CHAP.

3] WORK AND HEAT 43

boundary moves. The infinitesimal work which the system (the gas) does on the surroundings (the
piston) is then the force multiplied by the distance:
W = PA ds ð3:2Þ
The symbol W will be discussed shortly. The quantity Ads is simply dV , the differential volume,
allowing (3.2) to be written in the form
W = P dV ð3:3Þ
As the piston moves from some position s1 to another position s2 , the above expression can be integrated
to give
Z V2
W1−2 = P dV ð3:4Þ
V1

where we assume the pressure is known for each position as the piston moves from volume V1 to volume V2 .
Typical pressure-volume diagrams are shown in Fig. 3-4. The work W1−2 is the crosshatched area under the
P-V curve.
Consideration of the integration process highlights two very important features in (3.4). First, as
we proceed from state 1 to state 2, the area representing the work is very dependent on the path that we
follow. That is, states 1 and 2 in Fig. 3-4(a) and (b) are identical, yet the areas under the P-V curves are
very different; in addition to being dependent on the end points, work depends on the actual path that
connects the two end points. Thus, work is a path function, as contrasted to a point function, which is
dependent only on the end points. The differential of a path function is called an inexact differential,
whereas the differential of a point function is an exact differential. An inexact differential will be
denoted with the symbol . The integral of W is W1−2 , where the subscript emphasizes that the
work is associated with the path as the process passes from state 1 to state 2; the subscript may be

Fig. 3-3 Work due to a moving boundary.

Fig. 3-4 Work depends on the path between two states.

44 WORK AND HEAT [CHAP. 3

omitted, however, and work done written simply as W. We would never write W1 or W2 , since work is not
associated with a state but with a process. Work is not a property. The integral of an exact differential,
for example dT , would be
Z T2
dT = T2 − T1 ð3:5Þ
T1

where T1 is the temperature at state 1 and T2 is the temperature at state 2.

The second observation to be made from (3.4) is that the pressure is assumed to be constant
throughout the volume at each intermediate position. The system passes through each equilibrium
state shown in the P-V diagrams of Fig. 3-4. An equilibrium state can usually be assumed even though
the variables may appear to be changing quite rapidly. Combustion is a very rapid process that cannot
be modeled as a quasiequilibrium process. The other processes in the internal combustion engine (expan-
sion, exhaust, intake, and compression) can be assumed to be quasiequilibrium processes; they occur at a
slow rate, thermodynamically.
As a final comment regarding work we may now discuss what is meant by a simple system, as defined
in Chapter 1. For a system free of surface, magnetic, and electrical effects the only work mode is that due
to pressure acting on a moving boundary. For such simple systems only two independent variables are
necessary to establish an equilibrium state of the system composed of a homogeneous substance. If other
work modes are present, such as a work mode due to an electric field, then additional independent
variables would be necessary, such as the electric field intensity.

EXAMPLE 3.1 One kg of steam with a quality of 20 percent is heated at a constant pressure of 200 kPa until
the temperature reaches 400  C. Calculate the work done by the steam.
Solution: The work is given by
Z
W = P dV = PðV2 − V1 Þ = mPðv2 − v1 Þ

To evaluate the work we must determine v1 and v2 . Using Table C-2 we find
v1 = vf + xðvg − vf Þ = 0:001061 + ð0:2Þð0:8857 − 0:001061Þ = 0:1780 m3 =kg
From the superheat table we locate state 2 at T2 = 400  C and P2 = 0.2 MPa:
v2 = 1:549 m3=kg
The work is then
W = ð1Þð200Þð1:549 − 0:1780Þ = 274:2 kJ
Note: With the pressure having units of kPa, the result is in kJ.

EXAMPLE 3.2 A 110-mm-diameter cylinder contains 100 cm3 of water at 60  C. A 50-kg piston sits on top of
the water. If heat is added until the temperature is 200  C, find the work done.
Solution: The pressure in the cylinder is due to the weight of the piston and remains constant. Assuming a
frictionless seal (this is always done unless information is given to the contrary), a force balance provides
ð0:110Þ2
mg = PA − Patm A ð50Þð9:81Þ = ðP − 100 000Þ ∴ P = 151 600 Pa
4
The atmospheric pressure is included so that absolute pressure results. The volume at the initial state 1 is
given as
V1 = 100  10 − 6 = 10 − 4 m3
CHAP. 3] WORK AND HEAT 45

Using v1 at 60  C, the mass is calculated to be

V1 10 − 4
m= = = 0:09833 kg
v1 0:001017
At state 2 the temperature is 200  C and the pressure is 0.15 MPa (this pressure is within 1 percent of the pressure
of 0.1516 MPa, so it is acceptable). The volume is then
V2 = mv2 = ð0:09833Þð1:444Þ = 0:1420 m3
Finally, the work is calculated to be
W = PðV2 − V1 Þ = 151ð600Þð0:1420 − 0:0001Þ = 21 500 J or 21:5 kJ

EXAMPLE 3.3 Energy is added to a piston-cylinder arrangement, and the piston is withdrawn in such a way
that the quantity PV remains constant. The initial pressure and volume are 200 kPa and 2 m3 , respectively. If
the final pressure is 100 kPa, calculate the work done by the gas on the piston.
Solution: The work is found from (3.4) to be
Z V2 Z V2
C
W1−2 = P dV = dV
2 2 V
where we have used PV = C. To calculate the work we must find C and V2 . The constant C is found from
C = P1 V1 = ð200Þð2Þ = 400 kJ
To find V2 we use P2 V2 = P1 V1 , which is, of course, the equation that would result from an isothermal process
(constant temperature) involving an ideal gas. This can be written as
P1 V1 ð200Þð2Þ
V2 = = = 4 m3
P2 100
Finally,
Z 4
400 4
W1−2 = dV = 400 ln = 277 kJ
2 V 2
This is positive, since work is done during the expansion process by the system (the gas contained in the
cylinder).

EXAMPLE 3.4 Determine the horsepower required to overcome the wind drag on a modern car traveling 90 km/h
if the drag coefficient CD is 0.2. The drag force is given by FD = 12 V 2 ACD , where A is the projected area of the car
and V is the velocity. The density  of air is 1.23 kg/m3 . Use A = 2:3 m2 .
Solution: To find the drag force on a car we must express the velocity in m/s: V = ð90Þð1000=3600Þ = 25 m/s.
The drag force is then
 
1 1
FD = V ACD =
2
ð1:23Þð252 Þð2:3Þð0:2Þ = 177 N
2 2
To move this drag force at 25 m/s the engine must do work at the rate

W = FD V = ð177Þð25Þ = 4425 W
The horsepower is then
4425 W
Hp = = 5:93 hp
746 W=hp
46 WORK AND HEAT [CHAP. 3

Fig. 3-5 Nonequilibrium work.

3.4 NONEQUILIBRIUM WORK

It must be emphasized that the area on a P-V diagram represents the workRfor a quasiequilibrium
process only. For nonequilibrium processes the work cannot be calculated using P dV ; either it must be
given for the particular process or it must be determined by some other means. Two examples will be
given. Consider a system to be formed by the gas in Fig. 3-5. In part (a) work is obviously crossing the
boundary of the system by means of the rotating shaft; yet the volume does not change. We could
calculate the work input by multiplying the weight byR the distance it dropped, neglecting friction in the
pulley system. This would not, however, be equal to P dV, which is zero. The paddle wheel provides us
with a nonequilibrium work mode.
Suppose the membrane in Fig. 3-5b ruptures, allowing the gas to expand and fill the evacuated
volume. There is no resistance to the expansion of the gas at the moving boundary as the gas fills the
volume; hence, there is no work done. Yet there Ris a change in volume. The sudden expansion is a
nonequilibrium process, and again we cannot use P dV to calculate the work.

EXAMPLE 3.5 A 100-kg mass drops 3 m, resulting in an increased volume in the cylinder of 0.002 m3 (Fig. 3-6).
The weight and the piston maintain a constant gage pressure of 100 kPa. Determine the net work done by the gas
on the surroundings. Neglect all friction.
Solution: The paddle wheel does work on the system, the gas, due to the 100-kg mass dropping 3 m. That
work is negative and is
W = − ðFÞðdÞ = − ð100Þð9:81Þð3Þ = − 2940 J

The work done by the system on this frictionless piston is positive since the system is doing the work. It is
W = ðPAÞðhÞ = PV = ð200 000Þð0:002Þ = 400 J

where absolute pressure has been used. The net work done is thus
Wnet = − 2940 + 400 = − 2540 J

Fig. 3-6
CHAP. 3] WORK AND HEAT 47

Fig. 3-7 Work due to a rotating shaft transmitting torque.

3.5 OTHER WORK MODES

Work transferred by a rotating shaft (Fig. 3-7) is a common occurrence in mechanical systems. The
work results from the shearing forces due to the shearing stress , which varies with the radius over the
cross-sectional area, moving with angular velocity ω as the shaft rotates. The shearing force is
dF =  dA = ð2r drÞ ð3:6Þ
The linear velocity with which this force moves is rω. Hence, the rate of doing work is
Z Z R Z R
_
W¼ rω dF ¼ ðrωÞð2rÞ dr ¼ 2ω r2 dr ð3:7Þ
A 0 0

where R is the radius of the shaft. The torque T is found from the shearing stresses by integrating over
the area:
Z Z R
T= r dF = 2 r2 dr ð3:8Þ
A 0

Combining this with (3.7) above, the work rate is

W_ = T ω ð3:9Þ
To find the work transferred in a given time, we simply multiply (3.9) by the number of seconds:
W = T ω t ð3:10Þ
Of course, the angular velocity must be expressed in rad/s.
The work necessary to stretch a linear spring (Fig. 3-8) with spring constant K from a length x1 to x2
can be found by using the relation
F = Kx ð3:11Þ
where x is the distance the spring is stretched from the unstretched position. Note that the force is
dependent on the variable x. Hence, we must integrate the force over the distance the spring is stretched;
this results in
Z x2 Z x2
1
W= F dx = Kx dx = Kðx22 − x21 Þ ð3:12Þ
x1 x1 2

Fig. 3-8 Work needed to stretch a spring.