Wear 249 (2001) 582–591

Effect of reciprocating and unidirectional sliding motion on the

friction and wear of copper on steel
Etsuo Marui∗ , Hiroki Endo
Department of Mechanical and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu-shi 501-1193, Japan
Received 10 May 2000; received in revised form 6 March 2001; accepted 8 May 2001

Abstract
From the practical necessity to obtain the friction and wear characteristics of materials used in machinery, various types of wear-testing
machines have been developed and used. To obtain useful data for practical application, it is desirable that the investigation is carried out by
a full-scale wear-testing apparatus having approximately similar contact conditions. Generally speaking, the obtained wear characteristics
are different for every wear-testing apparatus used. When the type of wear-testing machine is not suitable, one cannot obtain the required
wear characteristics. There are various parameters in wear-testing machines, such as configuration of contact surface and form of the
relative motion between the test specimens. Thus, in this report, the effect of relative motion between contacting pair and friction process
on obtained test results is investigated, for the combination of a copper pin specimen and a flat steel specimen. The microscopic structure of
the pin specimen may be varied due to the friction and wear process. An optical microscope is used for the observations. The pin specimen
is made from pure copper, which can be deformed easily. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wear; Pin-on-disc wear-testing machine; Pin-on-flat wear-testing machine; Optical microscopic observation; Unidirectional friction;
Reciprocating friction

1. Introduction characteristics of materials and machine elements, must be

Since olden times, practical methods to reduce wear have
been explored. Burwell [1] might have been the first re-
searcher to explain scientifically wear phenomenon with
complex properties. He studied wear from the standpoint of
material science and tribology.
It is important to estimate wear characteristics appro-
priately. However, it is rare for friction or wear charac-
teristics of materials or machine elements to be estimated
from a full-scale test. These characteristics are obtained
in many cases from a simplified model test on a small
scale.
The friction or contact modes in such model apparatuses
for estimation are as follows [2]: (A) pin (or ball)/disk
(unidirectional friction type); (B) pin (or ball)/flat (recipro-
cating friction type); (C) cylinder/cylinder (contact with end
surface); (D) pin/cylinder; (E) four-ball; and (F) two-parallel
cylinder type. Test by type (E) machine is used for judg-
ing the lubricant ability, and type (F) machine is for ma-
chine elements of rolling contact. The decision as to which
contact mode is superior to obtain the wear and friction
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marui@mech.gifu-u.ac.jp (E. Marui).
made from equivalence between a full-scale machine and
reduced-scale model machine.
There are three modes in practical contact surface, point
contact, line contact and surface contact. The case in which
pins with curved end surface or balls are used in (A) or
(B), and the case (E) belong to point contact. Cases (D)
and (F) are of line contact. The cases that a pin with flat
end is used in (A) and (B) and case (C) are for surface
contact.
As mentioned above, there are many structure-types of
wear-testing machine and contact mode. So in this research,
the wear test is carried out using two different types of
wear-testing machine in our laboratory. Contact modes are
the same in both machines, however, the friction or relative
motion modes are different. One is (a) unidirectional friction
or continuous sliding type and the other (b) a reciprocating
friction type [3]. The effect of relative motion on the friction
and wear characteristics and the features of each machine
are investigated from the experiment of flat/flat contact of a
pin having a flat end (surface contact mode). Experiments
are carried out on the friction pair of copper and steel for
machine structure use. The effect of reciprocating friction in
type (b) machine on wear characteristics of the copper pin
is a particular focus of attention.

0043-1648/01/$ – see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 6 8 4 - 6
 E. Marui, H. Endo / Wear 249 (2001) 582–591
2. Structure of friction pair (test specimens)
Both tests of unidirectional friction and reciprocating
friction are carried out using the same friction pairs of test
specimens.
The pin specimen is made from pure copper [4] (pu-
rity: 99.9%), which is frequently used in electric circuits.
The mechanical strength of pure copper is low, and may
deform easily, so the features of the wear-testing appara-
tus may be sensitively detected and used in our experiment.
Vickers hardness number of pure copper is about 110. Its
Young’s modulus is 113 GPa. The surface roughness (mean
peak-to-valley height [5]) of the pin specimen at the con-
tact surface is 5 ␮m Rz before the wear test. The thermal
conductivity of pure copper is large (393 W/m K).
Plane specimen is made from carbon steel for machine
structure use, whose carbon content is 0.47%. Its Vickers
hardness number and Young’s modulus are 210 and
210 GPa, respectively. The contact surface of the flat spec-
imen is finished by grinding, and its surface roughness
before the wear test is about 4 ␮m Rz .
It will be desirable that the wear map [6] of pure cop-
per sliding on the steel surface is constructed for the entire
clarification of the friction and wear characteristics of pure
copper. However, the main purpose of this paper is to dis-
cuss how the sliding mode of different wear-testing appara-
tus influences the friction and wear characteristics of pure
Fig. 1. Pin-on-disk wear-testing machine with unidirectional friction.
583
copper sliding on the steel surface. Although experiments
are carried out for wide experimental conditions that are
possible in each wear-testing apparatus, the wear map is not
constructed here. Experiment under the same experimental
conditions for both wear-testing apparatus is carried out.
In the following, characteristic experimental results ob-
tained in both wear-testing apparatus are explained briefly.
3. Unidirectional friction wear test by pin-on-disk
wear-testing machine
3.1. Structure of pin-on-disk wear-testing machine
The structure of the pin-on-disk wear-testing machine in
this experiment is shown in Fig. 1. In the figure, A is a
flat specimen and B a pin specimen. A calibrated vertical
load is exerted between them through a pneumatic pressure
mechanism. This apparatus is the same as the one used in
the previous report [7], so the details of the measurements
are not repeated here.
The static bending rigidity of the main spindle–pin speci-
men system is 800 kN/m, when a pure copper pin specimen
5 mm in diameter is set on the main spindle with a 10 mm
overhang.
The capable range of experimental conditions in this
wear-testing machine is as follows. Maximum vertical load:
584 E. Marui, H. Endo / Wear 249 (2001) 582–591

Fig. 2. Variation of pin specimen length due to sliding distance (vertical load: 29.4 N).

98 N; continuously variable rotational speed of flat speci-
men: 25–1000 rpm. The effective contact radius between
pin and flat specimen is 80 mm, and the sliding velocity
between both specimens can be varied within about 0.1 and
4.2 m/s.
In our wear-testing machine, the magnitude of wear can
be obtained by monitoring continuously the pin specimen
length and by weighing the mass of the pin specimen before
and after the wear test.
3.2. Experimental procedure
Wear measurement is carried out up to a sliding distance
of 500 m, varying the vertical load and the sliding velocity
under the room temperature condition.
The surface of the pin and the flat specimens are washed
by acetone thoroughly, and wax adhering to the surfaces is
removed. The worn mass of the pin specimen is measured
by a precise electric-balance, and its minimum increment
is 1 mg.
3.3. Experimental result and discussion
Variation of the pin specimen length corresponding to the
sliding distance is shown in Fig. 2. The sliding velocity is
given in the figure. In the case of the small sliding velocity,
the transition from the severe wear regime to the mild wear
regime is recognized. The transition from the severe to the
mild wear regime does not take place for a larger slid-
ing velocity. The pin specimen shortens approximately in

Fig. 3. Relation between worn mass and sliding velocity (vertical load: 29.4 N).
 E. Marui, H. Endo / Wear 249 (2001) 582–591
Fig. 4. Relation between surface roughness and sliding velocity.
proportion to the sliding distance. Corresponding to such
rapid decrease of the pin specimen length, a large lip
is formed behind the pin specimen. Details on this phe-
nomenon will be discussed later.
The correct worn mass of the pin specimen accom-
panied by a lip formation cannot be obtained from the
change in pin specimen length. Then, the worn mass is
weighed by means of a precise electric-balance, and the
above-mentioned change in the pin specimen length is con-
verted into the change in mass by multiplying the density
of the copper, simultaneously. In brief, the former mass
is called here a measured mass and the latter a converted
mass. The relation between both masses and the sliding
velocity is given in Fig. 3. The symbol (䊊) indicates a con-
verted mass, and the symbol (䊉) a measured mass. For a
larger sliding velocity, the difference between both masses
becomes remarkable. The difference in masses corresponds
to the mass of the lip. The measured mass decreases
with the increase in sliding velocity, in the lip formation
condition.
The surface roughness change of the flat specimen cor-
responding to the sliding velocity is shown in Fig. 4, when
sliding distance reaches 500 m.
No characteristic dependence of the friction coefficient
on the vertical load or the sliding velocity can be observed.
The magnitude of the friction coefficient is within the range
from 0.7 to 0.8.
4. Reciprocating friction wear test by pin-on-flat
wear-testing machine
4.1. Structure of pin-on-flat wear-testing machine
The structure of pin-on-flat wear-testing machine with
reciprocating friction is shown in Fig. 5. Both flat and pin
specimens are fixed to the reciprocating stage or to the pin
585
specimen holder by setting screws. The diameter of the pin
specimen is 4 mm. Vertical load is applied by a weight,
as seen in the figure. Applied vertical load is determined
so that the mean contact pressure is equal to the value in
the pin-on-disk wear-testing machine. Maximum sliding
velocity obtainable in this machine is 11.06 mm/s, which
is approximately equal to the minimum sliding velocity in
pin-on-disk wear-testing machine.
Pin specimen and flat specimen materials in this sec-
tion are identical to the former pin-on-disk wear-testing
machine.
The static bending rigidity of the main spindle–pin spec-
imen system (pure copper specimen diameter: 4 mm and its
overhang length: 10 mm) with leftward loading is 28 kN/m,
and that for rightward loading is 21 kN/m. Small difference
is recognized according to the loading direction.
4.2. Experimental results and discussion
The magnitudes of wear (worn mass) are shown in Fig. 6
corresponding to the sliding distance. The transition from
severe wear regime to mild wear regime is not recognized
here.
The experimental condition of sliding velocity 11.06 mm/s
is common to both testing machines. From the compar-
ison of the wear rate calculated from worn mass of the
pin specimen, it is clarified that the magnitude for the
pin-on-flat wear-testing machine is slightly larger than for
the pin-on-disk wear-testing machine. However, the dif-
ference is quite small and the feature of the wear-testing
machines cannot be investigated.
The surface roughness of the flat specimen becomes worse
from 4 ␮m Rz (before experiment) to 12 ␮m Rz (after ex-
periment). The deterioration in the surface roughness of
the pin specimen is more remarkable as in the case of the
pin-on-disk wear-testing machine, and the surface roughness
of the pin specimen is not measured here.
586 E. Marui, H. Endo / Wear 249 (2001) 582–591

Fig. 5. Pin-on-flat wear-testing machine with reciprocating friction.

An example of the magnitude of friction coefficient mon-
itored during the wear test by the pin-on-flat wear-testing
machine is given in Fig. 7. This example is obtained in
the most severe experimental condition of the vertical load
18.6 N and the sliding velocity 11.06 mm/s. In the figure, the
maximum and minimum values of the friction coefficient
corresponding to the right- and leftward motion of the stage
carrying the flat specimen are shown. The friction coefficient
in the rightward motion is slightly larger than in the leftward
motion. As seen in the measurement of the static rigidity of
the main spindle–pin specimen system, the rigidity of the
system is different corresponding to the loading direction,
and the deflection or inclination of the pin specimen is also
different from the sliding direction of the flat specimen. This
is reflected in the measured friction coefficient.
Until we saw the experimental result, we thought the for-
mation of the lip on the pin specimen could not be observed,
since the sliding direction is always reciprocating in the

Fig. 6. Increase of worn mass due to sliding distance (vertical load: 18.6 N).
 E. Marui, H. Endo / Wear 249 (2001) 582–591
Fig. 7. Variation of friction coefficient due to sliding distance (vertical
load: 18.6 N).
pin-on-flat wear-testing machine with reciprocating friction.
Seeing the worn pin specimen, we noticed that a small lip
is formed on the end of the pin specimen in the pin-on-flat
wear-testing machine with reciprocating friction, too. This
may be related to the fact that the friction force may tilt the
pin specimen during sliding, and a unidirectional sliding or
friction condition is realized at the end of the pin specimen
as in the experiment by pin-on-disk wear-testing machine.
To indicate the lip formation quantitatively, the worn mass
obtained from the pin specimen weighing is compared with
the worn mass converted from the decrease of the pin spec-
imen length as in the section above. The result is given in
Fig. 8. In this figure, the results for the condition of the
vertical load 15.7 N are compared. The worn mass obtained
from the decrease in the pin specimen length is somewhat
large, and a small lip formation is recognized.
Fig. 8. Relation between worn mass and sliding velocity (vertical load:
15.7 N).
587
5. Observation of pin specimen microscopic structure
by optical microscope
5.1. Observation method
In the previous experiments, the lip formation parallel
to the sliding direction is recognized in some experimental
conditions. To clarify the formation mechanism of the lip,
and to examine the effect of the difference in sliding modes
on the experimental results, the microscopic structure of the
pin specimen is observed by optical microscopy.
The pin specimen made of pure copper is cut in a deter-
mined direction by a fine cutter. The surface is then buffed
to a mirror finish. After that, etching treatment is performed
on the surface, and the microscopic structure of the pin spec-
imen is observed by means of an optical microscope at an
adequate magnification. The etching agent is a mixture of
30% liquid ammonia, 3% oxygenated water and distilled
water. The mixing ratio is 1:1:1. Etching time is 2 min.
5.2. Observation in pin-on-disk wear-testing machine
An example of the small lip growth (sliding velocity
0.1 m/s) and an example of large lip growth (sliding velocity
0.7 m/s) are treated here. In both examples, the vertical load
is set exceptionally large at 24.5 N. The sliding distance is
500 m. The magnification of the photographs is given in the
following figures.
Fig. 9 is a photograph showing the microscopic structure
of the cross-section in parallel to the disk rotation at the
pin specimen center, when the lip growth is small. Some
plastic deformation zone stretched in the direction of the
disk rotation is recognized on the whole contact surface of
the pin specimen. On the opposite end, no lip formation is
seen.
Fig. 10 shows the microscopic structure of the same
cross-section, when the sliding velocity is large enough to
Fig. 9. Optical micrograph of pin specimen when cut by a plane parallel
to the disk specimen rotation (pin-on-disk wear-testing machine, sliding
velocity: 0.1 m/s).
588 E. Marui, H. Endo / Wear 249 (2001) 582–591

Fig. 11. Optical micrograph of pin specimen when cut by a plane perpen-
dicular to the disk specimen rotation (pin-on-disk wear-testing machine,
sliding velocity: 0.7 m/s).

Fig. 10. Optical micrograph of pin specimen when cut by a plane parallel
to the disk specimen rotation (pin-on-disk wear-testing machine, sliding sliding, the growth of the lip continues, and the lip is layered
velocity: 0.7 m/s). up as shown in Fig. 10.

5.3. Observation in pin-on-flat wear-testing machine

form a large lip. The lip develops approximately in the
radial direction from the joint. In this case, the depth of
the plastic deformation zone at the contact surface is about
0.05 mm. Fig. 11 is a photograph showing the cross-section
perpendicular to the disk rotation. Corresponding to Fig. 10,
it is seen that the lip grows in stratified construction.
From the above observations, the growing process of the
lip in pin-on-disk wear-testing machine is considered to be
as follows: when sliding is started, a small burr is formed
around the pin specimen. Burr in the disk rotation is little
large. For longer sliding distance, softening of the pin spec-
imen may occur due to the friction heating and the burr is
stretched into the direction of disk rotation by some ratch-
etting mechanism. At last, a lip is formed. By successive
The same observation of the pin specimen is carried out in
the case of pin-on-flat wear-testing machine with reciprocat-
ing friction. Fig. 12 is a photograph at the sliding velocity of
11.06 mm/s and vertical load of 18.6 N. The sliding distance
is 200 m. Figure (a) is at the left end of the flat specimen
stroke and (b) at the right end of the flat specimen stroke.
In both cases, a small lip is growing at the left and the
right ends. Differing from the pin-on-disk wear-testing
machine, the layered microscopic structure of the lip is dis-
continuous from the microscopic structure of the original
pin specimen, as seen in these photographs. In some cases,
the lip is separated from the pin specimen. From these,
there is a possibility that the lip is formed by re-adhering

Fig. 12. Optical micrograph of pin specimen when cut by a plane parallel to the flat specimen movement (pin-on-flat wear-testing machine with
reciprocating friction, vertical load: 18.6 N): (a) left end; (b) right end.
 E. Marui, H. Endo / Wear 249 (2001) 582–591
Fig. 13. Optical micrograph of pin specimen when cut by a plane perpendicular to the flat specimen movement (pin-on-flat wear-testing machine with
reciprocating friction, vertical load: 18.6 N): (a) left side; (b) right side.
of the separated wear debris to the pin specimen, due to the
reciprocation of the flat specimen motion.
Fig. 13 shows the microscopic structure of the pin speci-
men cut by a plane perpendicular to the direction of the flat
specimen reciprocation. On both the right and left sides of
the pin specimen, the lip formation with continuous layered
structure to the original pin specimen is recognized.
From these observations, the lip in the pin-on-flat
wear-testing machine with reciprocating friction may be
formed due to the following process.
Small lips are formed at the front and rear ends of the pin
specimen, corresponding to the reciprocating flat specimen
motion when the sliding started. After that, the lip spreads
over the whole circumference of the pin specimen. However,
the motion of the flat specimen is always reciprocating, so
the lip growth in the sliding direction is suppressed. Passing
through such processes, the lip grows perpendicular to the
flat specimen movement (Fig. 13). It may be considered that
the difference in the wear mechanism of the pin-on-disk
wear-testing machine from the pin-on-flat wear-testing
machine with reciprocating friction exists in such a
point.
Above-mentioned unique deformation of the pin specimen
may be influenced by the contact temperature rise due to
friction heating and the plastic ratchetting. A consideration
from these aspects is given in the following chapter.
6. Considerations
6.1. Temperature rise at contact surface due to friction
heating
Temperature at the contact surface is a main factor in-
fluencing the result of wear test. So, the temperature at the
contact surface between the pin specimen and disk specimen
or between the pin specimen and flat specimen is estimated
here.
There are many researches [8,9] that estimated the tem-
perature rise due to friction heating at the contact surface.
A common fundamental idea for the temperature rise
589
estimation is that the work done against the friction force
will be liberated as heat and this heat will flow into the
pin specimen and flat specimen in some ratios. As a result,
the temperature rise of the specimens is induced. Friction
heat flowing into the pin specimen is carried away from the
contact surface by conduction and is emitted into surround-
ing air.
Bowden and Tabor [10] presented an equation to calculate
temperature at the contact surface between an infinitely long
pin specimen and a flat specimen, where Newton’s law of
cooling is introduced.
Estimation result of the temperature at the contact surface
may differ owing to the equation for temperature estimation.
However, a qualitative feature of the temperature estimated
is not seriously influenced by the equation used. Here, the
equation by Bowden and Tabor is used in our estimation of
temperature rise at the contact surface. Physical meaning of
their equation is clear and the temperature is easily calcu-
lated using small number of characteristic values, although
the effect of surface roughness and the mass of pin specimen
holder are not considered in their equation. This equation is
written as follows:


αµNv 1
T = T0 +
π 2σ kr
where T is the temperature at contact surface, T0 the room
temperature, N the normal load, v the sliding velocity, r the
radius of the pin specimen, µ the kinematic friction coeffi-
cient, k the thermal conductivity, σ the cooling coefficient
of Newton’s law of cooling and α is the certain fraction of
friction heat going into the pin specimen. Then, the temper-
ature rise due to friction heating is T − T0 .
Here, the temperature rise of the pin specimen is es-
timated by the above equation, within the experimen-
tal conditions treated in this paper. Following parameter
values are used in the estimation: the fraction α is set
at 0.5 by referring the account by Bowden and Tabor
thermal conductivity k and cooling coefficient σ of cop-
per are k = 393 W/m K, σ = 40 W/m2 K, respectively.
The magnitude of the cooling coefficient is determined
590 E. Marui, H. Endo / Wear 249 (2001) 582–591
by referring to the value of constantan (which is an
alloy of copper and nickel) cited by Bowden and Tabor
[10].
Radii of the pin specimen in the pin-on-disk wear-testing
machine and the pin-on-flat wear-testing machine are 2.5 and
2 mm, respectively. The magnitude of the kinematic friction
coefficient µ is determined referring to the experimental
results. The magnitudes of vertical load and sliding velocity
are settled as the experimental conditions.
The maximum and minimum temperature rises in the
pin-on-disk wear-testing machine are estimated as 155 and
10◦ C, respectively. Those in the pin-on-flat wear-testing
machine are 15 and 5◦ C. Such large difference in es-
timated temperature rise corresponding to the types of
wear-testing machine is induced by the difference of
attainable sliding velocity. It is quite natural that the esti-
mated temperature rise is equivalent regardless of the type
of wear-testing machine, when the vertical load and the
sliding velocity are equivalent each other. A higher esti-
mation of temperature rise at contact surface is obtained
when a large magnitude of the fraction α is used in the
estimation.
From the above consideration on the temperature rise at
contact surface, the influence of friction heating on the wear
of copper is negligible, except the case of large vertical load
and large sliding velocity in the pin-on-disk wear-testing
machine.
6.2. Lip formation by plastic ratchetting
Kapoor and co-workers [11,12] stated that material defor-
mation proceeds by a plastic ratchetting mechanism, when
cyclic stress beyond the plastic shakedown limit is applied.
Let us consider the case that a thin surface layer is subjected
to a steady compressive stress σ zz together with an alter-
nating orthogonal shear stress ±τ xz . These stresses satisfy
the von-Mises yield criterion twice a stress cycle on σ –τ
plane. The plastic strain increments arising from the cyclic
shear are equal and opposite, so that no accumulation of
shear strain occurs here. However, the increments of plastic
compression are always in the same direction, then the ma-
terial accumulates unidirectional increments of compression
within each stress cycle. This phenomenon is called a plastic
ratchetting. As a result of plastic ratchetting, a filmy layered
deformation orthogonal to the sliding direction (frictional
traction) arises in the material and a lip is built up. When
this lip is dropped, that phenomenon is a wear by plastic
ratchetting. Yang and Torrance [13] considered the wear of
metal by plastic ratchetting, too.
When an orthogonal siding to the asperity ridge is
applied, the extrusion in the sliding direction is pre-
vented, but the lateral extrusion by plastic ratchetting is
possible.
From the above-mentioned point of view, the lip forma-
tion in the pin-on-disk and pin-on-flat wear-testing machine
can be discussed in detail.
6.3. Consideration on wear test of copper sliding on
steel flat
In the first place, results by the pin-on-disk wear-testing
machine are discussed. The disk specimen rotates at a steady
rotational speed. A shearing stress in the disk rotation di-
rection acts on the pin specimen. The pin specimen yields
under the combined action of this shearing stress and contact
pressure. Small shear deformation in the direction of disk
rotation arises in the pin specimen. New stress field acts on
the pin specimen. In this new stress condition, an additional
shear deformation of the pin specimen arises in the direction
of disk rotation and is accumulated on the first deformation.
Such a process continues during the wear test and the lip is
grown up in the rear end of the pin specimen. So, the lip
has a layered structure. This is ascertained in a photograph
of cross-section of the pin specimen, which is perpendicular
to the disk rotation or sliding velocity. A lip to the orthog-
onal direction to disk rotation is an accumulation of the de-
formation by contact pressure acting on the pin specimen.
This lip is smaller than the lip at the rear end of the pin
specimen.
In the next place, results by the pin-on-flat wear-testing
machine are discussed. Above-mentioned lip formation by
the accumulation of shear deformation cannot happen, in
ideal case that only the direction of shear force is reversed
accompanying by the sliding direction reciprocating. Lip
into the orthogonal direction to the sliding may be formed.
However, in the experiment, a small lip formation parallel to
the sliding is recognized. The static bending rigidity of the
cantilever type main spindle–pin specimen system is quite
small as mentioned above. So, the pin specimen holder de-
flects. The direction of this deflection is reversed according
to the sliding velocity. Following this, contact position be-
tween the pin specimen and the flat specimen always devi-
ates to the rear ends of the pin specimen. Both ends of the
pin specimen contact the mating flat specimen in only one
way of rightwards or leftwards during each reciprocating
stroke. Relative movement between the pin specimen and
the flat specimen is reversed, however, direction of friction
force acting on each end does not change. As a result, the
contact state at the end of the pin specimen is equivalent
to that of the pin specimen in the pin-on-disk wear-testing
machine. Lip recognized in the pin-on-flat wear-testing ma-
chine is formed by the similar mechanism at the pin-on-disk
wear-testing machine.
Contact pressure is settled so as to be equivalent in
both types of the wear-testing machine. Owing to the rea-
son in machine structure, sliding velocity attainable in the
pin-on-flat wear-testing machine is not so high and the in-
fluence of friction heating may be small compared with the
pin-on-disk wear-testing machine. The size of formed lip
is also small. If the main spindle–pin specimen system is
fully rigid, the shearing force is reversed corresponding to
the reversal of sliding velocity. The accumulation of defor-
mation by sliding friction disappears and the lip formation
 E. Marui, H. Endo / Wear 249 (2001) 582–591
parallel to the sliding velocity cannot be recognized. Only a
small lip may be formed in the orthogonal direction to the
sliding velocity.
7. Concluding remarks
The influence of the friction mode on the wear regime
is examined by a wear experiment using two types of
wear-testing machines, a pin-on-disk wear-testing machine
with unidirectional friction and a pin-on-flat wear-testing
machine with reciprocation motion.
As a result, a small difference is recognized in the wear
rate. However, no fundamental effects on the wear charac-
teristics of friction modes, such as unidirectional sliding or
reciprocating sliding, are recognized. As the pin specimen is
made from pure copper, which can be deformed easily, the
lip is formed at the rear end of the pin specimen. The micro-
scopic structure of this lip is observed by means of an optical
microscope. Then, following points are clarified: forma-
tion of the lip is remarkable in the pin-on-disk wear-testing
machine with unidirectional friction, and there are some dif-
ferences in the lip formation mechanism by two types of
wear-testing machines.
Detailed considerations on the lip formation are carried
out from the point of the friction heating and the plastic
ratchetting mechanism.
There is a weak point in the machine structure that
sufficiently large sliding velocity is difficult to realize in
591
the pin-on-flat wear-testing machine with reciprocating
friction.
References
[1] J.T. Burwell, Survey of possible wear mechanisms, Wear 1
(1957–1958) 119–141.
[2] I.M. Huchings, Tribology, Friction and Wear of Engineering
Materials, Edward Arnold, London, 1992, p. 79.
[3] C.-R. Yang, Y.-C. Chiou, R.-T. Lee, Tribological behavior of
reciprocating friction drive system under lubricated contact, Tribol.
Int. 32 (1999) 443–453.
[4] I.I. Garbar, The effect of load on the structure and wear of friction
pair materials: example of low-carbon steel and copper, Wear 205
(1997) 240–245.
[5] T.R. Thomas, Rough Surfaces, Longman, London, 1982, p. 85.
[6] S.C. Lin, M.F. Ashby, Wear-mechanism map, Acta Metallogr. 35
(1987) 1–24.
[7] E. Marui, N. Hasegawa, H. Endo, K. Tanaka, T. Hattori, Research
on the wear characteristics of hypereutectoid steel, Wear 205 (1997)
384–392.
[8] J.F. Archard, The temperature of rubbing surface, Wear 2
(1958–1959) 438–455.
[9] A. Yevtushenko, O. Ukhanska, R. Chapovska, Friction heat
distribution between a stationary pin and a rotating disc, Wear 196
(1996) 219–225.
[10] F.P. Bowden, D. Tabor, The Friction and Lubrication of Solids,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986, pp. 33–35.
[11] A. Kapoor, K.L. Johnson, Plastic ratchetting as a mechanism of
metallic wear, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 445 (1994) 367–381.
[12] A. Kapoor, Wear by plastic ratchetting, Wear 212 (1997) 119–130.
[13] Y. Yang, A.A. Torrance, Wear by plastic ratchetting: an experimental
evaluation, Wear 196 (1996) 147–155.