lower
horizon), gray (middle horizon), and green (upper horizon). The parent
rock is at the top of the bentonite layers, with strata-bound depositional
geometry. The alteration of parent rock to bentonite is obvious and the
lack of red color shows that Fe oxidation has not played an important
role in this deposit.
3. Materials and methods
Twenty-two samples were collected along vertical profiles of the
bentonite quarry faces (15 bentonites, 7 parent rocks) where variations
in color, appearance or lithology are observed. Samples were recorded
using the initials of the deposit and the suffix “2” for the parent rock
samples.
The mineralogical analyses were carried out by X-ray powder dif-
fractometry (XRPD) on natural samples, following the standard treat-
ments for identification of clay minerals (ethylene-glycol saturation and
heating at 550 °C in oriented aggregates). The instrumentation and
settings used were: PW1800/10 Philips X-ray Diffractometer and X'Pert
High Score – v. 1.0b (Philips) software, Cu Kα radiation, graphite
monochromator, automatic divergence slit, 45Kv, 35 mA, scan interval
from 2° to 65° 2θ, and a scan speed of 0.02° 2θ/s. The results of the
XRPD analyses were compared with sample traces in the ICDD
(International Centre for Diffraction Data) database and with in-house
reference standards, to obtain a qualitative evaluation of the miner-
alogical composition of the samples. Semi-quantitative analyses were
done following Moore and Reynolds Jr. (1997), and the final contents
of the different mineral phases were calculated by combining XRPD and
chemical analytical data, following Torres-Ruiz et al. (1994) and López-
Galindo et al. (1996). The method by Hillier and Lumsdon (2008) was
used to distinguish opaline silica from cristobalite.
The micromorphology of smectite particles was examined by field
emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) using Zeiss
SUPRA40VP equipment with EDX Aztec microanalysis operating at 5 to
10 kV.
The elemental compositions of bulk samples were determined using
a commercial wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence instrument
(Bruker S4 Pioneer) equipped with an Rh anode X-ray tube (60 kV,
150 mA); three analyzer crystals (OVO-55, LiF 200 and PET) and a flow
proportional counter for light element detection and a scintillation
counter for heavy elements, in the same laboratory. Quantification was
carried out by the fundamental parameters method using software
linked to the equipment. Five grams of each powdered sample were
mixed with 0.5 g of a binder (Hoechst wax C micropowder) and
homogenized in an agate mortar. To obtain an XRF-pellet, a small
aluminium sample holder approximately 4 cm in diameter was used.
The pellets were pressed at 90 bars in a Nannetti hydraulic press for
30 s. To determine loss on ignition (LOI), samples were heated to 900 °C
for 1 h.
Trace and REE were determined by means of inductively coupled
plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) at AMDEL Ltd. (Bureau Veritas),
Australia.
S. Modabberi et al. Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67

Fig. 4. Photomicrographs of typical parent rocks. a) Porphyritic trachyte with coarse and fine-grained oriented plagioclase crystals (SK2) (Pl). b) Porphyritic trachyte
texture with large crystals of biotite (Bt) and plagioclase (Pl) (ST2). c) Ignimbritic texture surrounding plagioclase (Pl) (SG2). d) Ignimbritic texture. e) Volcanic glass
shards (VG) (SP2). f) Lithic fragments (Lit) (FKH2). g) Lithic fragments with fine-grained oriented plagioclases adhered to each other by calcific cement (FGH2). h)
Volcanic tuff with calcified volcanic glass (VG) and plagioclase (Pl) (FKHS2).

4. Results
4.1. Petrology of the parent rocks
The Group 1 samples (Chah-Taleb, ST2, and Chah-Keshmir, SK2)
have a trachytic porphyry texture with flowage plagioclase crystals,
which were larger at Chah-Taleb. Quartz, apatite and biotite were also
identified (Fig. 4a–b).
In Group 2, the samples taken from Chah-Golestan (SG2) consist
predominantly of volcanic glass shards and minerals including plagio-
clase, chalcedony, zeolite, apatite, and calcite. During volcanic activity,
the pyroclastic rocks formed an ignimbritic texture through flowage
(Fig. 4c–d). Similarly, shards are also observed in the Chah-Pirouz (SP2)
deposit, where 85% of the sample consisted of volcanic glass shards
(Fig. 4e). However, other minerals like plagioclase and calcite were not
observed.
The parent rocks found at the Ferdows deposits, especially those
belonging to Group 3 (Gholeh-Gelia, FGH2, and Kharman-Sar, FKH2)
were different from the Sarayan deposits. The predominant component
of these rocks is a lithic sandstone and no volcanic glass shards were
observed (Figs. 4f–g). Based on our field observations and the con-
siderations on volcanic activity, it is suggested that they are volcani-
clastic rocks forming a volcanic sandstone. The rocks also contain
quartz, biotite, plagioclase, and Fe-oxides. Calcification played an im-
portant role in these deposits acting to cement the various clastic
fragments.
Unlike the other deposits, the Khal-Kooh (FKHS2) parent rock
consists of volcanic glass shards and lithic sandstone (Fig. 4h).

60
S. Modabberi et al. Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67

Table 1
Mineralogical composition of South Khorasan bentonite samples.
Montmorillonite Illite Quartz Plagioclase K-Feldspar Cristobalite Mg-Calcite Dolomite Clinoptilolite Halite Hematite

Group 1 ST 71 – – – – 26 – – – 3 –
SK 65 – – – – 34 – – – 1 –
Group 2 SG-A 73 – 1 – – 25 1 – – – –
SG-B 56 – 3 – – 25 3 – 13 – –
SG-C 84 – 1 – – 5 6 – – 4 –
SG-D 53 – – 15 25 5 – – – 2 –
SG-E 79 – 1 15 – 5 – – – – –
SG-F 55 – 2 2 – 36 3 – – – 2
SG-G 57 – 2 – – 38 3 – – – –
SP 60 – – – – 39 – – – 1 –
Group 3 FGH 70 – 2 3 – 25 – – – – –
FKH 68 – 1 9 – 11 9 – 2 – –
Group 4 FKHS-1 61 – 4 8 – 23 – 1 2 1 –
FKHS-2 55 1 5 3 – 30 – 3 – 3 –
FKHS-3 56 4 1 3 – 32 – – – 4 –

Fig. 5. Representative XRD patterns of the bulk samples.

Fig. 6. Representative XRD patterns of the bentonites after treatment. AD: air-dried, EG: ethylene-glycolated, and H-550: heated at 550 °C.

However, because of its fine-grained texture, volcanic glass was not
observed as it was affected by silicification and calcification processes
and deposition of fine-grained iron-oxide minerals including goethite
and hematite.
Microscope observations showed the parent rocks to be a trachyte
porphyry in Chah-Taleb and Chah-Keshmir, a vitric tuff in Chah-Pirouz,
an ignimbritic tuff in Chah-Golestan, a volcanic sandstone in Gholeh-
Gelia and Kharman-Sar, and a lithic tuff in Khal-Kooh.
4.2. Mineralogy of bentonites
Table 1 summarizes the minerals identified in the bentonite sam-
ples. The main constituents include dioctahedral Na-montmorillonite,
opaline silica (opal-CT and opal-C), and feldspars (mainly plagioclase;
only one sample, SG-D, shows a noticeable amount of K-feldspar). Other
identified phases are quartz, Mg-calcite, dolomite, halite, clinoptilolite,
illite, and hematite, in quantities normally lower than 5% and not in all
samples. Group 1 samples are exclusively composed of smectites, opa-
line silica, and traces of halite.

61
S. Modabberi et al.
Fig. 7. Selected scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showing the micromorphology of representative bentonite samples (A: FGH; B and C: SK; and D: SP).
Montmorillonite contains various exchangeable cations with a dif-
ferent state of hydration giving rise to inter-sample variations in d001
values. Na-smectites display d001 ≈ 12.4Å, whereas samples with di-
valent interlayer cations such as Ca show d001 ≈ 15Å (Ferrage et al.,
2005). Ethylene glycol solvation increases the basal reflection to 17Å.
The d001 value in the studied samples ranges from 12.3 to 12.5 Å which
is expanded to 16.8–17 Å after saturation with ethylene glycol, and
subsequently collapsed to 9.43–9.97Å after heating at 550 °C for 1 h
(Figs. 5 and 6).
4.3. SEM observations
Bentonites were found to consist of pseudo-spherical aggregates of
very fine-grained particles, 2 to 20 μm in diameter (Fig. 7A). The ag-
gregation of the particles may be attributed to the presence of small
opal – CT balls (around 50 nm in diameter) which act as a cement
(Fig. 7B). Isolated quartz or feldspar crystals were scarce, so they may
be present in sub-micron size and indistinguishable from the clay par-
ticles.
The morphology of the individual smectite particles (up to 2 μm, but
normally < 1 μm in size) is characterized by flat-lying crystals, with
typical cornflake (Fig. 7C) and face-to-face type microtextures
(Fig. 7D). The honeycomb texture of the smectite was not observed,
probably due to the cementation or incipient burial diagenesis of the
sediment.
4.4. Geochemistry
Table 2 summarizes the major, trace and REE contents of the ana-
lyzed samples, including the parent rock of each deposit. In general
terms, SiO2 and K2O are depleted during alteration of the parent rocks
to bentonite, MgO contents increase, and Fe2O3 contents decrease in
Groups 1 and 3 and increase in Groups 2 and 4, and no trend was ob-
served in Al2O3 or Na2O contents.
Because major elements, including SiO2 and some alkalis, were
mobilized during the alteration processes of the parent rocks to ben-
tonites, immobile element contents can be used as indicators to in-
vestigate the initial composition of the source magma from which the
62
Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67
bentonites were derived (Karakaya et al., 2011). The Zr/TiO2 vs Nb/Y
ratio (Winchester and Floyd, 1977) was used, although we acknowl-
edge ongoing uncertainty about the mobility or immobility of Zr and Ti
(Pearce and Cann, 1973; Finlow-Bates and Stumpfl, 1981).
As shown in Fig. 8, the volcanic rocks are rhyolitic, rhyodacitic-
dacitic, and andesitic to trachy-andesite in composition. We therefore
concluded that the initial compositions of the parent rock of each
bentonite group were as follows: Group 1: trachy-andesitic in Chah-
Keshmir and trachytic to trachy-andesitic in Chah-Taleb; Group 2:
rhyolitic to rhyodacitic; Group 3: trachy-andesite in Kharman-Sar and
rhyodacitic-dacitic in Gholeh-Gelia; and Group 4: rhyodacitic-dacitic.
The REE contents (Fig. 9) also confirm the acidic to intermediate
compositions of the initial magma.
Ta vs Yb and Tb vs Nb diagrams (Pearce et al., 1984) were used to
determine the tectonic setting of the host rocks to be either a volcanic
arc (Fig. 10a) or a volcanic arc/syn-collision (Fig. 10b), suggesting that
the bentonites were formed in a subduction zone environment.
SiO2 vs Na2O + K2O and AFM (Irvine and Baragar, 1971) diagrams
were used to determine the magmatic series. As Fig. 11a shows, most of
the samples fall in the sub-alkaline field, and Fig. 11b distinguishes the
calc-alkaline from tholeiitic samples. Winchester and Floyd (1977)
suggested that acidic to intermediate magmas have a calc-alkaline
nature, but some of the studied samples (especially parent rocks), which
contain lesser amounts of alkalis and higher contents of CaO and Fe, fall
in the tholeiitic field. These variations may be attributed to differences
in the composition of the parent rocks, and subsequent leaching of al-
kali elements during alteration. On the other hand, Pang et al. (2012
and 2013) and Tarabi et al. (2018) showed that the volcanic rocks were
produced in a subduction zone setting with calc-alkaline affinity.
5. Discussion
During the Eocene, the study area was largely affected by volcanic
activity (Aghanabati, 2004). The textures observed in the parent rocks,
as well as the mineralogy and chemistry of the bentonites, suggest that
during and/or after deposition, parent rocks were affected by sedi-
mentary-diagenetic processes.
The style of volcanic eruptions was not identical in all the deposits
 Table 2
Chemical composition of the studied samples.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
S. Modabberi et al.

ST ST2 SK SK2 SG-A SG-B SG-C SG-D SG-E SG-F SG-G SG2 SP SP2 FGH FGH2 FKH FKH2 FKHS-A FKHS-B FKHS-C FKHS2

Major Oxides (%)

SiO2 60.44 66.43 68.22 64.98 63.81 65.09 48.14 62.56 60.06 69.44 70.40 73.51 70.36 71.33 65.15 70.11 51.26 54.10 63.72 65.59 67.30 72.41
Al2O3 10.78 14.46 11.27 17.10 11.76 12.10 15.56 19.38 20.18 13.18 13.86 13.80 9.75 11.64 12.48 12.11 13.81 15.80 15.60 14.86 14.15 12.79
Fe2O3 1.20 4.88 1.38 3.47 3.10 1.84 4.09 1.95 4.24 3.25 2.91 0.79 1.68 0.72 2.55 5.02 4.77 9.71 5.16 3.33 3.22 1.09
MgO 1.82 0.31 1.90 0.36 1.75 2.08 2.29 1.24 3.84 2.88 2.83 0.12 1.46 0.31 1.98 0.76 3.01 4.31 3.11 3.40 3.08 0.23
CaO 0.64 3.50 0.37 2.61 0.92 2.61 3.58 1.30 0.89 2.05 1.77 1.85 0.48 1.22 0.60 2.49 6.07 2.24 1.20 1.66 1.12 0.88
Na2O 4.60 3.40 2.36 3.21 2.90 1.95 6.06 4.36 4.36 2.40 2.33 3.16 2.86 5.04 2.71 0.99 2.83 3.79 3.26 3.27 3.37 2.19
K2 O 0.13 3.11 0.12 6.46 0.09 0.41 0.33 5.03 0.09 0.14 0.17 5.12 0.16 1.26 0.46 2.33 0.92 1.76 1.18 0.75 0.71 7.20
TiO2 0.01 0.79 0.01 0.39 0.19 0.29 0.34 0.40 0.45 0.24 0.24 0.28 0.16 0.25 0.29 0.55 0.86 1.06 0.68 0.51 0.48 0.40
P2O5 0.02 0.15 0.03 0.21 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.26 0.36 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.16
MnO 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.13 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.01
LOI 18.50 2.37 13.50 1.02 14.60 13.10 17.80 3.34 6.91 6.20 5.74 1.13 11.80 7.84 12.80 5.34 15.70 6.46 5.79 6.33 6.26 1.85

Trace Elements (ppm)

As 3.5 48.0 3.9 29.1 3.9 7.5 3.4 5.8 1.1 15.9 8.1 4.6 7.4 4.0 1.8 11.0 3.5 2.2 4.5 5.4 2.7 5.3
Ba 388 378 258 495 791 578 19.4 502 16.9 417 13.1 468 744 1600 320 431 469 39.4 231 339 490 463
Be 6.4 2.9 4.5 5.7 1.9 2.8 2.6 3.4 1.4 1.8 3.9 2.2 2.3 1.5 2.1 2.2 1.6 1.7 2.6 1.6 1.8 0.9
Cd 0.07 0.16 0.05 0.18 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.27 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.14 0.08 0.05 0.08 < 0.05
Co 3.9 11.3 0.7 1.9 3.2 3.5 72.0 16.1 13.3 3.0 5.3 0.9 0.4 1.2 4.8 8.1 15.2 46.6 10.4 8.3 8.1 11.3
Cr 2 4 2 4 2 7 2 2 2 4 2 3 2 <2 10 40 44 94 34 14 10 15
Cs 4.3 4.5 4.8 6.2 5.8 11.8 2.7 2.1 2.1 6.1 5.4 2.6 3.4 8.0 7.6 23.0 8.3 2.2 17.5 16.9 13.7 1.6
Cu 6 20 5 12 12 8 9 34 25 4 16 15 2 16 5 17 24 48 21 21 9 20
Ga 21.3 17.2 19.0 22.6 14.5 14.5 19.6 23.2 22.3 15.0 16.0 14.8 13.1 12.4 16.4 14.1 16.5 15.9 16.4 15.3 14.4 11.5
Ge 0.85 1.47 0.63 1.11 1.03 0.87 1.19 0.93 1.30 1.05 0.94 1.25 0.69 0.70 1.01 1.60 1.57 1.48 1.62 1.17 1.13 1.47

63
Hf 3.38 8.26 2.93 10.60 6.53 4.59 8.60 8.53 9.30 6.74 7.49 8.49 4.97 5.71 5.51 3.78 4.97 6.09 3.89 4.42 4.20 3.78
Hg 0.05 < 0.05 0.05 11.70 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 < 0.05 0.05 < 0.05 0.05 16.60 0.06 < 0.05 0.05 0.50 0.50 < 0.05
In 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.02
Li < 0.5 29 < 0.5 45.9 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 40.9 < 0.5 34.8 < 0.5 28 < 0.5 156 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 29.7
Mo 0.5 1.3 3.9 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.4 2.4 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.9 2.6 1.2 1.1 2.4 1.2 0.9 1.3
Nb 17.1 17.0 13.5 35.8 17.6 18.2 23.3 30.0 29.5 19.2 20.5 19.8 19.4 16.5 17.3 11.6 15.6 14.1 14.0 14.1 14.5 11.3
Ni < 0.2 10 < 0.2 3 6 5 7 8 5 6 8 3 < 0.2 4 8 18 41 139 17 11 19 10
Pb 40.3 10.1 13.7 63.5 4.4 11.9 4.7 46.9 12 4.7 7.7 53.2 21.4 11.9 18.7 21.6 13.3 11.7 18.3 13.4 10.8 4.1
Rb 10 106 15 152 13 38 22 120 4 17 20 174 27 116 34 122 45 22 77 58 57 197
Re 0.01 < 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.01 < 0.01
Sb 0.2 0.5 0.2 2.3 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.4 < 0.1 1.1 0.4 0.3 0.2
Sc 4 10 3 10 6 8 10 10 10 6 7 6 7 7 6 9 11 9 11 8 7 2
Se 0.17 0.30 0.14 0.40 0.15 0.19 0.36 0.32 0.16 0.10 0.26 0.15 0.21 < 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.13 0.56 0.35 4.13 0.19 0.45
Sn 7.7 2.5 6.7 4.4 4.5 3.4 4.4 5.4 5 4.6 5 2.6 3.6 2.7 4 2.1 2.1 1.3 2.3 2.2 2.8 1.6
Sr 44 426 57 223 146 231 94 184 137 154 56 135 100 618 120 329 116 114 164 149 181 610
Ta 0.13 1.22 0.12 1.78 0.47 0.4 2.26 0.28 2.58 0.16 0.15 1.73 0.26 1.47 0.11 0.99 0.13 1.06 0.12 0.11 0.1 0.99
Te < 0.2 < 0.02 < 0.2 < 0.02 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.02 < 0.2 < 0.02 < 0.2 < 0.02 < 0.2 < 0.02 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.02
Th 12.8 7.29 9.95 16.6 22.5 21 21.8 23.2 26.2 23.7 24.6 16.8 21.1 18 20.4 10 10.8 3.82 12.2 16.2 16.2 12.7
Tl < 0.1 0.5 0.1 1.2 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.1 0.7 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.8 < 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.6
U 1.9 1.2 1.3 20.8 4.0 6.4 5.3 0.7 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 3.1 2.3 3.9 4.7 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.7 3.8 3.8 1.6
V 2 29 77 45.9 8 23 14 19 15 7 7 40.9 7 34.8 20 28 164 50 95 48 43 22
Y 16.1 23.9 19.9 40.2 31.3 35.4 53.7 60.4 37.8 35.7 33.9 39.7 26.5 37.4 38.1 17.0.2 20.9 14.5 21.5 23.1 23.6 16.8
Zn 80 79 58 60 76 54 102 67 147 83 111 52 188 80 61 81 68 76 58 56 56 49
Zr 79 257 70 342 194 153 333 343 303 211 231 221 152 122 185 107 206 183 138 138 140 96

Rare Earth Elements (ppm)

La 17.50 29.00 15.80 45.90 39.30 38.50 51.20 52.00 59.60 43.90 44.90 40.90 34.80 8.34 43.00 28.00 25.00 22.20 25.80 31.10 29.60 24.80
Ce 40.00 56.40 34.00 83.10 74.90 70.30 90.00 102.00 111.00 83.30 83.40 76.60 67.30 67.50 77.60 53.60 48.10 6.46 49.10 57.70 54.90 43.30
Pr 4.58 6.8 4.19 9.53 8.75 8.56 11.3 11.8 13.7 9.8 9.99 9.11 7.75 7.59 8.68 6.29 5.8 5.64 5.91 6.73 6.35 5.04
(continued on next page)
Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67
S. Modabberi et al. Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67

FKHS2

19.00

0.31
1.54
0.38
3.62
0.88
3.56
0.56
2.98
0.64
1.72
FKHS-C

24.60

2.33
0.21
2.01
0.15
4.59
0.89
4.25
0.64
3.78
0.79
FKHS-B

25.60
4.68
0.95
4.33
0.67
3.89
0.83
2.34
0.23
2.28
0.19
Group 4

FKHS-A

23.30
4.42
1.05
4.28
0.67
3.72
0.76
2.10
0.19
1.75
0.11
23.00
FKH2

1.67
0.28
1.44
0.36
4.35
1.17
3.59
0.63
3.25
0.67
23.40

0.10
4.59
1.10
4.36
0.66
3.91
0.79
2.32
0.22
1.98
FKH
FGH2

23.50

2.01
0.32
4.28
0.99
3.97
0.57
3.31
0.64
1.83
0.35
Group 3

Fig. 8. Plot of bentonite and parent rock samples on Zr/TiO2 vs Nb/Y diagram
32.50
FGH

0.40
3.99
0.21
5.93
0.77
5.84
1.00
6.05
1.29
4.14

for determining the initial magma composition (Winchester and Floyd, 1977).
29.20

4.15
0.73
5.58
1.20
5.70
0.94
5.70
1.36
3.92
0.73
SP2

29.40

0.44
5.74
0.71
5.29
0.85
4.83
0.98
3.92
0.28
2.78
SP

34.80
6.38
1.27
5.82
1.03
5.94
1.43
4.17
0.77
4.31
0.74
SG2

38.10
SG-G

7.03
0.86
6.61
1.04
5.86
1.22
3.46
0.33
3.03
0.39
37.00
SG-F

0.35
3.39
0.58
6.26
0.83
6.33
1.02
5.88
1.23
3.56
52.20
10.10
SG-E

1.74
9.28
1.44
7.65
1.41
3.95
0.37
3.39
0.58

Fig. 9. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for the analyzed samples (normal-

46.20
SG-D

ization values from Boynton, 1984).

9.00
1.62
9.09
1.48
9.17
1.98
5.69
0.56
5.18
0.56

examined. The Sarayan bentonites probably derived from pyroclastic

43.50
SG-C

8.30
1.50
8.18
1.35
8.51
1.87
5.56
0.57
5.58
0.54

flow, and those of the Ferdows deposits from volcaniclastic rocks.

Alteration processes affecting the volcano-sedimentary succession had
33.10

the strongest influence towards the west, meaning that the Sarayan
SG-B

3.49
0.34
3.24
0.48
6.23
0.93
6.02
0.99
5.58
1.20

bentonites were weakly influenced, whereas in the Ferdows deposits

(especially those of Gholeh-Gelia and Kharman-Sar) were more highly
Group 2

32.60
SG-A

altered, with few signs of volcanic glass shards. The presence of lithic
0.31
2.95
0.45
6.08
0.72
5.48
0.87
5.10
1.09
3.22

grains indicates that parent rocks were reworked after deposition and
during the diagenetic stage.
36.60

Bentonites form from a wide range of acidic to intermediate rocks.

4.12
0.72
7.37
1.76
7.11
1.26
7.13
1.54
4.09
0.72
SK2

Grim and Güven (1978) state that trachy-andesites are the most suitable
rocks for bentonite formation, but other authors also describe rhyolite
16.40
4.16
0.37
4.32
0.72
3.87
0.65
1.25
0.12
1.07
0.40

as the parent rock of bentonite deposits (Christidis, 1998; Berry, 1999;

SK

Ddani et al., 2005; Christidis and Huff, 2009). The parent rocks of Chah-
Taleb, Chah-Keshmir and Kharman-Sar bentonites are almost all trachy-
27.30
5.23
1.44
4.83
0.80
4.43
0.93
2.41
0.41
2.11
0.36
ST2

andesites, whereas the bentonites found at Chah-Golestan and Chah-

Table 2 (continued)

Pirouz were formed from rhyolitic parent rocks. Because of the high
Group 1

17.00

SiO2 to Al2O3 ratios and alkali contents, acidic rocks favor the gen-
4.23
0.39
3.94
0.63
3.41
0.54
1.54
0.11
0.89
0.14
ST

eration of opaline silica and zeolites like heulandite or mordenite

(Christidis and Huff, 2009).
The abundance of smectite found at the various deposits formed
Tm
Sm

Ho
Nd

Gd

Dy

Yb
Tb
Eu

Lu
Er

64
S. Modabberi et al.
Fig. 10. Bentonites and parent rocks plotted on Ta vs Yb (a) and Nb vs Y (b) diagrams (Pearce et al., 1984). ORG = Ocean ridge granites, VAG = volcanic arc
granites, syn-COLG = syn-collision granites, WPG = within plate granites.
Fig. 11. a) SiO2 vs Na2O + K2O, and b) AFM diagrams for determining magma series (Irvine and Baragar, 1971).
during the diagenetic alteration of volcanic glass shards can be ex-
plained by the behavior of alkalis and Si during alteration. Alkalis and
alkaline earth elements were released after initial hydration and cation
exchanges between the fluid phase and the volcanic glass shards (White
and Claassen, 1980; White, 1983; Shiraki and Iijama, 1990; Christidis
et al., 1995; Yildiz and Kuscu, 2004), and pH and salinity increased if
the system remained properly closed (Hay and Guldman, 1987;
Christidis et al., 1995; Yildiz and Kuscu, 2004). In such conditions, the
(Na+ + K+)/H+ ratio is high, and zeolites can form instead of smec-
tites. Zeolites were not found, except for low amounts in three samples.
Fluid flow rate also controls the amount of available Si. At higher
flow rates, the precipitation of free SiO2 decreases, accumulating in the
fluid phase and leaching out from the open system (Daux et al., 1997;
Christidis and Huff, 2009). The increase of the fluid flow rate can be
sustained by the alteration of hot and permeable pyroclastic flow,
causing water circulation and convective flow. Therefore, at the onset
of alteration, the temperature gradient reaches a maximum, as does the
fluid flow rate, and it would probably be able to leach the Si out of the
system (Christidis and Huff, 2009). Although zeolite minerals were not
observed in most of the studied samples, important amounts of opaline
silica were found, indicating that SiO2 was not efficiently leached out of
the system. This fact may be related to the temperature gradient that
can vary between 350 and 850 °C during eruptions (Fisher and
Schmincke, 1984; Cas and Wright, 1988; Christidis et al., 1995).
65
Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67
However, the petrographical study of the samples, together with the
absence of minerals like authigenic K-feldspars, indicate that bentonite
deposits probably formed at high temperature.
Accordingly, a significant amount of opaline silica among samples
shows that the leaching process was not completed, whereas according
to the evidence above, a temperature gradient was high enough to bring
about the flow rate needed for leaching opaline silica. Hence, we con-
clude that the other agent, fluid flow volume, could be responsible for
low water/rock ratios, rather than the temperature gradient. Therefore,
a submarine environment is not likely as the sedimentary environment
for formation of these deposits, since the fluid flow was low. On the
other hand, the presence of gypsum levels and thin stratiform layers in
some of the bentonite deposits suggests that Iranian bentonite deposits
with high opaline silica contents were probably formed in a shallow,
restricted, aqueous environment, such as a lagoon, rather than an open
submarine environment. Since significant amounts of zeolites were not
observed, we suggest that leaching of alkali elements and a Mg2+/H+
ratio high enough to destabilize the plagioclase structure were more
influential than SiO2 concentration, thus creating the adequate pH
(around 8) to generate smectites through volcanic glass alteration
(Senkayi et al., 1984; Christidis et al., 1995; Christidis, 1998; Christidis
and Huff, 2009).
At Gholeh-Gelia and Kharman-Sar deposits, where volcanic sand-
stones are the parent rocks, and no shards are present, smectite could
S. Modabberi et al.
have formed through alteration of plagioclase, with the required Mg
probably taken from the fluid phase in lagoons (Christidis, 2006).
Finally, and due to the heterogeneity of the microenvironment,
which included various types of volcanic eruptions, parent rocks, and
water/rock ratios during alteration, the physical properties and/or
chemical composition of bentonites can change considerably even
within a single deposit (Odom, 1984; Christidis, 2006; Christidis and
Huff, 2009). This is the case at the Chah-Golestan deposit, where the
proportion of the main mineral phases is different for each individual
quarry face.
6. Conclusions
Eastern Iranian bentonite deposits were formed through the al-
teration of intermediate to acidic precursors, trachy-andesite to rhyo-
lite, belonging to two volcanic provinces: a pyroclastic realm at
Ferdows, and a volcaniclastic realm at Sarayan. The amount of pyr-
oclastic activity increased towards the west.
All the studied bentonite deposits are strata-bound in nature, and
the Ferdows bentonites were more influenced by sedimentary pro-
cesses.
The main mineral phase in all samples is Na-montmorillonite.
Significant amounts of opaline silica are also present, but zeolites are
almost absent.
These deposits were formed in a volcanic arc setting and their
magma series are calc-alkaline, except for the Kharman-Sar deposit,
which is tholeiitic in composition.
The bentonite deposits were formed in an environment with a high
temperature gradient but low fluid flow, causing low water/rock ratios.
This condition produced strata-bound bentonites in a lagoon-type
shallow marine environment through the alteration of shards and pla-
gioclases from volcanoclastic-pyroclastic parent rocks.
Acknowledgements
This research was partly funded by the Iran National Science
Foundation (contract no. 90004849), Spanish Group CTS-946 (Junta de
Andalucia) and MINECO project CGL2016-80833-R. We also acknowl-
edge the School of Geology of the University of Tehran for sample
preparation and some geochemical tests.
References
Abdel-Motelib, A., Kader, Z.A., Ragab, Y.A., Mosalamy, M., 2011. Suitability of a Miocene
bentonite from North Western Desert of Egypt for pharmaceutical use. Appl. Clay Sci.
52 (1–2), 140–144.
Abdioglu, E., Arslan, M., 2005. Mineralogy, geochemistry and genesis of bentonites of the
Ordu area, NE Turkey. Clay Miner. 40, 131–151.
Agha, M., Ferrell, R.E., Hart, G.F., Abu El Ghar, M.S., Abdel-Motelib, A., 2013. Mineralogy
of Egyptian bentonitic clays II: geologic origin. Clay Clay Miner. 61, 551–565.
Aghanabati, A., 2004. Geology of Iran. Geological survey of Iran publication, Tehran (in
Persian).
Allo, W.A., Murray, H.H., 2004. Mineralogy, chemistry and potential applications of a
white bentonite in San Juan province, Argentina. Appl. Clay Sci. 25 (3–4), 237–243.
̇ ̇ S., 2010. Mineralogy, geochemistry, and origin of ben-
Arslan, M., Abdioğlu, E., Kadir,
tonite in Upper Cretaceous pyroclastic units of the Tirebolu area, Giresun, Northeast
Turkey. Clay Clay Miner. 58, 120–141.
Berberian, M., King, G.C.P., 1981. Towards a paleogeography and tectonic evolution of
Iran. Can. J. Earth Sci. 18 (2), 210–265.
Berry, R.W., 1999. Eocene and Oligocene Otay-type waxy bentonites of San Diego County
and Baja California: Chemistry, mineralogy, petrology and plate tectonic implica-
tions. Clays Clay Min. 47, 70–83.
Boynton, W.V., 1984. Geochemistry of rare earth elements: meteorite studies. In:
Henderson, P. (Ed.), Rare Earth Element Geochemistry. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp.
63–114.
Caballero, E., Jimanez De Cisneros, C., Huertas, F.J., Huertas, F., Pozzuoli, A., Linares, J.,
2005. Bentonites from Cabo de Gata, Almeria, Spain: a mineralogical and geo-
chemical overview. Clay Miner. 40, 463–480.
Camp, V.E., Griffis, R.J., 1982. Character, genesis and tectonic setting of igneous rocks in
the Sistan suture zone, eastern Iran. Lithos 15 (3), 221–239.
Cara, S., Carcangiu, G., Padalino, G., Palomba, M., Tamanini, M., 2000. The bentonites in
pelotherapy: thermal properties of clay pastes from Sardinia (Italy). Appl. Clay Sci. 16
66
Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67
(1-2), 125–132.
Carretero, M.I., Pozo, M., Legido, J.L., Fernández-González, M.V., Delgado, R., Gómez, I.,
Armijo, F., Maraver, F., 2014. Assessment of three Spanish clays for their use in
pelotherapy. Appl. Clay Sci. 99, 131–143.
Cas, R.A.F., Wright, J.V., 1988. Volcanic Successions: Modern and Ancient. A Geological
Approach to Processes, Products and Successions, 2nd ed. Unwin Hyman, London.
Celik, M., Karakaya, N., Temel, A., 1999. Clay minerals in hydrothermally altered vol-
canic rocks, eastern Pontides, Turkey. Clay Clay Miner. 47, 708–717.
Christidis, G.E., 1998. Comparative study of the mobility of major and trace elements
during alteration of an andesitic and a rhyolitic rock to bentonite in the islands of
Milts and Kimolos, Aegean, Greece. Clay Clay Miner. 46, 379–399.
Christidis, G.E., 2006. Genesis and compositional heterogeneity of smectites. Part III:
alteration of basic pyroclastic rocks a case study from the Troodos Ophiolite complex,
Cyprus. Am. Mineral. 91, 685–701.
Christidis, G.E., Huff, W.D., 2009. Geologic aspects and genesis of bentonites. Elements 5,
93–98.
Christidis, G.E., Scott, P., Marcopolos, T., 1995. Origin of the bentonite deposits of
Eastern Milos, Aegean, Greece: geological, mineralogical and geochemical evidence.
Clay Clay Miner. 43 (1), 63–77.
Daux, V., Guy, C., Advocat, T., Crovisier, J., Stille, P., 1997. Kinetic aspects of basaltic
glass dissolution at 90°C: role of aqueous silicon and aluminum. Chem. Geol. 142,
109–126.
Ddani, M., Meunier, A., Zahraoui, M., Beaufort, D., El Wartiti, M., Fontaine, C., Boukili,
B., El Mahi, B., 2005. Clay mineralogy and chemical composition of bentonites from
the Gourougou volcanic massif (northeast Morocco). Clay Clay Miner. 53, 250–267.
Elzea, J., Murray, H.H., 1990. Variation in the mineralogical, chemical and physical
properties of the cretaceous clay spur bentonite in Wyoming and Montana. Appl. Clay
Sci. 5, 229–248.
Ferrage, E., Lanson, B., Sakharov, B.A., Drits, V.A., 2005. Investigation of smectite hy-
dration properties by modeling of X-ray diffraction profiles. Part 1. Montmorillonite
hydration properties. Am. Mineral. 90, 1358–1374.
Finlow-Bates, T., Stumpfl, E.F., 1981. The behaviour of so-called immobile elements in
hydrothermally altered rocks associated with volcanogenic submarine-exhalative ore
deposits. Mineral. Deposita 16, 319–328.
Fisher, R.V., Schmincke, H.U., 1984. Pyroclastic Rocks. Springer Verlag, Berlin (472 p).
Ghorbani, M., 2007. The Economic Geology of Iran: Mineral Deposits and Natural
Resources. Springer (572 p).
Grim, R.E., 1962. Applied Clay Mineralogy. International Series in Earth Sciences.
McGraw-Hill Book Co, New York (422 p).
Grim, R.E., Güven, N., 1978. Bentonites: geology, mineralogy, properties and uses. Dev.
Sedimentol. 24, 13–160. https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/developments-
in-sedimentology/vol/24 (Elsevier, 256 p).
Harben, P.W., Bates, R.L., 1984. Geology of the Nonmetallic. Metal Bulletin Inc, New York
(392 p).
Hartwell, J.M., 1965. The diverse uses of montmorillonite. Clay Miner. 6, 111–118.
Hastorun, S., Renaud, K.M., Lederer, G.W., 2016. Recent trends in the nonfuel minerals
industry of Iran: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1421. 18 p. https://doi.org/10.
3133/cir1421. (Accessed 10 October, 2018).
Hay, R.L., Guldman, S.G., 1987. Diagenetic alteration of silicic ash in Searles Lake,
California. Clays Clay Min. 35, 449–457.
Hejazi, M., Ghorbani, M., 1994. Bentonite – Zeolite. Geological Survey of Iran Publication.
Tehran. (in Persian).
Hillier, S., Lumsdon, D.G., 2008. Distinguishing opaline silica from cristobalite in ben-
tonites: a practical procedure and perspective based on NaOH dissolution. Clay
Miner. 43, 477–486.
Hora, Z.D., 1998. Bentonite. Geological Fieldwork 1997. pp. 24C1-24C3. British
Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment Paper 1998-1.
Irvine, T.N., Baragar, W.R.A., 1971. A guide to the chemical classification of the common
volcanic rocks. Can. J. Earth Sci. 8, 523–548.
Karakaya, M.C., Karakaya, N., Kupeli, S., 2011. Mineralogical and geochemical properties
of the Na – and Ca- bentonite of Ordu (NE Turkey). Clay Clay Miner. 59, 75–94.
Lombardi, B., Baschini, M., Torres Sanchez, R.M., 2003. Bentonite deposits of Northern
Patagonia. Appl. Clay Sci. 22, 309–312.
López-Galindo, A., Torres-Ruiz, J., González-López, J.M., 1996. Mineral quantification in
sepiolite–palygorskite deposits using X-ray diffraction and chemical data. Clay Miner.
31, 224–271.
Mariner, R.H., Surdam, R.A., 1970. Alkalinity and formation of zeolites in saline alkaline
lakes. Science 170, 977–980.
McBride, M.B., 1994. Environmental Chemistry of Soils. Oxford University Press, New
York, pp. 1994.
Modabberi, S., Namayandeh, A., López-Galindo, A., Viseras, C., Setti, M., Ranjbaran, M.,
2015. Characterization of Iranian bentonites to be used as pharmaceutical materials.
Appl. Clay Sci. 116, 193–201.
Moore, D.M., Reynolds, R.C. Jr., 1997. X-Ray Diffraction and the Identification and
Analysis of Clay Minerals, 2nd ed. vol. xviii. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New
York, (378 p).
Murray, H.H., 2007. Applied clay mineralogy occurrences, processing and application of
kaolins, bentonites, palygorskite, and common clays. In: Developments in Clay
Science, 2. Elsevier, Amsterdam (188p).
Namayandeh, A., 2018. The Energetics and Reversibility of Oxyanions Adsorption/Desorption
on Pure and Aluminium-Substituted Ferrihydrite: ScholarWorks @ Georgia State
University.
Odom, I.E., 1984. Smectite clay minerals: properties and uses. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
A311, 391–409.
Pabalan, R.T., Turner, D.R., 1996. Uranium (6+) sorption on montmorillonite:
Experimental and surface complexation modeling study. Aquat. Geochem. 2 (3),
S. Modabberi et al.
203–226.
Pang, K.N., Chung, S.L., Zarrinkoub, M.H., Mohammadi, S.S., Yang, H.M., Chu, C.H., Lee,
H.Y., Lo, C.H., 2012. Age, geochemical characteristics and petrogenesis of Late
Cenozoic intraplate alkali basalts in the Lut–Sistan region, eastern Iran. Chem. Geol.
306, 40–53.
Pang, K.N., Chung, S.L., Zarrinkoub, M.H., Khatib, M.M., Mohammadi, S.S., Chiu, H.Y.,
Lo, C.H., 2013. Eocene–Oligocene post-collisional magmatism in the Lut–Sistan re-
gion, eastern Iran: magma genesis and tectonic implications. Lithos 180, 234–251.
Patterson, S.H., Murray, H.H., 1983. Clays. In: Lefond, S.J. (Ed.), Industrial Minerals and
Rocks. Mining Engineers, pp. 519–585 New York.
Pearce, J.A., Cann, J.R., 1973. Tectonic setting of basic volcanic rocks determined using
trace element analyses. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 19, 290–300.
Pearce, J.A., Harris, N.B.W., Tindle, A.G., 1984. Trace element discrimination diagrams
for the tectonic interpretation of granitic rocks. J. Petrol. 25, 956–983.
Robin, V., Tertre, E., Beaufort, D., Regnault, O., Sardini, P., Descostes, M., 2015. Ion
exchange reactions of major inorganic cations (H+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+) on
beidellite: Experimental results and new thermodynamic database. Toward a better
prediction of contaminant mobility in natural environments. Appl. Geochem. 59,
74–84.
Senkayi, A.L., Dixon, J.B., Hossner, L.R., Abder- Ruhman, M., Fanning, D.S., 1984.
Mineralogy and genetic relationships of tonstein, bentonite, and lignite strata in the
Eocene Yegua Formation of east central. Clay Clay Miner. 32 (4), 259–271.
Shiraki, R., Iijama, T., 1990. NaK ion exchange reaction between rhyolitic glass and (Na,
K) Cl aqueous solution under hydrothermal conditions. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
54, 2923–2931.
Sparks, D.L., 2003. Environmental Soil Chemistry, 2nd ed. Elsevier.
Sposito, G., 2008. The Chemistry of Soils, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press.
Steefel, C.L., Van Cappellen, P., 1990. A new kinetic approach to modeling water-rock
interaction: the role of nucleation, precursors and Ostwald ripening. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 54, 2657–2677.
Stöcklin, J., 1968. Structural History and Tectonics of Iran: A Review. vol. 52. American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, pp. 1229–1258.
67
Applied Clay Science 168 (2019) 56–67
Tarabi, S., Modabberi, S., Emami, M.H., Sheykh Zakariaee, S.J., 2018. Volcanic units of
Momen Abad, East of Iran: Petrogenesis and magmatic evolution. Iran. J. Earth Sci (in
press).
Taylor, M.W., Surdam, R.C., 1981. Zeolite reactions in the tuffaceous sediments at Tells
Marsh, Nevada. Clay Clay Miner. 29, 341–352.
Terkado, Y., Fujitani, T., 1998. Behavior of rare earth elements and other trace elements
during interactions between acidic hydrothermal solutions and silicic volcanic rocks,
southwestern Japan. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 62, 1903–1917.
Torres-Ruiz, J., López-Galindo, A., González, M., Delgado, A., 1994. Geochemistry of
Spanish sepiolite-palygorskite deposits: genetic considerations based on trace ele-
ments and isotopes. Chem. Geol. 112, 221–245.
Tournassat, C., Neaman, A., Villiéras, F.d.r., Bosbach, D., Charlet, L., 2003.
Nanomorphology of montmorillonite particles: Estimation of the clay edge sorption
site density by low-pressure gas adsorption and AFM observations. Am. Mineral. 88
(11−12), 1989–1995.
White, A.F., 1983. Surface chemistry and dissolution kinetics of glassy rocks at 25. C.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 47, 805–815.
White, A.F., Claassen, H.C., 1980. Kinetic model for the short-term dissolution of a
rhyolitic glass. Chem. Geol. 28, 91–109.
Winchester, J.A., Floyd, P.A., 1977. Geochemical discrimination of different magma
series and their differentiation products using immobile elements. Chem. Geol. 20,
325–343.
Yalcin, H., Gumuser, G., 2000. Mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of late
cretaceous bentonite deposits of the Kelkit Valley Region, northern Turkey. Clay
Miner. 35, 807–825.
Yildiz, A., Dumlupinar, I., 2009. Mineralogy and geochemical affinities of bentonites from
Kapıkaya (Eskisehir, western Turkey). Clay Miner. 44, 339–360.
Yildiz, A., Kuscu, M., 2004. Origin of the Basoren (Kutahya W Turkey) bentonite deposits.
Clay Miner. 39, 219–231.
Yildiz, A., Kuscu, M., 2007. Mineralogy, chemistry and physical properties of bentonites
from Basoren, Kutahya, W Anatolia, Turkey. Clay Miner. 42, 399–414.