1331

Performance of two cast-in-place box culverts

under high embankments
Olajide Samuel Oshati, Arun J. Valsangkar, and Allison B. Schriver

Abstract: Two cast-in-place reinforced concrete box culverts (Longs Creek and McBean Brook culverts) with similar
geometry were instrumented to monitor earth pressures. The Longs Creek structure is a 7.30 m wide by 4.53 m high
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double-cell box under 14.10 m of fill, constructed using the positive projection installation (PPI) method. The McBean
Brook structure is a 6.75 m wide by 4.65 m high double-cell box culvert under 25.10 m of fill, constructed using the
induced trench installation (ITI) method. Earth pressures were monitored as the fill height above the culvert was increased
for both structures. Data from the McBean Brook culvert at a fill height of 14.40 m are compared with the data from the
Longs Creek culvert. The similar geometries of these two prototype culverts provide a unique opportunity to compare their
performance based on the two different installation methods. For a comparable height of soil cover, measured vertical earth
pressures on the roofs were 0.94 and 0.56 times the overburden pressures for the Longs Creek (PPI) and the McBean
Brook (ITI) culverts, respectively. The average measured lateral earth pressure was 0.32 times the overburden pressure at
the Longs Creek culvert (PPI), and 0.46 times the overburden pressure at the McBean Brook culvert (ITI). Data from the
McBean Brook culvert pertaining to base contact pressure are also presented, but could not be compared directly with the
Longs Creek culvert, as base pressures were not measured. Measured pressures at the base of the McBean Brook culvert
show the presence of drag forces developed on the sidewalls of box culverts. Results from centrifuge model testing are
also presented and compared with the field-measured pressures.
Key words: induced trench, earth pressure, box culvert, soil arching, centrifuge testing, high embankments.
For personal use only.

Résumé : Deux ponceaux rectangulaires coulés sur place et renforcés (ponceaux Longs Creek et McBean Brook), qui ont
une géométrie similaire, ont été instrumentés afin de mesurer les pressions des terres. La structure Longs Creek est un
ponceau rectangulaire à double cellule de 7,30 m de largeur par 4,53 m de hauteur, placé sous 14,10 m de remblai,
et construit à l’aide de la méthode d’installation par projection positive (IPP). La structure McBean est un ponceau
rectangulaire à double cellule de 6,75 m de largeur par 4,65 m de hauteur, placé sous 25,10 m de remblai, construit avec la
méthode d’installation de tranchée induite (ITI). Les pressions des terres sont suivies depuis que la hauteur du remblai sur
le ponceau a été augmentée pour les deux structures. Les données du ponceau McBean Brook à une hauteur de remblai de
14,40 m sont comparées aux données du ponceau Longs Creek. La géométrie similaire de ces deux prototypes de ponceaux
offre une opportunité unique de comparer les performances selon les différentes méthodes d’installation. Pour une hauteur
de remblai comparable, les pressions des terres verticales mesurées sur les toits étaient de 0,94 et 0,56 fois les pressions
des terres pour le ponceau Longs Creek (IPP) et le ponceau McBean Brook (ITI), respectivement. La pression des terres
latérale moyenne était de 0,32 fois la pression des terres au ponceau Longs Creek (IPP), et 0,46 fois la pression des terres
au ponceau McBean Brook (ITI). Les données du ponceau McBean Brook en lien avec la pression de contact à la base
sont aussi présentées mais n’ont pas pu être comparées directement avec le ponceau Longs Creek, puisque les pressions à
la base n’y ont pas été mesurées. Les pressions mesurées à la base du ponceau McBean Brook démontrent la présence de
forces de traînée développées sur les murs de côté des ponceaux rectangulaires. Des résultats obtenus à partir d’essais en
centrifuge sont aussi présentés et comparés aux mesures de pression sur le terrain.
Mots-clés : tranchée induite, pression des terres, ponceau rectangulaire, effet d’arche, essai en centrifuge, digues
élevées.
[Traduit par la Rédaction]

Introduction cant earth loads on the underground structures. Rigid culverts,

either circular or box, have been a common design choice for
Modern highway construction and development sometimes high embankment fills. The use of precast or cast-in-place box
requires construction of high embankments (fill height above culverts under embankments has increased over the years,
the culvert top, H ⱖ 10 m) over underground rigid and flexible owing to its structural competence and ease of construction. In
structures. The high embankment fills usually impose signifi- designing these underground box structures, several factors are
Received 9 February 2012. Accepted 22 August 2012. Published at www.nrcresearchpress.com/cgj on 19 November 2012.
O.S. Oshati, A.J. Valsangkar, and A.B. Schriver. Department of Civil Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Head Hall, 17
Dineen Drive, P.O. Box 4400, Fredericton, NB E3B 5A3, Canada.
Corresponding author: Olajide Samuel Oshati (e-mail: s1q47@unb.ca).

Can. Geotech. J. 49: 1331–1346 (2012) doi:10.1139/t2012-094 Published by NRC Research Press
 1332
considered: the site condition, fill height, rigidity of the cul-
vert, material properties, bedding, available time, cost, and
hydraulic and structural requirements.
When high embankment fills are required over rigid culverts,
most jurisdictions favour two main installation methods: the
positive projection installation (PPI) and the induced trench in-
stallation (ITI) methods. In the ITI method, a zone of compress-
ible material (hay, sawdust, peat, shredded rubber tires, etc.) is
placed above the culvert. The concept behind the ITI method is to
reduce the vertical earth pressure, not only by the inclusion of
lower density fill material (compressible layer), but also mainly
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from inducing positive arching (i.e., column of soil directly above
the culvert settles more relative to the adjacent soil) from differ-
ential settling initiated by the compressible fill material. In ITIs,
earth load from the column of soil directly above the culvert is
partially supported by the shear forces developed on the soil
interface with adjacent soil columns, thereby resulting in some of
the load being redistributed to the adjacent fill. On the other hand,
the PPI does not include a compressible zone within the embank-
ment and there is no load reduction on the culvert roof. Instead,
negative soil arching is experienced when using the PPI method,
where the column of soil directly above the culvert settles less
relative to the adjacent soil. In the PPI, the earth load from the
adjacent soil columns is supported by shear forces developed on
the soil interface with the middle soil column, thereby causing
some of the load to be redistributed to the middle soil column.
For personal use only.
Recent publications (Katona and Vittes 1982; Kang et al.
2008; McAffee and Valsangkar 2008; McGuigan and
Valsangkar 2010; Oshati et al. 2012) have indicated the pres-
ence of drag forces developed on sidewalls of box culverts.
These drag forces develop due to the shear forces generated
from differential settling between the soil column and the
sidewalls of the culvert. As a result, the base pressure is
greater than the vertical pressure on the roof plus the pressure
exerted by the dead load (DL) of the culvert.
The University of New Brunswick (UNB) and the New
Brunswick Department of Transportation (NBDOT) have been
studying the soil–structure interaction of rigid circular and box
culverts using physical testing, numerical modelling, and field
instrumentation and monitoring for over 10 years. However,
most of the previous studies undertaken at UNB pertain to
precast circular pipes installed under high embankments con-
structed using the ITI method. Recently, Oshati et al. (2012)
published results from the field instrumentation of an induced
trench double-cell rectangular box culvert, providing field-
based evidence of increased base pressure. This paper focuses
on field instrumentation and monitoring of two similar cast-
in-place double-cell rectangular box culverts approximately
45 km apart: Longs Creek and McBean Brook culverts. The
Longs Creek box culvert was constructed and installed using
the PPI method, while the McBean Brook culvert was con-
structed and installed using the ITI method.
The latest edition of the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) AASHTO
LRFD bridge design specifications (AASHTO 2010) provides
equations for calculating the unfactored earth load acting on
box culverts for embankment and trench installation. Equa-
tions [1] and [2] present the AASHTO (2010) equation for
determining the unfactored load on top of box culverts in an
embankment installation (PPI).
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 49, 2012
[1] WE ⫽ FeγsBcH
where WE is the total unfactored earth load,
Fe ⫽ 1 ⫹ 0.20 H/Bc
[2] Fe ⱕ 1.15 for compacted fill on culvert sides
Fe ⱕ 1.40 for uncompacted fill on culvert sides
Fe is the soil–structure interaction factor, ␥s is the unit weight
of the fill soil, Bc is the outside width of the culvert, and H is
the fill height above the culvert roof. The term Fe represents
indirectly the negative arching factor to account for positive
projecting installation. The proposed equations for Fe are
semi-empirical in nature. Equation [2] implies that the factor
Fe increases linearly with ratio H/Bc, but reaches a limiting
value of 1.15 at an H/Bc ratio of 0.75 for compacted fill and 1.4
at an H/Bc ratio of 2 for an uncompacted fill. The combined
term (␥s, Bc, H) in eq. [1] represents the weight of the soil
prism above the culvert, per unit length of the culvert.
AASHTO (2010) provides no guidelines as to the method or
procedure for determining the earth load exerted on box cul-
verts installed under an induced trench embankment. How-
ever, AASHTO (2010) recognizes the ITI method as one of the
acceptable methods of installation and suggests the use of
accepted tests methods, soil–structure interaction analyses or
previous experience to determine the load.
The purpose of the current study is to compare earth pres-
sure data from two instrumented field installations of similar
box culverts constructed using the PPI and ITI methods. The
study presents earth pressures measured on the roof and one
side of the culvert for both field installations, along with the
base contact pressures measured for the ITI. Centrifuge model
test results for the PPI and the ITI are also presented. The
effect of the H/Bc ratio for the different field installations
reported in literature is compared with the AASHTO recom-
mended soil–structure interaction factor (Fe).
Box culvert research
General background
Research related to earth loads on underground structures
has been ongoing for decades. The pioneering contributions to
earth load on buried structures and installation methods can be
attributed to Marston (Marston and Anderson 1913; Marston
et al. 1917; Marston 1930). Early contributions from Schlick
(1920, 1932, 1952) and Spangler (Spangler 1933, 1950, 1958;
Spangler and Handy 1973) also paved the way to understand-
ing the mechanism behind load transfer in buried structures.
The majority of the research done on box culverts has focussed
on the PPI method with limited research on the ITI construc-
tion. Figure 1 shows a simplified arching mechanism of a
positive projection embankment installation (negative arching)
and an induced trench installation (positive arching).
Previous field instrumentation and monitoring
Penman et al. (1975) reported on a summary of work done
by Binger in 1948 as part of works done on the 1942 Panama
Canal third locks project on a 2.70 m wide by 3.30 m high
(Bc/Hc ⫽ 0.82) reinforced concrete culvert. The culvert was
installed under 15 m of compacted sandstone fill embankment.
The pressure measuring gauges installed on the roof of the
Published by NRC Research Press
 Oshati et al.
Fig. 1. Simplified arching mechanism of a PPI and an ITI.
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Texas A&M University on 11/14/14
For personal use only.
culvert were protected by a 0.60 m layer of hand-compacted
clay. Pressure measured on the roof of the culvert at the centre
of the rockfill embankment was 415 kPa at the end of con-
struction, which corresponded to 180% of the overburden
pressure (230 kPa) estimated from the field density tests.
Katona and Vittes (1982) reported the measured earth pres-
sure data from an instrumented 1.22 m by 1.22 m (Bc/Hc ⫽ 1)
box culvert constructed by the Kentucky Department of Trans-
portation. The culvert was founded on a dense granular bed
within bedrock. Eight Carlson earth pressure cells were in-
stalled around the buried culvert. A total of 23 m of silt (MH,
as classified according to ASTM 2006) embankment fill was
placed above the culvert roof. The reported earth pressure
measured on the roof and average base pressures were approx-
imately 148% and 161% of the overburden pressure, respec-
tively. The approximate average measured lateral pressures
were 35% and 18% of the overburden pressure on the right and
left side of the culvert, respectively. Katona and Vittes (1982)
reported the presence of shear traction on sidewalls, which
produce significant downward force that must be accounted
for with respect to increased pressure on the bottom slab.
Tadros et al. (1989) instrumented and tested a cast-in-place
reinforced double-cell concrete box culvert. The 30.50 m long,
3.66 m by 3.66 m (Bc/Hc ⫽ 1) culvert was instrumented to
measure soil pressure, strains, deflections, and settlements
around the culvert. The sidefill was compacted as the embank-
ment was raised; after reaching a permanent fill height of
2.59 m above the roof of the culvert, an additional 1.07 m
surcharge was placed for a total soil cover of 3.66 m. The earth
pressures were monitored using 28 vibrating wire earth pressure
cells, mounted in steel boxes. The earth pressure measurements
were supplemented with six vibrating wire piezometers and 40
vibrating wire strain gauges to measure hydrostatic boundary
water pressure, moments, and thrusts. Soil pressure measured
1333
from the study showed that both magnitude and distribution of
pressure seemed to be strongly influenced by compaction. Earth
pressure measured under a permanent soil cover of 2.59 m,
80 days after completion of the embankment at the top was
approximately 72 kPa on an average, corresponding to 144% of
the overburden pressure. The approximate average coefficient of
measured lateral earth pressure on the sidewalls was 0.57.
Vaslestad et al. (1993) instrumented and monitored three
prototype culverts, one of which was a 2.0 m wide by 2.25 m
high box culvert (Bc/Hc ⫽ 0.78). The study represents one of
the few field studies on box culverts installed using the ITI
method. Expanded polystyrene was used as the compressible
layer. The study focused mainly on the vertical earth pressure
exerted on the box culvert roof, and the long-term behaviour of
induced trench installed culverts. Earth pressure on the top
slab was measured using hydraulic pressure cells and was
compared with the overburden pressure. The lateral earth
pressures and base contact pressures were not measured in the
study. Upon completion of the embankment at a fill height of
10.80 m, the measured earth pressure on the roof was 63% of
the overburden pressure. The 3 year research showed no
significant increase in vertical earth pressure on the culvert
after construction.
Yang et al. (1999) instrumented two sections of a 7.0 m
wide by 3.9 m high double-cell box culvert (Bc/Hc ⫽ 1.79), to
measure earth pressure distribution on the roof and sidewall.
Geokon model 4810 vibrating wire hydraulic type soil pres-
sure cells were used. The culvert was founded on 600 mm of
well-graded crushed gravel. Two sections were instrumented:
section A was buried under 19 m of fill and section B under
11.7 m of fill. Data collected over 600 days showed that with
H/Bc ⬍ 0.5, soil–structure interaction coefficient (Fe) ranged
from 0.73 to 1.85 and with H/Bc ⬎ 0.5, the soil–structure
interaction coefficient ranged from 0.8 to 2.0. The recorded
Published by NRC Research Press
 1334
weighted average vertical pressures were about 30% and 20%
greater than the AASHTO (1996) recommended pressures for
H/Bc ⬍ 0.5 and H/Bc ⬎ 0.5, respectively. The largest lateral
pressure was measured at the base of the wall. Results from the
study suggest that the pressures calculated using equations
given in AASHTO (1996) did not match field observations.
Bennett et al. (2005) instrumented two sections of a 3.0 m
wide by 2.4 m high cast-in-place double-cell reinforced con-
crete box culvert (Bc/Hc ⫽ 1.25). Vibrating wire pressure cells
were used to determine the earth pressures on the roof. Strain
gauges mounted on the wall and roof were used to determine
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the axial force in the wall and bending moment in the roof,
which was then used to obtain the pressure on the roof as the
fill height increased. Soil–structure interaction factors were
also predicted using results from the pressure cells and strain
gauges. Findings from the pressure cells that had good corre-
lations with the strain gauges in the wall and roof suggest that
soil–structure interaction factor did not change with the em-
bankment height, with an observed mean of 1.51. Bennett
et al. (2005) also observed that the pressure on the roof of a
culvert installed using the PPI method was significantly
greater than the soil overburden pressure on the culvert.
Sun et al. (2011) monitored earth pressures around an
induced trench cast-in-place box culvert using geofoam as the
compressible fill. The culvert was 3.35 m wide and 3.73 m
high (Bc/Hc ⫽ 0.90), founded on an unyielding bed, with fill
For personal use only.
height of approximately 15.90 m above the culvert roof. Sun
et al. (2011) monitored three sections: the first section had a
0.61 m thick geofoam with a width of 3.35 m (Bc), the second
section had 0.61 m thick geofoam with a width of 4.88 m
(1.5Bc), and the third section was used as the control without
a geofoam compressible layer. Instrumentation consisted of
three strain gauges, 12 pressure cells, and two inverted settle-
ment plates. The upper half of the embankment consisted of
limestone rock mixed with red residual clay and the lower half
was compacted red residual clay. On the culvert roof, for
sections with geofoam width 1.5Bc and 1Bc, Sun et al. (2011)
measured an average pressure of 8.9% and 11.2%, respec-
tively, of the pressures measured at the section without geo-
foam. Average measured pressure on the sidewall was 13.6%
of the pressure measured on the culvert roof at the section
without geofoam. Sun et al. (2011) reported that measured
lateral pressures at the section with a geofoam width of 1Bc
were similar to the vertical pressure, but 41.37 kPa larger than
the vertical pressure at the section with a geofoam width of
1.5Bc. On the basis of the projected linear relationship between
geofoam and the logarithm of time, Sun et al. (2011) con-
cluded that the earth pressure on box culverts will remain
stable for the design life using the ITI method. However, base
contact pressure was not measured in the 5 year study.
Oshati et al. (2012) published results of earth pressure
measurements around an induced trench constructed rectangu-
lar box culvert. The instrumented culvert was 6.75 m wide and
4.65 m high (Bc/Hc ⫽ 1.54), under 25 m of embankment fill.
Base pressures measured across two instrumented sections of
the culvert showed an increase of 25% from the measured
pressure on the roof plus dead weight pressure of the culvert.
The increased base pressure was attributed to downward drag
forces developed on the sidewalls of box culverts installed
using the ITI method. Average earth pressures reported were
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 49, 2012
42% and 52% of the overburden pressure at the roof and sides
of the culvert, respectively.
Previous model tests and numerical analysis
Dasgupta and Sengupta (1991) studied the behaviour of
reinforced box culverts, using a large-scale model box culvert
backfilled with sand. Deflection, pressure, and strain were mea-
sured on the 1200 mm by 1200 mm (Bc/Hc ⫽ 1) box culvert
founded on sand. The culvert was installed under 2.40 m of sand
embankment fill. Twelve deflecting diaphragm pressure cells
were placed around the culvert for pressure measurement pur-
poses. The measured pressures showed a linear relationship with
the fill height at the top and bottom of the culvert. The rate of
pressure increase measured for the top slab was greater than the
bottom slab; after 2 m of fill the rate of change of pressure on the
wall decreased. Nonuniform pressure distribution was observed
at the top and bottom slab with the higher pressures at the stiffer
end walls. The pressure distribution on the walls displayed a
parabolic distribution with the maximum value at about 0.3 times
the height of the wall from the base of the culvert. The total
vertical pressure measured in the study was the same on both the
top slab and the bottom raft, and was greater than the weight of
soil directly on the slab.
Bourque (2002) used the UNB geotechnical centrifuge to
measure vertical and horizontal soil pressures acting on twin
induced trench box culverts. Bourque (2002) also performed
parametric studies using numerical modelling to address the
effect of culvert spacing, width of the compressible layer,
culvert geometry, and backfill type. Bourque (2002) observed
that the horizontal pressure for the induced trench was higher
than vertical pressure for both single and twin culvert installation.
However, Bourque’s study did not address base pressures and
also only investigated a model culvert of ratio Bc/Hc ⫽ 1. Results
from Bourque’s study were later incorporated into a detailed
study by McGuigan and Valsangkar (2011) where the issue of
increased base pressure was addressed.
MacLeod (2003) investigated earth pressures around in-
duced trench conduits using centrifuge testing and numerical
modelling, and compared the results with prototype results
reported in the literature. MacLeod (2003) also investigated
the effect of variables such as conduit shape (circular and box),
backfill material, compressible zone width, compressible zone
thickness, compressible zone stiffness, and compressible zone
location on the performance of induced trench conduits. Re-
sults from the centrifuge tests performed by MacLeod (2003)
were incorporated in a later study by McGuigan and Valsangkar
(2010).
McAffee (2005) used centrifuge tests to simulate different
H/Bc ratios of field prototype structures installed using the ITI
method, for both single and twin box culverts, and compared
the centrifuge test results with the PPI method. Results from
McAffee’s study confirmed significant reduction in vertical
pressure on the roof and increased lateral pressures on the
sidewalls for each condition studied. McAffee (2005) ob-
served that the compressibility, width, and height of the com-
pressible layer were important factors for load reduction in
underground conduits. McAffee (2005) also conducted tests
that considered different compressible zone configurations.
The study, however, did not investigate base contact pressures
and only considered square-shaped culverts.
Published by NRC Research Press
 Oshati et al. 1335

Fig. 2. Longs Creek culvert instrumentation locations (data from Take and Valsangkar 1999).
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Li and Qubain (2004) used the finite element method (FEM) Fig. 3. Longs Creek culvert with lateral earth measuring contact
to model a concrete box culvert to evaluate the effects of cell installed.
foundation yielding on design load. Yielding, partially yield-
ing, and unyielding foundations were analysed and compared
For personal use only.

with classical and conventional methods. Plane strain FEM

was used to analyse a 3.35 m wide by 3.81 m high (Bc/Hc ⫽
0.88) precast concrete box culvert under 11.58 m of embank-
ment fill. A two-dimensional FEM program SIGMA/W was
used. Li and Qubain (2004) reported that the vertical earth
pressure measured from the unyielding foundation was 1.30
times the nominal earth load on average, while for the yielding
foundation, measured vertical earth pressure was approxi-
mately equal to the nominal earth load. Li and Qubain (2004)
observed that the partially yielding foundations showed simi-
lar pressure distribution to the unyielding foundation. Li and
Qubain (2004) also observed that with yielding foundations,
resulting moment in the middle section of the top slab is
significantly reduced and end moments consequently were
increased slightly. The reported average lateral pressure for the
unyielding foundation was 0.27 times the nominal vertical
pressure, and 0.41 times the nominal vertical earth pressure Table 1. Nuclear density results around Longs Creek box culvert.
for the yielding foundation. Li and Qubain (2004) reported that
earth pressure predictions based on AASHTO (1998) could Average Average unit Standard No. of
underestimate the magnitude of soil pressure for unyielding density (kg/m3) weight (kN/m3) deviation (kN/m3) observations
foundations due to the lack of consideration of the site con- 2180.42 21.38 0.18 12
dition in the specified upper limit. In conclusion, Li and 2151.42 21.1 0.44 12
Qubain (2004) suggest that the conventional design proposed 2142.5 21.01 0.6 20
by AASHTO (1998) may still be conservative with the as-
sumption of uniform pressure distribution for unyielding
foundations.
Kim and Yoo (2005) used finite element modelling to culvert and concluded that the ITI method could reduce
analyse different geometric configurations and backfill mate- the soil–structure interaction factor. The study focused on the
rial properties for a concrete box culvert installed using the ITI beneficial load reduction that can be achieved from the ITI
method. The study reported that the preferred width of the method, and did not address lateral earth pressure or base contact
compressible layer should not exceed 1.5Bc and that the ratio pressure. Kim and Yoo (2005) also only examined square-
of the thickness of the compressible layer to the height of the shaped culverts.
culvert should not be greater than 1.5. Kim and Yoo (2005) Kang et al. (2008) reported on the results from numerical
observed that the maximum load reduction rate is achieved analysis of a box culvert under high fill, and highlighted the
when the compressible layer is placed directly on top of the effects of frictional forces developed on sidewalls of box culverts

Published by NRC Research Press

 1336
Fig. 4. Transverse section through McBean Brook induced trench culvert (all dimensions in metres; from Oshati et al. 2012).
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Texas A&M University on 11/14/14
For personal use only.
on the base contact pressure. Kang et al. (2008) proposed a
preferred compressible zone geometry, formulas for earth load
reduction rate for the proposed compressible zone geometry,
and a PPI soil–structure interaction factor accounting for
downward drag forces developed on the sidewalls of the box
culvert. Kang et al. (2008) also found that the AASHTO
(2004) design equation used for calculating earth loads for
embankment installation could be unconservative.
McGuigan and Valsangkar (2010) presented the results of
parametric studies on a single box culvert using centrifuge
tests and numerical modelling to evaluate the pressures acting
on the top, sides, and base of a box culvert. McGuigan and
Valsangkar (2010) also recommend practical optimal pre-
ferred compressible zone geometry, along with physical evi-
dence for the increased base pressure caused by downward
drag forces developed on the sidewalls of box culverts. Results
of the study compared ITI with PPI and investigated the effect
of the compressible zone stiffness on earth pressures exerted
on the culvert. In their study, McGuigan and Valsangkar
(2010) observed that with a preferred compressible zone width
of 1.2Bc and a thickness of 0.5Hc, a 78% reduction in vertical
pressure on the roof was achieved for an unyielding founda-
tion when compared with the PPI and a 47% reduction in base
contact pressure compared with PPI. The yielding foundation
on the other hand achieved a 78% and 35% reduction in
average roof and base pressures, respectively, compared with
the PPI. In agreement with McAffee (2005), McGuigan and
Valsangkar (2010) observed that compressible zone stiffness
plays an important role in the load reduction achieved on the
roof and base of culverts. However, the study by McGuigan
and Valsangkar (2010) was limited to a fill height of 12 m and
a ratio Bc/Hc ⫽ 1.
In 2011, McGuigan and Valsangkar (2011) used centrifuge
testing and numerical modelling to evaluate culvert spacing
(clear distance between culverts) and compressible zone ge-
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 49, 2012
ometry for twin positive projecting and induced trench box
culverts. McGuigan and Valsangkar (2011) observed that twin
culverts installed using the PPI method gave lower pressures
than single culverts. A single compressible zone spanning both
culverts was proposed for culverts spaced at 0.5Bc and 1Bc,
while for a spacing of 1.5Bc, two individual compressible
zones of 1.2Bc width were found to give optimum earth
pressures. Earth pressures on the roof of twin induced trench
culvert were observed to be higher than the corresponding
pressures on the roof of single culverts. Lower lateral pres-
sures were observed for twin culverts compared to single
culverts and lower base pressures were observed for twin
culverts with 0.5Bc spacing than for single culverts. McGuigan
and Valsangkar (2011) concluded that lower pressures corre-
spond to the smallest spacing (0.5Bc).
Field construction and instrumentation
The two sites selected for this study are approximately
45 km apart: the Longs Creek double-cell rectangular box
culvert (Bc/Hc ⫽ 1.61) was installed under 14.10 m of fill in a
positive projection embankment while the McBean Brook
double-cell rectangular box culvert (Bc/Hc ⫽ 1.45) was in-
stalled under 25.10 m of fill in an induced trench embankment.
The two sites were selected for their similarities in culvert size,
shape, site condition, Bc/Hc ratio, and construction materials
used. The comparison was based on measured data at approx-
imately 14.10 m of fill above the roof of both culverts, which
gives a comparable H/Bc ratio. The section titled “McBean
Brook culvert⬙ provides details on the typical dimensions for
the two cast-in-place reinforced rectangular boxes.
Longs Creek culvert
The Longs Creek culvert is a 193.50 m long cast-in-place
double-cell reinforced rectangular concrete box with a height of
Published by NRC Research Press
 Oshati et al.
Fig. 5. (a) McBean Brook culvert dimensions and instrument location (from Oshati et al. 2012); (b) typical dimensions of Longs Creek
concrete box culvert (all dimensions in metres).
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4.53 m and a base width of 7.70 m installed under 14.10 m of fill.
The culvert was part of the re-alignment of the Trans-Canada
Highway passing through New Brunswick, Canada. Construction
was done in two time periods, the first period running from July
to October 1997 and the second from May to August 1998. The
Longs Creek culvert was designed and constructed as a positive
projecting culvert. The Longs Creek culvert instrumentation con-
sists of 13 pneumatic-type contact pressure cells (Petur Model
TP-100P), nine settlement plates, one pneumatic piezometer, and
two standpipes to check the accuracy of the piezometer data
1337
(Take and Valsangkar 1999). Nine pressure cells were placed
within the soil mass with sand bedding to measure vertical
earth pressure and four pressure cells were mounted on the
wall to measure lateral earth pressures. Settlement plates were
located close to each pressure cell.
The vertical earth pressure measuring cells were positioned
to enable comparison of the measured pressures around the
relatively stiff concrete culvert with the measured pressure
within the fill (Fig. 2). The locations of lateral earth pressure
measuring cells are shown in Fig. 3. A nuclear density gauge
Published by NRC Research Press
 1338
Fig. 6. Centrifuge model set-up (all dimensions in millimetres; from Oshati et al. 2012). EPS, expanded polystyrene.
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For personal use only.
was used to observe the field density of the backfill material
(Table 1). Field-corrected standard Proctor dry density mea-
surements on eight fill materials used around the site averaged
2085 kg/m3. The culvert was backfilled with Class “A” back-
fill as shown in Fig. 2, and the rest of the embankment was
built with Borrow “A” material. The specifications of these
materials are presented in the next subsection. The groundwa-
ter table was below the base of the culvert during the moni-
toring period.
McBean Brook culvert
The McBean Brook culvert is a cast-in-place reinforced
double-cell rectangular box buried under 25.10 m of fill. The
construction of this culvert was part of an upgrade of the new
route 8 Nashwaak–Marysville bypass in New Brunswick,
Canada. The 142 m long culvert has a base width of 7.35 m
and height of 4.65 m. The existing ground was excavated to a
depth of 2900 mm; the culvert was then founded on a 500 mm
thick class A backfill compacted to 95% standard Proctor
maximum dry density. The sides and top of the McBean Brook
culvert were also backfilled with class A fill compacted to 95%
standard Proctor maximum dry density up to a height of
500 mm above the roof of the culvert. Class A backfill is a
well-graded granular material with not more than 10% re-
tained on a 100 mm sieve and not more than 10% passing a
75 ␮m sieve. Earlier testing done at the UNB gave an angle of
internal friction of 40° and an effective cohesion of 0
(McGuigan and Valsangkar 2011). A 2500 mm thick by
8000 mm wide compressible fill layer was placed above the
culvert, on top of the class A backfill. The compressible layer
was then backfilled with borrow A material to a final height of
25.10 m above the roof of the culvert (Fig. 4). Borrow A
material is any soil or rock particles with no more than 25%
passing a 75 ␮m sieve and contains no organic or deleterious
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 49, 2012
materials. Due to significant variation in gradation of borrow
A material, the angle of internal friction is assumed to be 30°
with an effective cohesion of 0 (McGuigan and Valsangkar
2011). Construction work at the McBean Brook was com-
pleted in two phases. Phase 1 started in January 2010 and
ended in October 2010 with an approximate fill height of 4 m
above the roof of the culvert. Phase 2 of the construction
commenced in April 2011 and was completed in July 2011,
when an embankment fill height of 25.10 m above the culvert
roof was reached. The groundwater table was below the base
of the culvert (elevation of 52.9 m) for most of the initial
monitoring period, but was 0.60 m above the base slab (ele-
vation of 54.6 m) as the water was diverted through the culvert
before the embankment was raised to the final height.
To measure earth pressures around the culvert, a total of
32 Geokon vibrating wire earth pressure cells (model 4800;
Geokon Inc., Lebanon, New Hampshire) were used. The pressure
cells are made with de-aired hydraulic oil stored in circular
stainless steel plates with a diameter of 230 mm, thickness of
6 mm, and an aspect ratio of 38.3. Figure 5 shows the locations
of the pressure cells around the prototype culvert. Two differ-
ent sections, A and B, 8 m apart along the length of the culvert
were selected for redundancy in earth pressure measurements.
Both sections were under the full embankment height and each
section had 16 pressure cells installed around the culvert. A
total of 10 pressure cells were installed at the base and roof of
each section of the culvert to measure the base contact and
roof vertical earth pressures. To measure lateral pressures a
total of six pressure cells were installed on the sides in a
staggered fashion; for each section, the north and south sides
had three pressure cells each.
Prior to field installation, 17 pressure cells were ran-
domly selected from each pressure range and calibrated in
Published by NRC Research Press
 Oshati et al.
Fig. 7. Average vertical earth pressure measured: (a) transducer A (b) transducer B (adapted from Oshati et al. 2012).
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the laboratory. The cells were not calibrated to their maximum
capacity as the maximum pressure applied was just over 400 kPa,
which is approximately one-fifth of the cell with the highest
capacity used. However, the calibration proved that the cells were
working within the maximum range of pressures expected at the
top, sides, and base of the culvert. For the purpose of this study,
earth pressure readings at a fill height of 14.40 m are used for
comparison with the Longs Creek culvert.
Centrifuge testing
All centrifuge model tests were done using a 1.6 m radius,
geotechnical centrifuge with the ability to accelerate a 100 kg
payload at 200 times earth’s gravitational force. To model the
field prototype geometries, a scaled aluminum model culvert
76 mm by 52.4 mm by 195 mm in length was used. The model
culvert housed two pressure transducers that were used to
measure earth pressures. The transducers used were KYOWA
BEC-A-500 kPa soil pressure cells, with a capacity of 500 kPa
and a high stiffness to reduce localized soil arching around the
cell. The pressure-measuring face of the transducers have a
diameter of 23 mm. In total, the two transducers measure
1339
pressures over 60% of the combined culvert width for both the
top and base orientation, and for the sides the average pressure
over 44% of the culvert height.
The transducers were calibrated prior to centrifuge testing.
The calibration was done for the top and side transducers using
a rigid foundation and rigid side support, with the rigid foun-
dation thickness equal to the height of culvert (Hc). The
overburden pressure for the top (␥H) and at mid-height on the
side (␥Hs) were determined, where ␥ is the unit weight of
the fill, H is equal to the fill height above the culvert top, and
Hs is the fill height from mid-height of the culvert side to the
top of the fill. McGuigan and Valsangkar (2010) recom-
mended a separate calibration for transducers located at the
base of model culverts due to less localized arching around
these transducers. Therefore, separate calibration was com-
pleted for transducers located at the culvert base. Rigid sup-
ports were used on the sides of the culvert calibrating the
transducers at the base of the culvert. For all calibrations the
centrifuge was gradually ramped up to 50 times earth’s grav-
itational field (50g). All calibrations were done in the box to
account for all boundary effects. The theoretical overburden
Published by NRC Research Press
 1340
Fig. 8. Average lateral earth pressure measured: (a) transducer A (b) transducer B (adapted from Oshati et al. 2012).
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For personal use only.
pressure was calculated based on the fill height, density of the
sand, and gravity level. Upon calibration several tests were
done for both the PPI and the ITI, both constructed on a
yielding foundation. Vertical, lateral, and base pressures were
measured for both conditions. General setup for the centrifuge
configuration is shown in Fig. 6.
Silica sand was used as backfill and the yielding base layer.
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) was used as the compressible fill
material. The H/Hc ratio for all tests was maintained at 5.38,
with an H/Bc ratio of 3.71, where Bc is the outside width of the
culvert. A gravitational acceleration of 50g represents approx-
imately 14.10 m of fill on a culvert with a Bc/Hc ratio of 1.45.
The manual air pluviation method as described by Ueno
(1998) was used to prepare models. This technique has been
used by other researchers in the past (e.g., Bourque 2002;
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 49, 2012
McAffee and Valsangkar 2008; McGuigan 2010) and was
found to produce uniform backfill beds. A constant drop height
of sand was maintained throughout the sample preparation to
maintain a relatively constant density. After each test, the
density of the sand used was determined, providing an average
density of 1541 kg/m3. The strong box used in this study has
internal dimensions of 265 mm in width, 195 mm in length,
and 495 mm in depth. Figures 7 through 9 show the average
pressures measured in centrifuge tests on the roof, sides, and
base of the culvert for each installation method. The figures
present the centrifuge test results as a plot of the prototype fill
height against measured pressure as recorded during testing.
Figure 7 presents the data pertaining to the vertical earth
pressures measured on the roof of the model culvert. It is seen
from this figure that the vertical earth pressures on the roof are
Published by NRC Research Press
 Oshati et al.
Fig. 9. Average base contact pressure measured: (a) transducer A (b) transducer B (adapted from Oshati et al. 2012).
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significantly reduced in ITI culverts when compared with PPI
culverts. The negative arching in the case of PPI results in the
vertical pressure on the roof being 1.12 to 1.23 times the
overburden pressure. In comparison, the earth pressures on
the roof for the ITI model culvert recorded 0.21 to 0.24 times
the overburden pressure due to positive arching. The data
presented in Fig. 7 also demonstrate that load cells A and B
were giving consistent readings. Measured lateral earth pres-
sures in the centrifuge model tests are presented in Fig. 8. The
data indicate that the lateral earth pressures exerted on the
sidewalls for ITI model culverts are higher than those for
the model PPI culverts. Similar findings have been already
reported by Bourque (2002), MacLeod (2003), McAffee and
Valsangkar (2008), and McGuigan and Valsangkar (2010).
The data pertaining to the base contact pressures from the
centrifuge model testing are presented in Fig. 9. The measured
values are compared with the overburden vertical pressure on
the roof plus the pressures resulting from the DL of the culvert.
Comparison of vertical pressures on the roof of 1.12 to 1.23
times the overburden (Fig. 7) plus DL with those at the base of
1.56 to 1.77 times the overburden pressure plus the pressure
1341
from the DL of culvert (Fig. 9) for PPI model culverts dem-
onstrates that the pressures at the base are increased due to
drag loads mobilized on the sidewalls. Similar observations
can also be made for the model ITI culverts.
Comparison of field and centrifuge data
results
Earth pressure data from two similar geometry culverts are
compared for performance under high fill embankments. The
two culverts were installed using two different installation
methods (ITI and PPI). Field-measured pressures are presented
and compared with model culvert pressures. The comparisons
were done at similar fill heights above the roof of the culverts.
The earth pressure measured on the roof of the Longs
Creek culvert was 0.94 times the theoretical overburden earth
pressure. For the McBean Brook culvert, 0.56 times the the-
oretical overburden earth pressure was measured on the roof of
the culvert. The average pressure measured on the roof of a
positive projecting culvert in the centrifuge model culvert was
1.17 times the overburden pressure, which agrees closely with
Published by NRC Research Press
 1342
Fig. 10. Comparison of average vertical earth pressures across culvert roofs.
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the AASHTO (2010) embankment installation (PPI) unfac-
For personal use only.
tored earth pressure equation for culverts installed with com-
pacted sidefills. The measured vertical earth pressure on the
roof of the Longs Creek culvert presented in Fig. 10 is from a
single pressure cell (PC-20540) located on the roof. The pres-
sure cell (PC-20540) was positioned on a less stiff portion of
the roof. The earth pressure measured over the roof of the rigid
box culvert is not uniform and the earth pressures measured on
the stiffer wall section tend to be higher than earth pressures
measured in a relatively less stiff section (Li and Qubain 2004;
Dasgupta and Sengupta 1991; Katona and Vittes 1982; Oshati
et al. 2012). In addition to the issue of location of the pressure
cell in a less stiff section of the roof, the earth pressures on the
roof were also influenced by the yielding foundation at the Longs
Creek site. The effect of a yielding foundation on the earth
pressures is further discussed in the following paragraph. For
each analysis, fill unit weight of 21kN/m3 and a fill height of
approximately 14.10 m were used.
Figure 10 shows the results of the vertical earth pressures
measured on the roof of the McBean Brook culvert (ITI),
Longs Creek culvert (PPI), computed AASHTO (2010)
recommended design pressure for PPI, and centrifuge-
measured vertical earth pressures for a PPI. It should be noted
that AASHTO (2010) equations are applicable to PPI culverts,
but the data from ITI culvert are also presented in this figure
for comparison. The validity of earth pressure measure-
ments on the roof of the Longs Creek culvert (PPI) was
confirmed with settlements measured within a similar hor-
izontal plane in the embankment, and evidence of the
absence of differential settlement between the soil column
above the culvert and adjacent soil columns was observed
(Take and Valsangkar 1999; Valsangkar 2000). Valsangkar
(2000) attributed the absence of negative arching to a rela-
tively yielding foundation underneath the Longs Creek cul-
vert. Therefore, the vertical earth pressure on the roof of the
Longs Creek culvert installed within a positive projection
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 49, 2012
embankment was approximately equal to the overburden pres-
sure of the embankment.
The average measured lateral earth pressure was 0.34 times
the measured overburden earth pressure adjacent to the side-
wall and 0.32 times the calculated overburden earth pressure at
the Longs Creek (PPI) site. The difference between the mea-
sured and calculated earth pressures is negligible as there was
neither positive nor negative arching occurring at the Long
Creek site. The average measured lateral earth pressure at the
McBean Brook site was 0.82 times the measured earth pres-
sure on the roof and 0.46 times the calculated earth pressure on
the roof. This significant difference in estimated lateral earth
pressures is anticipated as the measured vertical earth pres-
sures are significantly reduced due to positive arching, thereby
resulting in a higher percentage when measured lateral pres-
sures are expressed as a ratio of measured vertical pressures.
Average measured lateral earth pressures from centrifuge test-
ing were 0.34 times the calculated overburden earth pressure
for the PPI and 0.52 times the calculated overburden earth
pressure for the ITI. Lateral earth pressures measured on the
culvert sidewalls for the McBean and Longs Creek culverts are
presented in Fig. 11. The plot shows the earth pressures
measured on the side from the top of the culvert downwards.
The average centrifuge measured pressure for PPI agrees
closely with the average pressure measured by the four lateral
earth measuring cells at the Longs Creek culvert site. The
lateral earth pressures measured on the two north sections at
the McBean Brook culvert site show that the lateral earth
pressures increase linearly with depth. For the Longs Creek
culvert, the maximum and minimum coefficients of lateral
earth pressure were 0.46 and 0.25, respectively. The estimated
coefficient of at-rest earth pressure based on the angle of
internal friction of 40° for class A material is 0.35. The lateral
earth pressure distribution for the Longs Creek culvert wall
was approximately parabolic, similar to the findings by
Dasgupta and Sengupta (1991). Average lateral earth pressure at
Published by NRC Research Press
 Oshati et al.
Fig. 11. Comparison of lateral earth pressures.
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Fig. 12. Comparison of base contact pressure.
For personal use only.
the McBean Brook culvert over two instrumented sections was
140 kPa, which corresponds to a 49% increase from the average
measured lateral earth pressures at the Longs Creek (PPI) culvert
site. This percentage increase is also close to the results from the
centrifuge models tested, where ITI models registered a 50%
increase in lateral earth pressure when compared with PPI. The
observation of increased lateral earth pressures for ITI culverts in
relation to PPI culverts is consistent with earlier research done at
UNB. The positive arching in the case of ITI culverts reduces
vertical earth pressures on the roof, but also results in additional
lateral stresses on the sidewalls that translates into drag forces
acting downwards on the sidewalls.
1343
Base contact pressure was not monitored at the Longs Creek
culvert site. The results presented in Fig. 12 are from the mea-
sured base pressures at the McBean Brook culvert, the Longs
Creek culvert measured vertical earth pressure on the roof plus
approximated DL pressure of the culvert, the AASHTO (2010)
unfactored vertical load plus approximated culvert DL pres-
sure, and the centrifuge measured base pressures for a model
Longs Creek culvert installation. The McBean Brook culvert
measured average base pressure (221.2 kPa) was 0.66 times
the calculated overburden (fill only) plus the DL pressure of
the culvert and 0.72 times the measured roof pressure plus the
DL pressure at the Longs Creek (PPI) site. These results were
Published by NRC Research Press
 1344 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 49, 2012

Table 2. Calculated Fe on Longs Creek culvert roof. Table 3. Calculated Fe on the roof of two instrumented sections of
McBean Brook culvert.
Measured
H (m) pressure (kPa) H/Bc Fe Section A – Measured
1.75 32 0.24 0.87 H (m) pressure (kPa) H/Bc Fe
2.95 57 0.4 0.92 0.18 6.83 0.03 1.83
3.47 81 0.47 1.11 0.4 6.83 0.06 0.81
3.57 79 0.49 1.05 1 26.13 0.15 1.24
4.42 94 0.6 1.01 3 62.94 0.44 1
5.38 116 0.74 1.03 3.3 55.45 0.49 0.8
7.7 161 1 1 3.8 73 0.56 0.91
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8.72 178 1.19 0.97 4 96.5 0.59 1.15

12.85 258 1.76 0.96 6.29 123.97 0.93 0.94
12.85 266 1.76 0.99 8.52 141.54 1.26 0.79
13.89 271 1.9 0.93 10.43 153.2 1.54 0.7
14.15 279 1.94 0.94 12.13 162.3 1.8 0.64
12.96 165.99 1.92 0.61
14.43 172.54 2.14 0.57
18.03 184.14 2.67 0.49
18.66 198.77 2.76 0.51
compared with AASHTO (2010) predicted pressures for the
18.81 199.44 2.79 0.5
same scenario. Based on the reasonable agreement between
19.78 204.88 2.93 0.49
the vertical and lateral earth pressures measured by the cen-
21.61 215.66 3.2 0.48
trifuge with the actual measured pressures for the Longs Creek
23.56 228.15 3.36 0.46
culvert, the centrifuge base pressure result is assumed to be
25.08 235.33 3.71 0.45
close to the average expected pressure at the site. Both the
25.08 230.83 3.71 0.44
compacted and uncompacted sidefill for AASHTO (2010)
For personal use only.

25.08 226.07 3.71 0.43

predictions were lower than the centrifuge average measured
pressure, suggesting the need to account for downward drag Section B – Measured
forces developed on the sidewalls of box culverts. H (m) pressure (kPa) H/Bc Fe
Under the conditions examined, the McBean Brook culvert
0.18 6.92 0.03 1.85
ITI instrumentation appears to record significantly lower earth
0.4 6.92 0.06 0.82
pressures on the roof for a fill height of 14 m compared with
1 29.33 0.15 1.4
the Longs Creek culvert PPI. The significant increase in lateral
3 65.14 0.44 1.03
earth pressure exhibited with depth at the McBean Brook ITI
3.3 47.95 0.49 0.69
was not observed at the Longs Creek PPI. The average base
3.8 61.64 0.56 0.77
contact pressure measured beneath the McBean Brook culvert
4 97.54 0.59 1.16
was 221 kPa, which shows a 10% increase from the measured
6.29 123.17 0.93 0.93
earth pressure on the roof plus the culvert DL pressure, indi-
8.52 144.56 1.26 0.81
cating the presence of downward drag forces on the sidewalls.
10.43 155.9 1.54 0.71
Though the base contact pressure was not measured for the
12.13 162.82 1.8 0.64
Longs Creek positive projecting rectangular box culvert, cen-
12.96 164.31 1.92 0.6
trifuge testing data for base contact pressure showed that the
14.43 168.46 2.14 0.56
base pressure is in excess of the pressure on the roof of the
18.03 179.05 2.67 0.47
culvert plus the DL pressure. Similar observations of increased
18.66 184.77 2.76 0.47
base pressure have been reported in literature (Katona and
18.81 183.51 2.79 0.46
Vittes 1982; Kang et al. 2008; Oshati et al. 2012). Centrifuge
19.78 185.72 2.93 0.45
results show an increase ranging from 0%– 4% and 16%–31%
21.61 192.56 3.2 0.42
in base contact pressure from the overburden pressure plus the
22.68 199.54 3.36 0.42
dead weight for the PPI and ITI configurations, respectively.
25.08 203.07 3.71 0.39
Results from the centrifuge testing in the current study suggest
25.08 200.83 3.71 0.38
the need for field instrumentation of box culverts (Bc ⬎ Hc)
25.08 201.1 3.71 0.38
under high fills installed using PPI to measure base contact
pressure.
Results from field measurements of earth pressures show
that earth pressure on box culverts is influenced by the H/Bc mately 0.60 is reached. For ITI culverts, the factor Fe will be
ratio along with compaction effort. Measured pressures from less than one due to positive arching. From Table 3 it is noted
the Longs Creek culvert and the McBean Brook culvert as that factor Fe did not reach a minimum limiting value at the
presented in Tables 2 and 3 show that the soil–structure McBean Brook site. More field data are needed to arrive at an
interaction factor (Fe) either reduces or reaches a constant appropriate equation for Fe as a function of the H/Bc ratio.
value as the H/Bc ratio increases. For PPI culverts, the value of Figure 13 shows the variation of Fe with different H/Bc
Fe increases or stays constant until an H/Bc ratio of approxi- ratios for PPI culverts and comparison with the AASHTO

Published by NRC Research Press

 Oshati et al.
Fig. 13. Variation of Fe with H/Bc..
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For personal use only.
(2010) values. This figure includes the data from the present
research as well as the data reported in the literature. It can be
noted from this figure that AASHTO (2010) predicted values
could be unconservative and therefore these equations should
be used with caution. The available data for PPI culverts show
that factor Fe reaches a limiting value for the H/Bc ratio of
about 5.
Conclusion
A relatively yielding foundation can significantly reduce
vertical earth pressure on culverts, as was the case for the
Longs Creek culvert (PPI). Average vertical earth pressure on
the roof of the McBean Brook culvert (ITI) at a fill height of
approximately 14.4 m was 170 kPa, which corresponds to a
39% reduction in vertical earth pressure (270 kPa) measured at
the Longs Creek culvert (PPI). Average lateral earth pressure
(139.6 kPa) measured at the McBean Brook culvert (ITI)
compared with the average measured pressure (93.7 kPa) at
the Longs Creek culvert (PPI) showed an increase of 49%.
Base contact pressures measured at the McBean Brook culvert
(ITI) indicate that downward drag forces are developed on the
sidewalls of box culverts. Centrifuge testing results confirmed
the presence of increased base pressure from the overburden
pressure plus the DL pressure of box culverts.
The results from this study suggest that the soil–structure
interaction factor (Fe) reduces as the ratio H/Bc increases, but
the relationship is dependent on the rate of settlement, which
can be influenced by several construction factors (compaction,
bedding, installation method). Findings from the present study
suggest that the AASHTO (2010) unfactored vertical earth
load equations for embankment installations (PPI) appears
to be a reasonable estimate for yielding foundations, pro-
vided necessary accommodations for an uneven pressure
distribution on the roof are considered. There is a need to
recognise and account for the presence of downward drag
1345
forces along sidewalls of box culverts, which subsequently
increases the base contact pressure. Results from this study
show that centrifuge testing can also be used for prelimi-
nary evaluation of culverts installed under high fill embank-
ment, and that the ITI method provides substantial cost
savings from the reduction of earth pressures on the roof
and base of box culverts.
Acknowledgement
Financial support for this research was provided by New
Brunswick Department of Transportation (NBDOT) Canada.
References
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AASHTO. 1998. AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications. 2nd
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AASHTO. 2004. AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications. 3rd
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Officials, Washington, D.C.
AASHTO. 2010. AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications. 5th
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Officials, Washington, D.C.
ASTM. 2006. Standard practice for classification of soils for engi-
neering purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). ASTM
standard D2487. American Society for Testing and Materials,
West Conshohocken, Pa.
Bennett, R.M., Wood, S.M., Drumm, E.C., and Rainwater, N.R.
2005. Vertical loads on concrete box culverts under high embank-
ments. Journal of Bridge Engineering, 10(6): 643– 649. doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(2005)10:6(643).
Published by NRC Research Press
 1346
Bourque, S. 2002. Centrifuge and numerical modeling of induced
trench twin conduits. M.Sc.E. thesis, Department of Civil Engi-
neering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B.
Dasgupta, A., and Sengupta, B. 1991. Large-scale model test on
square box culvert backfilled with sand. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, 117(1): 156 –161. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410
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