Biodiversity and Conservation 6, 233±251 (1997)

Animal genetic resources and domestic animal

diversity in Nepal
R. TREVOR WILSON*
Bartridge Partners, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK

Received 25 October 1995; revised and accepted 5 February 1996

Domestic livestock in Nepal belong to 17 species, including ®ve Bovidae (and interspeci®c hybrids of
two of them), seven Aves, two Equidae (not including mules), pig (Sus scrofa), rabbit (Oryctolagus
cuniculus) and elephant (Loxodonta africana). Cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) are the most
numerous quadruped, followed by goats (Capra hircus), bu€alo (Bubalus bubalis) and sheep (Ovis
aries). Domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) are the most common poultry, followed by pigeons
(Columba livia) and ducks (Anas platyrhyncos). Government policy is to upgrade and replace local
types with improved stock. This policy has had limited success through lack of funding, inconsistent
long-term objectives and an inability to pursue programmes in traditional farming systems. The
purity of native types is being lost in some areas due to informal programmes by farmers themselves.
Except for one type of goat there are no conservation programmes for native breeds. Wild relatives
of livestock, including arnee (Bubalus arnee), gaur (Bibos gaurus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), jungle fowl
(Gallus gallus) and rock dove (Columba livia), are being in®ltrated by genes of domestic animals.
Little has been done to characterize Nepal's livestock resources yet continuous attempts have been
made to replace them. Conservation needs are to: (i) identify all genetic resources comprising the
gene pool of species used as domestic livestock; (ii) develop and use the associated diversity to
increase production, achieve sustainable systems and meet demands for particular products; (iii)
monitor resources represented by small numbers or that are being displaced; and (iv) preserve
resources not in current demand. A start has been made on this by Nepal's membership of a regional
network.
Keywords: domestic livestock; native breeds; conservation; genetic resources; Nepal.

Introduction
Nepal lies between the Himal mountains and the Indo-Gangetic plains. It is bordered on
the North by Tibet and on the West, South and East by India (Fig. 1); it covers an area of
147 181 km2 and extends from 26°20¢ to 30°10¢ N and from 80°15¢ to 88°15¢ E. Nepal has
three transverse physiographic regions. The Southern low-lying plain, or Terai zone, oc-
cupies 17% of the country and is liable to ¯ooding during the monsoon. The central belt,
or Middle Hills, covers 68% of the country. The Northern, Mountain or Himalayan region
accounts for the remaining 15% of the area.
The country rises spectacularly, in a short horizontal distance averaging about 160 km,
from less than 80 m above sea level in the South, to 8846 m at the tip of Everest on the
Northern border. A series of North±South deeply incised valleys descends from the Hi-
malayas to the lowlands, breaking up the pattern of parallel ranges into a rugged matrix.

*
To whom correspondence should be addressed.
0960-3115 Ó 1997 Chapman & Hall
234 Wilson

Figure 1. Geographical and political map of Nepal.

Nepal has a great diversity of agro-ecosystems in relation to its size. Combinations of

altitude, precipitation, temperature, humidity, soil type, slope and aspect result in a mi-
crocosm of the Earth's vegetation types and farming systems. The climate varies from
tropical in the Terai, through subtropical, warm and cool temperate at medium altitudes,
to alpine and arctic at the highest elevations. The main source of precipitation is the
Southeast monsoon of June to September when about 80% of annual precipitation falls.
Precipitation varies from 500 mm to 4500 mm per year and declines from East to West in
volume and in length of season. The central Hills are the wettest area where the typical
precipitation of 1500±2500 mm is mostly rain. Almost all precipitation in the Terai is rain;
there is mist in the higher Hills, and at the highest altitudes it is almost all snow. The
permanent snow line is at about 5000 m, and melting glaciers at or below this level ensure
a constant, if variable, supply of water to the lower lands.
Temperature is mediated by altitude and season. At Kathmandu (altitude 1337 m), the
average January temperature is 10°C and in May it is 23°C. Summer average maxima
range from more than 40°C in the Terai to 28°C in the middle part of the country.
Minimum temperatures in winter in these two zones are 7°C and minus several degrees. In
the highest Himalayas shade temperatures are always below freezing.

Livestock production
Nepali livestock belong to at least 17 species. There are ®ve species of Bovidae (and
interspeci®c hybrids of two of them), seven Aves, two Equidae (not including mules), pig
(Sus scrofa), rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and elephant (Loxodonta africana).
Livestock production contributes 30% of agricultural added value and about 15% to
total GNP, although neither of these ®gures includes the value of draught power and
Domestic animal resources in Nepal 235
manure. More than 75% of crop land in Nepal is ploughed by oxen or bu€alo. In 1984 it
was estimated that livestock produced the equivalent of 10.37 MW of power worth NR
1300 million (US$ 65 million at that time). The value of power used in other agricultural
operations, particularly threshing, and in transport, should be added to this amount.
Animals and their products provide about 20% of household cash income overall, but they
are more important in the Hills and Mountains than in the Terai. Livestock support to
total household income is greater than this simple number indicates because of the value of
home consumption.
Domestic animals include cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus, 7.4 million head in 1992
(CBS 1994)), bu€alo (Bubalus bubalis, 3.1 million), yak (Bos grunniens) and its crosses with
cattle (59 000), goat (Capra hircus, 5.5 million), sheep (Ovis aries, 603 000), equids, poultry
(12.3 million fowl Gallus domesticus, 280 000 ducks Anas platyrhyncos and 1.42 million
pigeons Columba livia), pigs (496 000) and, more recently, rabbits for meat and the Angora
type for ®bre. Bu€alo (600 000 tonnes), cow (260 000 tonnes) and goat (51 000 tonnes) milk
are the major livestock products. Milk from large ruminants is also converted to cheese,
ghee, butter and other products. Bu€alo (95 000 tonnes) are the most important source of
meat, followed by goat (35 000 tonnes), pig (10 000 tonnes), poultry (9000 tonnes), cattle ±
which it is illegal to slaughter ± (4000 tonnes) and sheep (3000 tonnes). In 1991 some
18 000 tonnes of hen eggs were produced as well as about 16 000 tonnes of butter and
ghee.
Some 76% of holdings own cattle, 48% bu€alo, 76% goats, 3% sheep, 10% pigs, 51%
fowl, 3% ducks and 8% pigeons.
More than 56% of the national cattle herd is male, whereas for bu€alo, yak, goat and
sheep the proportions of males are about 0.22, 0.33, 0.31 and 0.34. Only 36% and 38% of
cattle and yak adult females are in milk at any given time compared with 47% of bu€alo.
In spite of the importance of livestock, consumption of their products is lower than the
basic needs of the population. Milk consumption per capita in 1990 was estimated at 46.4
kg (against a need of 57.8 kg), meat 9.4 kg (14.4 kg) and the number of eggs at 15.7 (180.0).
Livestock density per unit of arable land is very high (Table 1). Numbers are not great
in the Mountains but, because there are few people, and the cultivated area is small, the
number of livestock units per household (11.8) and density of livestock on arable land are
high (16.8 ha)1). Most livestock are in the Hills, where each family owns 10.3 units at a
density of 9.8 ha)1. There are twice as many animals in the Terai as in the Mountains but
only 5.0 units per family are held with a density of 2.8 units per cultivated hectare.
Bu€alo, cattle and goat populations are largely congruent (Fig. 2). All three species are
virtually absent from the mountain areas of the Northwest where sheep, in relation to the

Table 1. Livestock density (head ha)1) on cultivated land in Nepal

Physiographic Total Livestock Species

unit Units (million)
Cattle Bu€alo Goat Sheep Pig Poultry
Mountains 2.18 318 120 321 153 30 483
Hills 7.44 217 119 208 27 21 431
Terai 4.05 171 71 107 10 12 192
Nepal 13.67 206 98 174 30 18 333
236 Wilson

Figure 2. Distribution of the major domestic livestock species in Nepal.

national population, are common. There are few sheep in the Terai. Poultry are con-
centrated around the capital as the main market outlet but are sparse in the Mountains
and in parts of the lowlands in the Southeast. Pig populations are highest in the Eastern
Hills and Terai where they are culturally more acceptable.
Domestic animal resources in Nepal 237
Animal Genetic resources
Domestic animals in Nepali farming systems do not simply provide milk and meat for
human subsistence. Their functions are far more complex and, in addition to religious and
social considerations, are intimately related to sustainable production. In this context,
livestock provide power to till the land and help maintain soil fertility through production
of organic manure from dung and compost.
Most farmers own few animals but keep several species. Emphasis on one or other
species varies and depends on factors such as preference, social position, local ecology and
market openings. Herding several species is a rational strategy for reducing risk but creates
problems in management and in achieving high levels of output of single products.

BOVIDAE

Nepal's ®ve species of domestic Bovidae are bu€alo, cattle, goat, sheep and yak. Their
functions cover almost the entire range of those listed at the beginning of this section. Wild
relatives (which are mentioned hereafter in the relevant sections) of all the domestic Bo-
vidae except yak also occur in Nepal.

Bu€alo
Bu€alo are the economic mainstay of animal agriculture. Their main product is milk which
is converted mostly to ghee or cheese. Slaughter of males is allowed, but a prohibition on
female slaughter (it is illegal to slaughter any female animal in Nepal) is widely ignored so
they also produce meat. In the lowlands they are used for ploughing and transport. Hides
are used in local manufacture and some are exported. Horns are used for the handles of
the famous Gurkha knife, the `khukri'. Bones, skulls, horn cores and hooves are recycled
as steamed bone meal. No true breeds are recognized but there are several distinct types.
Wild bu€alo (`arnee') in the Terai are under threat from uncontrolled crossing with do-
mestic types, a danger that has appeared in the last 50 years since malaria control in the
1950s allowed intense human settlement.

Types and breeds: (i) `local' bu€alo. Nepalese bu€alo origins are not clear. Arguments as
to whether they are Swamp or River types are based on length and shape of horn, coat
colour and body markings. A very few `local' bu€alo have the chevron markings and white
socks of the Swamp bu€alo.
The most widely accepted typing (Epstein, 1977; Mason, 1988) recognizes Hill,
Mountain and Tarai [sic!] varieties. The Hill type of central Nepal is a lighter colour than
the Tarai, and the long horns (60±80 cm) project outwards before curving gradually back
and inwards in a wide open sweep. The Mountain type is found to altitudes of 3000 m, has
a light grey or fawn hairy coat and has shorter horns than the Hill type. The Tarai bu€alo
is similar to those of northern Uttar Pradesh in India, is darker, and has crescent-shaped
horns 35±40 cm long. Conformation is variable, with weights in the range 300±400 kg,
exceptionally to 500 kg. All local bu€alo are late maturing, and females rarely calve before
4±5 years. The relative contributions of genetic factors and nutritional, disease and
management stress to this trait remain to be determined.

Types and breeds: (ii) Murrah. There has been much crossing of local with Murrah
bu€alo, especially in the Terai and the Southern and lower Hills. Cross-breds are bigger,
238 Wilson
heavier, show various degrees of the tightly curled horns of the Murrah and produce more
milk than local bu€alo. On Government farms, Murrah ´ local bu€alo fed Napier grass
silage and some concentrate average about 1200±1400 kg milk per 300-day lactation,
compared with the 500±600 kg of local animals under traditional management.
Pure Murrah herds are kept on some Government and institutional farms. These are
maintained by breeding on the farms, by regular imports of stock from India and by use of
imported semen.

Research, development and conservation. Local bu€alo receive little respect from research
and development bodies. Ocial policy is to upgrade and replace local types by crossing to
Murrah bulls by natural mating or by arti®cial insemination (AI). Most semen is imported
from India. In 1989, 2951 doses of frozen and 4319 doses of `warm' semen were available,
and 60% of this was distributed to the Terai. Only 20% of semen is used. Conception rates
are about 30% to ®rst service. The general impact of the AI programme on cattle and
bu€aloes is described as modest (ADB, 1992).
Murrah crosses are more common near Government farms where bulls stand at stud.
This is especially so where the Dairy Development Corporation has plants and where there
is a more-or-less assured market and a good price for milk (prices are determined on fat
content). Informal imports directly from India to the Terai have had more impact than
formal attempts to change the genetic make-up of Nepali bu€aloes.

Cattle
All Nepali cattle, except a very few in the Northern Mountains used for breeding cattle±
yak hybrids, are humped zebu types. Cattle are the most numerous quadruped domestic
animal. A major function ± revered or maligned depending on the point of view ± is the
`holy' cow. Holy animals are usually bulls (branded with the trident of Lord Shiva) as
cows are often conveniently assumed as lost and quickly taken into private custody. In
Kathmandu, holy bulls have been given breed status (Epstein, 1977) but this is incorrect as
many are various types of B. taurus±B. indicus crosses. In addition to religious and social
functions, cattle produce milk and power, especially in the Hills. Several breeds are re-
cognized. A few gaur (Bibos gaurus) ± the largest of the world's true wild cattle ± still
survive in the lower Hills in remote areas.

Types and breeds: (i) Terai. Zebu cattle in the Terai are similar to their counterparts in
India. Recognized breeds include Ponwar, Kherigarth and Bachaur. All of these show
Haryana in¯uence and, indeed, Bachaur animals are often indistinguishable from Har-
yana. The Haryana with its white coat and black skin is the most widespread breed in the
Terai and is used mainly as a fast draught and cart animal.

Types and breeds: (ii) Hill zebu. Nepalese Hill cattle are similar to Indian Hill types
(Mason, 1988). They are usually black (Epstein, 1977) and are tiny animals, hardly more
than 100 cm at the withers, and have small or no (especially females) humps. Large bulls
weigh 200 kg. Cows hardly weigh more than 120 kg and produce little milk, but they are
used to produce oxen, many of which are so stunted as to weigh little more than their dams
and produce little power.
Domestic animal resources in Nepal 239
Types and breeds: (iii) Achham and Kirko. The Achham of west Nepal is a dwarf zebu that
is even smaller than the Hill zebu. The colour is usually light brown. Bulls are usually
horned whereas cows may be polled. The Kirko is a humpless breed from Tibet that is
used in Nepal for crossing with yak.

Research, development and conservation. There has been little true research on cattle.
Ocial policy is to upgrade and replace native by `improved' breeds. Natural service and
AI are used but, except in small pockets, there has been no more success than for bu€alo.
Jersey and Holstein±Friesians are the main exotic breeds, with most recent imports being
from India. Semen of these, and of Ayrshire and Brown Swiss, is nominally available for
AI. One improvement programme in vogue, of mixed but usually limited success, is al-
location of a bull to a farmers' group. A major problem is the cost (in spite of occasional
Government subsidy) to a small farmer with limited feed resources. This is compounded
by the reluctance of other farmers to pay an economic price for the service fee. Devel-
opment projects often provide free or subsidized exotic cattle in urban milk catchment
areas, but there is little indication of long-term sustainability following the termination of
the projects in question.

Yak
Yaks are found in limited areas and small numbers above 3500 m close to the Tibet
border. Population estimates are unreliable because of remoteness and the confusion
between yaks and hybrids, but yak are probably fewer now than previously since much
Tibet±Nepal trade has been stopped or has become motorized. Opportunities for Sherpas
in tourism and other economic activities have also contributed to reduced numbers.
Yak are transport and milk animals. Orthodox Buddhists are forbidden to kill animals,
but there is no prohibition on meat and it is said that deaths due to mysterious causes are
not uncommon. Meat is high in protein (21.0%) and low in fat (1.6%). Milk contains 6±
15% fat: total solids during the monsoon are 16% but may rise to 25% during the dry
period. Milk o€take in unimproved animals is about 130 kg, and this is traditionally used
to make butter for mixing in tea. Government encourages a trade in milk for cheese
manufacture. Hair is a further product of which three types are recognized: coarse (88±210
mm staple length, 70 l ®neness); mid-type (52±130 mm, 40 l); and, down (36±41 mm,
28 l). Males yield 2.1 kg hair per year and females 0.5 kg. Blood is sometimes taken from
live animals and used for food (Ullman, 1955).

Types and breeds. There is no real breed distinction among the few pure yak in Nepal.
Chauri (meaning `tail' in Nepali) is a generic term for cattle±yak hybrids but is most
commonly used for female o€spring. The plethora of terms for various directions and
levels of crosses between the species are very confused and di€er with dialect and ethnic
group. In the past, Bos taurus from Tibet were used for hybridization, but the long-term
border closure has resulted in some Bos indicus crosses. There has also been diculty in
importing yaks for breeding pure and for producing hybrids.
Advantages of hybrids (Joshi, 1982) are that they exploit a wider altitude range than
either parent, and the hybrid vigour of the wide cross adds greatly to productivity in milk
and meat (Table 2). A disadvantage is that pure herds of both parents must be kept
because males from crosses in either direction are sterile for the ®rst four back-crosses, and
the ®fth is only moderately fertile. Natural hybridization occurs in only 10% of cases in
240 Wilson
Table 2. Ecological and economic characteristics of yak, cattle and their hybrids

Item Species
Yak Cattle Hybrid
Cattle ´ Yak Yak ´ Cattle
Altitude range (m) >3000 <3000 2300±4900 2000±4300
Age at ®rst calving (years) 3.0 3.5 2.2 3.0
Calving interval (years) 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0
Lactation yield (kg) 720 180±600 1700 1300
Lactation length (months) 6 6±10 9 9
Milk fat content (%) 6.6 3.8 5.7 5.7
Gestation period (days) 260 280 270 270
Body weight (kg)
Male 300 300 365 360
Female 225 210 235 230
Longevity (years) 15 15 20 20
Management at altitude Dicult Limited Easy Easy

free-roaming mixed herds, and human help is necessary to achieve higher rates. Other
reproductive problems also restrict crossing of various levels of hybrid animals to certain
other levels only. In Langtang, in the 1970s, only 13.5% of the yak±cattle hybrid complex
were ®rst back-crosses or beyond, and all except one of these were female (Bonnemaire
and Teissier, 1976). The ecological problems of altitude adaptation have been intensi®ed
by the border closure, although it seems that Sherpa in Kumbu district have been getting
yak from Tibet again in recent years (Brower, 1991).

Research, development and conservation. Government maintains two yak-breeding farms.

Numbers are low at both, and very few animals are distributed to traditional owners each
year. Breeding objectives are not clearly de®ned and oscillate between pure breeding and
breeding for crossing with cattle to increase the ecological range of both species for small-
holder use.

Goat
Goats are Nepal's second most numerous ruminant species. They thrive in all ecological
zones and in a range of management systems from high Mountain transhumance to
lowland sedentary and landless ones. Four main breeds are recognized (Table 3). Goats
are kept mainly for meat, against which there are only very minor taboos. Both sexes are
used for pack work in the Mountains where they are sometimes also milked. One breed
produces pashm or cashmere. Both genera of true goats are present in Nepal. The chro-
mosome number (2n = 48) of the wild Himalayan tahr Hemitragus tahr di€ers from that
of Capra (2n = 60), and there are no recorded crosses between the two.

Types and breeds: (i) Chyangra. The Chyangra is restricted to the Mustang district in
Nepal. It is used for pack, but its main product is cashmere. The long outer coat has a
staple length of 40±200 mm and covers the ®ne inner coat with a staple length of 25±90
mm. Annual cashmere yield is 115±170 g per goat. Slate or blue-grey is the most common
 Domestic animal resources in Nepal 241
Table 3. Distribution and management of goat and sheep breeds in Nepal

Goat Sheep Physio- Altitude Climate Manage-

graphic (m) ment
Breed Percentage Breed Percentage region system
of total of total
Chyangra 6.0 Bhanglung 4.0 Mountain >2500 Cool temperate/ Sedentary/
subalpine transhu-
mant
41.0 Mountain >2500 Cool temperate/ Transhu-
subalpine mant
Sinhal 35.0 Barwal 22.0 Mid-Hill 1500±2500 Warm temperate Transhu-
mant
Khare 50.0 Kagi 21.0 Lower Hill 300±1500 Subtropical Sedentary
Terai 9.0 Lampuchre 12.0 Terai <300 Subtropical/ Sedentary
tropical

colour, but white and other colours occur. Dwarf Tibetan goats are often found in the
same ¯ocks as Chyangra. Large numbers are imported every year for the major Hindu
autumn festival and trekked to Kathmandu for sale along with Bhanglung sheep.

Types and breeds: (ii) Sinhal. Sinhal goats derive their name from the Sanskrit `sinha' for
horn. The natural range is the Northern higher Mountain areas. This is the largest Nepali
goat, with males being 75 cm or more at the shoulder. Horns are heavy, thick and
moderately long. The long coarse hair extends onto the forehead and upper legs. Most
Sinhal are white but many have black around the head. Production functions are meat,
limited milk, pack and hair. The ®ne undercoat is occasionally combed out but produces
poor quality cashmere.

Types and breeds: (iii) Khare. Khare goats are the commonest in the country and are
found throughout the middle Hills. They have also been called Southern Hill and
Northern Hill types (Epstein, 1977). Khare from the South are larger than Terai goats,
and the Northern goats are larger again. Shoulder heights in the South reach 60 cm
whereas in the North they may be 70 cm. Colour and conformation are variable. Some
colour variants are given separate names but there is no evidence that these breed true.
One Government station selects black goats with white ears and white badger face. Goats
kid all year, but sexual activity peaks in April/May and in October/December. Over 60%
of all parturitions are of multiple o€spring.

Types and breeds: (iv) Terai. This is the smallest of the Nepalese goats, being not more
than 50 cm at the withers and rarely weighing more than 12 kg. Colour and conformation
are very variable. There is no restricted breeding season. The percentage of twin births is
estimated at 40%.

Research, development and conservation. Ocial policy for improvement is the archetypal
upgrading and replacement by improved breeds. Breeds have been imported from many
areas of the world. Jamunapari, Barbari and Beetal from India have been the easiest to
242 Wilson
obtain and the most used in formal programmes. These breeds, particularly the Jamu-
napari, are also widely used by small holders, especially in the Terai. There is evidence of
Saanen blood but it is not clear whence this came. Semen of Kiko goats (a New Zealand
breed developed from feral goats for meat production from marginal areas) was imported
by a UK Government aid project in 1989.
As for other species, the assumption, without prior characterization, is that native goats
need improving. In limited performance trials, and in outreach programmes in farmers'
¯ocks, the native Khare has usually done better than its crosses with exotics, especially in
the composite trait of weight of kid weaned per female per year. The superiority is due to
high proli®cacy, short parturition intervals and low mortality. Early maturity, while not
measured in the composite trait, probably adds further to the supremacy of the Khare.
Formal programmes have little impact on local genetic resources. In the Terai, crossing
Indian with Nepali breeds is common and successful when judged by farmer acceptance.
The breed most at risk is the Sinhal, which is also crossed indiscriminately with the Khare
in the higher Hills/lower Mountains. A small ¯ock of Sinhal at the Bandipur Goat Farm is
belated ocial recognition that this breed may be in danger and seems to be the only
formal attempt by Government to conserve a native breed of any species.

Sheep
Sheep are less numerous and of lesser economic importance than goats. There has been a
major decline in numbers in recent years (CBS, 1994). Four breeds are recognized, each
adapted to particular geographic conditions and management systems (Table 3). The
Jumli, after Jumla in Northwest Nepal, has been proposed as a ®fth breed (Epstein, 1977).
Main products are poor-quality wool, meat, limited transport in the Mountains, and
manure. The large export trade in so-called Tibetan carpets is based on small amounts of
local wool, some Tibetan wool, and major imports from New Zealand. The Bharal or blue
sheep, Pseudois nayaur, is native to the high Himalayas but has never been domesticated
and will not hybridize with true sheep of the genus Ovis.

Breeds: (i) Bhanglung. Also known as Bhyanglung and Bhotia, this breed is found in
Nepal in the Mountain districts of Mustang and Humla close to the Tibet border and
contiguous with the main breeding area there. It is hardy, adapted to subalpine and alpine
ranges at 3000±5000 m, and rarely descends below 2500 m, even in winter. The Bhanglung
is of moderate size, males being about 65 cm at the withers and weighing 35 kg, and
females 55±60 cm and 25 kg. Both sexes carry wide-spreading spiral horns and some males
have multiple horns. The wool is somewhat ®ner (25±28 lm) than other sheep in Nepal
and, shorn twice a year, produces an annual clip of 1.0±1.5 kg. Wool is described (Ryder,
1969) as typical carpet type and, because of its elasticity and strength, is much used in
Tibet for carpets. There is a very ®ne undercoat and coloured staples are common. Het-
erotype hairs are medullated during the summer and non-medullated in winter (Epstein,
1977).
In contrast to other Nepalese sheep, the Bhanglung breeds only in September±October.
The twinning percentage is extremely low. In addition to producing wool and meat, the
breed is used as a pack animal in its home tract.

Breeds: (ii) Barwal. The Barwal (or Baruwal) is the most numerous sheep and is found in
transhumant systems in the Hills and the Mountains. It is most common in the mid- and
Domestic animal resources in Nepal 243
far-West (and is larger there than Eastern types) where castrates are used for pack work
(carrying 10±12 kg), and the normally large ¯ocks of 200±500 head are night-herded on
crop land to provide manure. The Barwal is large by Nepalese standards, standing 75±80
cm at the withers, males weighing 30±35 kg (occasionally 45 kg) and ewes 25±30 kg. Males
are always horned and females usually so. Most animals have vestigial ears of 3±5 cm
length. The ¯eece, also covering the head and upper legs, has much kemp, lacks crimp,
grease and lustre, and is somewhat shaggy, with a staple length of about 6 cm and a ®bre
diameter of about 30 l. Rams are often coloured because of the demand for spinning and
weaving. Annual wool yields, often in two clips, are 1.5±2.0 kg for rams and 1.0±1.5 kg for
ewes.
Barwal sheep breed throughout the year but most conceptions take place in April±
October and fertility is generally high. Ewes that give twins are culled as survival of both
lambs is jeopardized. Ewes whose lambs die are milked but provide only very small
amounts which is drunk fresh or converted to ghee.

Breeds: (iii) Kagi. Kagi is the second most numerous breed. This subtropical type is
adapted to the warm humid lower Hills. Management is sedentary and ¯ocks comprise
one or very few ewes. Kagi are small, less than 60 cm at the withers, rams weighing up to
25 kg and ewes 20 kg. Rams are horned but ewes are usually polled. Vestigial ears are
common. The thin and short (10±14 cm) tail does not reach the hock. The poor quality
¯eece is hairy, kempy and uneven and head, belly and legs are clean: average staple length
is 6±8 cm with a ®bre diameter of 30±50 l (Ryder, 1969) and a yield in two clips of 700±900
g per year. It is kept by its traditional owners mainly for meat.
Breeding takes place all year but most lambings are in October±January, with few in the
summer and rainy seasons. The average lambing interval on Lampatan Farm at Pokhara,
where breeding is allowed all year, is about 10 months. Very few ewes produce twins.

Breeds: (iv) Lampuchre. Lampuchre±also known as Lohia or Tarai sheep (Epstein, 1977) ±
are con®ned to the Southern Terai. These are leggy animals, males being 60±70 cm and
females 55±60 cm at the withers. Adult rams weigh 30±35 kg and ewes 25±30 kg. Males
carry long curved horns but females are polled. Ears are moderately (14±15 cm) long. Wool
is the coarse carpet type and in full ¯eece has a staple length of 7±10 cm. Little is known of
the breed in Nepal but there is much interchange with similar sheep South of the border
with India.

Research, development and conservation. The conventional wisdom is that Nepalese sheep
are of low productivity and poor genetic potential (Pradhan, 1992). Since the early days of
development, ocial policy has been to improve native populations by crossing with
exotic breeds. Both wool and meat production are cited as goals for improvement.
Introduced breeds have usually been brought from afar. Favourites have been Polwarth
and other Merino types, including Merino d'Arles, Rambouillet and milk strains. Per-
formance of the ®rst crosses has usually been poor, and while wool yields were raised
under station conditions reproductive rates have been low, with lambs weaned per annum
of less than 0.5 per ewe. In terms of meat, pure-bred Barwal weaned 8.8 kg lamb per ewe
per year compared with 5.8±7.9 kg lamb per ewe per year for cross-breds. Four Gov-
ernment farms continue to import and cross exotic sheep on local types, and some
244 Wilson
Romney Marsh and Leicester rams arrived from New Zealand in 1994 to reinforce the
policy.
The advantages of cross-bred animals are still promoted in spite of much evidence to
the contrary. With the exception of a few pockets close to breeding centres, however, there
has been little impact on native sheep populations. There is, nonetheless, need for proper
characterization of local breeds which should be accompanied by at least a temporary halt
to the unstructured programmes currently in fashion. There could then follow a more
objective breeding programme within the framework of clearly de®ned national goals.

SUIDAE
Pig
Pigs are kept by disadvantaged social groups and restricted to certain areas of the country
(Gurung, 1990). Lowly status reinforced by religious prejudice has resulted in general
neglect in ocial policy. Native breeds are used in religious and social ceremonies but the
meat is then eaten and meat is e€ectively the only economic product of the species.
Paradoxically, taboos and restrictions do not extend to native wild pigs. There is, indeed,
much `karma' to be gained by o€ering guests fattened wild boar (Sus scrofa) on ceremonial
and religious occasions and the wild population is severely over-hunted. This, together
with destruction of wild pigs that raid crops, puts the population at considerable risk.

Types and breeds: (i) Chwanche. This is the smaller of the two native types and is raised
mainly in the Hills (Dhaubhadel, 1992). It has also been called the Nepalese Dwarf
(Epstein, 1977). The colour is usually solid black and, indeed, for many of the groups who
own and rear it this is the only acceptable colour for social and sacri®cial reasons. Some
young are born with the typical black and yellow stripes of the wild progenitor but these
change to black as they grow. In the traditional system there are very few adult males as
these are killed for ritual purposes and breeding is therefore done by small and just
sexually mature males.
Adult weights are generally not more than 25 kg, and it is a peculiarity of this breed
(and of the Hurra) that females weigh more than males. The long slender head has a thin
snout and short prick ears. The neck is long, the shoulders narrow, and there is the classic
razor back. The tail is long and straight. There is a dense coat of hard bristles which form a
mane on the back of the head, neck and shoulders.

Types and breeds: (ii) Hurra. Con®ned mainly to the Terai, this is the larger of the two
native types. It is also referred to as the Eastern Terai pig (Epstein, 1977). The colour is
usually dark but rust with patches of white is also common. Under traditional extensive
management mature weights are probably about 30 kg but in the only study for which
production data for the native varieties are available (Table 4) adult females and males
weighed 50 kg and 58 kg. The head and snout are not as long as in the Chwanche. The
neck is also shorter and the back somewhat straighter. This type has long legs attached to
a small narrow body. The tight skin has a coat of dense bristles that form a long sti€ main
extending from the front of the head down the backline to the loins.
The little observational and experimental data available on the native types indicate
relatively early maturity and short breeding cycles but poor overall reproductive perfor-
mance, slow growth rates and very high early mortality.
Domestic animal resources in Nepal 245
Table 4. Performance of Chwanche and Hurra indigenous pigs and Landrace pigs at
Lampatan Livestock Farm, Western Nepal and the locally-developed Pakhribas pig in
Eastern Nepal

Parameter Type/breeda
Chwanche Hurra Landrace Pakhribas
Age at ®rst farrowing (days) 283 348 396 374
Gestation period (days) 115 114 112 113
Interval between farrowings (days) 152 196 190 183
Litters per year 2.40 1.86 1.89 1.99
Litter size at birth 5.63 4.54 10.12 9.92
Litter size at weaning (45 days)b 3.87 2.69 7.45 8.90
Preweaning mortality (%) 31.3 40.7 26.4 10.3
Litter weight at birth (kg) 2.1 2.3 11.1 10.3
Litter weight at weaning (kg) 10.6 14.1 45.7 83.9
Mature weight (male, kg) 22.5 50.3 171
Mature weight (female, kg) 34.6 57.6 160
a
Parities were combined 1±4 for native types, not speci®ed for Landrace; native types were fed ad
libitum concentrate in pens but not directly compared to Landrace in one trial; Pakhribas pigs were at
di€erent sites.
b
Weaning at 60 days for Pakhribas.

Types and breeds: (iii) Pakhribas. A new pig, known as the Pakhribas, has been produced
from crossing of British Saddleback (63%), Chinese Fayeun (18%), Tamworth (9%), Large
White (5%) and Hampshire (5%). It is not yet a fully-®xed type, and because of small
numbers there is some danger of inbreeding. Its main traits are large litter size, good
preweaning survival, relatively rapid growth, strong bristles and black colour. Bristles and
colour are important in local religion and culture. Age at ®rst service is 241 days, age at
®rst farrowing 374 days, and farrowing interval 183 days. Litter size on station at birth is
9.92 and at weaning 8.90, with preweaning mortality of 10.3%. Piglet birth weights are
1.04 kg, and at weaning at 60 days they weigh 9.43 kg, with growth to weaning being 142 g
day)1. Adult males weigh 171 kg and females 160 kg, but these weights might possibly
prove too heavy for full adoption by local people.

Research, development and conservation. The domestic pig programme is based on exotic
breeds. Two or more are crossed to produce types considered suitable for various Nepali
environments. The Pakhribas, bred in part to satisfy a local cultural need, is a case in
point. Ocial policy is absorption and replacement of native pigs by natural mating with
exotic boars distributed by Government farms. The Large White (Yorkshire) and several
Landrace strains are the most popular but some Duroc were imported from Malaysia in
1994. Most pigs that leave Government farms are, however, reared for slaughter and not
used for breeding by small-holder farmers. Even if they are used for breeding there is no
e€ective support or monitoring by Government. Except in the Eastern Hills, where 15% of
village pig populations are the Pakhribas type, breeding and improvement programmes
have had little impact.
246 Wilson
EQUIDAE

Most o€-road transport in Eastern Nepal is provided by human power. In central and
western Nepal, however, the Equidae take their place alongside yaks, goats and sheep (all
of which carry loads on their backs) as providers of transport. Ponies in the Himalayan
areas are also used for direct agricultural operations in much the same manner as cattle at
lower altitudes. Equids are occasionally ridden and there are a few horse-drawn taxis
(locally known as `tonka') in some Terai towns. No statistics are collected on horses, mules
and asses and it is not possible to give an estimate of their numbers.

Horses and ponies

The Northern and Western districts are traditional horse and pony breeding areas
(Pradhan et al., 1992) but it is possible to see some almost everywhere. Ponies in the
Northwest are generally known as Bhotia ( = Tibetan) and are variously used as riding
and pack animals. They are said to be similar to Tibetan ponies although less broad
(Mason, 1988) but there has undoubtedly been considerable crossing with Indian and
Pakistani beasts over the centuries. Three main types are recognized. The Tattu is the
smallest, rarely exceeding 120 cm (12 hands) at the withers and often being as small as 107
cm (10.2 hands). It is normally only used for pack and can carry 60±80 kg all day up and
down the very steep terrain of the higher mountainous areas to which it is con®ned. The
Chyanta is larger, about 128 cm (13 hands), and used mainly for riding on steep mountain
slopes where its short-stepping gait is well adapted to the terrain. The Tanghan is a yet
larger riding variety, up to 136 cm (14 hands), with a normal gait. The colour is usually
bay but white ponies with unpigmented skin are not uncommon. Mountain ponies have
long shaggy winter coats in contrast to a generally short and moderately ®ne summer one.
Horses in the southern lowlands are known as Terai ponies. This is a small (110±120 cm
withers height) and very lightly built animal. It is sometimes considered to be a true
pituitary dwarf (Epstein, 1977). The short ®ne hair is usually bay coloured but there are
some white ponies with a dark pigmented skin.
A mounted police section in Kathmandu has better quality horses that are well tended.
These have Arab and English Thoroughbred blood but are mainly imported from India.

Donkeys
Small Tibetan (80±90 cm withers height) and larger Indian (100±110 cm) donkeys are kept
in small numbers in parts of the Terai, Hills and in the Mustang area of the Northwest
Mountains. Tibetan donkeys are usually dark brown in colour whereas Indian donkeys
are light grey to almost white. Donkeys are used only as pack animals, the Tibetan usually
being loaded with about 50 kg and the Indian with 60±80 kg.

Mules
Mules are relatively numerous in the Western Region around Pokhara where trains of 20±
30 animals are a not uncommon sight. Some are bred in Nepal but many continue to be
imported from India. Nepalese mules, as might be expected from their parentage, are small
(100±110 cm) and have poor conformation. In spite of this they are still expected to carry
loads of 80±100 kg over rough terrain. The most common burden is two cans of kerosine
or diesel fuel. The commonest colour is a sandy red.
Domestic animal resources in Nepal 247
Research, development and conservation. A very small number of donkeys has been im-
ported from India and Tibet in the past for mule production. Tibetan jacks were con-
sidered better as they were bigger and better able to mount horse mares. The Government
of China also made a gift of 15 male donkeys in 1983. In e€ect, however, there are no
organized breeding or conservation programmes and little to no ocial interest in equine
development or conservation.

AVES

Poultry include domestic fowl (`chickens'), common and Muscovy (Cairina moschata)
ducks, Chinese geese (Anser cygnoides), Guinea fowl (Numida meleagris), turkey (Melea-
gris gallopava) and pigeons. Chickens are kept for meat and eggs, and all species are used
for sacri®ce. There is considered to be one breed of native chicken but there are many
phenotypic types. The Terai is home to the Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus), the most likely
immediate progenitor of the chicken (Cooper, 1995). The wild rock dove (Columba livia) is
almost certainly crossing naturally in some places with domestic birds.

Domestic fowl
More than 80% of all rural household have some chickens. These are almost invariably
kept under a scavenging system. One management input is the keeping of broody hens and
hens with chickens under woven bamboo baskets for part of the day as well as the whole of
the night.
Native chickens are rather large: cocks weigh up to 2 kg and hens 1.5±1.7 kg. All local
chickens are referred to as Sakini but this is not a uniform breed or type. In some areas
there is a large percentage of naked-neck fowls of both sexes, and in others many birds
have the frizzle feather gene. Sakini lay 65±70 eggs and brood two clutches per year. Under
production farm management (Table 5) this can be increased by about 25±30 % but more
intensive management can raise this to 110±120 eggs per year.

Table 5. Performance of Sakini indigenous domestic fowl and three imported breeds at
Lampatan Livestock Farm, Western Nepal

Parameter Type/breed
Sakini Black New White
Australorp Hampshire Leghorn
Age at ®rst egg (days) 174 ± 161 157
Age at 50% laying (days) ± ± 194 174
Hen day productivity (%) 24.2 51.2 54.5 59.3
Eggs laid per year 85 154 163 196
Egg weight (g) 40 ± ± ±
Chick hatching weight (g) 25 35 35 30
Weight at 20 weeks (g) 817 2000 1900 1400
Egg fertility (%) 81.4 97.7 94.0 93.7
Hatchability (% fertile eggs) 79.7 82.9 89.0 89.0
Hatchability (% eggs set) 56.3 73.3 82.8 82.3
Feed consumption per 12 eggs (kg) 5.25 3.21 3.33 3.1
248 Wilson
Ducks
About 60% of ducks are kept in the Terai and ®nd a major outlet in October at the
Dashain festival. Pekin ducks were imported to Government farms from Hungary in 1970.
So-called Hong Kong cross (Pekin ´ Ng Chow) ducks were imported in 1976. Khaki
Campbells were imported from India in 1989. Most ducks are kept in a scavenging system.
The Hong Kong cross appears to be the preferred type of Anas platyrhyncos.
The Muscovy duck is kept in small numbers among common duck ¯ocks.

Pigeons
Pigeons are kept by many rural and urban families but there is no di€erentiation into
breeds. Flock sizes are small in the range of 2±10 pairs. Kept in part because they are
considered attractive to have around, the squabs are also eaten before ¯edging.

Minor species
There are a very few Chinese geese spread thinly over the country. Flocks are usually of
about four birds but there are some larger ¯ocks in the Terai. Guinea fowl are also kept in
considerable numbers in the Terai but are mostly sold in the major urban areas at festival
time. Turkeys are kept in very small numbers and are in fact so rare as to be a curiosity
when brought to market in Kathmandu.

Research, development and conservation. Government applies its usual `improvement'

package to chickens in small-holder subsistence systems. Replacement and cross-breeding
is based on multiplying layer lines on Government farms. The standard breeds are New
Hampshire, Black Australorp and White Leghorn. Pakhribas Centre breeds the Indian
Giriraja (= Mountain King, a synthetic derived mainly from Rhode Island Red and White
Wyandotte) which is intended for the scavenging system, ostensibly because of its re-
sistance to disease. It is liked by local farmers for its variety of colours but the large size
(cocks 6 kg, hens 4+ kg) may be a disadvantage in extensive village systems.
As many as 250 000 birds annually have been distributed to small holders in recent
years but the overall impact has been insigni®cant. There is no follow-up to distribution,
and exotic or cross-bred birds are not usually given any better feeding, health care or
management than local ones. Farmers show little interest in supposedly better poultry: in
the Pakhribas command area only 1.4% of birds were considered to be cross- or pure-bred
exotics, a ®gure to be compared with 15% of improved pigs in the same area.
The lack of change in native chicken populations does not apply to the main urban
areas. Where there is a strong and assured market for meat and eggs change has occurred.
There are an estimated 15 000 small commercial units of up to 400 layers each, and there
are small broiler units near Kathmandu and Pokhara. Some large private hatcheries im-
port parent stock from the USA and Europe and supply sexed day-olds to these smaller
producers. Under good Nepalese management hen-housed averages are 190±260 eggs per
bird per 12-month cycle for layers and 1600 g at 7 weeks for broilers. There is vertical
integration in these units which manufacture their feed, use AI for breeding, rear their own
birds and have their own market outlets. Most eggs and birds in Kathmandu, except for
sacri®cial and festival occasions, are now supplied from commercial units.
Eight Government ®sh farms should breed ducks for supplying farmers and to develop
integrated duck ®sh systems. In mid-1994 only one farm was actually producing ducks (the
Domestic animal resources in Nepal 249
Khaki Campbell was abandoned after 2 years as farmers were not interested in its light
weight and supposedly superior egg laying). Reduced mature weights and annual egg
production of about 60 eggs (against 140±150 just after importation) on Government
farms are considered to be due to lack of new imported blood and consequent inbreeding.
There are no programmes for other avian species.

RABBITS

Rabbits are recent introductions. Meat rabbits are California Hyline, New Zealand and
Chinchilla. Fibre rabbits are English, German and Russian Angoras. There has been
relatively intensive promotion of meat rabbits in some areas because they are considered
to broaden the resource base and are a means of increasing rural incomes. In spite of this
they have not proved popular. Angora rabbits, particularly at medium to higher altitudes,
seem more acceptable. Their ®bre is mixed with that of sheep, goats and yak in the
manufacture of local clothing and blankets.
Maintenance, breeding and adaptation programmes are carried out at Pakhribas and
Lumle Agricultural Research Centres in the Western and Eastern Development Regions.

ELEPHANTS

Elephants were used to a limited extent in the past in logging operations. As recently as 40
years ago they were used as VIP transport in the south of the country in the absence of
motor roads. They are now used mainly in ceremonies and festivals and as a tourist
attraction in various parts of the country. Government, in the form of the National Parks
and Wildlife Management Department of the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation
has an elephant-breeding programme at Royal Chitwan National Park in the Terai.

Discussion and conclusions

Biological diversity comprises all species of plants and animals, their genetic material and
the ecosystems of which they are part. Farm animal diversity is an important though far
too often neglected component of this diversity. Farm animal genetic diversity is critically
important for achieving food security for the world's rapidly growing human population
and in helping national economies to respond to structural changes. This diversity is
essential to help increase food production, maximize the productivity of agricultural land,
achieve sustainable agriculture for the bene®t of present and future generations and to
meet the variety of known and yet-to-be determined needs of human society.
In many regions ± both developing (of which Nepal is an example) and developed ±
indigenous adapted species and breeds of farm livestock are considered to be of inherently
low productivity and genetic potential. They are thus neglected or even actively margin-
alized and replaced by `improved' breeds. In this replacement policy no account is usually
taken of the adaptive characteristics of local resources to drought, heat, cold, poor nu-
trition, disease stress or indi€erent management or to the expressed or felt needs of the
small-holder farmers who, at least in Nepal's case, own almost all of the domestic live-
stock. Improved breeds rarely possess these traits and demand high levels of inputs, which
are often not available at an economic cost, if they are to perform to their potential.
Little has been done in Nepal to characterize in a planned way its wide range of farm
animal resources, yet continuous attempts have been made to replace them. Once lost,
250 Wilson
these natural resources of inestimable value are largely irreplaceable. The UN Convention
on Biological Diversity resulting from the Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) held in Brazil in 1992, and popularly referred to as the Earth Summit, reached
consensus on a global plan of action to promote sustainable development. Under Agenda
21 the importance of developing and strengthening the capacity of countries to bene®t
fully from their biological resources was identi®ed as a priority need. In Nepal, as else-
where, the needs for conservation of farm animal genetic resources are to:
d identify all the farm animal genetic resources which collectively comprise the na-
tional gene pool of the 17 species of animal used as domestic livestock;
d develop and use the associated diversity to increase production and productivity,
achieve sustainable agricultural systems and meet the demands for particular types
of product;
d monitor the resources currently represented by small numbers or which are being
displaced; and
d preserve those resources which, for various reasons, are not in current demand.
A start has been made on these imperatives by Nepal's membership of a regional network
whose objectives are largely those just outlined. Constant support for this initiative is
required, however, if many of Nepal's farm animal genetic resources are not to follow
those that have already disappeared in the drive for `development'.

Acknowledgements
This paper was written following several visits to Nepal over a period of 3 years. Extensive
periods of ®eld work on Government farms and in the small-holder environment in the
company of many Nepali colleagues with whom serious discussions were held, coupled
with access to a large number of formal and informal documents, form the basis of the
results presented here. I also bene®ted from discussions with senior research and policy
sta€ of the Nepali administration and of several UN and non-governmental organizations
working both in and outside Nepal. Implicit or explicit opinions in the paper are, of
course, those of the author alone.

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