Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Facilitating Learning
Facilitating Learning
A Meta-cognitive
Process
“If you teach a person what to
learn, you are preparing that
person for the past. If you teach
a person how to learn, you are
preparing that person for its
future.”
- Cyril Houle
Teaching – giving/transferring
Learning – acquiring/accepting
EDUCATIVE PROCESS
Learner – given focus
Teacher – prime mover
Learning Environment – headway
Learner – embodied spirit
Sentient body
- rational soul
Experiencing sensation
- self-reflection
- free will
- intellectual abstractions
oney
aterials
oment
anpower
achine
arket
anner
P – lanning
O–
rganizing
L – eading
C–
ontrolling
S – taffing
LEARNER-CENTERED
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
The following 14 psychological
factors pertain to the learner and the
learning process. They focus on
psychological factors that are primarily
internal to and under the control of the
learner rather than conditioned habits
or physiological factors. However, the
principles also attempt to acknowledge
external environment or contextual
factors that interact with these internal
factors.
The principles are intended to deal
holistically with learners in the context
of real-world learning situations. Thus,
they are best understood as an
organized set of principles; no principle
should be viewed in isolation. The 14
principles are divided into those
referring to 1)cognitive and metacognitive, 2)motivational and affective,
3)developmental and social, and
4)individual
difference
factors
influencing learners and learning.
Cognitive and Meta-cognitive
Factors
1. Nature of the learning process
. learning of complex subject matter
2. Goals of the learning process
. can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge
. can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.
4. Strategic thinking
can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking
beyond thinking/ deepening of
knowledge
6. Context of learning
influenced by environmental factors
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional
influences on Learning
What and how much is learned?
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
learner's creativity, higher order
thinking, and natural curiosity (w/in
yourself)
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty
9. Effects of motivation and effort
acquisition of complex knowledge and
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning
different opportunities and constraints for
learning physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains.
* appropriateness of material
* intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
domains
* macro skills – interest and level of the student
* prior or past experiences – from school, home,
culture, and community factors.
* early and continuing parental – language
interactions and two-way
* awareness and understanding of development
differences among children – understand
11. Social influences on learning
influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning
different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and
heredity.
13. Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when
differences in learners' linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds are
taken into account.
14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and
challenging standards and assessing
the learner as well as learning
progress including diagnostic, process,
and outcome assessment are integral
parts of the learning process.
Alexander & Murphy summary of
the 14 Principles:
1. The knowledge base
2. Strategic processing and control
3. Motivation and affective
4. Development and Individual
differences
5. Situation or context
Review of the
Developmental
Theories
Freud
3 Components of
Personality
5 Psychosexual Stages
of development
Erikson
8 Psycho-social
Stages of
Development
Piaget
4 Stages of Cognitive
Development
Theories
Related To
The
Learner’s
Developme
nt
Kohlberg
3 Stages and 6
Substances of Moral
Development
Vygotsky
• On Language
• Zone of Proximal
Development
Brofenbrenner
Bio-Ecological
System
Freud Psycho-Sexual
Theory
• Freud proposed that there were 5
stages
of
development.
Freud
believed that few people successfully
completed all 5 of the stages.
Instead, he felt that most people tied
up their libido at one of the stages,
which prevented them from using
that energy at a later stage.
Stage
Erogenous Zone
Oral (birth to 18
months)
Mouth
Anus
Phallic (3 – 6 years)
Genitals
Genital (puberty +)
Genitals
Fixation
Drinking , eating,
smoking or nail biting
Anal retentive and anal
expulsive
Oedipus Complex and
Electra Complex
Piaget’s Stages of
Cognitive Development
“The principle goal of education
is to create men who are
capable of doing new things
,not simply to repeating what
other generaions have done –
men who are creative, inventive
and discovers”.
Jean Piaget
Cognitive
development theory
• Children "construct"
their understanding of
the world through their
active involvement and
interactions.
• Studied his 3 children to
focus not on what they
knew but how they knew
it.
• Described children's
understanding as their
"schemas” and how they
use:
– assimilation
– accommodation.
• Schema:
– The term “schema” to refer to the
cognitive structures by which individuals
intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment.
• Assimilation:
– This is the process of fitting a new
experience into an existing or previously
created cognitive structure or schema.
• Accommodation:
– This is the process of creating a new
schema.
• Equilibration
– Achieving proper balance between
assimilation and accommodation
– Disequilibrium
• this means there is a discrepancy
between what is perceived and what
is understood. We then exert effort
through assimilation and
accommodation to establish
equilibriumonce more.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages
• Sensori-motor
– Ages birth - 2: the infant uses his
senses and motor abilities to
understand the world
• Pre-operation
– Ages 2-7: the child uses metal
representations of objects and is able
to use symbolic thought and language
• Concrete operations
– Ages 7-11; the child uses logical
operations or principles when solving
problems
• Formal operations
– Ages 12 up; the use of logical
operations in a systematic fashion and
with the ability to use abstractions
Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Stages
• Stage 1 : Sensory Motor Stage.(birth
to infancy)
– This is the stage when child who is
initially reflexive in grasping, sucking,
and reaching becomes more organized
in his movement and activity.
Erikson's Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Stage
Crisis
Maladaptati
on
Malignanc
y
Virtue
Infancy
Trust vs.
Mistrust
Sensory
Distortion
Withdrawal
Hope
Early Adulthhood
Autonomy
vs. Shame &
Doubt
Impulsivity
Compulsion
Will Power
Pre-school
Initiative vs.
Guilt
ruthlessness
Inhibition
Purpose
School Age
Industry vs.
Inferiority
Narrow
Virtuosity
Inertia
Competence
Adolescence
Identity vs.
Role
Confusion
Fanaticism
Repudiation
Fidelity
Young Adulthood
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Promiscuity
Exclusivity
Love
Middle Adulthood
Generativity
vs.
Stagnation
Over
extention
Rejectivity
Care
Maturity
Ego Integrity
vs. Despair
Presumption
Disdain
Wisdom
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
• Assessed moral reasoning by posing
hypothetical moral dilemmas and
examining the reasoning behind people’s
answers
• Proposed three distinct levels of moral
reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional
• Each level is based on the degree to which a
person conforms to conventional standards of
society
• Each level has two stages that represent
different degrees of sophistication in moral
reasoning
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development
Lev Vygotsky
Socio-Cultural Theory
• Definition
– Sociocultural theory results from
the dynamic interaction between a person
and the surrounding social and cultural
forces.
– 3 claims of Vygotsky
– a) Fundamentally shaped by cultural tools
– b) Functioning emerges out of social
processes
– c) Developmental methods (Zone
of Proximal Development)
• Strategies to utilize the benefits
of ZPD
• a) Scaffolding –requires
demonstration, while controlling the
environment so that one can take
things step by step.
• b) Reciprocal teaching – open dialog
between student and teacher which
goes beyond simple question and
answer session.
• Vygotsky theorized that human development is
not something that is fixed and eternal. It will
change as a result of historical development.
Cultural Influences
– a) Imitative learning
– b) Instructed learning
– c) Collaborative learning
Principles
– a) Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at
any given age.
– b) Full cognitive development requires social interaction.
5 Main Points
• a) Use of Zone of Proximal Development
• b) Interaction with other people is important
for cognitive growth
• c) Culture can make daily living more
efficient and effective.
• d) Advanced mental methods start through
social activities.
• e) Increase of the independent use of
language and thought during a child’s first
few years of life.
Developmental Systems
Theory
The belief that
development can't be
explained by a single
concept, but rather by a
complex system
Urie
Bronfenbrenner
Ecological Systems Theory or
bioecological theory
• The varied systems of the
environment and the
interrelationships among
the systems shape a
child's development.
• Both the environment and
biology influence the
child's development.
• The environment affects
the child and the child
influences the
environment
Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological
Model
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
impairments
Orthopedic
impairments
Other health
impairments
Autism
Traumatic brain
injury
Multiple disabilities
Developmental
delays
Educational Practices
• Inclusive Practices…lots of debates!
• Inclusion is a belief system shared by every
member of a school as a learning community
about the responsibility of educating all students
so that they can reach their potential.
• Inclusion encompasses students who are gifted
and talented, those who are at risk for failure
because of their life circumstances, those with
disabilities, and those who are average learners.
• Accommodations…mark in book, separate
setting, extended time, read alouds, reduced
number of items per page, alternate test
Inclusion
• In today’s schools, what is considered
inclusive practice varies widely depending
on state and local policies related to
inclusion, the resources available, teacher
and administrator understanding and
commitment, and parent and community
support
• It may look like an EC teacher who is in
your room every day for the entire class
period or a few times a week for ½ a class
period
Implications
• Exceptional Children’s teachers in North Carolina
are reporting all too often the hardships they face
due to the lack of available resources
• The state must do all within its means to secure
the necessary funding of exceptional children so
that no child has to use materials that are worn,
out of date, or even worse, contain information
that is no longer current
• It is painfully obvious that state funds are
insufficient to meet the needs of North Carolina’s
exceptional children by providing them the
resources that are required for a sound education
What EC teachers are
Saying
• Success must never be based on
single test scores
• No other issue has raised more
concern with EC teachers than that
of paperwork
• HUGE SHORTAGE!!
What about Gifted and Talented
Students?
• IDEA does not provide for special
education for these students
• Only 30 states mandate education of
students who are gifted and talented
• Important to note that sometimes
students with disabilities are also
gifted and talented
What is Giftedness?
• Gifted and talented students are those identified
by professionally qualified persons who by virtue
of outstanding abilities are capable of high
performance
• Giftedness is evidence of advanced development
across intellectual areas, within a specific
academic or arts-related area, or unusual
organizational power to bring about desired
results
• These children may require differentiated
educational programs and services beyond those
normally provided by the regular school program
in order to realize their contribution to self and
society
Prevalence
• Estimates vary considerably due to
disagreement over definition
• On average, school districts serve
12% of students under the “gifted”
label
• Depending on the state, the
prevalence may range from 2 to 22%
of students being served
Characteristics
• Students who are gifted usually display
curiosity, a strong need to know and to
understand how the world works
• A student who is gifted may understand
language and mathematics at an earlier
age than is typical and become known to
parents and teachers by these skills
• They may bring high energy levels to
school tasks, may display characteristics
of perfectionism
Educational Practices
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ability Grouping
Full time or part time separate classes
Specialized schools
Cluster Grouping
Inclusive practices
Acceleration
Enrichment
Differentiation
Individual Differences
(Student Diversity)
Individual
Differences
Factors
Benefits of
Diversity in the
Classroom
Classroom
Strategies for
Student
Diversity
Individual Differences
Factors
Socioeconomic Status
Thinking/Learning Style
Exceptionalities
Benefits of Diversity
in the Classroom
Students' self-awareness is
enhanced by diversity
Student diversity contributes to
cognitive development
Benefits of Diversity
in the Classroom
and
cross-cultural
Classroom Strategies
for Student Diversity
Aside from highlighting diversity,
identify
patterns
of
unity
that
the
illustrate
examples
concepts
you
in
use
to
order
to
SENSORY PREFERENCES
Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two
types of sensory input and maintain a dominance
in one of the following types :
-Visual Learners
- Auditory Learners
- Tactile/ Kinesthetic Learners
Visual learners- tend to learn better
when a variety of visual aids are used.
Visual- iconic
-refers to those who are
more interested in visual imagery such
as film, graphic displays, pictures.
Visual- symbolic
- refers to those who feel
comfortable with abstract symbolism
such as mathematical formula or the
written word.
AUDITORY LEARNERS- recieve information best by
listening.
Listeners
- they remember things said
to them and make the information their own.
Talkers
- they are the one who
prefer to talk and discuss. ( auditory- verbal
processors)
Tactile/ kinesthetic learnersthey tend to prefer learning by
doing/ experiencing things.
Characteristics of tactile learners:
- Is good at sports.
- Can’t sit still for long.
- Is not great at spelling.
- Does not have great handwriting.
- Like science lab.
- Studies with loud music on.
- Like adventure books, movies.
- Likes role playing.
- Takes breaks when studying.
- Builds models.
- Is involved in martial arts, dance
- Is fidgety during lectures.
Global–analytic continuum
analytic- they tend
toward the linear, step- by- step
processes of learning. (tree seers)
Global- they lean towards
non- linear thought and tend to
see the whole pattern rather than
particle elements.
(forest seers)
Left- brain/
right- brain continuum
left- brained PERSON- is
portrayed as the linear.
(analytic)
right- brained person- is
viewed as non- linear. (global)
Successive processor (left
brain)
- details leading to a
conceptual understanding.
SIMULTANEOUS PROCESSOR
(RIGHT BRAIN)
- general concept going on
to specifics.
LEFT BRAIN( ANALYTIC)
Successive Hemispheric
Style
1. VERBAL
2. RESPONDS TO WORD
MEANING
3. SEQUENTIAL
4. PROSESSES INFORMATION
LINEARLY
5. RESPONDS TO LOGIC
6. PLANS AHEAD
7. RECALLS PEOPLE’S NAME
8. SPEAKS WITH FEW GESTURES
9. PUNCTUAL
10. PREFERS FORMAL STUDY
DESIGN
11. PREFERS BRIGHT LIGHTS
WHILE STUDYING.
right brain(global)
Simultaneous Hemispheric
Style
1.
2.
3.
4.
VISUAL
RESPONDS TO TONE OF VOICE
RANDOM
PROCESSES INFORMATION
IN VARIED ORDER
5. RESPONDS TO EMOTION
6. IMPULSIVE
7. RECALLS PEOPLE FACES
8. GESTURES WHEN SPEAKING
9. LESS PUNCTUAL
10. PREFERS SOUND/ MUSIC
BACKGROUND WHILE
STUDYING
11. PREFERS FREQUENT MOBILITY
WHILE STUDYING
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
- is an educational theory, first developed by Howard
Gardner, that describes an array of different kinds of
intelligences exhibited by human beings.
Howard Gardner
- he believes that different intelligences may be
independent abilities and all of us possess the
intelligences but in varying degrees of strength and skill.
- the theory was first laid out in Gardner’s 1983
book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences and has been further refined in subsequent
years.
intelligences
- an ability or set of abilities that allows a person
to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in one
or more cultures.
9 DISTINCT FORMS OF INTELLIGENCE
1.VISUAL/ SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE
(pICTURE SMART)
- learning visually and organizing ideas
spatially.
2.VERBAL/ LINGUISTIC (WORD SMART)
- learning through the spoken and written
word.
3. MATHEMATICAL/ LOGICAL ( NUMBER SMART/ LOGIC
SMART)
- learning through reasoning and problem solving.
4. BODILY/ KINESTHETIc ( BODY SMART)
- learning through interaction with one’s
environment.
5. MUSICAL (MUSIC SMART)
- learning through patterns, rhythms and music.
6. INTRAPERSONAl (SELF SMART)
- learning through feelings, values and attitudes.
7. INTERPERSONAL (PEOPLE SMART)
- learning through interaction with others.
8. NATURALIST (NATURE SMART)
- learning through classification,categories and
hierarchies.
9. EXISTENTIAL (SPIRIT SMART)
- learning by seeing the “big picture”
Students with Exceptionalities
What is Special Education?
• Specially designed instruction, at no cost
to the parents, to meet the unique needs
of a child with a disability
• Before 1975 and the passage of the first
federal special education law, four million
children with disabilities did not receive
the help they needed in school and
another one million were completely
excluded from school
Discrimination and the
Beginning of Change
• Shortly after the 1954 Brown vs. Board of
Education decision clarifying that “separate
cannot be equal,” some professionals began
questioning
whether
separate
classes
provided students with disabilities with an
appropriate education
• After decades of research, what had become
clear was that the special education was not
just a means of assisting children with
disabilities; it had also become a means of
discriminating against students who might be
perceived by educators as more challenging
to reach
Prevalence of Students with
Disabilities
• Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it
has been estimated that between 10 and 13
percent of the school-age population has
exceptionalities. Thus, in an average-size
classroom of 25 students, it is conceivable
that 3 or 4 individuals will exhibit one or more
exceptionalities
• Students with specific learning disabilities
represent approximately half of all those
receiving special education, followed by
speech or language impairments, mental
retardation, and emotional disabilities
Prevalence of Students with
Disabilities
• In the past decade, the number of
students
indentified
in
having
disabilities has grown significantly
• Some suggest that this increase is in
part because of the desire on the part
of educators and parents to give help
to struggling students
• What other factors do you think might
contribute to this rise?
Providing an Unwavering
Commitment
• At no point in history have we, as a nation,
taken such bold and noble measures to
mandate the educational rights of all
children, including those with disabilities
and exceptionalities
• Under the Individuals with Disabilities Act
and the guarantee for a free and
appropriate public education, the courts
have repeatedly and consistently ruled
that schools simply must provide the
necessary resources to teach all children,
regardless of the physical or mental
The Law and Exceptional Children
• PL 94-142 Education for all handicapped
children act (1975)
• First law to clearly define the rights of disabled
children to free appropriate public education
• It requires the school systems to include the
parents when meeting about the child or making
decisions about his/ her education
• It mandated an individualized education program
(IEP) which must include short and long term
goals
• It also requires that the child be placed in the
least restrictive environment
Least Restrictive
Environment
• "Least restrictive environment" means that a
student who has a disability should have the
opportunity to be educated with non-disabled
peers, to the greatest extent possible.
• They should have access to the general education
curriculum, extracurricular activities, or any other
program that non-disabled peers would be able to
access
• The student should be provided with
supplementary aids and services necessary to
achieve educational goals if placed in a setting
with non-disabled peers
Individualized Education Program
(IEP)
• If team members decide that a student is eligible
for special education, they then prepare an IEP
• This document summarizes all of the information
gathered concerning the student, sets the
expectations of what the student will learn over
the next year, and it prescribes the types and
amount of special services the student will
receive.
• Must be received and updated annually
Required Components of an
IEP
• Must address how the student’s disability
affects involvement and progress in the
general education
• Annual goals and short term objectives
• Supplementary aids and services, assistive
technology, participation with peers who
do not have disabilities, accommodations
for testing, dates of effectiveness of IEP
The Law and Exceptional
Children
• PL 98-199 Education of the Handicapped
Act Amendments (1983)
• Allows for federal funding to create parent
training and information centers so that
parents can learn how to protect the rights
of their child
• Also provided financial incentives for
transition services from school to adult
living for students with disabilities
The Law and Exceptional
Children
• PL 101-476 Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA)(1990)
• Renamed earlier laws and their
amendments
• More importantly, it replaced the word
“handicapped” with the word “disabled”,
therefore expanding services for these
students
• It strengthened the law’s commitment to
greater inclusion in community schools
Accomplishments and
Disappointments of Special
Education Law
• The passage of federal special education
law was revolutionary and it had many
positive effects; many students who had
been completely left out of the public
school system were now guaranteed an
education
• However, the passage of the law did not
address all the issues of educating
students with disabilities
Confidentiality
• IDEA specifies that information
regarding a student’s disability is
highly confidential
• That information may not be shared
with anyone who is not directly
working with the student
• Once records are not longer needed,
a procedure must be in place so that
they are destroyed
Who Receives Special
• Hearing
Education?
• Specific learning
disabilities
• Speech or
language
impairments
• Mental retardation
• Emotional
disturbance
• Deaf/ blindness
(both)
• Visual impairments
•
•
•
•
•
•
impairments
Orthopedic
impairments
Other health
impairments
Autism
Traumatic brain
injury
Multiple disabilities
Developmental
delays
Educational Practices
• Inclusive Practices…lots of debates!
• Inclusion is a belief system shared by every
member of a school as a learning community
about the responsibility of educating all students
so that they can reach their potential.
• Inclusion encompasses students who are gifted
and talented, those who are at risk for failure
because of their life circumstances, those with
disabilities, and those who are average learners.
• Accommodations…mark in book, separate
setting, extended time, read alouds, reduced
number of items per page, alternate test
Inclusion
• In today’s schools, what is considered
inclusive practice varies widely depending
on state and local policies related to
inclusion, the resources available, teacher
and administrator understanding and
commitment, and parent and community
support
• It may look like an EC teacher who is in
your room every day for the entire class
period or a few times a week for ½ a class
period
Implications
• Exceptional Children’s teachers in North Carolina
are reporting all too often the hardships they face
due to the lack of available resources
• The state must do all within its means to secure
the necessary funding of exceptional children so
that no child has to use materials that are worn,
out of date, or even worse, contain information
that is no longer current
• It is painfully obvious that state funds are
insufficient to meet the needs of North Carolina’s
exceptional children by providing them the
resources that are required for a sound education
What EC teachers are
Saying
• Success must never be based on
single test scores
• No other issue has raised more
concern with EC teachers than that
of paperwork
• HUGE SHORTAGE!!
What about Gifted and Talented
Students?
• IDEA does not provide for special
education for these students
• Only 30 states mandate education of
students who are gifted and talented
• Important to note that sometimes
students with disabilities are also
gifted and talented
What is Giftedness?
• Gifted and talented students are those identified
by professionally qualified persons who by virtue
of outstanding abilities are capable of high
performance
• Giftedness is evidence of advanced development
across intellectual areas, within a specific
academic or arts-related area, or unusual
organizational power to bring about desired
results
• These children may require differentiated
educational programs and services beyond those
normally provided by the regular school program
in order to realize their contribution to self and
society
Prevalence
• Estimates vary considerably due to
disagreement over definition
• On average, school districts serve
12% of students under the “gifted”
label
• Depending on the state, the
prevalence may range from 2 to 22%
of students being served
Characteristics
• Students who are gifted usually display
curiosity, a strong need to know and to
understand how the world works
• A student who is gifted may understand
language and mathematics at an earlier
age than is typical and become known to
parents and teachers by these skills
• They may bring high energy levels to
school tasks, may display characteristics
of perfectionism
Educational Practices
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ability Grouping
Full time or part time separate classes
Specialized schools
Cluster Grouping
Inclusive practices
Acceleration
Enrichment
Differentiation
MODULE 10
ALBINO, Anne Marie
CANICULA, Marielle
CORDOBA, Joel Mari
DELA CRUZ, Mikko
and
SUAREZ, Rafael Lawrence
together with
Theories of Learning
Edward Chace
Tolman
Edward Chace Tolman
(1886-1959)
• Born in Newton,
Massachusetts
• Received academic
degrees in
Electrochemistry and
Psychology (M.A. 1912,
Ph.D. 1915)
• He was released from
Northwestern University
for “lack of teaching
• His theory of learning can be
looked on as a blend of Gestalt
theory and behaviorism
• He saw little value in the
introspective approach
• He agreed on molar behavior
rather than molecular behavior
Molar Behavior
• Purposive
• Tolman’s major work was entitled
Purposive Behavior in Animals and
Men
• Related to the Gestalt theory
• Tolman felt that whole behavior
patterns had a meaning that would
be lost if studied from an elementistic
viewpoint
• It is in contrast with the idea of
molecular behavior
Purposive Behaviorism
• Explains goal-directed behavior
• behavior is PURPOSIVE, COGNITIVE &
MOLAR
H = heredity
A = age
T = previous training
E = special endocrine, drug, or
vitamin conditions
Intervening Variables
• Created by the theorist to aid in
explaining the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables
• In-between behavior and environmental
and individual difference variables
• Examples: Demand, Appetite,
Differentiation, Motor Skill, Hypotheses,
Biases
Behaviorist
Perspective
Pavlov,Thorndike,Watson
,Skinner
Behaviorism:
Behaviorism
• focuses on the study of observable and
measurable behavior.
•It emphasizes that behavior is mostly
learned through conditioning
and
reinforcement
(
rewards
and
punishment )
•It does not give much attention to the
mind , and the possibility of thought
processes occurring in the mind.
•Contributions in the development of the
behaviorist theory largely
came from
Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
•a Russian psychologist is
well known for his work in
classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution.
Ivan
Pavlov
•Most renowned
experiment involved
meat, a dog and a bell.
Measuring the dog’s
salivation in order to
study digestion.
Classical
Conditioning
•Stimulus generalization- once the
dog has learned to salivate at the
sound of the bell, it will salivate at
other similar sound.
•Extinction- if you stop pairing the
bell with the food, salivation will
eventually cease in response to the
bell.
•Spontaneous
recoveryextinguished
responses
can
be
recovered after an elapsed time, but
will soon extinguish again if the dog
is not presented with food.
•Discrimination- the dog could
learn to discriminate between
similar bells and discern which bell
would result in the presentation of
food and which would not.
•Higher-order conditioning- once
the dog has been conditioned to
associate the bell with the food,
another unconditioned stimulus,
such as a light may be flashed at
the same time that the bell is rung.
Eventually the dog will salivate at
the flash of the light without the
Edwar
d
Thornd
ike
Burrhus
Frederi
ck
Skinner
operant conditioning
•Reinforcement
+R-any stimulus
given or added to
increase the response.
-R- any stimulus
that results in the
increased frequency
of a response when it
is withdrawn or
removed.
Albert Bandura:
Social / Observational Learning
• Basic Premise
• We learn behavior through observation
• Vicarious reinforcement: Learn through
observing consequences of behaviors of
others
• Modelling
• Observe behavior of others and repeat the
behavior
• Bobo doll studies (1963)
• Disinhibition: Weakening of inhibition
through exposure to a model
Factors Influencing Modeling:
Impact Tendency to Imitate
• Characteristics of the models:
similarity, age, sex, status, prestige,
simple vs. complex behavior
• Characteristics of observers: Low
self-confidence, low self-esteem,
reinforcement for imitation
• Reward consequences of behavior:
Directly witnessing associated
rewards
The Observational Learning Process:
4 Steps
•
•
•
•
Attentional processes
Retention processes
Production processes
Incentive and motivational processes
Step 1: Attentional
Processes
• Developing cognitive processes to
pay attention to a model- more
developed processes allow for better
attention
• Must observe the model accurately
enough to imitate behavior
Step 2: Retention Processes
• To later imitate behavior, must
remember aspects of the behavior
• Retain information in 2 ways:
– Imaginal internal representation: Visual
image Ex: Forming a mental picture
– Verbal system: Verbal description of
behavior Ex: Silently rehearsing steps in
behavior
Step 3: Production Processes
• Taking imaginal and verbal
representations and translating into
overt behavior- practice behaviors
• Receive feedback on accuracy of
behavior- how well have you imitated
the modeled behavior?
• Important in mastering difficult skills
– Ex: Driving a car
Step 4: Incentive and Motivational
Processes
• With incentives, observation more
quickly becomes action, pay more
attention, retain more information
• Incentive to learn influenced by
anticipated reinforcements
Aspects of the Self: Selfreinforcement and Self-efficacy
• Self-reinforcement: Rewards or
punishments given to oneself for reaching,
exceeding or falling short of personal
expectations
– Ex: Pride, shame, guilt
• Low self-efficacy
– Feel unable to exercise control over life
– Low confidence, believe all efforts are futile
Sources of Information in
Determining Self-efficacy
• Performance attainment
– Most influential
– Role of feedback
– More we achieve, more we believe we
can achieve
– Leads to feelings of competency and
control
Sources of Information in
Determining Self-efficacy
• Vicarious experience
– Seeing others perform successfully
– If they can, I can too
• Verbal persuasion
– Verbal reminders of abilities
– Middle adulthood:
• Adjustment: Reevaluate career, family life
• Need to find opportunities to continue to
enhance self-efficacy
Developmental Stages of Modeling
and Self-efficacy
• Old age:
– Decline in mental/physical function,
retirement
– Requires reappraisal of abilities
– Belief in ability to perform a task is key
throughout the lifespan
Application of Social Learning
Theory: Behavior Modification
• Fears and phobias
– Guided participation: Observe and
imitate
– Covert modeling: Imaginal
• Anxiety
– Fear of medical treatment
– Test anxiety
Assessment of Bandura’s Theory:
Self-efficacy
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Law of Proximity
Law of Similarity
Law of Closure
Law of Good Continuation
Law of Good Pragnanz
Law of Figure / Ground
Law of
Proximity
Elements
that are closer
together will
be perceived
as a coherent
object.
Law of
Similarity
Elements
that look
similar will be
perceived as
part of the
same form.
Law of
Closure
We tend to
fill the gaps or
“close” the
figures we
perceive.
Law of Good
Continuation
Individuals
have the
tendency to
continue
contours
whenever the
elements of
the pattern
establish an
implied
direction.
Law of Good
Pragnanz
The stimulus
will be
organized into
as good a
figure as
possible.
Law of
Figure /
Ground
We tend to
pay attention
and perceive
things in the
foreground
first.
Gestalt Principles and
the Teaching-Learning
Process
He
was
Department
on
of
the
faculty
Psychology
at
in
the
Harvard
In 1960, he published
The
Process
of
Gardner
and
other
young
2. Iconic Representation
This second stage is when learning can be
obtained through using models and pictures.
3. Symbolic
In this Representation
third stage, the learner has
teaching
the
same
content
in
introduced
the
ideas
of
Structure of Knowledge
The
ways
in
which
body
of
characteristics
for
criteria,
equivalent
which
by
render
emotional
terms of similarities in
differences.
This
is
contribution
to
how
valuable
individuals
Meaningful
Meaningful
Reception
Reception
LearningTheory
Theory
Learning
Instructional materials :
– should attempt to integrate new material with
previously presented information
– Using comparisons and cross-referencing of
new and old ideas.
Principles
Principles of
of Ausubel's
Ausubel's
Meaningful
Meaningful Reception
Reception
Learning
Learning Theory
Theory within
within aa
classroom
classroom setting
setting
•
Advance organizers :
– Instructors should incorporate advance
organizers when teaching a new concept
Examples :
– Instructors should use a number of examples
and focus on both similarities and differences.
The most
important single
factor influencing
learning is what
the learner
already knows..
Gagné’s Conditions
of Learning
What is
learning?
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
- it emphasizes that knowledge exists in
a social context and is initially shared
with others.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM
1. Learners construct understanding.
2. New learning depends on current
understanding.
3. Learning is facilitated by social
interaction.
ORGANIZING
KNOWLEDGE
People store knowledge in
many different ways.
CONCEPTS
- is a way of grouping or
categorizing objects or events
in our mind.
Concepts as feature lists
- involves learning specific features that
characterize positive instance of the
concept.
DEFINING FEATURE- characteristics
present in all instances.
CORRELATIONAL FEATURE- is one
that is present in many positive instances
but not essential for concept
membership.
Concepts as prototypes
prototype- is an idea or a
visual image of a “typical
example”.
Concepts as exemplars
exemplars- represent a
variety of examples.
SCHEMA
- is an organized body of knowledge
about something.
SCRIPT
- is a schema that includes a series of
predictable events about a specific
activity
.
What is transfer of learning?
• “Transfer of learning is about how teachers
want their students to apply the knowledge and
the skills they learn in class to other situation.”
TYPES OF
LEARNING
CONDITIONS AND
PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING
• Happens when learning in one
context or with one set of materials
affects performance in another
context or with other related
materials.
• It is applying to another situation
what was previously learned.
• The circumstance of learning differs
significantly from situations when
what is learned is to be applied.
• The educational goals are not met
until transfer occurs. that's why
transfer of learning is a very
important aspect of instruction..
• Positive transfer
occurs when learning in one context improves
performance in some other context.
• Negative transfer
Refers to transfer between very similar
contexts. Also referred to as specific transfer.
• Far transfer
• Refers to transfer between context that on
appearance seem remote and alien to one
another. Also called as general transfer
These principles are based on the
factors that affect transfer of learning.
Conditions/ factors
affecting transfer
of learning
Principle of
transfer
Implication
Involve students in
learning situations
and tasks that are
similar as possible to
the situations where
they would apply the
task
Degree of
meaningfulness/
relevance of learning
Meaningful learning
leads to greater
transfer than rote
learning
Remember to provide
opportunities for
learners to link new
material to what they
learned in the past
Length of
instructional time
To ensure transfer,
teach a few topics in
depth rather than
many topics tackled
in a shallow manner
Similarity between
two learning
situations
Conditions/ factors
affecting transfer of
learning
Principle of transfer
Implication
Variety of learning
experiences
Exposure to many
examples and
opportunities for
practice to encourage
transfer
Transfer of learning is
most likely to happen
when learners discover
that what they learned
is applicable to various
contexts
Focus on principles
rather than task
Principles transfer
easier that facts.
Zero in on principles
related to each topic
together with strategies
based on those
principle s.
Emphasis on
metacognition
Student reflection
improves transfer of
Encourage students to
take responsibility for
MODULE 19
Facilitating Learning and
Bloom’s Taxonomy’s of
Objectives
Levels of Bloom’s
Taxonomy
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Knowledge
• remembering
•Memorizing
•Recognizing
•Recalling identification and
•Recall of information
Comprehension
• Interpreting
• Translating from one medium to
another
• Describing in ones own words
• Organization and selection of facts
and ideas
Application
• Problem solving
• Applying information to produce
some result
• Use of facts, rules and principles
Analysis
• Subdividing something to show how it is
put together
• Finding the underlying structure of a
communication
• Identifying motives
• Separation of a whole into component parts
Synthesis
• Creating a unique, original product
that may be in verbal form or may be
a physical object
• Combination of ideas to form a new
whole
Evaluation
• Making value decisions about issues
• Resolving controversies or
differences of opinion
• Development of opinions,
judgements or decisions
Effective Questioning Techniques
• Pose the question first, before asking
a student to respond.
• Allow plenty of “think time” by
waiting at least 7-10 seconds before
expecting students to respond.
• Make sure you give all students the
opportunity to respond rather than
relying on volunteers.
• Hold students accountable by
expecting, requiring, and facilitating
their participation and contributions.
• Establish a safe atmosphere for risk
taking by guiding students in the
process of learning from their mistakes
Torrance’s Creativity Framework
• “father of Creativity”
• “professor of emeritus”
of educational
psychology
• The “Torrance Tests of
Creative Thinking”
FLUENCY
• Many responses within a category
For example…
…
…typing
styles
…typing
styles
…
…typing
…
…typing
styles
styles
…
…typing
styles
FLEXIBILITY
• Stretching or shifting the mind to
generate a variety of categories
For example…
…typing cases
…typing styles
…typing
…typing sizes
sizes
ELABORATE
• Adding details for interest or
clarity
For example…
•
•
•
•
•
Punishment
Withdrawal
Privileges
Censure
Ostracism
We may begin employing
extrinsic motivation at the start
but this should fade away as
the students get intrinsically
motivated themselves. It plays
a significant role in the
development of motivated
students.
“Theories on Factors
Affecting
Motivation”
Factors Affecting
Motivation
– these are the elements that
contributes to a particular
result that affects motivation.
Attribution Theory
- explains that we attribute our successes or
failures or other events to several factors. For
instance, you attribute your popularity to your
popular parents or to your own sterling
academic performance. Or you attribute the
poor economic condition you are in to the Land
Reform of the Phil. Gov’t. (your lands were
subjected to land reform) or to the vices of your
father. These attributions differ from one
another in three ways – locus, stability, and
controllability (Ormsrod, 2004).
Locus (“place”): Internal vs. external.
If your student traces his good grade to
his ability and to his work, he attributes
his good grade to internal factors. If your
student, however, claims that his good
grade is due to the effective teaching of
his teacher or to the adequate library
facilities, he attributes his good grades to
factors external to himself.
Stability Stable vs. unstable.
If you attribute your poor eyesight to what
you have inherited from your parents, then
you are attributing the cause of your sickness
to something stable, something that cannot
change because it is in your genes. If you
attribute it to excessive watching of tv, then
you are claiming that your poor eyesight is
caused by an unstable factor, something that
can change. (You can prolong or shorten your
period of watching tv).
Controllability: Controllable vs.
uncontrollable.
S
M
A
R
T
- smart
- measurable
- attainable
- result-oriented
- time-bound
• Students are more likely to be
intrinsically motivated when they are
motivated towards deep mastery of a
topic, instead of just rote-learning
performance to get good grades.
Students’
diversity in
motivation
What are the factors that
influences students
motivation?
Students who, by themselves are
already as diverse, also differ in
motivation.
These diversity in motivation may
be traced to differences in age,
developmental stage, gender, socioeconomic and cultural background.
How these factors
influences student’s
motivation?
Our class is a conglomerate of
students with varying ages, and
gender and cultural and
socioeconomic background.
Their motivational drives reflect the
element of the culture in which they
grow up – family, their friends, school,
books and even church.
To motivate all of them for learning,
it is best to employ differentiated
approaches.
As the adage goes . . .
“Different folks, different
strokes”
meaning . . .
What is medicine for one may
be poison to others.
There are two principles to
consider regarding social and
cultural influences on motivation.
1.Students are most likely to model
the behaviors they believe are
relevant to their situation.
2.Students develop greater efficacy
for a task when they see others
like themselves performing the
task successfully.(Ormrod, 2004)
1. Students need models who are
similar to themselves in terms of
race, cultural background,
socioeconomic status, gender, and (
if applicable) disability.
(Ormrod,2004.)
2. It must be good to expose our
students to models of their age and
to models who come from similar
cultural, socioeconomic
backgrounds.
Do we have to limit ourselves
to live models?
Not necessarily. We can make
our students read biographies and
autobiographies of successful
individuals who were in situations
similar to them.
MODULE 24
Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation
The Classroom
climate
Points to Ponder . . .
1.What is a classroom
climate that facilitates
learning?
2. What takes place in a
classroom where a business-
What is a classroom?
It is a physical space where
learning is facilitated. It is a place
where classes meet.
What is climate?
It is the prevailing influence or
environmental conditions
characterizing a group or period. It
is synonymous to atmosphere.
What is a classroom climate?
The classroom climate is more a product
of the interaction between and among
teacher and students than that of the
physical condition of the classroom.
The physical condition of the classroom
may exert an influence on the social
interaction among the personalities in
class but it may not contribute as much
as the classroom social interaction does.
Going back to question number 1:
PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT
Diagnosis
Placement
Effectiveness of the Program
Student Feedback
Research
Researched-Based Principle of
Assessment for Learning
Assessment for learning:
Assessment for learning should be
part of effective planning and learning
Focuses on how students learn.
Assessment for learning should focus
on how student learn.
Is central to classroom practice.
Assessment of learning should be
considered central to classroom practice.
Is a key professional skill.
Assessment of learning should be
considered as a key professional skill
for teachers.
Is sensitive and constructive.
Assessment of learning must be
sensitive and constructive because
assessment has an emotional impact.
FOSTER MOTIVATION.
PREAMBLE
Teachers
are
duly
licensed
professionals who possess dignity and
reputation with high moral values as
well as technical and professional
competence. In the practice of their
noble profession, they strictly adhere
to, observe, and practice this set of
ethical and moral principles, standard,
and values.
Assessment
Assessmentfor
forlearning
learningisismore
morein
in
line
with
Authentic
Assessment.
line with Authentic Assessment.
Sometimes
Sometimesreferred
referredto
toas
as
alternative
alternativeassessment,
assessment,
authentic
authenticassessment
assessmentseeks
seeksto
to
directly
directlyassess
assessstudent
studentperformance
performance
through
real-life
tasks
or
products.
through real-life tasks or products.
Example:
Example:tasks
tasksand
andrubrics,
rubrics,and
and
portfolios
portfolios
ARTICLE 1
Scope and Limitations
Section 2: This Code covers all public
and private school teachers in all
educational
institutions
at
the
preschool, primary, elementary, and
secondary levels whether academic,
vocational, special, technical or nonformal. The term “teacher” shall
include industrial art or vocational
teachers
and
all
other
persons
performing supervisory and / or
administrative functions in all school
at the aforesaid levels, whether on
full-time or part-time basis.
Diagnosis – used to determine any
special learning need that a learner may
have
Placement – the learner can be placed in
the best learning environment where he
can better learn ands develop.
Effectiveness of the Program – can also
provide data about how a particular
curriculum or program is effective in
meeting its goals
Student Feedback – used to
communicate to the learner his current
level of performance, specifically his
strong and weak points.
Research – can also be used as a source
of very useful data in a wide range
topics in the field of educational
Researched-Based Principles of
Assessment for Learning
The group proposed 10
principles. According to
them, assessment for
learning:
1. Is part of effective planning. There
and a shared
which they are