ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND

MANAGEMENT
Arse Gebeyehu
 1.1 History of Domestication of Animals

• The domestication of animals is thought to be

started in the ancient time while human being
was living hunter gatherer
• The ancient man had been spending more
time in searching for food.
• Later on, when humans recognized the
importance of these wild animals as food
sources and other values they started to
captivate the wild animals around their
shelters.
 This was done deliberately with the aim to have a
continuous supply of food and other products for the
family.
 Here domestication can be defined as the action of
adapting the behavior of animals to fulfill the needs
of human beings.

 The wild animals were hunted for various purposes

such as food, cloth, shelter, power and etc.

 With this process, the ancient people began also to

use the animal for crop cultivation when they started
to practice agricultural activities.
 They substantially engaged in plant cultivation
and animal raising so that to assure constant
food supply and reduce time spent for food
searching.

 Selection of animals with certain desirable

characteristics was also practiced to use for
breeding purpose.
 Through time this resulted in a more settled way
of life.
 For this reason some scholars believe that animal
domestication to be motto for world civilization.
 Likewise, some historians also witness that there
would have been no civilization had it not been for
the success of human beings in domesticating
animals.
 Domestication is associated with three of the oldest
civilizations; the Nile in north-east Africa, the Tigris-
Euphrates in western Asia and the Indus in the Indian
sub-continent.

 From these centers of domestication people migrated

to other parts of the world
 Here dog is believed to be the most first
animal that primarily domesticated by human
being before 8000 years ago.

 This was followed with domestication of farm

animals like cattle, sheep and goat around
6000, 7000 and 5000 years, respectively.

 Especially these domesticated farm animals

were raised so that to fulfill the basic human
needs like food, cloth and shelter
 1.2. Livestock Population and Distribution in
Ethiopia
 Ethiopia does have huge livestock resources
comprising various animal species such as cattle,
sheep, goat, camel, donkey, horse, mule and
chicken.
 The most common farm animals of the country
can be categorized into mammalian, avian and
honeybee species.

 Cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys, horses

and mules are the major farm animals that lie
under the mammalian category.
 The country has the largest livestock inventories in Africa,
including about 43 million cattle, 24 million sheep, 19 million
goats, 4.5 million donkeys, 1.6 million horses, 0.62 million
camels, and 0.33 million mules according to the survey report
by CSA (2007).

 In addition to this, more than 34.2 million chicken and 4.88

million beehives are found in the country (CSA, 2007).

 The number of breeds of cattle, sheep, goat, camel, donkey,

horse, mule and chicken breeds identified so far are 25, 13, 15,
4, 4, 2, 2 and 5, respectively according to the Ethiopia farm
animal genetic resources survey country report.
 Under the avian category are chicken, ostrich and turkey.

 The latter two avian species are not widely used in the
country.

 Stinging honeybee species are economically the most

important species in the country.

 As per the CSA (2007) report, almost 99 % of the cattle,

sheep and goat population in the country are indigenous.

 The table below shows the livestock population of the

country by animal species.
 Table 1.1: Livestock population estimation in Ethiopia by species

Animal Cattle Sheep Goats Camels Donkeys Horses Mules Poultry Beehive
type

Number 43,124,58 23,633,01 18,559,73 616,396 4,498,385 1,655,383 325,700 34,200,00 4,884,468
2 0 0 0

Source: CSA (2007)

 In Africa livestock is an important economic sector.

 There is, however, a lot of variation between countries as

a result of differences in climate, availability of grazing
land and incidence of disease such as tripanosomiasis.

 In most African countries, pastoral system account for the

bulk of ruminant livestock production.

 The livestock population in Ethiopia is estimated to be

largest in Africa and ninth in the world.

 The table below presents the livestock contribution of the

country in Africa
 Table 1.2: Contribution of Ethiopia to Africa in Livestock
population

Animal Cattle Horses Mules Asses Camel Sheep Goats Poultry Pigs
species

Number 31,000 2750 620 5200 1070 23200 18100 59x103 20

(‘000)

% of # in 16 54 45 39 8 11 11 6 4

Source: FAO (1993)

In the agro-ecological classification Ethiopia has
about 18 major agro-ecological zones.

Each agro ecology is with its own climatic, edaphic,

biotic and socio-economic factors.

 The existing of diversified agro-ecological zones

enabled the country to own various animal species.

On wide spectrum, the country can be classified into

highland and lowland using 1500 masl altitude as a
crude threshold.
Based on this, the highland comprises about 44 % of
the landmass and 88 % of the human population of the
country.

Climate in the lowlands (< 1500 masl) are

characterized with dry sub-humid (15 %), semi-arid
(21 %), and arid moisture regions (64 %) largely
defined by various rainfall and temperature regimes.

In the other hand, the highland areas are described as

those areas in the semi-arid, sub-humid and humid
zones with an average daily temperature of less than
200 and altitude of more than 1500mm regardless of
the amount of rainfall
In the arid and semi-arid extensive grazing areas in
the eastern, western and southern lowlands cattle,
sheep, goats, and camels are managed in migratory
pastoral production systems.

 In the highlands, livestock are kept under settled or

transhumant systems utilizing common pastures,
many of which have a million clover content and crop
residues.

Such livestock includes some 9.3 million oxen

providing draught power, for the mixed farming
system that prevails.
 Majority of the small ruminants (sheep and goats)
population and almost entirely of the camel
population in the country are largely found in the arid
zone.

 Of the total cattle and sheep mass about 75 – 80 %

are estimated to be obtained in the highland.

 Likewise, about 30 % of the goat populations are

substantially found in the highland areas.

 High livestock pressure is prevailed in the highlands

• Table 1.3: The relative proportional distribution of land,
ruminant livestock and human population distribution by
agro-ecological zones in Ethiopia.

Zone Land area Cattle Sheep (%) Goat (%) Ruminant Human
(%) (%) TLU populatio
n

Arid 44.5 14.0 10.0 38.0 19.0 5.60

Semi-arid 10.1 14.0 16.0 22.0 14.2 43.4

Sub-humid 7.7 14.0 8.00 5.00 12.2 4.90

37.7 58.0 66.0 35.0 54.4 46.1

• Source: Jahnke (1982)

 1.3. Role of Livestock in the Farm Community

 Livestock provide diverse benefits to the farm community and

as well to the country economy.
 The benefits can be classified as input functions (food and
non-food products); output functions (manure, work and fuel);
asset and security functions; and economic and socio-cultural
importance.

 We have tried to discuss them one by one here below

Functions of livestock to the farm community
• Output functions
– Food products (meat, milk, egg etc)
– Non-food products (hides, skin, hooves, horn,
slaughter wastes etc)
– Reproduction and growth (Flock increment etc)
• Input functions
– Work (Draft and pack)
– Manure (organic fertilizer)
– Fuel
• Asset and security functions
• Economic and socio-cultural functions
• 1.3.1. Output Functions
Food products
 Livestock play an important role in improving food
security and alleviating poverity by providing animal
products such as meat, milk, egg, honey and milk
derivatives (butter, cheese, yoghurt etc…)

 People use these food products in their every day diet

either as supplementary or complementary to the
grain-based diet.

 These animal origin foods are well noted for their

richness in protein content and caloric value which are
very important from the perspective of human
nutrition and health
 In view of human nutrition, animal origin foods are believed
to be better in protein content as compared to plant origin
foods (cereals, pulses, vegetables etc…) but the energy content
of crops like rice, maize and wheat is higher.

 Often the comparison in Grain Equivalents is made.

 This means that a kilogram of livestock product is expressed

as the amount of grain with a similar content.

 Most crops are more efficient in calorific value, which is often

a big problem in African countries
• Table 1.4: Meat and milk characteristics in
Grain Equivalents
Animal product Average Calorific value Protein value
domestic price
Meat 4.0 0.7 2.1

Milk 1.7 0.2 0.5

Source: (Jahnke, 1982)

 • Table 1.5:. Breakdown of meat contents verses plant
contents

Food type Energy Protein Fat (g) Iron Zink Vitamin

(kCal) (g) (mg) (mg) B12 (μg)
Beef 263 18.5 20 3.2 6 2.4

Goat 269 13.4 3.4 3.7 0 1.2

Chicken 161 31.0 6 1.3 1.8 0.23

Offal 143 11.2 10.6 2.1 0 0

Maize 204 5.90 3.1 2.9 0 0

Wheat 364 10.5 1 0.8 0 0

Beans 127 9.00 0 2 2 0

• Source: Harris and Neumann (1999)
Figure 1.1. Animal products
• Figure 1.2. Milk products (Cottage cheese)
Non-food materials

 In addition to the food products, livestock

offer other non-food products worth
mentioning hides, skin, horns, hooves,
slaughter wastes, intestines, scrota, bone
meals, blood meals and others.

 These non-food products have immense

functions like for making soaps, medicines,
handcrafts and as animal feed
Reproduction and growth
 Herds reproduce themselves.
 Additions to the existing stock must therefore also be
considered as livestock products.
 The smallholder farmers commonly experience with
shortage of initial capital to invest in livestock business
venture.
 They usually begin to invest with few farm animals and
these stocking animals increase in their population
gradually.
 This is due to the reproductive nature of the animals
especially shoats which notably known for their fast
reproductive and growth performances.
 The accumulated animal herds are asset for the farm
community
• Figure 1.3. Sheep flock
 1.3.2. Input Functions
 Livestock provide input functions such as draft
power, manure and transport services which
used as inputs into food crop production and
marketing.
Manure
 The value of livestock droppings for soil fertility is
recognized by most tropical farmers.
 In addition manure is used for fuel and as a
building material.
 Livestock are not net producers of organic matter
or of nutrients; they merely act as a vehicle for
the transfer of these components.
 The nitrogen-content is in general quite small.

 A rule of the thumb can be derived from data

sources according to which the manure of two
livestock units would increase crop yields at low
levels by 50%.

 A Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) is an (ruminant)

animal of 250 kg. Of course this efficiency
depends largely on local circumstances like
ecological zone, losses due to degradation and
the portion of manure collected
 Manure provides necessary nutrients like NPK
(nitrogen, phosphorous and Potassium) which
enable to enhance the crop yield significantly.

 In addition to this, it is believed that manure

application improves other soil parameters
such as soil texture and structure which also
greatly contribute to the increased crop yield.
 Work
 Livestock have diverse functions for the
livelihood of farmers in both the mixed crop-
livestock systems in the high lands and pastoral
livestock production systems in the lowland
areas.

 The domestic farm animals are regularly

employed for various agricultural and non-
agricultural activities such as land improvement
(e.g. contour ploughing, drainage ploughing); soil
preparation (e.g. ploughing, hoeing, and
harrowing); crop husbandry (e.g. seeding with
drills); crop processing (e.g. threshing) and on-
farm transport
 Off-farm transport is importantly connected to
trade and marketing.

 Particular facets of livestock work are the

drawing of water, the transport of homesteads in
nomadic livestock husbandry systems and finally
the fact that livestock walk themselves to the
place of sale and slaughter.

 The two most important categories of animal

work are traction and transport.

 Traction refers to the employment of the

tractive force of animals in crop production.
 The most important species used for work are
cattle, the group of equines and camels.

 There are a total of 25 million work animals in

tropical Africa; of which Ethiopia accounts for
about one-third.

 A research survey done in the central highland

of Ethiopia showed that draft animals provide
the power for the cultivation of nearly 96 % of
the highland cultivated land.
 The resources poor farmers can not practice
mechanized farming for diverse reasons amongst
which shortage of capital, raged topography,
fragmented land holding, technical incapability
and others could be worse mentioned.
 Moreover, manure is used as fuel for cooking and
building materials for residence and other
houses.

 Most of the estimated 7 million equines (horses,

mules, and donkeys) are used to transport
produce and other agricultural goods.
 Camels also play a key role as pack animals in
areas below l,500meters in elevation
• Additionally, camels provide pastoralists in those
areas with milk and meat.

Figure 1.4: Ploughing oxen

Figure 1.5: Wood carrying donkey
 1.3.3. Asset and Security Functions
 In the rural areas of many developing countries,
financial services such as credit, banking and insurance
are virtually non-existent.

 In these areas, livestock play an important role as a

means of saving and capital investment, and they
often provide a substantially higher return than
alternative investments.

 A combination of small and large livestock that can be

sold to meet petty-cash requirements to cover
seasonal consumption deficits or to finance large
expenditure represents a valuable asset for the farmer
 One aspect of the risk balancing effect of
livestock is simply that it is a non-cropping
activity.
 There is the likelihood that not both, crop
production will suffer a negative deviation from
the expectation at the same time.
 Other aspects are that some livestock products
like milk provide a regular income as opposed to
cropping and livestock can be readily sold to
solve a liquidity problem on the farm.
 The asset function means that the livestock are a
kind of savings account by being a relatively safe
and durable form of storing wealth.
 They are unaffected by inflation
 1.3.4. Economic and Socio-cultural Functions
 Livestock are also a source of cash income through
sales of the above items, animal hides and skins.

 Furthermore, they act as a store of wealth and

determine social status within the society especially in
the pastoral community.

 A pastoralist with more animal number would have

great prestige value and social acceptance.

 There are societies in which bride price has to be paid

in cattle and no other carrier of value is accepted
 Cattle can also be valued for their long horns,
camels for their racing capabilities.

 Here one can mention an overlap with the

asset function as the number of livestock will
give the owner prestige is society
1.4. Role of Livestock in Ethiopian Agriculture

 Livestock are part and parcel of the Ethiopian agriculture.

 The domestic farm animals besides the diverse functions

provided to the farm community they also do have pronounced
contributions to the country overall economy.

 Ethiopia has an agriculture-based economy from which close

to 85% of the population derive their livelihood.

 The diverse ecology of Ethiopia makes the country the home

for large populations of different domestic and wild animals
with considerable contributions to the national economy
 The various products and by-products, drawn from livestock
sector, play a crucial role in the livelihood of the farmers in
the country.

 This sector contributes 40 % of the agricultural GDP, 85 % to

export, and 19 % to the export earnings.

 If the contribution value of animal traction, transport and

manure are taken into considerations, the share of livestock to
GDP would be higher.
 Hides and skins constituted the second largest export earner,
averaging about l5 percent of the total export value during the
period l984/85 to l988/89 (need of updating the figure);

 Live animals averaged around 3 percent of the total value of

exports during the same period (need of updating the figure)

 About 10 million oxen provide virtually all the draught power

for the cultivation of the nation's grain crops.

 No agricultural practices other than mowing are conducted

without the involvement of farm animals
 Land cultivation is mainly done by oxen, horses, donkeys or
their combinations.

 Farm animals serve to level the ploughed field, shortly before

and after sowing.

 Transportation of the harvested crops to and from threshing

sites, threshing itself, transportation to and from the market is
conducted by the farm animals.

 Similarly transportation of water, firewood, mobile houses,

construction materials and other goods is conducted by farm
animals and they are the main means of human transport
 Apparently, livestock play a pivotal role in alleviating poverty
in the livelihood of the majority of the rural and the peri-urban
poor.

 They contribute to food and nutritional security, generate

income, financial security, sustainable crop yields,
employment opportunity, social status, transport and sources
of power, and their manure maintains soil fertility.

 Additionally, animal food products such as meat, milk, eggs

and honey are sources of high quality protein, vitamins,
minerals and energy.
 Livestock by-products including hide and skins have a
significant share from the export earnings.

 It is a well known fact that Ethiopia is a home for a good

number of endemic species of wild and aquatic fauna, which
generate money in terms of attraction of tourists.

 The potential from this huge national domestic and wild fauna,
however, has not been efficiently exploited owing to the wide
spread animal diseases, sub-optimal nutrition, problems
associated with policy issue, limitations in genetic potential
and poor management practices.
 Moreover, skins, hides and horns are used as raw materials for
making a rage of household (HH) items, agricultural tools and
ornaments.

 Their manure is used to fertilize backyards and crop fields.

Farm animals serve as insurance and source of cash for rural
farming communities.

 Their role in cultural and social ceremonies is significant.

Animal dung is used as a construction material.

 It is also the major source of fuel, particularly in areas where

firewood is scarce
Table 1.6: Export values of livestock and livestock products (millions US$), 1999-2002

Item USD (000) in year

1999 2000 2001 2002
Live cattle 130 73 503 336
Live sheep and goat 866 1256 NA 35
Other animals 111 3 4 182
Hides 1271 3953 16795 3948
Skins 25430 38200 56895 53956
Leather products 3080 5310 164 23
Bees wax 895 893 555 554
Dairy products 46 4 10 20
Meat and meat products 3799 2360 1515 1710
Value of total products exported 431659 481040 427451 413226
Share of livestock to total export value (%) 8.33 10.85 17.94 14.75

Source: National Bank of Ethiopia and Ethiopian Customs Authority; NA = Not Available
1.5. Livestock Production and Productivity

 Even though the country has huge livestock resources the current
production and productivity is by farm low beyond the expected.

 The existing livestock production system is the traditional one

which is characterized by the low-input supply and as a result the
output.
 More than 95 % of the livestock populations are kept under the
traditional system and the remaining 5% raised under improved
system in city and urban commercial farms.

 Moreover, almost entire (99 %) of the animals indigenous with

only one percent cross breed ones
 Dairy production
 As there is no specialized dairy production, almost all (98%) of
the milk comes as a by-product of multipurpose cattle breeds.

 Annually, 800,000 MT milk is produced with an average of

2113 kg /milking cow and 27 kg /animal in the population.

 Reproductive performance of dairy cattle is low as evidenced in

delayed ages at first parturition and long calving interval, Age
at first parturition of cattle is above four years, calving interval
in the average is 2 years.

 Milk production from indigenous cows range 200 – 250 kg in a

lactation period of 150 – 200 days
1.6. Constraints to Livestock Production and Productivity

 As mentioned above, Ethiopia has substantial livestock

resources.

 However, the production and productivity is very low in which

the sub-sector is constrained by various problems.

 In general the existing problems could be classified as

technical and non-technical problems
1.6.1. Technical Problems
Feed shortage
 Feed shortage is considered to be the critical bottleneck in
livestock production systems.

 The livestock producers face serious feed shortages in both

quantity and quality.

 It is well known that feed is an important component of the

production system that covers about 60 – 70 % of the production
cost.

 The animal feed situation of the country shows that natural

pastures and crop residues are the main feed resources for animals
that collectively supply more than 90 % of the annual feed
requirement of the livestock
 The contributions of the feed resources vary
with the existing livestock farming system.

 In the mixed crop-livestock farming system

both crop-residues and natural pastures are
the major feed sources for animals while in
the pastoral system almost the animal feed
requirement of animals covered by natural
pastures as there is extensive grazing lands.
 Crop resides like teff straw, wheat straw, barley
straw; sorghum stovers have poor feeding value
in terms of crude protein, energy content,
minerals and digestibility.

 An animal that solely depends on crop residues

will not perform well unless supplemented with
green feeds or concentrates.

 Most straws have about 3 – 5 CP value which

below the animal nutrient requirement which is
estimated to be about 7 – 7.5 %.
• In addition to this, there is variation in seasonal
availability of the crop residues with relatively
plentiful during rainy season (August – October)
and critical shortage during the dry season
especially starting from March until June.

• The natural pastures are less productive at an

estimation of 1 – 2 tones dry matter per hectare
which is due to diverse reasons such as
overgrazing, poor management and utilization in
which commonly free grazing is practiced as a
system.
• Moreover, the natural pastures are get diminishing
from time to time due to crop encroachment for the
high human population; and expansion of
industrialization, urbanization and settlement

• In the future the fate of natural pastures would be

that they will reduce in their contribution as animal
feed sources.

• In the reverse, due to the ever increasing nature of

crop cultivated lands; in attempting to supply food for
the population; the contribution of crop residues as
animal feed will be increased
• In addition to this, the existing natural pastures are
dominantly covered with grass species and less
legume species which have good feeding value.

• Currently most natural grazing areas are found

covered with unpalatable plant species due to
overgrazing and selective grazing nature of animals.

• This as it is, there is limited use of agro-industry by-

products such as wheat bran, oil seed cakes,
molasses etc as animal feed.
• This is due to diverse reasons amongst which financial
limitation, unavailability, expensiveness and lack of
awareness on their importance as animal feed.

• The utilization of improved forage plants as animal feed

is not well incorporated in the feeding system.

• Even though there are some forage development

endeavors with the aim to improve feed conditions,
there is low adoption of forage crops by the smallholder
farmers for various reasons in relation to land and
finance.
 Genetic problem
 The indigenous animal species; be it cattle, sheep and
goats; are blamed to be poor in their genetic potential.

 This is an inherited behavior of the animals in their

very nature.

 The production and productivity that scored by the

local animal breeds is very low; worse mentioning the
annual cattle milk production to be 230
liter/head/lactation period and likewise the slaughter
weight of beef cattle is about 230 kg/head.
 All other reproductive parameters in relation to
birth weight, weaning weight, market weight,
carcass weight, milk traits and beef traits are very
poor.

 The current livestock breeds are the results of

natural selection for survival under the prevailing
condition and as a result they fail to perform well in
the production traits.

 Because, from the breeding point of view these

survival and production traits are negatively
correlated each other.
 It well know that our local animal are nicely adapted to the
existing environmental conditions such as high
temperature, diseases and pest prevalence, poor
management and feed conditions.

 However, even though the low genetic potential of

indigenous livestock is considered by many to be the major
bottle neck in the sector,

 this is not in most cases true where available resources are

hardly enough to support local breeds as a result low
yielding potential of indigenous livestock breeds can only
be considered as a constraint in some sources rich areas or
intensive production systems
 Even though we blindly blame our indigenous
animal to be less productive they are not well
identified, characterized and evaluated.

 There is an immense information gap in their

productive and reproductive potential.

 In addition to this, we fail to develop livestock

breeding policy and this makes Ethiopia to be the
only country with no livestock breeding policy in
the East Africa
 Animal diseases and pests

 Animal disease is one of the major constraints of

livestock productions.

 These animal diseases and pests cause high livestock

death and reduced production accompanied with
significant economic loss.

 The major animal diseases prevailed in the country

are pastorolosis, anthrax, blackleg, PPR, CBPP, CCPP,
Smallpox, chicken pox, Newcastle diseases, African
horse sickness, trypanosomiasis and others
 It has been estimated that direct causes of
diseases account on the loss of 8 – 10 % per of the
national herd, 14 – 16 % of the sheep and 11 – 13
5 of the goat.

 There are also various species of internal parastes;

round worm, tape worm, liver fluck etc and
external parasites like mites, tick, tse-tse fly etc.

 Fasciolasis parasite has an economic importance

in cattle and sheep at higher altitudes which was
estimated to cause annual losses of 49 million.
 Annual losses caused by heliminthasis in domestic animals
are estimated about ETH 700 million.

 From the figures we can imagine that to what extent the

parasites cause economic loss in the country.

 Contagious diseases and parasitic infections are major

causes of death, factors that are exacerbated by
malnutrition and starvation.

 Prevention methods such as good management:

appropriately designed buildings, good hygiene, proper
animal stocking rates and adequate veterinary services
are important.
 1.6.2. Non-technical Problems
Socio-economic constraints
 Besides the technical constraints the livestock
industry in the country is threatened by many and
complex socio-economic problems.

 Here it could be mentioned in relation to the

availability and access of infrastructures.

 As we know most of the livestock population found

in the traditional system like pastoral areas where
the mostly denied of socio-economic structures.
 This makes difficult to invest in livestock business
scheme especially in remote areas like Afar and
Somalia regions.

 The poor infrastructures are pertaining to roads,

electric power and communication.

 For example, electric power is quite important in

order to store perishable products (meat and milk) and
health treatments (drugs and vaccines).

 In addition to this, the poor road access makes difficult

in transporting of inputs and products
 Marketing infrastructure for handling collection, processing
and marketing are poor.

 There is also shortage of capital for investment in livestock

especially under the smallholder farmers.

 There is one thing due to the lack of credit and saving

services in rural areas.

 Development of smallholder livestock development requires

long-term investment.
 There are no long-term loans or credit in livestock business
venture and the present high interest rates discourages
farmers.
 In the traditional livestock system the main production
objective is for draft power in case of the mixed farming
and milk in the pastoral society and thus meat production
is considered as by-products.

 Animals are commonly slaughtered either when aged or

emaciated.
 The farmers deal only with animal number and not
cheering focus to the productivity.
 The pastoral communities have the tradition of keeping
large animal number for various reasons such prestige
value and as safety measures against animal disease
outbreaks and drought occurrences.
 They even keep unproductive animals in their flock
 Policy constraints
 In the past livestock production had been neglected from
the national and/or regional development plans.

 It can be said that the animal science sector has suffered

more than the crop sector from inappropriate
governmental policies.

 In short, there had been lack of clear policy with regard

to livestock development and research programmes.
 As mentioned before, even though the country does have
enormous livestock population it still failed to develop a
livestock breeding policy which could be used as
guidelines
 Lack of appropriate livestock technologies

 Our farmers are currently utilizing their traditional

knowledge and technologies in animal rising.

 Most of the livestock are raised under the

traditional system which characterized by
inefficiency and ineffectiveness for its low-input
utilization.

 The research institutions are not supporting the

producers to the required level.
 This is partly because; the research institutions
themselves have their own problems in relation to
research approaches, technical, financial, facilities,
human resources and the like.

 In addition to this, there is a poor research-

extension-farmer linkage that makes it difficult for
technology generation, adoption and
dissemination.

 This is also considered to be institutional problem

as the actors (research and extension) fail to work
together by establishing effective communication.
 In some regions like Tigray and Oromia they
merged the research and extension as one
business process during the implementation
of their respective BPR (business process
reengineering) studies
 Physical factors

 This could be explained in relation to the nature

of soil; vegetation type and cover; water
resources; climatic conditions; pollutions and
other environmental factors that can influence
the livestock production system.

 In the tropical and sub-tropical areas, the climate

is characterized by high ambient temperatures
and relatives humidity which adverse for animal
life.
 Under such environmental conditions animals are just
strive to struggle against the existing conditions in
tolerating the conditions through physiological changes.

 Likewise, animals that are found in cool areas lose more

energy as they shiver in an attempt to maintain body
conditions (i.e homeostasis).

 Another is that areas with fertile soils and irrigation

potentials would have the chance of good feed
availability that can nourish the animals and as a results
the animals perform better in their production (in terms
of meat and milk).
• Similarly, if animals receives enough rainfall
amount (usually great than 600 mm/annum)
that can support vegetation growth, plenty
animal feed is available.

• Water and air pollutions negatively affect the

animals by interfering in the health aspect
 1.7. Livestock Improvement Options
 Livestock improvement in general and livestock
genetic improvement in particular is aimed at
increasing production of livestock products such as
milk, meat, egg etc…

 Matching with available resources such as feed, land

labor and the like in a sustainable way and / or
increasing the efficiency of production both economic
and biological efficiencies.

 Livestock improvement can be brought about through

non-genetic and genetic options
 Non-genetic options deal with improving the feed
conditions, health, management, socio-economic,
technology utilization, policy and other aspects.

 In the other hand, the genetic improvement options

focus on the inherent genetic make-up of the animals.

 Here one thing needs to be considered is that the

genetic improvement should not be considered in
isolation from non- genetic improvement; unless
otherwise there would not be achieving the expected
results
 So the first step in any livestock improvement
program in that make first an inventory of available
resources for animal production and then match the
animal breeding (genetic improvement) objectives to
the existing resources.

 The genetic improvement options have relative

advantages over the non-genetic improvement
options in which the genetic improvement is
permanent and additive where as the non- genetic
improvement requires constant supply of inputs such
as feeds, health treatment etc
1.7.1. Non-genetic Improvement Options

 Here attempts are made in improving the availability of

feed resources through the forage development
programmes.

 Nowadays, various forage development strategies; that

depend with the given area; are being undertaken in
the country with the aim to improve the animal feed
supply.

 The improvement options should consider the existing

resources
 In case of feed improvement options natural
pastures and crop residues are the major feed
resources in the country and thus focus need
on them for their effective and efficient
utilization.

 The natural pastures could be improved in the

productivity and quality through various
scientific techniques such as undersowing with
improved pasture crops that offer better yield
by competing with the natural pasture
vegetations;
 Fertilizing using either inorganic fertilizer like
urea and DAP or manure (organic fertilizer);

 using fire for burning unpalatable and bushy

plants and encouraging herbaceous plant
growth that do have good feeding value for
animals;

 controlling free grazing and thus practicing

improved grazing managements such as
rotation grazing, deferred grazing, paddocking
etc.
 The low feeding value and digestibility of crop
residues can be potentially improved using various
improved feeding technologies like urea treatment;
urea-molasses treatment and others.

 The crop residues can be also supplemented with

green forages, concentrates and urea-molasses-block
(UMB) in order to enhance their utilization for
increased animal performances.

 In addition to this, the crop residues should be well

conserved as hay form for strategic feeding during
the long dry seasons
 There is also a need of improving the existing animal
health extension services especially in areas where
large livestock population available.

 There is a need of delivering adequate drugs and

vaccines; establishing animal post clinic in strategic
areas; training animal health personnel and improving
other facilities.

 In addition to this, prerequisite treatments should be

taken as controlling measures; for example;
vaccinating, drainage improvement; house cleaning,
proper grazing land management and utilization etc.
 The indigenous knowledge on animal treatment (i.e
ethno-veterinary) should be supported with the
scientific methods.

 We need also to have appropriate policy on livestock

development and research that could be used as
guidelines for designing relevant plans.

 Research institutions need to be strengthened with

both personnel and facilities and follow proper
research approaches in their research process so that
to develop appropriate technologies for their clients;
be it smallholder farmers or commercial producers
 1.7.2. Livestock Genetic Improvement
Options

 Considering the existing resources and

constraints the livestock genetic improvement
options can be effected through three
possible/alternative options such as selection,
cross breeding, and new breed synthesis.

 Here below are discussed the three options in

relation to the country’s context
 A) Selection
 Selection, artificial or natural, is a process by which the
contribution (the genetics of animal in a population is
altered where by the resulting offspring population will
have different gene and genotype frequencies with
increased frequency of alleles favored.

 Selection, from practical animal breeding point of view,

is a practice where best animals are mated to animals.

 Best in this case depends on the objective and goals of

the breeder
 Response to selection or change of population
mean is the difference of mean phenotypic
value of the parental generation before
selection.

 The magnitude of the selection applied

expressed as the average superiority of the
selected parent over the total population
before selection
 B) Cross breeding

 Cross breeding is a practice in which animals of

different breeds are mated with the aim of
combining favorable traits from the breeds crossed.

 A given animal breed could be preferred for its good

trait and another animal could be also appreciated
for its favorable trait.

 In this condition we can deliberately combine the

traits through producing a hybrid anima.
 What proportion of blood is required for the
cherished performance level, which can also be
supported by the non-genetic factors prevailing
depends on the areas where the cross breed is
raised.

 Cross breeding does have both additive and

heterosis effects.

 Additive effects means the crossbred animals

(this is called progeny) will have an average
performance of its parents
 For instance if a given animal which offers
about 3000 liters milk is crossbred with
another animals that also offers about 5000
liters milk then the crossbred (progeny)
animal is expected to offer about 4000 liter
milk which is an average of both the mother
and father.

 In case of the heterosis effect the crossbred

differs from the average performance of its
parents
 The heterosis effect is also called hybrid vigor
in which the progeny will be advantageous by
gaining genetic merits from both parents.

 In animal breeding the mother and father are

named as dam and sire, respectively
 C) New breeds formation (Synthetic breed)

 This is the process of replacing the existing local

animal breeds by other introduced new breeds due
to their poor performances.

 Breeds can be formed by crossing two or more

breeds with varying proportions.

 A cross breed with the desired proportion of genes

from the breeds involved is produced and the
interbred and selection done
 2. DAIRY CATTLE PRODUCTION
2.1. Origin and Zoological Classification of Cattle

 The domestication of livestock is interrelated with the

civilization of the world.

 Livestock have been greatly involved in the agricultural

practices of many countries in the world starting from
early periods.

 The oldest cattle type that assumed to be

domesticated in Mesopotamia (Currently known as Iran
and Iraq) around 8000 years ago is the Hamitic type
 The long horned Hamitic cattle was some features
of a creature of average to large stature; lacking a
hump; endowed with developed horn; and
sometimes very large in length and girth.

 In the same area 2000 years later, a new type of

animal appeared in this area with much reduced
stature and with smaller horns.

 This type of animal spread rapidly across three

continents, where they coexist and sometimes
replaced the Hamitic.
 Finally, 4000 years ago, the Zebu appeared in a region
corresponding to present day Afghanistan and this Zebu
type cattle disseminated to tropical and sub-tropical areas
like Africa and India.

 The majority of indigenous tropical breeds of cattle are

humped.

 In general Western Asia is believed to be the center of

origin and domestication for the current cattle. There were
no native cattle in tropical America, Australia or the Pacific.
 All cattle there today are the progeny of cattle introduced
by European settlers
2.2. Dairy Production Systems in Ethiopia

 In the highland areas agricultural production

system is predominantly smallholder mixed
farming, with crop and livestock husbandry
typically practiced with in same management
unit.

 In this farming system all the feed requirement

is derived from native pasture and a balance
comes from crop residues and sub grazing
(Tedla et al, 1989).
 The main source of milk production in Ethiopia is from
cow but small quantities of milk are also obtained from
goat and camel in some regions particularly in pastoral
areas.

 There are four major systems of milk productions in

Ethiopia.
 These are pastoralism, the high land small holder, urban
and peri-urban and intensive dairy farming.

 The production system in the country, in respect to

marketing situations, can be broadly caragorized in the
Urban, Peri-urban and rural milk production system
(Azage and Alemu, 1998).
 2.2.1. Pastoralism
 It is estimated that about 30% of the livestock populations
are found in the pastoral areas.

 The pastoralist livestock production system which

supports an estimated 10% of the human population
covers 50-60% of the total area mostly lying at altitudes
ranging from below 1500 m.a.s.l.
 Pastoralism is the major system of milk production in the
low land.
 However, because of the rainfall pattern and related
reasons shortage of feed availability milk production is low
and highly seasonally dependent (Ketema, H and
Tsehay.R .2004).
 Paternalists typically rely on milk for food and
also use animals to store generate wealth.

 Animals are consequently are important in

social value systems.

 Pastoral social systems also commonly

emphasize decentralized leadership that
promotes flexibility in resource use (Janke,
1982; Coppock et al, 1985)
2.2.2. The Highland Smallholder Milk Production

 The Ethiopian highlands possess a high potential for dairy

development.

 These areas occupying the central part of the Ethiopia,

over about 40% of the country (approximately 490,000
km2) and are the largest of their kind in Sub-Saharan
Africa.

 In the highland areas agricultural production system is

predominantly substance smallholder mixed farming, with
crop and livestock husbandry typically practiced within
the same management unit
 In this farming system all the feed requirement is
derived from native pasture and a balance comes from
crop residues and stub grazing (Tedla et al, 1989).

 The majority of milking cows are indigenous animals

which have low production performance with the
average age at first calving is 53 months and average
calving intervals is 25 months.

 Cows had three to four calves before leaving the herd

at 11-13 years of age, the average cow lactation yield is
524 liters for 239 days of which 238 liters is off take for
human use while 286 liters is suckled by the calf.
 But also a very small number of crossbred animals
are milked to provide the family with fresh milk
butter and cheese.

 Surpluses are sold, usually by women, who use

the regular cash income to buy household
necessities or to save for festival occasions
(Mugerewa).

 Both the pastoralist and smallholder farmers

produce 98% of the country milk production
(MOA, 1985 E.C).
2.2.3. Urban and Peri-urban Milk Production

 This system is developed in and around major cities
and towns which have a high demand for milk.
 In this system the main feed sources are agro-
industrial by products.
 This system small and medium size farms located
mainly in the highlands of Ethiopia.
 In this system milk is as a means of additional cash
income.
 Most of the improved dairy stock in Ethiopia is
used for this type of production.
 One of the largest sources of milk in Addis
Ababa/regional towns is that from intra-urban
milk producers.

 A total of 5167 small- medium- and large-scale

dairy farmers exist in and around Addis Ababa
(Region 14 Addis Ababa Agricultural Bureau
survey report quoted by Azage and Alemu
1998).
 Total milk production from these dairy farmers amounts
to 34.649 million liters/annum.

 Of this total, 73% is sold, 10% is left for household

consumption, 9.4% goes to calves and 7.6% is processed,
mainly into butter and ayib (Azage and Alemu 1998).
 The producers deliver milk to consumers or consumers
may collect it at the producer's gate.

 Studies indicate that in terms of volume 71% of intra-

urban producers sell milk directly to consumers
(Belachew et al. 1994).
 2.2.4. Commercial Dairy Farming

 This is a more specialized dairy farming practiced

by state sector and very few individuals on
commercial basis.

 These are concentrated in and around Addis Ababa

and are basically based on exotic purebred stock.

 The urban, peri-urban and intensive dairy farmers

are produce 2% of the total milk production of the
country.
 2.3. Breeds of Dairy Cattle
 All domestic cattle of the world are included under a family
name called Bovidae.

 Cattle are classified into two groups as Bos taurus and Bos
indicus.

 The word “Bos” is a Latin word for cattle. Both groups of cattle
are thought to be originated from the now extinct wild cattle
species called Bos primigenius and Bojanus.

 The Bos taurus includes all indigenous tropical cattle without

humps and all the temperate breeds.

 And the Bos indicus includes all humped Zebu breeds

 2.3.1. Exotic Dairy Cattle Breeds
 The temperate cattle breeds are well appreciated for
their high milk production and reproductive
performances.

 For instance, European breeds can easily produce

over 3000 liter of milk per cow per year with the
existing tropical feed resources provided that the
climatic stress in not sever and improved
management is practiced.

 Some of the temperate dairy cattle breeds are Jersey,

Holestien-Friesian, Brown Swiss and Red Danish.
 These temperate cattle breeds have been introduced to the
tropics to upgrade the genetic make-up of the indigenous cattle
breeds.

 Of the European breeds the Jersey is generally accepted as the

most heat tolerant in the humid, low-altitude tropics.

 However, Friesians usually out yield the others in total milk

yield.

 While Jerseys equal Friesians for yield on the basis of equal

body weight, Friesian teat size is often preferred by farmers
for various justifiable reasons like suitability for hand and
machine milking.
 Friesians also have good beef-producing
properties.

 Brown Swiss cattle have been used widely as a

milk and meat breed in Latin America, but
they do not have the same potential as the
Friesian breed
 Major Ethiopian dairy Cattle Breeds and their
Characteristics

 Ethiopia is endowed with huge livestock resources with

diversified species and breeds of animals.

 The diversified agro-ecological natures of the country enable

to host many breeds of cattle.

 Even though adequate data is not available on cattle genetic

resources at national level but it is obvious that there are many
breeds of cattle in the country
 Amongst the indigenous cattle breeds are Arsi, Begayit,
Ogaden, Borena, Goffa, Arado, Nuer, Gurage, Jidu, Karayu/
Afar, Harar, Horro, Smada, Fogera, Mursi, Raya-Azebo,
Adwa, Jem-Jem, Sheko, Ambo, Jijiga, Bale, Hammer,
Medenece and Abergelle.

 Here below is tried to describe each breed with its main

characterstics
 1. Boran Breed

 The Boran cattle breed is found in Southern Ethiopia

especially Oromia and Somalie regions.
 There are two distinctive Boran groups; Ethiopian Boran and
Kenyan Boran.
 The Kenyan Boran is the improved one and the Somali Boran
is almost similar with that of Ethiopian Boran.
 The breed is good free ranging grazing animal.
 The true function of the breed is meat production and
traditionally exploited for their milk and meat
 The improved forms found in modern operations have been
exploited in ranching for their meat but also for milk in
intensive situations.

 The Ethiopian Boran is fairly large, long legged with good

conformation and is considered to be the best well adapted
cattle breeds in the East Africa.

 The body color of the breed is mainly white, fawn or brown

with darker shading around the head, neck and shoulder.

 The Somali Boran are usually shorter legged than the

Ethiopian breed
 The live body weight of female Boran cattle is estimated to be
346 – 417 kg and for male 539 – 653 kg and with carcass
percentage of 60 %.

 Average annual milk yield is 1673 kg/lactation and 3.6 lit/day

with lactation period is about 295 days.

 The use of Boran for draught has not been assessed.

 2. Barka Breed

 The homeland of the Barka cattle breed is North Western Ethiopia

and Western Eritrea.

 They are found widely distributed in North West Tigray around

Humera, Kafta, Badime and Sheraro.

 They are also called Begait (Synonyms).

 They are well known for their milk potential that more than any
breed in Ethiopia.

 With regard to their body conformation they have long leg and
rage body size with a medium size horn
 Their body color is commonly white and black.

 The breed has some morphological resemblance with that of

Boran carrel.

 The live body weight for females is about 280 kg and male
380 kg.

 Milk yield is about 6 lit/day under extensive management

system and about 15 lt/day under good/intensive management.
 Results of research performed by the Institute of Agricultural
Research at its stations showed that the Barka crosses well
with the Friesian gave better milk yield that was estimated to
be about 2000 lt/lactation.

 With regard to beef trait, the breed has carcass weight of 48 –

55 %.

 They are considered as a poor working animal compared with

the Arado.

 Behaviorally Baraka is very wild and aggressive

 3. Horro breed

 The habitat of this breed is Western Ethiopia (Wellega,

Jimma, Elibabur and West Shewa).

 They are considered as dual purpose animals in their function

just proving milk, meat and draught power.

 The dominant body color of the animal is brown and

sometimes slightly lighter on the flanks and between the hind
legs.
 Male Horro cattle are darker in color than females.

 They have small to medium hump and medium to long horns.

 They are considered as beef type animal but offer less milk
amount estimating to be about 561 liter per lactation.

 The lactation period is very short about 177 days.

 Horros are well appreciated by people for their docile

behavior.
 4. Fogera Breed

 The center of distribution for this breed is Northwest Ethiopia

(Gojam and Gonder) around lake Tana.

 This is classified as intermediate Zebu-Sanga breeds.

 They are considered as dual purpose animal providing milk,

meat and draught power.

 As per the IAR (Institute of Agricultural Research) report

Fogera cattle can produce about 915 liter of milk per lactation
 They are large deep chested animals with short hump and
shorn and a large dewlap.

 The breed has morphological resemblance with Arado cattle

breed.

 Fogera cattle have body color of white with black spots or

patches and black muzzle and hooves; bulls may be much
darker.

 Like that of Horro cattle, they are appreciated for their docile
behavior
 5. Arsi

 This cattle breed is found widely distributed in the central

highlands of Ethiopia (Arsi, Bale and Shewa).

 The breed is assumed to be developed from the short horned

Abyssinian Zebus.

 Phenotypically they are small, compact and with short horn.

 They have morphologically resemblance with Arado Breed

 They are well appreciated by smallholder farmers for their
good foraging ability and hardiness at work (ploughing etc).

 They are poor producers of milk and meat.

 But their meat is preferred for its good tenderness and

marbling.

 Red is the dominant body color for the breed.

 6. Danakil (Raya/Adal/Afar) breed

 The homeland of this cattle breed is in North East Ethiopia,

South Eritrea and Northern Djibuoti.

 In Ethiopia they are found widely distributed in southern

Tigray, North Wollo and western Afar.

 They are long legged with large body size.

 They are usually distinguished with their long and lyre shaped
horns
 The body colour is ash-grey, cream or brown.

 Milk production is estimated at 200 to 300 liter/lactation and

the lactation period is 160 to 225 days.

 They are weighed 250 – 375 kg. They are usually harnessed
for meat production and draught power purpose
 7. Arado Breed
 The Arado breed is found widely distributed in Northern
Ethiopia.
 They are well adapted to the highland conditions.

 They are commonly used for draught purpose and a limited for
meat.
 With respect their morphology, they are short, small and
compact in their body size.

 The small size and compact nature of the breed enable it to

freely graze in the mountainous and ragged topography of the
highlands.
 They do have large horns and small hump
 Hump size is relatively large in male than that of female.

 Body colour is dominantly red and some are brown to black.

 Arado cow provides low milk yield (2 – 3 lt/day) and average

of 1 lt/day under extensive management but with improved
management practices it could be enhanced to 5 – 6 liter/day.

 The meat production is low in both quantity and quality.

 The breed is well accredited for its foraging ability, hardiness

and docile nature
 8. Sheko Breed
 The Sheko cattle breed is inhabited in south western Ethiopia
especially in Beneshangul-Gumuz and Gambella regions.
 They are found in the border of Sudan in isolated mountains of
the Gambela region.
 Morphologically they are small size with no hump.
 Body color is usually brown or black and white.
 Functionally they are kept for milk production.
 They well noted for their trypanosomiasis disease tolerance in
the westerner lowlands.
 Currently they are found decreasing in their number for
various reasons
 2.4. Reproductive and Productivity of Dairy Cattle

 Here you will deal with the reproductive management of dairy

cattle.
 Knowing the nature reproductive characteristics is quite
important in dairy industry.
 The reproductive parameters include ovulation, fertilization,
gestation/pregnancy, parturition/calving, calving interval,
estrous cycle, estrus etc.
 There are also other related terms like heat detection, estrous
synchronization and artificial insemination (AI) that need to
be known and understood.
 Here below the definition of each term is given briefly
Ovulation
 The process of releasing ovum/egg from the ovary.

 Ovary is a female reproductive organ where ovum/egg is

produced.

 Usually one ovum/egg is produced per estrous cycle but

sometimes two or three ova/eggs are produced.

 The mature egg can only survive/stay in the oviduct for few
hours usually 4 – 6 hours.

 Fertilization should be taken place within this time unless the

egg is released/dropped down to the uterus
Fertilization

 The process of merging the genetic materials of both gametes

(ova and sperm) to formulate zygote.

 During mating/ejaculation millions of sperm cells are inserted

to the female organs and pass through vagina and cervix.

 Most of the sperm cells are died for various reasons and only
few reach to the oviduct where fertilization is taken place.

 Here only one sperm cell penetrates the egg and other blocked
 Sometimes the fertilized egg can be splited into two halves
and grown to two different fetuses which called identical
twins.

 If two ovulated eggs are fertilized by two different sperm

cells they are called fraternal twins.

 Identical twins are genetically identical and have the same sex
while the fraternal twins are not genetically identical and do
have different sex
Gestation

 Refers to the time between conception and birth of calf. It is

also referred as pregnancy.
 Different animals do have different gestation periods.
 For a cow it normally ranges between 260 – 270 days with an
average of 270 days (9 months).

Parturition
 Is the process of delivering calf by female animal (cow).
 It is also called calving.
 During parturition special attention and management is need to
be given to the cow
Calving interval
 Refers to the period between two consecutive calving.
 Different animal species have different calving interval.
 There is also variation amongst the cattle breeds.
Estrous cycle
 Refers to the time between two consecutive estrus/heat.
 It is about 21 days in cow and 28 days in women.
 It has four phases like proestrus, estrus, metaestrus and
diestrus.
Estrus
 Refers to the time when the female/cow is ready for
mating/breeding.
 It is one phase of the estrous cycle.
Artificial insemination

 is a process in which sperm is manually collected bull and

delivered to the female reproductive organs.

 Sperm is collected from bull using artificial vagina that mimic

the natural condition of the natural vagina.

 The sperm is then processed and stored in a container called

nitrogen liquid (NL) which is about -196 degree centigrade
 At the time where the need arises the sperm is poured from the
container and inserted to the female reproductive organ
(vagina) using AI.

 The AI technique is widely used currently in the dairy

industry.

 It is a good option/technology for genetic improvement in

farm animals. It has its own advantages and disadvantages
 Symptoms of pregnancy in dairy cows

 Dairy cows show various symptoms during the time of

pregnancy.

 Knowing these symptoms is very helpful so that to make all

necessary preparations.

 Here below are listed some of the symptoms of pregnant cow.

 Enlargement of the belly

 Udder size increase
 No heat/estrus (i.e anestrus)
 Movement of the fetus
Heat detection

 The fertility and reproductive efficient of a given cow

determine the profitability of any dairy farm.

 In other words the economic return of a given dairy farm

depends on the fertility of the existing animals.

 We need to check the heat/estrus time of the cows unless if

once escaped unseen it will be mandatory to wait for the
coming 21 days.

 This could result in loss of milk and delay of birth.

 Therefore, there is a need of estrus detection twice a day (7 – 8
AM morning and 4 – 5 PM afternoon) for 30 minutes.

 The length of heat/estrus varies with animal species.

 Cows do have very short heat time (6 – 12 hours0 while horse

more (about 3 days).

 Detecting heat need frequent visit/observation of the animals.

 More cows come into estrus b/n 2:00 AM and 5:00 AM

morning than any other time of the day
 Signs of heat
 Increase restlessness
 Grouping sexual active individual cows
 Bellowing (sound produced by the cow)
 Clear vulval mucous, red and slightly swollen
 Mounting other cows
 Standing to be mounted
 Nervous and excitable
 Other heat checking methods

 Measuring blood progesterone level

 Using ultrasound exam (using prob-----produce sound when
touch the ovary)
 Estrus synchronization

 Estrous synchronization is the process of bringing cows

(which found at different phase of estous cycle) to heat at the
same time.

 Synchronizing the expression of estrus is a good reproductive

management tool that plays a substantial role in genetic
improvement of dairy cows.

 It is a modern technology currently widely employed in the

world especially developed countries.
Benefits of synchronization

 Reduce labour and time costs for heat detection

 Improve genetics of a herd through timed insemination
 Fitting with good seasons and work schedule
 Increased reproductive efficiency
 Breeding season can be reduced
 Easy to use artificial insemination
 Dairy Cattle Management
2.5.1. Dairy Cattle Feeds and Feeding

 The major feed resources that commonly used for cattle are
natural pastures, crop residues, hay, browse plants, green
grasses and weeds and Atela.

 The contribution and availability of these various feed resource

bases vary with season and location.

 Crop residues and browse plants are fed to animals during dry
seasons while green grasses and weeds are fed during rainy
seasons.
 These feed resources are commonly grouped into three forms as
below
 A) Dry feeds

 This type of feed resources includes hays, grains, oilseed

meals, straw, stover, corn cobs, corn husks, SB hulls, SB mill
feeds, cottonseed hulls, peanut hulls, oat hulls, rice hulls

B) Green feeds

 Such type feed resources includes pasture and green chop

(feeds are roughages chopped daily in the feed and brought to
livestock for feeding)
C) High moisture feeds

 Here feed resources like high-moisture grain, haylage, wet

byproduct feeds, roots & tubers, fresh milk, silage, cactus,
enset etc could be mentioned.

 In the other hand the feed resources could be also categorized

into two as roughage and concentrate based on the quality or
feeding level
 Roughage feeds:

 Are feeds that are high in fiber and low in TDN

 Are feeds that are low in fibre and high in TDN
 Contain above 18% CF when dry

Concentrate feeds

 Are feeds that are low in fibre and high in TDN

 Contain below 18% CF when dry
 Two types of Roughage
Legumes

 Have on their roots nodules containing bacteria that fix

nitrogen from the air

 Include alfalfa, clovers, peanut hay, SB hay etc.

Grass

 Include timothy, brome grass, orchard grass, blue grass,

Sudan grass, millet hay, oal hay, etc.
 Three types of Concentrate

Grain feeds
 Corn, oats, barley, grain sorghum, wheat
Supplement feeds
 Include protein feeds, minerals and vitamins
Mineral feeds
 Are used to provide the mineral needs of the animal
 Are of two types: Macro and Micro Minerals
 Vitamin supplements

 Are available to provide necessary vitamins in the ration

Byproduct feeds

 From the milling & brewing are used in the feeding

 Include wheat bran, rice bran, molasses, brewer’s grain, beet

pulp, malt sprouts, whey, etc.
 Important Feed Components
1. Carbohydrates
2. Minerals
3. Lipids (Fats & Oils)
4. Vitamins
5. Protein
6. Water
 The level at which each nutrient is required by an
animal depend on whether the animal is being fed
for:

Maintenance
Maintenance + Production
Maintenance + Production + Reproduction

 Most nutrients can be fed in excess, but if any

nutrient is not present in an adequate amount, the
performance of the animal will be limited
 Requirements for maintenance

 Is the amount of feed that must be fed to keep an animal at a

particular weight without any significant change in body
composition
 Is that amount of feed needed to maintain essential body
functions such as respiration, heart rate, eating, keeping
warm, etc.
 Includes also the feed needed to replace the nutrients that are
excreted daily from the body
 Tissue of the body are constantly undergoing breakdown and
repair, therefore nutrients are required to replace this loss
Requirements for production
 are met after maintenance requirement
 are the amount of feed needed for growth or
milk production
 need large quantities of feed
Requirements for reproduction
 are very important in a cow-calf operation
 are the amount of feed needed above that for
maintenance, for the cow to conceive and
produce a healthy fetus and calf
Factors determining the level of nutrient
requirement:
 Breed
 overall balance of nutrition
 age and sex
 stress from the environments
 level of production
 hormonal and physiological activities
Ration formulation
 Rations need to be formulated in such a way that fulfills the
nutrient requirements of the animals.

 The animals need to be fed to optimum level so that to exploit

their real genetic potential.

 This is to get the expected production from the animals.

 Ration formulation enables to alter or substitute expensive

feeds with the cheap one without changing the nutrient
contents.

 This maximizes the profit of the beef business venture

 Ration formulation can be done using manually or using
computer.

 Nowadays, modern technologies are being harnessed in the

animal ration formation work.

 Models are also developed by the nutritionists to predict the need

nutrients requirements of each animal species, breed, class, age,
weight and sex.

 The objective is to formulate balanced rations that supply all the

required nutrients: at adequate level, in a proper balance and at
minimum cost.

 To formulate the ration the following information are needed:

Feed resources available at hands (locally
available feed resources need to be
considered)
Chemical composition of the feeds (this is
found by chemical analysis in nutrition
laboratory)
Weight, sex, breed, species, age, production
status of the animal
Purpose of animal feeding (finishing, growing,
breeding, lactating etc)
Nutrient requirement of the animal
2.5.2. Dairy Cattle Breeding
 There are various breeding options that commonly
employed in dairy cows.

 Selection is one of the genetic improvement options

in dairy animals in which the genetic make up of the
superior animals is increased in the population.

 Selection could be natural or artificial.

 Natural selection depends on the natural

environmental conditions like climate and feed
Natural selection

 Selection is a normal phenomenon occurring in all

kinds of living materials - it is the mechanism
behind evolution.
 In nature it is the animals that are best adapted to
their environment that survive and produce the
largest number of progenies

Artificial selection
 The selection done under human control to obtain
genetic improvement of traits in domestic animal
 Basis of selection
 Pedigree selection – selection of an animal on the basis of the
information obtained from its ancestors.
Progeny selection
 selection of an individual based on the performance of its
offspring
Family selection
 selection of an animal based on the information from its
family such as half sibs, full sibs brothers and sisters
Individual selection- is selection of an animal based on the
performance of the individual itself
Selection Methods
 Tandem selection
 It is a selection made for different traits in different
generations one after another. It involves selection of one
trait until breeding goal is reached, then go for the next one.
 Independent culling level
 The Principle with this method is Selection for several traits
with fixed lower limits per traits.
 A minimum standard is set to select two or more traits.
 The traits are considered when both traits have met the
minimum standard
Index selection

 It considers the over all score of the individual.

 Selection is done with the index as you would
do it for a single trait.
 The advantages,is that there is high efficiency
since it is done with all merit of the traits and
economic benfit evaluated simultenously
Cross breeding
 Cross breeding is the mating of animals which
are both purebreeds but belonging to
genetically divergent breeds.
 Cross breeding is a means of utilizing genetic
difference between breeds and has been
widely adapted in all farm animal breeding,
especially to improve milk production in dairy
cattle meat production in beef cattle, wool
and meat production in sheep, milk, meat in
goats, meat production in pigs
2.5.3. Housing system for Dairy Cattle

 It is quite important to have proper housing system for

animals so that to perform better and protected from
healthy problem.

 Housing gives protection to the animals from various

environmental stresses such as sun radiation, rain
shower, cool, strong wind, predators and so on.

 The housing system varies with areas in which the

housing that being employed in tropical is different
from that of temperate regions
 In tropic areas cattle houses are constructed in such a way that
it can reduce heat stress.

 Appropriate housing beyond protection from stress and

potential diseases it makes easier other management practices
such as feeding, watering, clearing and breeding.

 There are many determinant factors that need to be considered

as pre-requisite for before establishing dairy farms.
 These are:
(1) Location

 This refers to the place where the farm to be

located in relation to soil structure, drainage,
road access and proximity to other farm houses
etc.

 The house should be constructed in areas where

that anticipated to be affected by flood problem.

 It should be considered also the access to

transportation of inputs and outputs
(2) Ventilation
 The farm must be located in high areas that can secure
sufficient ventilation so that to allow air circulation
within the house.
 This keeps the relative humidity to be optimum. Usually
high relative humidity aggravates the effect of high
temperature.
 The roof needs to be high enough to release excess
heat, moisture and pollutants.
(3) Direction of the house
 The house of animals should be located in the direction
of East-West that enables to protect from morning and
afternoon sun and rain
(4) Roof
 For the purpose of animal house it is recommended to use gable
roof which is highly preferred for its protection of sun and rain.
 Having appropriate roofing secures free movement of air with in
the farm and that maintain the room to be conducive for
animals.
 A well designed roof is quite important in reducing heat and
cold stresses.
 In hot areas like tropical and sub-tropical areas thatched
roofing is commonly used for its good protection and
cheapness.
 In addition to this, tiles are used as roof in commercial farms
but not commonly used by smallholder farmers for its
expensiveness
2.5.4. Dairy Cattle Disease and Health care

 As mentioned in the unit one Ethiopia owns enormous

livestock resources.
 However, coming to the available production and productivity
is by far below the expected.
 And for this many factors amongst diseases and pests are
blamed to be the potential cause for the reduced livestock
production and productivity.
 Diseases and parasites are widely distributed and are one of
the major causes of cattle mortality, ill-thrift and reduced
production
 Diseases like blackleg, anthrax, Bovine contagious
pleuropneumonia (BCPP), foot and mouth disease (FMD),
mastitis, brucellosis, pneumonia and tuberculosis affect cattle.

 There is also prevalence of various internal parasites like live

fluck, schistosomosis, trichuris, ascaridid, gastro-intestinal
nematodes and coccdial diarrhea.

 External parasites include like ticks, flee and tse-tse flies.

 In addition to this, some diseases are considered as nutritional

disorders and include bloat, diarrhea, acidosis, ketosis and
milk fever
 Dystocia (difficult in birth), retention of placenta and vaginal
prolapsed are mentioned to be as reproductive diseases of cattle.
 To minimize the negative effect of diseases and parasites on
livestock’ performances appropriate health care measured need
to be implemented at ground.

 Proper disease control measures must be designed and

functioned.

 Vaccines should be given to animals against common diseases.

 Animal farms need to be cleaned daily and managed well

 The farm drainage system needs to be so that to avoid flooding
problem.

 Sometimes, grazing lands could potential cause of livestock

diseases and thus need to be managed properly.

 Moreover, the animals are needed to be fed well so as to

protect form anticipated diseases.

 Animals that fed well have good diseases tolerance ability as

compared to that of poor fed animals
 A quarantine system should be adopted in
introducing new animals to the existing herds.

 This is to mean, new animals that enter to the

farm must to be checked for contagious
diseases before directly joining to the existing
animal herd
2.6. Record Keeping in Dairy Cattle

 Record keeping is quite important in any livestock production

system for decision making on farm management.

 It is better to gather information on various farm activities

such as feeding, watering, breeding, health treatment, financial
matters, marketing and others.

 These information/databases are very helpful in amending the

farm conditions accordingly and also play an important role in
examining the feasibility of the animal business venture
 For instance, in dairy farm it is necessary to collect
information on calving date, calf sex, calf birth weight, calf
weaning weight, AI insemination date, dam, sire, vaccine type,
vaccination date, health hazards encountered, health
treatments, daily feed intake, daily water intake and likes.

 Likewise, in beef farm data on animal breed, purchasing date,

purchasing price, fattening period, finishing date, selling price,
feed intake and so on should be recorded
 Having reliable and accurate farm records is very imperative for
better farm management via making appropriate decision on time
on the different activities of the farm.

 Hence, any farm should develop data record sheet that enable to
posses well organized records for each animal within the farm.

 This as it is, lack of proper recording keeping is a problem in

animal farms in the country.
 Most farms fail to have well organized records and do not have
the custom of having farm records.

 The same history is also experienced in the case of smallholder

based livestock production system
 3. BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION
3.1. Systems of Cattle Fattening in Ethiopia
3.1.1. Traditional Systems

 In such type of systems, oxen are usually sold after the

plowing season when they are in poor condition.

 Meat yields are low, the beef is of poor quality and the farmer
returns are often inadequate to buy a replacement ox.
 This is obvious scope to improve this traditional and
inefficient system through strategic feeding of good quality
forage to fatten animals before they are sold, or to buy and
fatten animals sold by others.

 In the low lands, where pastoralists do not use cattle for draft,
cattle are sometimes fattened on natural pasture in good
seasons.

 In average or poor seasons, low land cattle are rarely fattened

and often have to be sold in poor condition at low prices
3.1.2. By-product-Based Fattening

 This is a type of fattening in which the agro-

industrial by-product such as molasses, cereal
milling by-product and oilseed meals is the
main sources of feed.

 In this system grazing land is completely

unavailable and crop-residues are only
significant roughage source
3.1.3. The Hararghe Fattening System

 In this system peasants buy young oxen from the

adjacent lowlands pastoral areas, use them for
several years, and then fatten and sell them
before they become old and emaciated.

 The system is largely based on cut-and carries

feeding of individual tethered animals.

 Grazing is rare. Few concentrate are used

3.2. Breeds of Beef Cattle
3.2.1. Tropical Indigenous Beef Cattle Breeds
 Like that of diary production there is no as such well
appreciated beef type cattle breed in the tropical bur relative it is
possible to mentioned some cattle breeds like Africander,
Boran, Brahman, Gir, Nelore, Guzerate, Red Sindhi, Indo-
Brazilian and Ankole-Watusi.

 These cattle breeds do have good beef parameters in relation to

weaning weight, slaughter weight, carcass percentage, dressing
percentage and meat quality

 Currently they have been used for crossbreeding purpose with

local animals to hence their beef production and productivity
3.2.2. Exotic Beef Cattle Breeds

 A breed can be defined as a group of domestic livestock

having definable and easily identifiable external
characteristics that distinguish it visually from other similar
groups within the same species.

 The temperate cattle breeds refer to cattle that found in the

temperate zones especially USA and Europe
 The temperate breeds have been deliberately selected for
various purposes and can be easily differentiated with their
peculiar features such as body color, length and shape of horn,
humplessness and other traits.

 Temperate cattle breeds encompass Hereford, Angus,

Shorthorn, South Devon, Red Poll, Simmental, Limousin,
Charolois and others
 They are well known for their good beef traits and provide
more meat.

 But they are not adapted to the tropical conditions and for this
reason they usually perform low due to poor tolerance to high
temperature and diseases.

 The reduced performance is also aggravated by their poor

foraging ability under the local management practices.

 Temperate animals are at high risk if any one aspect of

management breaks down
 Importing European stock into high-temperature, high-
humidity, monsoonal areas has resulted in heavy stock losses.

 Fertility and calf mortality for the pure-breeds tend to remain

poorer than for the crossbreeds.

 In areas with medium potential for dairying (meat and

draught), like semi-arid grazing lands and on mixed farms,
there is a need for a dual purpose breed with some indigenous
blood (50-75% temperate blood).
 In areas of high potential for dairying only productive cattle
can be competitive.

 The climate in these areas, particularly over 760 mm rainfall

and 1525 m altitude, is suited to pure-bred European cattle.

 On smaller holdings where husbandry and nutrition may not

be improved, some proportion of Bos indicus or indigenous
blood should be retained.
 3.3. Beef Cattle Traits
 There are various beef traits that are considered during the
genetic improvement attempts.
 These traits need to be measured and evaluated to achieve the
objective of the producer. These are:
• Birth weight
• Pre weaning weight
• Weaning weight
• Post weaning weight
• Yearling weight
• Mature weight
• Carcass weight
• Carcass score at weaning
• Feedlot gain
• Pasture gain
• Dressing percentage
• Carcass grade
• Carcass fat thickness
• Carcass loin-eye-area
• Carcass tenderness
• Carcass rib-eye-area
• Marbling
4.5. Growth and Development in Beef Cattle
3.5.1. Growth and Development
Growth
 refers to change in size and developmental changes associated
with it.
 Growth is a dynamic process, which continues through the life
of an individual animal.
 Growth leads to maturity, which is the process of becoming
fully developed.
Development
 is a gradual progression from a lower to a higher stage of
complexity, in association with a gradual expansion in size.
 Hyperplasia: an increase in the number of cells
Hypertrophy
 an increase in the size of cells
Chronological and physiological growth
Chronological growth refers to increase in size or
body function due to an animal growing older.
 While physiological growth refers to increase in
size or body function due to increase in tissue and
organ growth and development.
 As farm animals grow there is change in weight
and conformation (body proportion).
Thus it develops locomotive, tactile skill,
intelligence and reproductive function
Measurement of growth
 Objective measurements: include weight, loin-eye area and
back fat thickness
 Subjective measurements: visual appraisal of growth
Objective measurements
 Live body weight (LBW)
 Average daily gain (ADG)= LBW/Days fed
 Weight per day of age (WDA)
 Relative growth rate (RGR)= Gain per day per unit LBW on
that day
 Body surface measurements (body length, body height, heart
girth etc)
• 3.5.2. Growth Curve and its Phases

Growth curve and its phases

The growth curve is sigmoid or S-shaped and it is similar

for all species of livestock

Live body
weight

Age

Figure 4.6. Growth curve for beef cattle

Growth curve can be separated into three phases
Prenatal growth: is the increase in weight from conception to
birth (includes ovum, embryonic and fetal phases)
Ovum phase: fertilization – placental attachment (11 days)
Embryonic phase: differentiation of tissues and organs (25 – 45
days)
Fetal phase: rapid increases in weight and dramatic tissue and
organ development (lasts until birth)
Pre-weaning growth: birth – weaning (when the offspring is
nursed by the dam)
Post-weaning growth: weaning – slaughter
 Animal continues to increase in size but growth rate declines
as maturity approaches
3.5.3. Factors Affecting Growth
 Here below are mentioned some important factors that
determine the growth of beef cattle animals.
Breed
 heavy and lean cattle breeds grow faster than small breeds
Age
 younger animals are capable of growing faster than older ones
Sex
 males have more rapid growth rate than females due to high
androgen hormone in male
Animal class
 bulls have 10 – 20 % higher rate of gain than steers.
 Intact/normal heifers are 5 % more faster gainer than spayed
heifer.
Nutrition

 Animal fed well grows faster than animals fed poor.

 There is direct relationship between feeding level and body
weight gain.
 But excessive feeding early in life will cause fattening and
may inhibit bone growth and organ development.

Antibiotics
 Improve growth rate and feed efficiency by reducing the
incidence of diseases
ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT
Arse Gebeyehu’ part: chapter 4, 5,
…
Chapter 4. Sheep and Goats Production
4.1 Origin and Domestication of Sheep and Goats
Sheep
 The place of origin and domestication of sheep is given to be
north Iraq.
 The time of domestication was over 10500 years ago.
 Sheep was domesticated from the wild species of sheep.
 The wild species that have contributed to the domestication of
sheep are:
 The Argali (Ovis ammon) of central Asia
 The Urial (Ovis vignei) of Asia
 The Mouslon (Ovis musimon) of Asia and Europe
 Wild species of sheep never existed in Africa, hence Africa
never contributed to the origin and domestication of sheep.

 From an Asian origin, sheep spread to Europe and Africa.

 Sheep was introduced to American and Oceania with

European settlers
Goats

 Goats were originated and domesticated in the region of south

west Asia, on the boarder of Iran and Iraq.

 The time of domestication was estimated to be around 9000-

7000 BC.

 The evidence for time and place of domestication or origin is

based on the identification of bones from archaeological sites.
 The wild species of goats that have contributed to the
domestication and origin of domesticated goats are:

 Capra hircus (the true goats and bezoar belong to this species)

 Capra ibex (the ibexes belong to this species)

 Capra caucasica ( the Spanish ibex)

 Capra falconeri (Markhor of Asia)

o Of these wild species, the main ancestor of the domestic

goats (Capra hircus) is the Bezoar of south west Asia.
4.1. Population, Distribution, Methods of Classification and
Types of Sheep and Goats in Ethiopia
1. Sheep
 In Ethiopia the sheep population is estimated to vary between
31.3 million
 About 70-75% of the sheep populations are found in high
lands of the country whereby the rest of the population is
found in low lands of the country.

2. Goats
 In Ethiopia the goat population is estimated to be 32.7 million
 About 70% of the goat populations are found in low lands of
the country and the rest of the population is found in high
lands of the country

 About 70-75% of the sheep population is found in the

highlands of the country whereby the rest of the population is
found in lowlands of the country.

 On the other hand, about 70% of the goat population is found

in low lands of the country and the rest of the population is
found in highland of the country
 Types of Sheep in Ethiopia

 Different types of sheep have been identified in Ethiopia. The

identification/ classification is based on
 Origin or place of distribution
 Tail type
 Coat cover
 Function/use of sheep

 Based on the above identification/classification methods, the

following types of sheep have been identified in Ethiopia
I. Black head Somali (fat ramped type)-also known as Ogaden
and Berber Black head
Distribution
 distributed all over the Somali areas and horn of Africa
Characteristics
 They have got a large deposit of fat on the ramp and at the
base of the tail/hind quarter of a sheep.
 Belong to the fat rumped group, i.e. fat is on the rump, not on
the tail of a sheep.
 Sheep of this group weigh 30-45kg and 60-68 cm high, they
are polled, have small ears, sometimes atrophic.
 They have dewlap, thin tail tip, which hangs downward. The
coat cover consists of short hairs
Colour
 black head with white body and legs. The black area can vary
from head to neck and in some cases to shoulders
• Utility: they give little milk but are known for their meat and
skins
• Management system: they are well adapted to arid conditions,
hence kept by nomadic people
II. Adal (fat ramped)
Distribution
 They are mainly distributed in the Danakil and the lower
valley of Awash
Characteristics
 They are polled, have long lop ears and the tail has a wide
base
Colour
 Usually they are white or redish in colour
Utility
 They are known for their high quality meat
Management system
 kept by nomadic people
III. Abyssinian (Ethiopian) (fat tailed)
Distribution: Found throughout the highland areas of the
country. May be originated from the Arabian Penisula.
Characteristics: females are usually polled and males have
various types of horns. May have ruff or mane, a long hair on
the back of sheep’s neck and shoulder. They have long legs.
Colour: They are mostly brown coloured but may be reddish,
blond, black, white or mixed/patchy
Size: they are of medium si9ze, weighing on average 45-52kg
and 74cm high
Utility: Meat and skin. Milk yield is low, only sufficient for their
lamb, surplus milk can be consumed fresh or made into butter.
Management system: adapted to crop-livestock farming system
(mixed farming system)
IV. Menz (fat tailed)

Distribution: distributed throughout the Mrenz and Selale areas

of Shewa
Characteristics: Males are usually horned, females polled
Size: they are of medium size weighing on average 30-35kg, they
are wooly type.
Utility: for wool production and meat. Shearing is done twice a
year with a yield of 1-1.6 kg. The wool is used for coarse
blanket making.
Management system: adapted to mixed farming systems
V. Arsi-Bale (fat tailed)

Distribution: they are distributed throughout the high

land areas of Hararghe , Bale and Arsi.
Physical features/ characteristics: Males are horned,
females are either polled or may have rudimentary
horns. They have woolly under coat (soft and white
hair)
Color: varies from dark brown to grey, with white spots
Utility: they are known for their meat and skins
Management system: they are kept in mixed farming
systems
VI. Tukur (fat tailed type)

Distribution: they are distributed in the Lasta district of Amhara

(between Wollo and Tigray)
Characteristics: they are small in size, but have well developed
fat tail. Their colour is white brown and pied (mixed),
somehow hairy sheep.
Utility: they are mainly kept for meat and skins, milk yield is
low. May also be used for coarse wool production
Management system: kept in crop livestock farming systems?
Mixed farming system
VII. Horro (thin tailed type)

Distribution: they are distributed in west

Ethiopia , around Horrogudru areain Wellega
Characteristics: males have ruff mein (mane), they
are mainly polled
Colour: their colour is light brown
Size: Medium
Utility: they are known for their twin births. Hence
they are mainly maintained for meat and skins
Management system: Mixed farming systems
Types of Goats in Ethiopia

 Goats of Ethiopia are classified into four

families. Classification is based on
 Origin/place of geographical distribution
 Body size, like small, medium or large
 Ear shape- long, short or lop
 Function-meat, milk, skin, hair or fibre
I. Nubian family

Nubian goats
Distribution: in low land areas of north west Ethiopia (Wegera),
on the boarder with Sudan
Climatic zone: inhabited in arid and semi arid zones
Management system: predominantly kept by nomadic people,
mainly for milk production, meat is secondary product. They
are one of important dairy goats found in Africa, or they are
the only dairy goats recognized in Africa
Physical Characteristics: they are tall, bear long ears and long
hair. They are mainly black or brown or grey in colour. Their
weight ranges between 30-34 kg and are 70-74 cm high
II. Rift Valley family
Afar goats
Distribution
 In the Rift valley strip of Ethiopia, in Danakil depression and
in northern and western Hararghe
Climatic zone
 Arid and semiarid areas
Management system
 Mainly managed by pastoralists for milk, meat and skins and
social functions, i.e. goats are used to pay bride price at
weddings and traditional/ religious healers.
 Use white or black goats for sacrificial slaughters.
Physical characteristics
 They are leggy and have long thin upward
pointing horns, they have mixed coat colour,
they are prick eared, they have narrow face
(small face).

 They may weigh 24-31 kg and are 61-65 cm

high
2. Abergelle goats
Distribution: distributed along the Tekeze river in South Tigray,
North Wollo and eastern Gonder
Climatic zone: found in high land areas
Management system: they are kept in mixed farming systems
and by agro-pastoral who to some extent have crop production
Utility: for milk, meat, skin and manure
Physical Characteristics
 Have compact and well built body conformation.
 They are mostly reddish brown in colour.
 Males bear horns and beards that are directed backwards.
 They do not have wattles.
 They may weigh 28-34 kg and 65- 71 cm in height. Goats of
this group are known for single birth
3. Arsi-Bale goats
Distribution
 Distributed throughout the Arsi and Bale
regions, upto an altitude of 400 m.
 Also found in higher altitudes of Sidamo and
western Hararghe.
Climatic zone
 Predominantly adapted to humid and
subhumid areas.
 But some are still kept in the semi arid areas
of Arsi-Bale and Sidamo by agropastoralists
Management system
 Kept in mixed farming systems in highlands
and in agropastoral systems in lower altitudes
for milk, meat, skins and manure
Physical characteristics

 They are medium to large in size, in highlands they are often

hairy, in lowlands they have often short hairs, long legs, ears
(these are body conformation of most low land goats).

 Colour is white, black and brown in combined patchy patter.

Males have horns pointing backwards or upwards.

 Beards occur in most males and some females.

 Wattles occur ion some males and females.

 Their weight varies between 30-42 kg and 66-75 cm high. Goats

of this group are known for their twin or multiple births
4. Woyto-Guji goats
Distribution
 They are distributed around north and south Omo, southern
Sidamo and parts of Wolayta
Climatic zones
 They are found predominantly in arid and semi arid areas
Management system
 They are kept by pastoralists and few in mixed farming
systems, kept for milk, butter, meat, skins and mature for
fertilizer (in both systems)
Physical characteristics

 Their colour is either brown, black or red in patchy pattern,

with shiny smooth coat.
 They have small head with black or brown stripes along the
back, on the underside or on the front legs.
 They are of medium size with straight or curved horns.
 Most males bear wattles, bear and ruff.
 The weight varies between 29-39 kg and 66-73 cm in height
III. Somali family
Short-eared Somali
Distribution
 Are distributed around northern and eastern parts of Ogaden
and Jijiga and Degehabuor and Wardier
Climatic Zones
 Adapted to arid and Semi arid areas
Management system
 They are predominantly kept by pastoral people for milk
production
Utility
 Milk, butter, meat and skins.
 These goats give single birth due to selection against twinning
 Because milk is also consumed by human beings, so that
enough milk can be obtained for consumption and the young
 The goats also fulfill social functions/obligations.
 Eg. If a Somali man wishes to marry, he will take a goat in a
good condition to the father of the girl the boy wishes to
marry.
 If the father accepts the goat, it is understood that he has
agreed to the marriage
Physical characteristics (Identifying features)
 They are medium in size, weight varies between 28-32 kg,
height ranges between 61-66cm.
 Mainly white in colour with short hair.
 Smaller than the long eared Somali goat types.
 Have straight facial profile. Bear upward pointing horns.
 Have no ruff.
 Most males and few females bear beards.
 Wattles occur in few males and females
2. Long eared Somali goats
Distribution
 They are distributed throughout the Ogaden.
 Inhabited mainly in lowlands of Bale, Borana and southern
Sidamo
Climatic zones
 Adapted to arid and semiarid areas.
Management system
 Are kept predominantly by pastoral people
Utility
 Mainly used for milk, meat, blood and social
obligations/functions
Physical characteristics (Identifying features)
 They are large in size weighing 32-42 kg and 69-76 cm high.
 Colour is mainly white.
 Have straight facial profile.
 Horns are curved and pointed backwards.
 Ruffs occur in few males but not in females.
 Beards occur in most males and in few females.
 Have long ears
3. Hararghe highland goats
Distribution: they are distributed throughout the highlands of
east and west Hararghe
Ecological zones (climatic zones): adapted to the moist semi-
humid and moist semiarid areas.
Management systems: kept in mixed farming systems

Utility
 Milk for home consumption and sale for cash, meat, milk and
skins for bedding purpose, container of water, grains, milk,
butter and honey.
 Skins can be made into strips for construction of their houses.
Manure to fertilize their land
Physical characteristics
 They are small in size weighing 29-42 kg and are 63-72 cm
high.
Colour
 Is either white, brown or black and mixed.
 Mostly polled.
 They have straight or concave facial profile.
 They have short hair.
 Beard occurs in most males but no in females.
 Wattles occur in some males, have no ruffs
IV. Small East African Family
1. Central Highland goats
Distribution: they are distributed throughout the central
highlands, west of the Rift valley (Tigray, Wollo, Gonder and
Shewa)
Climatic zone: humid and semihumid ares (Degta and
Weynadega)
Management system: they are kept in small flocks in mixed
farming systems for meat, milk, skin and manure
Utility
 Milk can be made into butter and cheese.
 Skin for export and domestic use.
 Manure is used for fertilizer.
Physical characteristics
 They are medium in size, have wide face and thick horns.
 Reddish brown in colour.
 Beards and ruffs occur in most males.
 Wattles are rare
2. Western highlands (Agew)

Distribution: they are distributed throughout the highlands of

south Gonder, Gojjam, Wollega and western Shewa
Climatic zones: they are adapted to highland areas/humid to sub-
humid
Management system: kept in mixed farming systems
Utility
 Source of cash, skin for grain container or other purposes and
for sale.
 The goats of this type are known for high rate of twin births
(36%)
Physical characteristics

 They are relatively tall with concave facial profile, heve coarse
but long coat cover (hair).

 Colour is white in combination with other colours.

 Most of them have straight horns, which are directed

(pointed) backwards.

 Beard and ruff occur in some males. Wattles occur in some

goats (female and male)
3. Western low land goats

Distribution: distributed throughout the western lowlands

bordering Sudan in Gojjam/Metekel, Wollega/Assosa and
Illubabor/Gambella
Climatic zone: Adapted to humid and subhumid savannah
grassland with scattered trees and tall and short grasses
Management systems: they are kept mainly by agro-pastoralists
for meat, milk and skins
Utility: they are known for their high fertility or twin births with
about 41% twin births
Physical characteristics
 They are relatively short, weighing 34-36kg and 64-67 cm
high.

 They have a straight facial profile.

 The colour is mainly white with some black and grey colours.

 They have straight horns pointing backwards.

 Beards and ruff occur in most males.

 Wattles occur in few males.

4. Keffa goats

Distribution: they are distributed throughout the highlands and

lowlands of Keffa and south Shewa in Kembata and Haddiya

Climatic zone: adapted to the subhumid highlands and semi-arid

lowlands

Management system: they are kept in small flocks in mixed

farming systems

Utility: meat, milk, skin and manure

Physical characteristics

 They are small in size, weighing 28-41 kg and are 67-76 cm

high.
 Colour is red or black.
 Neck is short and with small ears.
 Have straight facial profile.
 Males are horned with pointing backwards.
 Have coarse hairy coat cover.
 Beards and ruffs occur in most males.
 Wattles occur in few males and females.
 Advantages of Small Ruminants over Large
Ruminants

 They have higher fertility rate- twin or multiple birth is

common.
 Have short generation interval to increase their production
(can produce two crops per year) more young in life time.
 Facility required to maintain them is very low.
 Their purchase price is low (investment cost is low).
 Therefore, they have less risk to the owner in cases of death
(accidents) due to diseases, theft and predators.
 The management, the price, feed requirement and health care
etc
 Of five sheep or goats are estimated to be equivalent to the
management inputs required for a single cow.

 Considering a mortality rate of 20% and if a farmer owns one

cow, the farmer will loose it.

 But, if a farmer owns five goats instead of one cow, he will

remain with four goats.

 Purchase price is cheaper, can replace it immediately.

 But for a man who looses a cow, it will be very difficult to

him to replace it.
 They are more convenient to slaughter.
 They are easier to home consumption where you have little
storage facility like refrigerator.
 They have an ability to survive in harsh environmental
condition on low quality and quantity or relatively small
amount of feed, no water.
 They have high resistance to dehydration (loss of water) and
perform well in dry areas.
 They are efficient utilizers of fibrous feeds, which otherwise
would not be utilized by large ruminants
 Breeding systems used in Sheep and Goat
Production

 In breeding sheep and goats, to improve their performance, the

same methods are used as are used in breeding other types of
livestock.

 The most common breeding systems in sheep and goat

production are upgrading, out-crossing, line breeding,
crossbreeding, inbreeding and substitution
Upgrading

 Involves successive use of pure bred rams or bucks on the

indigenous ewes or does flocks to produce a high grade flock that
resembles the characteristics of the pure-bred rams or bucks.

Out-crossing

 Mating of rams/bucks from distantly related animals with

ewes/does of the same breed.

 The system helps to produce animals with the desired characters

from the two strains.
Line breeding

 Mating of cousins or more distantly related

animals that trace to the same parents in the
pedigree.

 This system avoids the decrease of fertility

and vigour as the result of inbreeding.
Cross breeding

 Mating of two separate or different pure-

breed individuals.

 When two pure-breeds are crossed the F1

generation may show unusually superior
performance than the parents which is due to
heterosis effect or hybrid vigour as the result
of favourable gene combination brought
about by the cross
 If not superior, they express intermediate performance
between the parent types and may show phenotypic
similarities to one of the parents.

 Crossbreeding is the system that is widely used in the tropics

to improve productive and reproductive performance of the
indigenous sheep and goat breeds.

 The objective of crossbreeding is to produce offspring with

superior performance to both the parents and that have vigour
and thrift
Inbreeding

 Involves the mating of closely related animals such as sire and

daughter or brother and sister.
 It is used to produce a uniform flock characteristics or a flock
with uniform genetic make-up.
 It increases animals with homozygous genes with dominant or
recessive genes (AA or aa) combinations but reduce animals
with heterozygous gene combinations (Aa).
 It results in reduced fertility, vigour, poor growth rate of
animals due to absence of heterosis effect
Substitution

 Refers to the replacement of the existing flocks/breeds with

introduced breeds.

 The system is very expensive to replace the whole flock and

hence not often employed.

 The system can be only employed under certain

circumstances, when the existing population size of
indigenous sheep and goat is small and where the level of
productivity of indigenous animals is low
 However, it is rarely advisable to substitute the existing
indigenous flock based on their low productivity because
native breeds are well adapted to their environment and have
good heat tolerance and disease resistance and have high
fertility.

 These are important merits of indeginous flock that do not

permit their substitution
 Sheep and Goat Husbandry Systems

 The way in which people keep sheep and goats differs from
country to country, and even from place to place within a
country.
 It is usual to classify husbandry systems as intensive, semi-
intensive and extensive.
 But different authors included other husbandry systems of
major importance.
 The existing husbandry systems in the tropical countries are
normally the results of hundreds of years of development by
practical sheep and goat breeders
Extensive Production System
 are low-input low out-put system
 are sub divided into:-
pastoral system
• involve continuous movement of whole flock and the
owners
• the flocks are not divided by age, sex or stage of
reproductive cycle
• very difficult to provide supplementary feeding
 Transhumant system

 The flock spending part of each year grazing within

reach of a permanent village base, and the rest of the
year on distant pastures, usually in a different
ecological zone
In pastoral and agro-pastoral areas, the above two
systems are characterized by:-
• Large flock size kept mixed with other species
• kept for meat, milk and skins (multi-purpose) with sale
of animals
• seasonal feed availability (both in quality and quantity)
• High mortality rate kids/lambs of (up to 30%).
• Long lambing and kidding interval
• High disease incidence (that may result more than 90%
mortality)
Mixed farming systems
• where great emphasis is given to crop production
• grazed on marginal lands and fed on crop residues
• kept by very low level of unpaid family labor, such as
children
• Little management such as
– supplementary feeding,
– health care
– hygiene and housing
Integration into Crop Agriculture System

• involves the integration of sheep and goats with

plantation such as fruits & rubber trees and sugar cane
plantations.

• The nature and extent of the integration depend on the

type of crops being grown and the relative importance
of sheep and goats.

• needs careful management of the stocking rate

Advantages

– Increases fertility of land

– saves labor cost for clearing the weeds under
plantation
– Reduces fertilizer usage
– Brings greater economic returns
Tethering system
» tying by a rope individually or in small groups.
» it is essential to change the place of tethering
every day
» Care should be taken to avoid any possibility of
strangulation.
» Occasionally, supplements are provided.
Advantages

a. Animals can be closely controlled from predators and thievery

b. Limited damage to crops and environment
c. Saves labor cost for keeping them
d. Better utilization of feed recourses on road sides and marginal
unwanted lands
Intensive System of Sheep and Goat Production

 Is high-input high-output system

 involves either grazing on forage crops or cultivated pastures

at very high stocking density, or zero grazing.

 Mostly there is a continuous housing & feeding is with cut and

carry system, with concentrate supplementation.
Mainly used for specialized breeds and practiced in
humid and sub-humid areas where:-

– there is high population pressure

– there is good demand for animals and animal

products

– Where the environment is conducive for high

producing animals
Advantages

– Efficient utilization of feed resources

– Gives an opportunity for conserving excess feed

– Easier to control of the animals from predators and

thievery

– Reduces damage to crop and environment

Semi-intensive System of Sheep and Goat Production

It is partly intensive and partly extensive production

system

Is dictated by the availability of grazing land and

labor:-

 when there is enough grazing land, it is extensive but if land

is scarce it is intensive.

 when labor is limited for intensive production system it is

extensive
Chapter 5. Poultry Production and Hatchery management