Wear 252 (2002) 832–841

A comparison of the reciprocating sliding wear behaviour of steel based

metal matrix composites processed from self-propagating
high-temperature synthesised Fe–TiC and Fe–TiB2 masteralloys
C.C. Degnan, P.H. Shipway∗
Advanced Materials Group, School of Mechanical, Materials, Manufacturing Engineering and Management,
University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
Received 2 November 2001; received in revised form 25 February 2002; accepted 12 March 2002

Abstract
Steel matrix particulate composites were processed by direct addition of various powders to molten medium carbon steel. Fe–TiC and
Fe–TiB2 powders were produced using a self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) reaction and consisted of a dispersion of fine
TiC (5–10 ␮m) and TiB2 particles (2–5 ␮m), respectively in an iron binder.
Addition of the Fe–TiC powder to the steel resulted in the formation of a metal matrix composite containing a homogeneous dispersion
of TiC particles. However, addition of the Fe–TiB2 powder resulted in the formation of a parasitic Fe2 B phase and TiC within the steel
microstructure. In response to this an SHS masteralloy composed of Fe–(50% TiB2 + 50%Ti) was manufactured which, when added to
steel, prevented the formation of Fe2 B and resulted in a composite containing a mixture of TiB2 and TiC particles.
Dry reciprocating sliding wear behaviour of the three composite materials and their unreinforced counterpart was investigated at room
temperature against a white cast iron counterface. Relative wear behaviour of the materials varied as a function of load. In all cases, the
composite manufactured by addition of Fe–TiB2 (yielding Fe2 B and TiC phases in the steel) exhibited wear rates greater than three times
that of the unreinforced alloy. However, improvements in wear resistance over the base steel of up to two and a half times were observed
with the other composites where the desired TiC and/or TiB2 phases were retained in the steel. Scanning electron microscopy has been used
to interpret wear behaviour in relation to both the as-cast microstructures of the composites and the wear scar microstructures observed.
© 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Reciprocating sliding; SHS; TiB2 ; TiC; Composites

1. Introduction
It is well established that the incorporation of hard,
second-phase particles deliberately added to ferrous matri-
ces can significantly improve certain material properties. In
this class of engineering materials, iron-based composites
containing TiC have received particular attention [1–3].
They exhibit the toughness and machinability associated
with conventional alloy steels combined with significant
improvements in hardness and wear resistance.
The addition of titanium diboride (TiB2 ) to metal matrices
has also been observed to greatly increase stiffness, hardness
and wear resistance. Historically, much of the work in this
field has been directed at aluminium based materials [4–6]
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-115-951-3760;
fax: +44-115-951-3764.
E-mail address: philip.shipway@nottingham.ac.uk (P.H. Shipway).
but more recently studies using copper [7,8] and ferrous
based matrices have been performed [9,10].
Conventional production routes used to fabricate these
composite materials, such as powder metallurgy, are usu-
ally energy and capital intensive and prove difficult to scale
up for large components. Self-propagating high-temperature
synthesis (SHS) [11] provides an economical and energy
efficient process route for the preparation of various hard
ceramic particles that can be subsequently incorporated in
a metallic matrix. Numerous investigators have produced
iron–titanium carbide (Fe–TiC) by the thermal explosion
mode of synthesis [12,13]; this results in a product consist-
ing of TiC particles embedded in an iron matrix. Addition
of this masteralloy material to molten iron or steel results in
the iron binder melting which enables the particles of TiC
to disperse throughout the host metal.
Analogous SHS routes have been successfully employed
in the production of Fe–TiB2 masteralloys [14]. However,
previous studies [15,16] have shown that addition of TiB2

0043-1648/02/$ – see front matter © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 5 1 - 0
 C.C. Degnan, P.H. Shipway / Wear 252 (2002) 832–841 833

particles to steel results not in the direct dispersion of the

borides throughout the host matrix, but rather in the forma-
tion of iron boride (Fe2 B) and titanium carbide. Controversy
exists regarding the mechanism by which these phases orig-
inate. Sigl and Schwetz [17] and Jungling et al. [18] propose
that C reacts with TiB2 and Fe, which results in the forma-
tion of TiC and Fe2 B. Tanaka and Saito [15] are in agreement
with this but go further, proposing that oxygen (present as
an impurity) can consume Ti and lead to a deviation in TiB2
stoichiometry. This subsequently leads to excess B, which
reacts with Fe to form Fe2 B. On the contrary, other studies
[19] claim that a significant proportion of Ti dissolves in Fe
and is in equilibrium with TiB2 . They conclude that Fe2 B is
essential to retain the stiochiometric composition of TiB2 .
In the present study, Fe–TiC and Fe–TiB2 master alloys
were introduced into a medium carbon, low alloy steel matrix
using a liquid route. Experiments in which excess Ti was
incorporated into Fe–TiB2 master alloy in order to avoid the
formation of Fe2 B were also performed. This paper reports
on the comparative dry reciprocating sliding wear behaviour
of the resulting composites.

2. Experimental details

2.1. Materials

Stoichiometric iron–titanium carbide (Fe–TiC) and

Fe–TiB2 masteralloy powders were manufactured using
combustion mode SHS and contained 70 wt.% titanium
carbide and titanium diboride, respectively. The Fe–TiC
additive powder (Fig. 1a) consists of globular, non-faceted
TiC particles (5–10 ␮m in diameter) surrounded by a ma-
trix of iron. Fig. 1b shows the typical microstructure of
the Fe–70 wt.% TiB2 master alloy powder additive and
consists of a dispersion of 2–5 ␮m faceted TiB2 particles
(darker phase) in a matrix of iron. EDX chemical analysis
of the ferrous binder phase revealed it to contain around
3.5 wt.% Ti. The hexagonal based morphology exhibited by
the borides is consistent with the crystal structure of TiB2 ,
i.e. hexagonal. Fig. 1. SHS derived powders composed of (a) Fe–70 wt.% TiC, (b)
Fe–70 wt.% TiB2 and (c) Fe–70 wt.% (50 wt.% TiB2 + 50 wt.% Ti).
The masteralloy powder containing excess titanium was
composed of Fe–70 wt.% (50 wt.% TiB2 + 50 wt.% Ti) and
is shown in Fig. 1c. Its microstructure is analogous, in many
respects, to that of its stoichiometric counterpart. The mor- liquid medium carbon steel (BS970:080M15) with chemical
phology of the titanium borides, for instance, is comparable, composition, Fe–0.2 wt.% C, 0.25 wt.% Si, 0.7 wt.% Mn,
although their size is more varied, from <0.5 to 10 ␮m. The 0.06 wt.% S, 0.06 wt.% P. In order to compare like with
matrix surrounding the TiB2 dispersoids, however, is very like, masteralloy additions to the steel were made on a mole
inhomogeneous. Areas of almost pure titanium metal exist percent basis. Addition levels of 3.5 mol% TiB2 and TiC
alongside iron titanium intermetallics and mixtures which were used, which equate to approximately 4.3 and 3.7 wt.%,
encompass a broad spectrum of stoichiometry. This can be respectively. The same mol% TiB2 level was maintained for
mainly attributed to the titanium diluting the pre-mix, result- the addition of the masteralloy containing 50 wt.% excess Ti.
ing in lower combustion temperatures, incomplete melting Composite processing was performed in a solid state
and unstable combustion characteristics. induction furnace (Inductalec, Sheffield, UK, 300 kHz) in
The composite materials used for wear testing were recrystalised alumina crucibles. Masteralloys were incorpo-
produced by adding the SHS masteralloy powders to a rated into the steel by directly pouring the powders onto the
834 C.C. Degnan, P.H. Shipway / Wear 252 (2002) 832–841
top of the molten steel and stirring with a ceramic impeller.
This was undertaken within the confines of the furnace’s
melting chamber under a protective argon atmosphere. The
melt was held at 1600 ◦ C for 20 min after which time the
furnace was switched off and the composite allowed to
solidify in the crucible. A more detailed description of the
preparation of the additive powders and the method by
which they were incorporated into the steel matrix are given
elsewhere [20].
Wear tests were performed on pins (15 mm long × 6 mm
diameter) which were machined from the composite mate-
rials in the as-cast condition. The rubbing surface of the pin
was ground and polished to a finish of between 0.25 and
0.3 ␮m Ra prior to wear testing. In order to compare the
wear resistance of the base steel with the composites, unre-
inforced pins in the same condition were also manufactured.
The bulk hardness of the TiC, TiB2 and the Ti/TiB2 com-
posite materials was measured to be 230 HV, 298 HV and
245 HV, respectively. The counterface plates were machined
from a high chromium, white cast iron (nominal composi-
tion: Fe–2.7 wt.% C, 0.5 wt.% Si, 0.7 wt.% Mn, 27.0 wt.%
Cr, 1.0 wt.% Ni, 0.5 wt.% Mo, 0.1 wt.% Cu, 0.007 wt.%
Al, 0.01 wt.% S, 0.03 wt.% P) with a measured hardness
of 810 HV. Again, the surface of the plate was ground
to a roughness of between 0.25 and 0.3 ␮m Ra prior to
testing.
2.2. Test equipment
Wear tests were performed on a BICERI pin on plate
type sliding machine which was linked to a data logging
system. This apparatus, shown schematically in Fig. 2,
consists of a stationary pin sliding on a reciprocating plate
with its axis perpendicular to the direction of motion. The
plate is fixed by a holder, which is mounted on a steel
heating block, which in turn is supported on a sliding bed.
The bed, guided by two cylindrical bars, is driven by a
crank mechanism. Wear pins were fixed in a loading arm
to which static weights can be added or removed. This
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of reciprocating wear machine.
set-up generates a sinusoidal motion with an amplitude
of 40 mm.
2.3. Test procedure and characterisation
The experiments were performed under dry sliding condi-
tions at a room temperature of 22–24 ◦ C with a relative hu-
midity of about 50%. All wear experiments were carried out
at a frequency of 2.5 Hz with a mean velocity of 100 mm s−1
over a sliding distance of 1000 m. The normal load was var-
ied from 150 to 600 N (corresponding to nominal pressures
of 5.3–21.2 MPa, respectively).
After the tests, the change in pin length and the corre-
sponding weight loss were recorded. These data were sub-
sequently used in the calculation of wear rates presented in
Section 3 of this paper. The worn surfaces of the pins and
wear debris were examined using a Philips XL30 environ-
mental scanning electron microscope equipped with field
gun emission (ESEM FEG) and an energy dispersive X-ray
(EDX) analyser. Cross-sections taken through the wear sur-
face of the pin, parallel to the direction of sliding were also
examined in order to aid the identification of the surface
degradation process and the dominant wear mechanisms.
Phases present in the composites and the nature of the wear
debris generated during testing were determined by X-ray
diffraction using a Siemens D500 diffractometer with Cu
K␣ radiation.
3. Results
3.1. Composite microstructure
Fig. 3a shows the as-cast 3.5 mol% TiC steel matrix com-
posite which consists of a homogeneous dispersion of car-
bides in a matrix consisting of ferrite and a small quantity
of pearlite. A back scattered electron image of the as-cast
composite material formed when Fe–TiB2 (3.5 mol% TiB2 )
master alloy powder was introduced into the steel is shown
in Fig. 3b. The microstructure consists of a large quantity of
interdendritic eutectic phase together with small quantities
of fine particulate (located within or close to the interface
between the eutectic and the steel dendrites). Larger partic-
ulates can also be within the dendrites of the steel matrix.
Quantitative EDX chemical analysis and X-ray diffraction
revealed the eutectic phase to be Fe2 B whilst the particles,
both large and small, were identified as TiC. Using both these
techniques, no evidence of TiB2 was detected in the compos-
ite structure at this level of master alloy addition. The matrix
material consisted predominantly of ferrite and bainite.
Fig. 3c shows the result of adding the master alloy con-
taining excess 50 wt.% excess Ti, i.e. Fe–70 wt.% (50 wt.%
TiB2 + 50 wt.%Ti) to the medium carbon steel at the
3.5 mol% TiB2 level. The microstructure consists of very
fine dispersion of particles located at interdendritic sites
where, in samples processed using Fe–TiB2 , the Fe2 B
 C.C. Degnan, P.H. Shipway / Wear 252 (2002) 832–841
Fig. 3. Composite microstructures formed by the addition of (a)
Fe–70 wt.% TiC, (b) Fe–70 wt.% TiB2 and (c) Fe–70 wt.% (50 wt.%
TiB2 + 50 wt.% Ti) masteralloy powders to 0.2 wt.% C steel.
phase was located. These particles were identified, by EDX
analysis, to be a mixture of TiC and TiB2 . Larger particles
were also evident in moderate quantities throughout the
microstructure and found to be almost exclusively TiB2 .
XRD of this composite material confirmed the presence of
TiC and TiB2 and, as expected, did not reveal any Fe2 B to
be present. The steel matrix material consisted entirely of
ferrite.
835
3.2. Composite wear behaviour
Fig. 4 plots sliding wear rate versus load for the three
composite materials and the equivalent unreinforced steel.
The most striking feature of this graph is the extremely poor
wear resistance exhibited by the composite formed by the
addition of stoichiometric titanium diboride in the form of
Fe–TiB2 . At the lowest test load (300 N) the wear rate of the
TiC reinforced composite, for example, is a almost a fac-
tor of 10 times lower whilst at the highest load this differ-
ence has decreased to around a factor of 7 times. Over the
range 300–400 N, the TiC reinforced composite exhibits the
best wear resistance of all the materials tested. Under these
loading conditions, the difference in wear rates exhibited by
the TiC reinforced composite, the Ti/TiB2 composite and
the unreinforced base steel is relatively substantial. Fig. 5,
showing a plot of the wear rates of only these three materials
illustrates this point. At 300 N, the wear rate of the unrein-
forced steel is almost 1.7 times greater than that of the TiC
composite, whilst that of the Ti/TiB2 composite is more than
2.4 times greater. At 400 N, this ranking is reversed, with the
Ti/TiB2 composite demonstrating better wear resistance (a
factor of 1.5 times) than the unreinforced steel. At the higher
loads of 500 and 600 N, however, only very small differences
in wear rate were apparent between the TiC composite, the
Ti/TiB2 composite and the unreinforced base steel.
Fig. 6 shows cross-sections through unreinforced and
TiC reinforced composite specimens tested under a load of
300 N. The oxide layer present on the wear surface of the
composite material is much thinner and more compacted
than that observed on the unreinforced material (Fig. 6b)
and was found to contain significant quantities of chromium
as well as iron and oxygen (identified by EDX analysis).
These so called “glazes” consist of very fine, crystalline ox-
ide particles (typically 10–100 nm in size) which have been
compacted onto either the composite’s surface, pre-existing
surface oxide layers, or compressed coarse wear debris.
Stott and Wood [21] have described the development of
such oxide glazes on sliding metal surfaces in detail. The
thicker layer observed on the unreinforced steel (Fig. 6a)
contains no chromium and has an analysis consistent with
iron oxide. Fig. 7, showing a prominent TiC particle, in-
dicates that at a load of 300 N, a percentage of carbide is
retained at the wearing surface which does not undergo
fracture and/or pull out. A limited number of regions of thin,
compacted oxides, similar to those observed on the TiC re-
inforced composite, were also evident on the surface of the
composite containing the mixture of TiB2 and TiC parti-
cles (i.e. the Ti/TiB2 masteralloy addition). These features,
shown in plan view in Fig. 8, were typically 100–200 ␮m
in size and were sparsely distributed over the pin’s wearing
surface. EDX analysis again revealed them to contain traces
of Cr. In a number of areas where the base composite could
be discerned through the layer of oxide particles adhered
to the surface, striations indicative of third body abrasion
occurring were evident (see Fig. 9).
836 C.C. Degnan, P.H. Shipway / Wear 252 (2002) 832–841

Fig. 4. Plot of wear rate against applied load for composite and unreinforced materials.

The surface of the composite pin processed using
Fe–TiB2 , containing Fe2 B and TiC as its predominant sec-
ond phases and tested at 300 N, exhibited large areas of
exposed metal where material had been removed as thin
sheets in several successive layers (see Fig. 10). Crack-
ing, which had an appearance indicative of a brittle mode
of fracture, was also evident in various locations on the
wearing surface of the pin (see Fig. 11).
Examination of the TiC, Ti/TiB2 and unreinforced com-
posite pins, tested at the higher loads of 500 and 600 N, again
revealed the presence of compacted oxide glazes on their
wearing surfaces. These islands of glaze were much larger

Fig. 5. Plot of wear rate against applied load for TiC and TiC/TiB2 composites and unreinforced steel.
 C.C. Degnan, P.H. Shipway / Wear 252 (2002) 832–841
Fig. 6. Cross-sections through (a) an unreinforced pin and (b) a TiC
composite pin, both worn under a load of 300 N.
than those observed on the specimens tested at 300 N. Glaze
features measuring around 1 mm across were not uncommon
(see Fig. 12) and interestingly, in the case of the compos-
ite materials, retained some TiC particles in their structure
(see Fig. 13). It is believed that these particles were initially
removed from the bulk material along with the oxide de-
bris and trapped in the glaze material during its formation.
XRD analysis of the debris collected from these high load
wear tests revealed it to contain predominantly iron oxides
(Fe2 O3 and Fe3 O4 ) along with, in the case of the compos-
ites, quantities of Cr2 O3 . Significantly, unoxidised metallic
flakes were visually observed in the debris and these were
confirmed by XRD to consist of steel.
Fig. 8. Island of glaze on the surface of a composite containing TiC and TiB2 , worn under a load of 300 N.
837
Fig. 7. TiC particle retained on the worn surface of a TiC composite
tested under a load of 300 N.
The wear surface of the stoichiometric TiB2 composite
tested at 500 and 600 N was similar to that of the equivalent
specimen tested under a load of 300 N, i.e. cracking of the
surface and pits where metallic sheets had been removed.
4. Discussion
The poor wear performance over the entire range of load-
ing employed in this study of the composite material formed
by the addition of Fe–TiB2 powder to 0.2 wt.% carbon steel
can be attributed directly to the formation of Fe2 B and TiC
in the microstructure. The reaction to form TiC, which has
been observed by other workers [17,18], consumes carbon
from the steel and leads to a reduction in the hardness and
strength of the matrix. The simultaneous formation of sig-
nificant quantities of brittle and comparatively soft Fe2 B at
interdendritic locations also seriously degrades the ability of
the material to resist wear (hardness of Fe2 B was measured
at 820 kgf mm−2 compared to TiB2 which has a reported
hardness of around 3600 kgf mm−2 ). The cracks observed
on the surface (Fig. 11), which lead to the formation and
removal of large sheets of material during the wear process,
are believed to initiate and propagate through this phase. The
mechanism by which this composite wears does not change
838 C.C. Degnan, P.H. Shipway / Wear 252 (2002) 832–841

Fig. 9. Striations present on the surface of a composite containing TiC and TiB2 , worn under a load of 300 N.

Fig. 10. Surface of a composite containing Fe2 B and TiC, worn under a load of 300 N, showing material removal in the form of layers.

over the range of test conditions employed in this study.
It is only the rate at which these processes take place that
increases with applied load.
At the lowest level of loading (300 N), the TiC reinforced
steel demonstrated significant improvements in wear resis-
tance over its unreinforced counterpart. Many workers in
this field have observed similar improvements and proposed
various mechanisms to explain this behaviour. In the main,
increased wear resistance of TiC composites is attributed to
load bearing by the hard second phase particles [22–25] and
the formation of protective glazes [21,26,27], formed by
the compaction of oxidised material. In this study, at 300 N,

Fig. 11. Cracks detected on the surface of a composite containing Fe2 B and TiC, worn under a load of 300 N.
 C.C. Degnan, P.H. Shipway / Wear 252 (2002) 832–841 839

Fig. 12. Large islands of glaze present on the surface of a composite containing TiC and TiB2 , worn under a load of 600 N.

these glaze type features were observed on the surfaces of
the TiC and TiC/TiB2 composites as well as on the unre-
inforced steel. However, these areas were small in size and
number, only partially formed and would contribute little to
the overall wear resistance of the respective materials. It is
the load bearing capability of the TiC retained at the sliding
surface of the composite and its ability to reduce metal to
metal contact during sliding that is directly responsible for
the improved wear performance of the TiC composite at this
low level of loading.
Given that similar quantities of hard second phase parti-
cles are present, it may be expected that the composite ma-
terial containing the mixture of TiC and TiB2 would display
analogous improvements to that of its TiC reinforced equiv-
alent. However, this was not observed to be the case and
its wear rate was observed to be worse than both the TiC
composite and the unreinforced steel. Unlike the TiC rein-
forced composite, the dispersion of the hard reinforcement
particles present in this composite was inhomogeneous and
tended to be concentrated around the steel’s interdendritic
regions. Wear on particles at this load is relatively low, but
eventually they will be worn down, fractured or pulled out.
Any hard particles, removed under the action of sliding ei-
ther by plucking, cracking or oxide engulfment, would, if
trapped at the wear interface, lead to preferential third body
abrasion of the regions in the microstructure without hard
particles present. This effect, illustrated in Fig. 9, may pro-
vide some explanation for the poorer wear performance of
this composite at 300 N compared to that of its TiC rein-
forced and base steel counterparts.
At a load of 400 N, increases in both pressure and quan-
tities of wear debris generated become more dominant in
governing wear rates. The hard particles present in the
composite materials gouge the counterface disc, providing
material for glaze formation, whilst the increased pressure
more readily leads to the formation of tenacious glazes. At
this load, it is predominantly these glazes which take the
bulk of the applied load and not the hard, second phase par-
ticles. Consequently, particle removal, leading to third body
abrasion in the case of the inhomogeneous TiC/TiB2 com-
posite, is greatly reduced. The unreinforced material, on the
other hand, generates less debris (giving rise to less mate-
rial being available for the formation of glazes) and has no
particles present for load bearing capability. When the small

Fig. 13. TiC particles retained within glazes: composite containing TiC and TiB2 and worn under a load of 600 N.
840 C.C. Degnan, P.H. Shipway / Wear 252 (2002) 832–841
amount of glaze material that does initially form is worn
away or removed under the action of the higher stress acting
at this load, wear of the base material proceeds unchecked
until such times as enough wear debris is generated to re-
form them. This debris can only originate from the pin ma-
terial itself and leads to the comparatively high wear rates
observed.
At the higher loads of 500 and 600 N, all three materials
undergo a period of severe wear at the start of the test where
metallic debris is produced and wear rates are high. The
quantity of debris produced in this period will be similar for
all three materials since, in this mode of wear, hard particles
have little influence in preventing material removal. During
the initial stages of testing much of this material is removed
from the wear interface under the action of sliding (evident
from the metallic flakes observed in the wear debris after
completion of the test) but some will be retained between the
wearing surfaces. Under the influence of the high pressure
at these loads, the trapped metallic debris will be quickly
comminuted to a size where it undergoes almost spontaneous
oxidation. Localised temperatures at the interface will be
high and this will further increase the rate of oxidation.
At this level of loading the glazes form rapidly from the
oxide generated and remain at the wear interface for the
duration of the test. There is no metal to metal contact at this
stage and the corresponding wear rates for all three materials
decreases.
The very small differences in overall wear rate exhibited
by these materials at high loads may be due to TiC (or
TiB2 ) particles observed in the glazes acting as third body
abradants and removing glaze material or acting as points of
weakness from which the glaze material can be preferentially
removed.
5. Conclusions
• The addition of an SHS produced masteralloy, containing
a dispersion of TiC in an iron matrix, to a medium carbon
steel (0.2 wt.% C) results in the formation of a composite
containing a homogeneous dispersion TiC particles.
• The addition of an SHS produced masteralloy, containing
a dispersion of TiB2 in an iron matrix, to a the same steel
results in the formation of a composite containing TiC and
parasitic Fe2 B. In order to avoid this reaction occurring,
a masteralloy composed of Fe–(50%TiB2 + 50%Ti) was
manufactured which, when added to steel, prevented the
formation of Fe2 B and resulted in a composite containing
a mixture of TiB2 and TiC particles.
• The composite material manufactured using Fe–TiB2 ex-
hibited poor wear performance over the entire range of
loading employed in this study. This behaviour can be di-
rectly attributed to the presence of Fe2 B and TiC in the
microstructure.
• At the lower levels of loading (300 and 400 N), the TiC
reinforced steel demonstrated significant improvements
in wear resistance over both the unreinforced steel and
the composite containing the TiC/TiB2 mixture. It is the
load bearing capability of the TiC and its ability to re-
duce metal to metal contact during sliding that is directly
responsible for this improved wear performance. The
comparatively poor wear resistance of the TiC/TiB2 com-
posite can be attributed to the inhomogeneous dispersion
of these particles within the microstructure.
• At the higher levels of loading utilised (500 and 600 N)
the presence of oxide glazes, formed from the comminu-
tion of metallic debris generated during severe wear at
the start of testing, dominate the wear behaviour of the
TiC, TiC/TiB2 composites and the unreinforced steel.
Under this regime, little difference in wear rate of these
three materials was evident.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge funding for this research from
the EPSRC (Grant No. GR/M13954).
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