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Roof Trusses:
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Roof trusses become necessary when sloping roofs

have to be provided. At places of heavy rainfall or
heavy snowfall sloping roofs are necessary which
have to be supported by roof trusses. Workshops
warehouses, industrial buildings etc. also need
sloping roofs and hence roof trusses. For many
single storey buildings sloping roofs on trusses are
common. When a roof is to be provided for a building
which does not have interior supports and the
exterior walls are more than 12 m apart, a roof truss
will be a convenient arrangement to support the roof.

Components of a Steel Roof Truss:

A roof truss consists essentially of the following
components:

(i) Upper chord members.

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The portion of the truss lying between two
consecutive joints is called a panel. The portion of the
roof contained between successive trusses is called
a bay. The member spanning from truss to truss
which is meant to carry the load of the roofing
material and to transfer it on the panel points is called
a purlin. Hence the length of the purlin is equal to the
width of the bay, i.e., the spacing of the trusses.

The various components of the truss are shown in

Fig. 12.1.

Types of Trusses:
The king post truss is mainly adopted for short spans
(less than 6 m). It is usually built of wood completely
or of wood combined with steel. Steel rods are used
as tension members.

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Pitch of Trusses:

The slope of the top chord members or the ratio of

rise to span of a truss is called the pitch of the truss.
The pitch of the truss is an important factor in the
selection of a truss. Slope for roof is necessary to
drain off rain water falling on the roof. If roof slopes
are not provided, i.e., if the roofs are flat, then it may
be very difficult to provide sheet roofing without the
use of effective mastic sealing of the sheet joints.

When G.I. sheets are used the pitch may be 1/6 of

the span. When A.C. sheets are provided the pitch
may be 1/10 to 1/12 of the span. Where snow loads
and wind loads exist, a pitch of 1/4 the span is found
convenient. In regions where snowfall is absent, a
pitch of 1/6 is reasonable. In trusses of low pitch
there is the advantage of reduced wind pressure.

Purlins:

Purlins are beams of light sections spanning between

trusses carrying dead load of roof, live load and wind
load. Purlins transmit these loads to the trusses.
Generally the purlins are so spaced that they are
supported over the top chord joints of the truss.

In the case of trusses of large spans it may become

necessary to support the purlins over the top chord
members between panel points. In such cases the
top chord members will be subjected to bending
moment in addition to axial load. Purlins may be
angles, channels, I-sections, tube sections etc.

Spacing of Trusses:

The spacing of trusses is determined by the spacing

of the columns. The spacing of the trusses may be
such as to minimize the cost of roofing. The spacing
of trusses may be about 1/3 to 1/5 of the span.
Where snow loads and superimposed loads are
practically absent larger spacing may be provided.
Reasonable spacing of trusses based on spans
are given below:

Lateral Bracings:

Wind forces parallel to the ridge acting on the gable

ends are liable to produce displacements and
deformation of the roof trusses, unless a thick gable
masonry wall is provided at each end. When such
end gable walls are not provided, it is necessary to
provide lateral bracings connecting the last two
trusses. These bracings consist of two systems of
lacings-One system of lacing connects the bottom
chord joints of the last two trusses. The second
system of lacing connects the top chord joints of the
last two trusses (Fig. 12.3).

Weight of Purlins:

The size of purlins depends on the nature of roof

covering supported, wind and other loads and the
spacing of the trusses.

Generally the following figures may be adopted:

i. Purlins supporting slate roof = 120 N/m2

ii. Purlins supporting glazed roof = 100 N/m2

iii. Purlins supporting corrugated sheeting = 80 N/m2

Weight of Trusses:
Snow Load:

If a roof is subjected to snow load it should be

designed for the actual loads due to snow or for the
live loads specified above, whichever is more severe.
Actual load due to snow will depend upon the shape
of the roof and its capacity to retain the snow and
each case shall be treated on its own merits. In the
absence of any specific information, the loading due
to the collection of snow may be assumed to be 2.5
N/m2 per mm depth of snow.

The possibility of total or partial snow load should be

considered, that is, one half of the roof fully loaded
with the design snow load and the other half loaded
with half the design snow load. In the ease of roofs
with slopes greater than 50°, snow load may be
disregarded; where, however, there are possibilities
of formation of snow pockets, these should be taken
into account.

Economic Spacing of Trusses:

The economic spacing of trusses means the spacing

at which the overall cost of trusses, purlins, roof
cover, columns etc. is the minimum. For large
spacing of trusses purlins will work out to be heavy
and costly. For small spacing of trusses, while the
purlins become light and less costly, the trusses will
work out to be costly. The trusses may be spaced
such that the overall cost of the roof structure is a
minimum.
upon it. We always assume that the wind loads act
normal to be surface on which it acts.

Wind Speed and Pressure:

The wind speed is practically zero at ground level

and increases to a maximum value at a height called
the gradient height. The terrain condition at a site is
responsible for the variation of wind speeds with
height. At any height the wind speed does not really
remain constant and so it is found convenient to
arrive at an average value and a fluctuating
component, fluctuating from the average value. The
fluctuating component is called gust.

Basic Wind Speed:

Fig. 12.4 shows the basic wind speeds applicable at

10 m height above ground level for various zones of
India. The basic wind speed shown is based on peak
gust velocity averaged over a short interval of 3
seconds. These basic wind speeds have been
determined for a 50 year return period. The Table
12.1 shows the basic wind speeds for some
important cities of India.
Design Wind Speed VZ:

The basic wind speed Vb for any site shall be

obtained from the map or table above and shall
be modified to include the following effects to get
the design wind velocity at any height (VZ) for the
chosen structure:

(a) Risk level;

(b) Terrain roughness, height and size of structure;

and

(c) Local topography.

The design wind speed VZ is given by-

VZ = Vb k1 k2 k3

where,

VZ = Design wind speed at any height Z, in m/s.

k1 = Probability factor (risk co-efficient)

k2 = Terrain, height and structure height factor

k3 = Topography factor.

Note:

Design wind speed up to 10 m height from mean

ground level shall be considered constant.

Risk Coefficient (k1 Factor):

The suggested life period to be assumed in design
and the corresponding k1 factors for different class of
structures for the purpose of design is given in Table
12.2. In the design of all buildings and structures a
regional basic wind speed having a mean return
period of 50 years shall be used except as specified
in the note of Table 12.2.

Note:

The factor k1 is based on statistical concepts which

take account of the degree of reliability required and
period of time in years during which these will be
exposed to wind, that is life of the structure.
Whatever wind speed is adopted for design
purposes, there is always a probability (however
small) that it may be exceeded in a storm of
exceptional violence; the greater the period of years
over which these will be exposed to the wind, the
greater is the probability.

Higher return periods ranging from 100 to 1000 years

(implying lower risk level) in association with greater
periods of exposure may have to be selected for
exceptionally important structures, such as, nuclear
power reactors and satellite communication towers.
Terrain, Height and Structure Size Factor (k2
Factor):

Terrain Selection of terrain categories shall be made

with due regard to the effect of obstructions which
constitute the ground surface roughness. The terrain
category used in the design of a structure may vary
depending on the direction of wind under
consideration. Whenever sufficient meteorological
information is available about the nature of the wind
direction the orientation of any building or structure
may be suitably planned.

Terrain in which a specific structure stands shall

be assessed as being one of the following terrain
categories:

(a) Category 1:

Exposed open terrain with few or no obstruction and

in which the average height of any object surrounding
the structure is less than 1.50 m.

Note:

This category includes open sea coasts and flat

treeless plains.

(b) Category 2:

Open terrain with well scattered obstructions having

height generally between 1.50 m and 10 m.

Note:

This is the criterion for measurement of regional

basic wind speeds and includes airfields, open park
lands and undeveloped sparsely built-up outskirts of
towns and suburbs. Open land adjacent to sea coast
may also be classified as category 2 due to
roughness of large sea waves at high winds.

(c) Category 3:

Terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions

having the size of building structures up to 10 m in
height with or without a few isolated tall structures.

Note 1:
This category includes well wooded areas, and
shrubs, towns and industrial areas full or partially
developed.

Note 2:

It is likely that the next higher category than this will

not exist in most design situations and that selection
of a more severe category will be deliberate.

Note 3:

Particular attention must be given to performance of

obstructions in areas affected by fully developed
tropical cyclones, vegetation which is likely to be
blown down on defoliated cannot be relied upon to
maintain category 3 conditions. Where such situation
may exist, either an intermediate category with
velocity multipliers midway between the values for
category 2 and 3 given in Table 12.3 or category 2
should be selected having due regard to local
conditions.

(d) Category 4:

Terrain with numerous large high closely spaced

obstructions.

Note:

This category includes large city centres, generally

with obstructions above 25 m and well developed
industrial complexes.

Variation of Wind Speed with height for different

terrains (k2 factor). Table 12.3 gives multiplying
factors (k2) by which the basic wind speed given in
the map shall be multiplied to obtain the wind speed
at different heights, in each terrain category for
different sizes of buildings/structures.

The buildings/structures are classified into the

following classes:

Class A – Structures of size less than 20 m.

Class B – Structures of size between 20 m and 50 m.

Class C – Structures of size greater than 50 in.

Note:

Intermediate values may be obtained by linear

interpolation, if desired. It is permissible to assume
constant wind speed between 2 heights for simplicity.

Terrain Categories in Relation to the Direction of

Wind:

The terrain category used in the design of a structure

may vary depending on the direction of wind under
consideration. Where sufficient meteorological
information is available the basic wind speed may be
varied for specific wind direction.

Changes in Terrain Categories:

The velocity profile for a given terrain category does

not develop to full height immediately with the
commencement of that terrain category but develop
gradually to height (hx) which increases with the fetch
on upwind distance (x).

Fetch and Developed Height Relationship:

The relation between the developed height (hx) and

the fetch (x) for wind flow over each of the four terrain
categories may be taken as given in Table 12.4.
Topography (k3 Factor):

The basic wind speed k6 given in the map takes

account of the general level of site above sea level.
This does not allow for local topographic features
such as hills, valleys, cliffs, escarpments or ridges
which can significantly affect wind speed in their
vicinity. The effect of topography is to accelerate wind
near summits of hills, or ridges and decelerate the
wind in valleys or near the foot of cliffs, steep
escarpments, or ridges.

The effect of topography will be significant at a site

when the up wind slope (θ) is greater than 3°, and
below that, the value of may be taken to be equal to
1.0. The value of k3 is confined in the range of 1.0 to
1.36 for slopes greater than 3°. The value of k3 varies
with height above ground level, at a maximum near
the ground and reducing to 1.0 at higher levels.

For a hill or ridge the k3 factor can be determined

from the relation k3 = 1 + Cs, where C shall be taken
as given in the table below.

where, l = Horizontal length covered by the upwind

slope in the wind direction

s = Factor depending on the height H above the

mean ground level

x = Horizontal distance from the summit or crest

relative to the effective length Le.
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(ii) Bottom chord members.

(iii) Web members.

The upper most line of members which extend from

one support to the other through the apex is called
the upper chord, where as the bottom chord consists
of the lowermost line of members extending from one
support to the other.

In trusses simply supported at the ends, the

members in the top chord are subjected to
compression and the members of the bottom chord
are subjected to tension. But in cantilever trusses, the
top chord members will be in tension and the bottom
chord members will be in compression. Usually in
simply supported trusses, for the normal loadings, the
top and bottom chord members near the support
carry greater forces.

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The top and the bottom chord members are

connected by vertical or diagonal members called
web members. The joints at which the web members
are connected to the chords are called panel points.
The joint at the support is called the heel joint while
the joint at the ridge is called the peak joint.

Tension members are called ties while compression

members are called struts.

The truss provides an easy means to transmit the

loads through the reactions to the walls or supporting
The factor s should be determined from-

(a) Fig. 12.5 (b) for cliffs and escarpments, and

(b) Fig. 12.5 (c) for hills and ridges.

Any structure which lies in the affected zone (1.5 Le

on the wind ward side and 2.5 Le on the leeward
side) must be designed for this co-efficient. Note that
the location of the structure is measured with respect
to the crest.

In the above figures-

H = Height of the crest above ground level

X = Distance from the summit to the effective length

Le = Effective horizontal length of the hill.

Design Wind Pressure:

The design wind pressure at any height is given by-

3. Erection Load:

All loads required to be carried by the structure or

any part of it due to placing or storage of construction
materials and erection equipment including all loads
due to operation of such equipment, shall be
considered as ‘erection loads’. Proper provision shall
be made to take care of all the stresses due to such
loads.

Load Combinations on Roof Trusses:

A judicious combination of the working loads keeping
in view of the probability of- (a) their acting together
and (b) their disposition in relation to their loads and
the severity of stresses or deformations caused by
the combination of the various loads, is necessary to
ensure the required safety and economy in the
design of a structure.

The various loads specified above should therefore

be combined in accordance with the stipulation in the
relevant design codes.

In the absence of such recommendations,

however, the following load combinations, given
for general guidance, may be adopted:

(a) Dead load alone.

(b) Dead load + partial or full live load whichever

causes the most critical condition in the structure.

(c) Dead load + wind or seismic loads.

(d) Dead load + such part of or whole of the specified
live load whichever is most likely to occur in
combination with the specified wind or seismic loads
+ wind or seismic loads.

(c) Dead loads + such parts of live load would be

imposed on the structure during the period of erection
+ wind or seismic load + erection loads.

Note:

For design purposes, wind load and seismic forces

shall be assumed not to act simultaneously. Both
forces shall, however, be investigated separately and
adequately provided for.

Purlins:

These are members spanning on the roof frames to

support the roof coverings. Obviously, the spacing of
the trusses is the span of the purlin.

Purlins consist of angles, channels, or I-sections.

When angles and channels are used, the
connections of the purlin to the rafters are made by
using cleat angles. But, when I-sections are used,
they are bolted directly to the rafters.

Loading on the Purlin:

Let W be the vertical load transmitted to a purlin. This

is due to the dead load of the purlin, roofing, snow
and live load.
Let We be the wind load on the purlin acting normal to
the rafter.

Let θ be the inclination of the rafter with the

horizontal.

Total load on the purlin normal to the rafter-

= we + w cos θ

Total load on the purlin parallel to the rafter-

= W sin θ

The purlin is thus subjected to biaxial bending. The

bending stresses about both axes of bending are
determined. The resultant stress shall not exceed the
permissible value. When wind load is also considered
it is usual to adopt a safe stress, 33⅓% in excess of
the usual safe stress.

In the case of roofs whose slopes are less than

30° the purlin may be designed as follows:

(i) Width of the angle leg in a plane at right angles to

the roof covering shall not be less than L/45.

(ii) Width of the angle leg parallel to the roof covering

shall not be less than L/60

where, L = Span of purlin

= Spacing of the trusses

(iii) The maximum bending moment for the purlin

= WL/10
where, W = Total load on the purlin including the wind
load. The loading on the purlin may be assumed as
acting normal to the roof. Bending about the minor
axis may be ignored.

Roof and Side Covering:

Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets (G.I. sheets) and

Asbestos Cement Sheets (A.C. sheets) are usually
used as the covering material.

The G.I. sheets are available in curved condition also

to a radius not less than 375 mm.

The two usual sizes of G.I. sheets are:

(i) 8 corrugations 75 mm wide, 19 mm deep

Overall width = 660 mm

(ii) 10 corrugations 75 mm wide, 19 mm deep overall

width

Overall width =810 mm

In order to make the joints waterproof side laps of 1.5

to 2 corrugations are usually given. Where the slopes
exceed 20° an overlap of at least 150 mm shall be
provided.

The G.I. sheets mentioned above are available in

different lengths ranging from 1.20 metres to 3
metres increasing by 0.15 m.

These sheets are connected to the purlins.

A.C. sheets are weaker in strength than G.I. sheets.

But A.C. sheets are better insulators. These are
usually available in two shapes (Fig. 12.14).

These are available in lengths of 1.50. 1.80, 2.10,

2.4. 2.7 and 3 metres. These sheets may be spanned
safely up to a span of 1.68 m. For a good
arrangement a longitudinal overlap of at least 150
mm and a side overlap of at least 1 corrugation may
be provided. The Trafford sheets are available with a
width of 1 metre (actually 1.02 m) between centres of
end corrugations. The corrugated sheets are
available with a width of 1 metre (actually 1.07 m).
columns.

The distance between the supporting end joints of a

truss is called its span. When supported on walls, the
distance between the centres of bearings is
considered as the span. When framed into columns
the distance between the column faces is regarded
as the span.

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The rise of the truss is the vertical distance between

the apex and the line joining the supports.

The ratio of the rise to the span is called the pitch.

The pitch and slope for various inclinations of

roofs are given below:

When the rise is not more than 1 vertical to 6

horizontal the roof is called a flat roof. If the rise
exceeds the above limit the roof is called a pitched
roof. As far as possible steep pitches are to be
avoided since they will have to resist greater wind
pressure. Moreover truss members become longer,
particularly the compression members, if made
longer can carry only low stresses depending on their
slenderness ratio. Thus compression members will
have to be of heavy sections.
Wind Loads on Roofs:

For calculating the wind load on individual structural

elements like roofs and walls and individual cladding
units, it is essential to take account of the pressure
difference between opposite faces of such elements.
For clad structures, it is necessary to know the
internal as well as external pressures.

The wind load F acting normal to the individual

structural element or cladding unit is given by-

F = (Cpe – Cpi)Apd

where,

F = Net wind force on the element

Cpe = External pressure coefficient

Cpi = Internal pressure coefficient

A = Surface area of the structural element or cladding

unit and

and P = Design wind pressure

Note:

Positive wind load indicates the force acting towards

the structural element and negative wind load
indicates the force acting away from the structural
element.

Fig. 12.40 shows an elevation and plan of a building

with pitched roof. Four zones E, F, G and H are
shown. The external pressure coefficient for the
various zones are shown in the Table 12.7.
Internal Pressure Co-Efficient (Cpj):

The internal air pressure in a building depends upon

the degree of permeability of cladding to the flow of
air. The internal pressure may be positive or negative
depending on the duration of flow of air in relation to
the openings in the buildings.

In the case of building where more than 20% of wall

area is open the internal pressure coefficients shall
be taken as indicate is Fig. 12.36.

Advantages of Steel Roof Trusses:

Steel trusses have the following advantages:

(i) Steel trusses have good strength and may be

economical to beams for large spans

(ii) They can be fabricated easily

(iii) They are most suitable for long spans

(iv) Angles, channels etc. can be easily transported

from place to place

(v) They are free from attack by white ants and dry
rot

(vi) Steel members are fire resistive, and

(vii) Steel trusses can be erected fast and easily.

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The Queen post truss is found suitable for spans 6 m
to 9 m. For ordinary buildings the fink type truss is
found to be very satisfactory. These trusses are
convenient for spans 12 m to 18 m.

For small spans flat roofs may be supported on

beams. But for larger spans flat trusses are to be
used. In this case the upper chord will be inclined
sufficiently to provide just the required slope for
proper drainage.

In factory buildings where considerably more light is

desirable the saw tooth truss is used. In this type the
steep sides of the trusses will be glazed. The glazed
panels are usually faced towards North to avoid the
direct glare of the sun and are hence called North
light roof trusses. For long spans and where more
head room is required the crescent truss is adopted.
For such conditions the scissors truss, the curb truss,
the shed truss, the three hinged arched truss, the
Hammer beam truss are also used.

Loads on Roof Trusses:

1. Dead Loads:

These consist of weights of trusses, roof coverings,

purlins and bracings. Usually the dead load on the
truss is expressed as the load per unit horizontal
area.

Weight of Roof Covering:

The following table shows the weights of roof

covering commonly provided.
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Assuming that the roof covering is of corrugated
sheeting and the trusses are spaced at 4 metres and
that the trusses are provided with a rise of one-fourth
to one-fifth the span, the weight of a truss expressed
in N/square metre of plan area may be taken as-

Weight of Wind Bracing:

This may be assumed as 12 to 13 N/metre2 of plan

area.

2. Live Loads on Roof Trusses:

(i) For sloping or flat roof with slopes up to and

including 10 degrees.

The live load shall be taken as follows:

(a) When access is provided – 1500 N/m2

(b) When access is not provided – 750 N/m2 (except

for maintenance)

(ii) Sloping roof with slope greater than 10 degrees.

The live load to be taken in this case is 750 N/m2 less

20 N/m2 for every degree increase in slope over 10
degrees.

Note:

The live load shall not be taken less than 400 N/m2.
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Hence, for economic spacing of trusses, the cost of
the trusses should be equal to double the cost of the
purlins plus the cost of the roofing material.

Wind Load:

Wind means air in motion with respect to the surface

of the earth. The rotation of the earth and variations
in terrestrial radiation cause the wind. Upward and
downward convection of wind are due to radiation
effects. In general wind blows horizontally at high
speeds. Anemometers or anemographs are the aids
used for estimating wind speeds. These are installed
in meteorological observatories at a height of 10 m to
30 m above the ground level.

Winds of speed over 80 km/h are referred to as very

strong winds and are usually associated with cyclonic
storms, dust storms, thunder storms or active
monsoons. Cyclonic storms crossing the coasts in
India are observed to quickly get weakened and
move inwards in the form of depressions or lows.
Sometimes we notice hurricanes of very high
velocities for short durations in the summer months
over North East India.

The observed wind speeds at any place vary in a

large range. How a high wind pressure affects a
building depends upon the presence of near by
obstruction to air flow, the geographical location of
the building, and on the characteristics of the building
itself. We determine the effect of wind on the
structure as a whole by considering the combined
action of external as well as internal pressures acting
Equation given below may be used in such cases to
estimate k1 factors for different periods of exposure
and chosen probability of exceedance (risk level).
The probability level of 0.63 is normally considered
sufficient for design of buildings and structures
against wind effects and the values of k1
corresponding to this risk level are given above.

where,

N = mean probable design life of structure in years;

PN = risk level in N consecutive years (probability that

the design wind speed is exceeded at least once in N
successive years), nominal value = 0.63;

XN, P = extreme wind speed for given values of N and

PN; and

X50, 0.63 = extreme wind speed for N = 50 years and

PN = 0.63.

A and B are coefficients having the following

values for different basic wind speed zones: