Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering

1.1 Hazard, Seismic Hazard, Importance, Types of Seismic Hazards and Types of
Seismic Waves
Introduction
Earthquake engineering deals with the effects of earthquake hazards on human being and
their environment with methods of reducing those effects.
-young disciple – 30~40 years
-includes broad fields drawing aspects of geology, seismology, geotechnical
engineering, structural engineering, risk analysis, and other technical fields. Also, it
considers the social, economic and political aspects.
* Earthquakes do not kill people but mostly destruction of man made structures during
earthquake kills people. Those earthquakes occurring in the remote villages will damage very
less. Whereas those occurring at or near the densely populated urban areas will damage both
inhabitants and infrastructure heavily.
* Earthquakes have occurred for millions of years and will continue in the future as they
have in the past.
*It is impossible to prevent the occurrence of earthquake, but it is possible to mitigate or
reduce the effects of strong earthquake shaking; to reduce the loss of life, injuries, and
damage. The practice of earthquake engineering : identification and mitigation of
seismic hazards.
 Hazard
Natural Hazards: naturally occurring events such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes,
landslides, floods, etc., which are capable of causing deaths, injuries, and property
damages.
Seismic Hazards: Hazards associated with earthquakes/seismic waves ae commonly
known as Seismic Hazards.
Some common and Important seismic hazards are as follows:
1. Ground Shaking 2. Structural Shaking
3. Liquefaction 4. Landslides/Slope Failures
5. Retaining Structural Failures 6. Lifeline Hazards
7. Tsunami and Seiche Hazards 8. Flooding
9. Fire
 Hazard
Primary Hazards
Strong ground shaking
structural hazards
Surface faulting
Subsidence / Uplift lifeline hazards

Secondary Hazards
Ground failure
structural hazards
Liquefaction
lifeline hazards
Landslide
Tsunami / Seiche
1. Ground Shaking:
When an earthquake occurs, seismic waves radiate away from the source and travel
rapidly through the earth’s crust. When such waves reach the ground surface, they produce
shaking which lasts from seconds to a minutes.
Strength and duration of shaking of ground at a particular site depends on the size, and
location of the earthquake and the characteristics of the soil at the site.
[Soil deposits tend to act as “filters” to seismic waves by attenuation of motion at certain
frequencies and amplifying (Site Effects) it at others. Also, even at a certain
distances/areas, soil characteristics may vary a lot.]
At sites near the source of a large earthquake, ground shaking can cause tremendous
damage. Buildings can be damaged by the shaking itself or by the ground beneath them
settling to a different level than it was before the earthquake (subsidence).
2. Structural Hazards:
Major damages are due to structural collapse, collapse of unreinforced massonary and
adobe structures, falling objects such as brick facings and parapets on the outside
structures or heavy pictures and shelves within the structures.
Interior facilities such as piping, lightening, and storage systems can also be damaged.
Above collapses and damages lead to human loss, property loss and economic loss.

The most memorable images of earthquake damage - death and economic loss

Predictable collapse of non-engineering structures to surprising damage of

engineering structures.

Earthquake resistance design (building codes): - structural strength alone - ductility

of materials - accurate predictions of ground motions (geotechnical earthquake
engineer is responsible for that.)
Damages of non-engineering structures during 2006, Yogyakarta Earthquake
Damages of engineering structures during 2006, Yogyakarta Earthquake

Damages in Indonesian Art Institute (IAI)

3. Liquefaction:
Due to shaking, soil deposits loss their strength an flow like fluid situation. During this
situation, the strength of soil may reduced drastically to a point where it might not support
the load of the structures.
Liquefaction generally occurs in saturated sandy soils- thus near the rivers, bays, and other
bodies of water.
If liquefaction occurs under a building, it may start to lean, tip over, or sink several feet.
A phenomenon - soil deposits (especially cohesionless soil) - lost their strength and appeared to flow as
fluids. i) - Strength of soil is reduced - generation of excess pore water pressure. - ii)occurs in
saturated cohesionless soils -
Liquefaction encompasses several related phenomenon such as Flow Failures, Lateral Spreading and Sand
boiling.

Flow Failures: When strength of the soil drops below the level needed to maintain stability under static
conditions, it is driven by static gravitational forces and can produce large movements, e.g., collapse of earth
dams, slopes and foundations. Here movement of soil mass takes relatively long distances in a fluid like
manner.

Lateral Spreading: incremental displacements during earthquake shaking (large ground displacement).
Depending upon the number and strength of the stress pulse (wave) that exceeds the strength of the soil,
lateral spreading occurs where displacements may range from negligible to quite large values. It is quite
common near bridges damaging the abutments, foundations and super structures.

Sand boiling/Quick sand condition: Here ground water rushes to the surface from below with sand.

Quick sand condition is a flow condition occurring within a cohesion- less soil when it's effective stress is
reduced to zero due to upward flow of water .

Quicksand condition occurs when seepage pressure, which acts in the upward direction, overcomes the
downward direction pressure due to submerged weight of soil, and the sand grains are forced apart. ... If the
critical gradient exceeds, the soil moves upward, and the soil surface appears to be boiling.
Sand boils

Lateral
Spreading Tioga-highway, Pansavania
Hanshin Expressway toppled due to liquefaction,
causing loss of bearing capacity
4. Landslides/Slope Failure Hazards:
Landslides are downslope movements of masses of soil
and/or rock. They can cause some of the most spectacular
damage attributable to earth movement or ground
movement.
Landslides include mudflows ("mudslides"), earth slumps,
rockfalls, and other types of slope failures.
Landslides can be fast or slow, wet or dry, small or large,
shallow or deep, and reactivated or brand new.
Earthquake is one of the Triggering mechanisms of
landslide. Others include rainstorms, landscape irrigation,
broken pipelines, grading, inadequate surface drainage,
erosion, or combination of two or more of them.
Strong earthquakes often cause landslides. Majority are The town of Qushan in Beichuan County, China, was destroyed by
strong shaking from the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake and
subsequent catastrophic landslides. Credit: David Wald, USGS.
small failures, but very large ones may also occur.
The landslides in Santa Tecla, after 7.6
M earthquake

The landslides in California

Landslides are downslope movements of masses of soil and/or rock. They can cause some of the most
spectacular damage attributable to earth movement or ground movement. ... Slope instability is a complex
phenomenon that includes not only landslides but more subtle processes such as soil creep.

5. Retaining Structures Failure:

Anchored bulkheads (sheet piles), quay walls, and other retaining structures are frequently
damaged in earthquakes. Damages are usually concentrated in waterfront areas such as
ports and harbors.
6. Lifeline Hazards:
A network of facilities that provide the services required for commerce and public health
can be found in any developed areas.
Lifeline networks: electrical power, telecommunications, transportations, water and
sewage, oil and gas distribution, waste storage system,
Also, power-plants, transmission towers, roads, bridges, harbors, airports, water treatment
facilities, reservoirs and elevated water tanks, buried oil and gas pipelines, municipal solid
waste and hazardous wastes, landfills, nuclear power plants, modern industrial areas, etc.
Damages to lifelines causes severe economic loss, adverse effect on environment
7. Tsunami and Seiche Hazards:
Tsunami: Rapid vertical seafloor movements caused by fault/rupture during earthquake can
produce Long-period sea wave called Tsunami.
In open sea, Tsunami can travel great distances at high speeds but are difficult to detect.
They usually have heights of less than 1 m and wavelength of several kilometers. [low
amplitude, large wavelength]
As Tsunami approaches Shores, the decreasing water depth causes its speed to decrease and
height of waves to increase. [high amplitude, low wave length] but the height of wave
increase up to several meters.
Some seafloor shape amplify the wave, producing nearly vertical wall of water that rushes
to inland causing devastating damages.

Tsunami waves may reach heights of 15 meters (50 feet) near shore and travel at speeds
up to 960 km/hr (600 mph)
 7. Tsunami and Seiche Hazards:

Seiche: Earthquake induced waves in enclosed bodies of water are called Seiche.
Typically caused by long-period seismic waves that match the natural period of oscillation
of the water in a lake or reservoirs.
Seiches may observe at a great distance from the source of an earthquake.

A seiche is a standing wave (stationary wave) in an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water.
Seiches and seiche-related phenomena have been observed on lakes, reservoirs, swimming pools, bays,
harbours and seas.
The key requirement for formation of a seiche is that the body of water be at least partially bounded,
allowing the formation of the standing wave.

Seiches are often imperceptible to the naked eye, and observers in boats on the surface may not notice that
a seiche is occurring due to the extremely long wavelengths.
The effect is caused by resonances in a body of water that has been disturbed by one or more factors, most often
meteorological effects (wind and atmospheric pressure variations), seismic activity, or tsunamis. Gravity always seeks to
restore the horizontal surface of a body of liquid water, as this represents the configuration in which the water is in
hydrostatic equilibrium.
8. Flooding:
An earthquake can rupture (break) dams or levees along a river. The water from the
river or the reservoir would then flood the area, damaging buildings and maybe
sweeping away or drowning people.

9. Fire:
These fires can be started by broken gas lines and power lines, or tipped over wood or
coal stoves. They can be a serious problem, especially if the water lines that feed the fire
hydrants are broken.
North East Japan coast ravaged by flood, fires after quake
Mitigation of Seismic Hazards
Mitigation is the ultimate goal for earthquake engineers.
For new constructions, mitigation is embedded in the process of earthquake resistance
designs.
e.g., earthquake resistance design of slopes, dams, embankments, and retaining structures.
Retrofitting or any other improvements for the ones already constructed.
Ground Improvements:
1. Densification Techniques: Vibroflotation, Dynamic Compaction, Blasing (looser materials),
Compaction grouting
2. Reinforcement Techniques: Stone columns, Compaction piles,
3. Grouting and Mixing Techniques: Jet grouting, Permeation grouting, Intrusion Grouting (under
pressure), Soil mixing, etc.
4. Drainage Techniques: Lowering of ground water table prior to earthquake shaking, Dewatering
techniques such as gravel drainage, stone columns, etc.
 Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering

1.2 Internal Structure of earth – different layers, their characteristics,

discontinuities, influence of earth’s structure on the distribution of seismic
waves

Introduction
Understanding of the various processes by which earthquake occur and their effects on the
ground motion is the study matter of geotechnical earthquake engineers.
For this, earth’s internal structure and their behavior in regard with earthquakes are
necessary to understand.
Solid Earth and Earth’s
interior
1. Internal Structure of the Earth
Earth: Roughly spherical, Equatorial diameter=12740 km, Polar diameter= 12700 km
Higher equatorial diameter of earth is due to higher equatorial velocity during earth’s
rotation.
Earth’s Weight: 4.9 x 1024 kg, Average Specific Gravity = 5.5
But earth’s surficial rock’s Specific Gravity varies from 2.7 to 3.0. i.e., Higher Specific
gravity at greater depth.

1. Earth is made of several layers.

2. Each layer has its own characteristic properties.
3. Scientists think about Earth’s layers in two ways—in terms of chemical
composition and in terms of physical properties.
4. Temperature below the earth’s surface increases as shown in the figure.
1. Internal Structure of the Earth
1. Internal Structure of the Earth
Earth’s interior: based on the Chemical compositions

1. Crust : Continental and Oceanic crusts

2. Mantle: Upper and Lower mantles
3. Core : Outer and Inner Cores
Earth’s interior : based on Physical properties
1. Lithosphere [crust + top portion of the upper mantle]
2. Asthenosphere [up to the depth of upper mantle]
3. Lower mantle [Mesosphere]
4. Outer core
5. Inner core
1. Crust
- Outermost Solid layer where we live
- It is either exposed to atmosphere or to the oceans. Hence crust materials are cooler than other inner
materials.
- Below the surface of the earth, temperature increases.
- It is a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock which contains Silica
(i) Continental Crust and (ii) Oceanic Crust
-(i) Continental crust
- 35~40 km thick, at max. 70 km (60~70 km) at younger mountainous ranges, non-
homogeneous chemical compositions. (here Continental plates collide to form mountains)
- igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks, mainly granitic igneous rocks
- older and lighter (density = 2.7 g/cm3), less denser than oceanic crust.
- Continental crust has two principal layers, and upper one of granite or granodioritic
composition and the lower one is basaltic composition.
- These layers are called Sial and Sima.
Sial: This layer is composed of silica and aluminum.
Sima: This layer is composed of Silica and magnesium.
1. Crust

Continental Crust

Oceanic Crust
1. Crust
-(ii) Oceanic crust
- thin, about 5~7 km thick, lies beneath the oceans
- Made from the magma that erupts on the seafloor, mainly dark igneous rocks (basalts)
- Sediment (coat of muds and shells of tiny creatures at the sea floor) is thickest near the
shore
- relatively homogeneous chemical compositions, younger and denser (density = 3.0 g/cm3)
- The oceanic crust consists of fairly uniform layers.
- At the top, a blanket of sediment, generally less than 1km thick, composed of clay grains
and plankton (tiny floating animal and plant life) shells that have settled like snow,
beneath the blanket, the oceanic crust consists of a layer of basalt and, below that, a layer
of gabbro (both mafic igneous rocks).
Moho’s Discontinuity
- It was first identified by Mohorovicic in 1909
- Mohorovicic Discontinuity lies between Crust and Mantle.
- It would be made of elements such as oxygen, iron, sodium, silicon, and aluminum, among others. These
elements would be present in rocks that make up both the Earth's crust and mantle.
- It is 5~10 km (avg. 8 km) below the ocean floor and 20~90 km (avg. 35 km) beneath the continents.

- A distinct change in seismic wave propagation velocity at the

boundary between the crust and the underlying layers (mantle)
is seen as chemical compositions are different.
- It acts as a role of reflector and refractor of seismic wave
boundary.
- Immediately above Moho, the velocities of P-waves are
approximately those of Basalts (6~7.2 km/sec), and below they
are that of Peridotitic or Dunitic Earth’s materials (7.6~8.6
km/sec). That suggests the Moho marks a change in
composition.
- Seismic wave travels faster in mantle Two paths of a P-wave, one direct and one
refracted as it crosses the Moho.
Moho’s Guntenberg’s
discontinuity discontinuity
Mantle
- It is 2850 km thick and its specific gravity varies from 4 to 5.
- it is made of slow-flowing solid rock and it is hot.
- Cooler at the crust than at depths below, with average temperature of 2200C.
- As avg. temp. is 2200C, mantle materials are in viscous and semi-motlen state. But it behave like a solid
when pressure is applied rapidly such as during earthquake.
- It can flow like liquid when long-term stresses acts on it.
- the mantle contains more magnesium and less aluminum and silicon than the crust.
The properties fit the ultramafic rock peridotite, which is made of the iron- and magnesium-rich silicate
minerals.

Heat flows in two different ways within the Earth: Conduction and Convection.
Conduction is defined as the heat transfer that occurs through rapid collisions of atoms, which can only happen if the material is solid.
Heat flows from warmer to cooler places until all are the same temperature. The mantle is hot mostly because of heat conducted from
the core.
Convection is the process of a material that can move and flow may develop convection currents. Convection in the mantle is the same
as convection in a pot of water on a stove. Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as material near the core heats up. As the
core heats the bottom layer of mantle material, particles move more rapidly, decreasing its density and causing it to rise. The rising
material begins the convection current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it spreads horizontally. The material cools because
it is no longer near the core. It eventually becomes cool and dense enough to sink back down into the mantle. At the bottom of the
mantle, the material travels horizontally and is heated by the core. It reaches the location where warm mantle material rises, and the
mantle convection cell is complete.
Mantle  The uppermost mantle (crust
to 400 km depth)
Upper Mantle  The transition zone (400 –700
- shallower and about 650 km thick km depth)
- non-uniform velocity and not homogeneous chemically  The mid-mantle (700 to ~2650
km depth)
 The lowermost mantle(~2650 –
-The uppermost mantle is composed dominantly of olivine; 2891 km depth)
lesser components include pyroxene, enstatite, and garnet
- mostly earthquake occurs in this layer
Lower Mantle
- deeper and more than 2000 km thick
- exhibits uniform velocity
- homogeneous chemically except near the boundary of
upper mantle
- NO earthquakes have been recorded in this layer
Guntenberg Discontinuity
It lies the core-mantle boundary.
Here, S-waves velocity drops to zero.
In addition, P-wave’s velocity also reduced to certain extent.
Moho’s Guntenberg’s
discontinuity discontinuity
Core
 The core is the densest layer and makes up about one-third of Earth’s mass.
 At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core. Scientists know that the core is metal for a few reasons.
 The density of Earth’s surface layers is much less than the overall density of the planet, as calculated from the
planet’s rotation. If the surface layers are less dense than average, then the interior must be denser than
average. Calculations indicate that the core is about 85 percent iron metal with nickel metal making up
much of the remaining 15 percent. Also, metallic meteorites are thought to be representative of the core. If
Earth’s core were not metal, the planet would not have a magnetic field. Metals such as iron are magnetic, but
rock, which makes up the mantle and crust, is not.
 Scientists know that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid because S-waves drops to zero at
outer core.
 The strong magnetic field is caused by convection in the liquid outer core. Convection currents in the outer
core are due to heat from the even hotter inner core. The heat that keeps the outer core away from solidifying
is produced by the breakdown of radioactive elements in the inner core.
Core
Outer core
- Liquid Core,
- Primarily consists of molten Iron with Nickel (helps to explain the Sp. Gr. Of 9~12)
- As a liquid, S-wave can not pass through this. (S-wave velocity is zero)

Inner core
- Solid Core,
- Primarily consists of solid Iron with Nickel which are under tremendous high pressure
- It is very dense with Sp. Gr. nearly equal to 15
- Temperature of this core is relatively uniform at 2760 C.
Earth’s interior : based on Physical properties
1. Lithosphere [crust + top portion of the upper mantle]
2. Asthenosphere [up to the depth of upper mantle]
3. Lower mantle [Mesosphere]
4. Outer core
5. Inner core
Seismic Waves
- When an earthquake happens deep underground a crack will start to open on a pre-
existing line of weakness in the Earth's brittle crust. This crack will then grow larger
and larger, relieving built-up stress as it goes.
- The speed at which the crack propagates or grows is 2–3 km/sec. Eventually the rupture will cease
to grow and will slow down and stop. The size or magnitude of the earthquake depends upon how
much the fault has ruptured (the slip) and also the area over which the rupture has occurred.
- This rupturing process creates elastic waves in the Earth that propagate away from the rupture
front at a much faster speed than the rupture propagates, the exact speed depends upon the
nature of the wave (a longitudinal or P-wave is faster than a transverse or S-wave), and on the
elastic properties of the Earth.
- At deeper into the Earth, the density and pressure increases and so do the velocities of seismic
waves.
- Seismic waves are assumed to be the outcome of elastic deformation of rocks.
- Elastic bodies are subjected to compression and shear deformations.
- Seismic waves, like all waves, transfer energy from one place to another without moving material.
Seismic Waves

travel through the interior of the Earth

i. Body waves
ii. Surface waves
(i) Body Waves
Body Waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all
directions travelling through the interior of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
These are fundamental seismic waves. Body waves’ travelling speed varies with the
stiffness of the medium (material) they travel through.
Geological materials are stiffest in the compression and hence P-waves travel faster than S-
waves.
Two types:
1. P-waves [Primary Waves or Longitudinal Waves or Compressional Waves or Pressure
Waves or Non-destructive Waves]

2. S-waves [Secondary Waves or Transverse Waves or Shear Waves or

Distortional/Destructive Waves]
1. P-waves [Primary Waves or Longitudinal Waves or Compressional Waves
or Pressure Waves or Non-destructive Waves]

 They are fastest and hence Primary waves arrives first at particular time and the first
seismic wave detected by seismographs.
 longitudinal in nature ― and their wave propagation behavior is similar to sound waves
 P-waves creates density differences in the material leading to successive stretching
(rarefaction) and squeezing (compression) of the material through which they travel.
 They can travel through all mediums, and their velocity depends on Shear strength
(elasticity) of the medium. Hence, the velocity of the P-waves in Solids > Liquids >
Gases. These waves take the form of sound waves when they enter the atmosphere.
 The motion of individual particle that a P-Wave travels through is parallel to the
direction of the travel.
 They have shorter wave length and high frequency, and these are the least destructive
among the earthquake waves.
 P-waves are also called as the longitudinal waves because the displacement of the medium is in the same
direction as, or the opposite direction to, (parallel to) the direction of propagation of the wave; or
compressional waves because they produce compression and rarefaction when travelling through a
medium; or pressure waves because they produce increases and decreases in pressure in the medium.
 Trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves, is in the up-down direction (vertical).
 P-wave velocity in earthquakes is in the range 5 to 8 km/s. The precise speed varies according to the region
of the Earth’s interior, from less than 6 km/s in the Earth’s crust to 13.5 km/s in the lower mantle, and 11
km/s through the inner core.
We usually say that the speed of sound waves depends on density. But there are few exceptions ― mercury is denser than iron, but it is less elastic; hence
the speed of sound in iron is greater than that in mercury

P-waves as an earthquake warning

 Advance earthquake warning is possible by detecting the non-destructive primary waves that travel more
quickly through the Earth’s crust than do the destructive secondary and surface waves.
 Depending on the depth of focus of the earthquake, the delay between the arrival of the P-wave and other
destructive waves could be up to about 60 to 90 seconds (depends of the depth of the focus).
P-waves
4
𝐾+ 𝜇 +2𝜇
 𝑉𝑃 = 3
𝑉𝑃 =
𝜌 𝜌

Here, VP= P-wave velocity, : Lame’s constant,  and  are

elastic constants related to the rigidity of material
VP= P-wave velocity, K: Bulk modulus, :
Shear modulus of rigidity
2. S-Waves
 Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the direction of vibrations of the particles in
the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Hence, they
create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass (they distort the
medium).
 They are analogous to water ripples or light waves.
 S-waves arrive at the surface after the P-waves.
 These waves are of high frequency and possess slightly higher destructive
power compared to P-waves.
 S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as fluids do not support shear
stresses.
 They travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength) through the solid part of
the Earth.
 They causes shearing and deformations as they travel through the medium (a material).
2. S-Waves

 From the direction of particle movement during

S-wave propagation, S-wave is divided into
two components

 i) SV-wave (S-wave in Vertical plane

movement)
 ii) SH-wave (S-wave in Horizontal
plane movement)

𝑮 
𝑽𝒔 = =
𝝆 𝝆

: density, and G or  : Shear modulus of the medium

Why do P-waves travel faster than S-waves?
 P-waves are about 1.7 times faster than the S-waves.
 P-waves are compression waves that apply a force in the direction of propagation and hence transmit
their energy quite easily through the medium and thus travel quickly.
 On the other hand, S-waves are transverse waves or shear waves (motion of the medium is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave) and are hence less easily transmitted through
the medium.

The vibration of particles in Longitudinal wave and Transverse wave

(ii) Surface Waves (L- or Long Waves)
 The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves called
surface waves (Long or L-waves). These waves move only along the free surface
(earth-air interface).
 Surface Waves are also called Long period waves because of their long wavelength.
 They are low–frequency transverse waves (shear waves).
 They develop in the immediate neighbourhood of the epicentre and affect only the
surface of the earth and die out at smaller depth.
 They lose energy more slowly with distance than the body waves because they travel
only across the surface unlike the body waves which travel in all directions.
 Particle motion of surface waves (higher amplitude) is larger than that of body
waves, so surface waves are the most destructive among the earthquake waves. Surface
waves are very important since they propagate along the surface of the earth (where all
building and people are).
 It is usually Surface waves that knock down buildings.
(ii) Surface Waves (L- or Long Waves)

 They are slowest among the earthquake waves and are recorded last on the seismograph.
(i.e., they travel more slowly than seismic body waves (P and S). In large earthquakes, surface waves can
have an amplitude of several centimeters.

 They are more prominent at the distance farther from the source of earthquakes as they
need the interactions for their production.

- At the distances greater than about twice the thickness of the earth’s crust, Surface
waves rather than body waves, will produce peak ground motions.

- Two important Surface waves for engineers are:

1. Rayleigh-waves, and 2. Love-waves

(ii) Surface Waves

1. Rayleigh-waves
 Produced by interaction of P-waves and SV-waves at the earth’s surface.
 A Rayleigh-wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake
or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down and side-
to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving.
 They move in an elliptical motion, producing both a vertical and horizontal
component of motion in the direction of wave propagation.
 Most of the shaking and damage from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh-wave.
 It involves both horizontal and vertical motions of the particle.
 Similar to the waves produced by a rock thrown on the lake or pond.
2. Love-waves

 It is the fastest surface wave and moves the

ground from side-to-side.
 Produced by the interaction of SH-waves at the
earth’s surface.
 They move parallel to the Earth’s surface and
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
 It does not have vertical component. Hence the
motion of the particle is only in horizontal
direction.
 They usually travel slightly faster than
Rayleigh waves, about 90% of the S wave velocity,
and have the largest amplitude.
Type Particle motion Typical velocity Other characteristics
P-waves Alternating compressions VP ~ 5-7 km/s in typical P motion travels fastest in materials, so the P-wave is the
('pushes') and dilations ('pulls') Earth's crust first-arriving energy on a seismogram.
in the same direction as the >~ 8 km/s in Earth's mantle Generally smaller and higher frequency than the S and
wave is propagating and core; surface waves. P-waves in a liquid or gas are pressure waves,
1.5 km/s in water; including sound waves.
0.3 km/s in air
S-waves Alternating transverse motions VS ~ 3 – 4 km/s in typical S-waves do not travel through fluids, so do not exist in Earth's
perpendicular to the direction of Earth's crust liquid outer core or in air or water or molten rock (magma).
propagation. >~ 4.5 km/s in Earth's mantle; S-waves travel slower than P-waves in a solid and, therefore,
~ 2.5-3.0 km/s in (solid) inner arrive after the P-wave.
core
Love-waves Transverse horizontal motion, VL ~ 2.0 - 4.5 km/s in the Love waves exist because of the Earth's surface.
perpendicular to the direction of Earth depending on frequency They are largest at the surface and decrease in amplitude with
propagation and generally of the propagating wave depth.
parallel to the Earth's surface Love waves are dispersive, i.e., the wave velocity is
dependent on frequency, with low frequencies normally
propagating at higher velocity.
Depth of penetration of the Love waves is also dependent on
frequency, with lower frequencies penetrating to greater
depth.
Rayleigh- Motion is both in the direction VR ~ 2.0 - 4.5 km/s in the Rayleigh waves are also dispersive and the amplitudes
waves of propagation and Earth depending on frequency generally decrease with depth in the Earth.
perpendicular (in a vertical of the propagating wave Appearance and particle motion are similar to water waves.
plane)
Influence of Earth’s structure on the distribution of Seismic Waves

- Wave propagation velocity generally increases with depth, and wave paths are usually
reflected back towards the earth’s surface. Some are refracted through the earth’s surfaces.
- An exception occur at Core-Mantle Boundary (Guntenberg’s Discontinuity), where
velocity at outer core is lower than the velocity at mantle.
- The emergence of Shadow Zone of P-waves and S-waves
 S-waves do not travel through liquids (they are attenuated).
 The entire zone beyond 103° does not receive S-waves, and hence this
zone is identified as the shadow zone of S-waves. This observation led to
the discovery of the liquid outer core.
Influence of Earth’s structure on the distribution of Seismic Waves

 The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth

between 103° and 142° away from the epicentre. This is because P-
waves are refracted when they pass through the transition between the
semi-solid mantle and the liquid outer core.(in this shadow zone, only paths
reflected from the inner core can reach the earth’s surface)
 However, the seismographs located beyond 142° from the epicentre, record
the arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves. This gives clues about
the solid inner core.
 Thus, a zone between 103° and 142° from epicentre was identified as
the shadow zone for both the types of waves.
 The seismographs located at any distance within 103° from the epicentre, recorded the
arrival of both P and S-waves.
The span of the shadow zone of the P-Waves = 78° [2 x (142° – 103°)]
The span of the shadow zone of the S-Waves = 154° [360° – (103° + 103°)]
The span of the shadow zone common for both the waves = 78°

Reflected zone P- Refracted P-waves

& S-waves

Refracted P-waves