Journal of Geophysics and Engineering

J. Geophys. Eng. 14 (2017) 1599–1607 (9pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-2140/aa8eb5

A new lithologic classification method for

tight sandstone reservoirs based on rock
components and logging response
characteristics

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Xueqing Zhou1,2, Zhansong Zhang1,2,3, Chong Zhang1,2, Xin Nie1,2,
Chaomo Zhang1,2 and Linqi Zhu1,2
1
Key Laboratory of Exploration Technologies for Oil and Gas Resources (Yangtze University), Ministry of
Education, Wuhan, Hubei 430100, People’s Republic of China
2
Hubei Cooperative Innovation Center of Unconventional Oil and Gas (Yangtze University), Wuhan,
Hubei 430100, People’s Republic of China

E-mail: zhangzhs@yangtzeu.edu.cn

Received 10 July 2017, revised 6 September 2017

Accepted for publication 25 September 2017
Published 29 November 2017

Abstract
The original lithology classification method for tight sandstone reservoirs has a low prediction
accuracy and it does not accurately reflect reservoir characteristics. We propose a new method
that uses thin sections, logging curves, and core physical data to classify the lithology of the
Ordos Basin, China. First, the relationship between the rock components and physical properties
in the study area was analyzed and we found that quartz and rock debris played an active role in
the properties of the reservoir, while feldspar minerals in the reservoir had a negative effect on it.
Second, we synthesized the logging response characteristics of various rock components and
divided the lithology into (1) high feldspar content, low quartz content, low rock debris content,
and (2) low feldspar content, high quartz content, high rock debris content, using
((quartz+rock debris)/feldspar) as an index for lithologic classification. The lithology
identification model was established using a support vector machine approach with a regression
accuracy of 84.62%. Applying the model to the well in the study area to distinguish the
lithology, results were in good agreement with thin section data, the physical properties of the
reservoir, and the production capacity. Lithology can effectively reflect reservoir characteristics
and play an important guiding role in the identification of reservoirs and the evaluation of
productivity.
Keywords: rock components, lithologic identification, well logging, tight sandstone reservoir

(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction methodologies like crossplots (Ellis and Singer 2007,

Lithologic classification and identification form an essential
foundation for the detailed modeling of reservoir stratum
parameters. In tight sandstone reservoir strata, prior research
has mainly focused on how to improve the discrimination
accuracy of sandstone types using logging curves. Common
3
Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
Zhao 2003), linear methods (Busch et al 1987, Kaźmierczuk
and Jarzyna 2006, Zhou et al 2007, Zhang et al 2013b, Shi
et al 2015), curve superposition (Rogers et al 1992) and
multivariate statistics, as well as nonlinear methods (Ge
et al 2015a, 2015b, 2015c, Hu et al 2015, Sebtosheikh and
Salehi 2015, Sahoo and Jia 2016) and various improved
methodologies (Wang et al 2011, Zhang et al 2012, Zhang
et al 2012, Zhang et al 2013a, He and Liu 2014) represented

1742-2132/17/0601599+09$33.00 1599 © 2017 Sinopec Geophysical Research Institute Printed in the UK

J. Geophys. Eng. 14 (2017) 1599 X Zhou et al

by neural networks were introduced according to the possible

nonlinear relationship between logging curve response char-
acteristics and the lithology of tight sandstone reservoir strata.
Most prior research was designed to improve the dis-
crimination accuracy of sandstone types using logging curves,
while the older petrology classification scheme continued to
be adopted for lithologic classification in tight sandstone
reservoir strata (Krynine 1948, Mcbride 1963). On the one
hand, the logging response characteristics of different lithol-
ogies are not significantly different and it can be difficult to
accurately classify lithology using the logging curves, due to
minor differences in mineral content among tight sandstone
and the great changes in the mineral contents of the same

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lithology. On the other hand, if the relationship between
different lithology and parameters like reservoir physical
properties, logging response, and production capacity is not Figure 1. Porosity distribution histogram.
considered, the results have little significance to research on
reservoir properties, the evaluation of reservoir parameters, or
reservoir capacity prediction, rendering the classification of
the lithology meaningless. In this study, we first analyzed the
distribution relationship of the physical properties of the
reservoir, and the logging response characteristics, to classify
the lithology by integrating rock slice information, coring
analysis, and logging data. A lithologic classification system
capable of reflecting reservoir characteristics was obtained by
analyzing the relationships between rock components, the
reservoir parameters, and log responses. This method can
accurately classify and describe the lithology of a certain
block in the Ordos Basin while providing guidance for
reservoir parameter evaluation and capacity prediction.

Figure 2. Permeability distribution histogram.

2. Basic features of the reservoir strata

The study area was in the Upper Palaeozoic Permian system,

whose strata from top to bottom are the Upper Permian Shi-
qianfeng formation, the Middle Permian Shihezi formation, the
Lower Permian Shanxi formation, and the Taiyuan formation.
According to an analysis of core properties, the reservoir prop-
erties are fairly tight, the porosity distribution is primarily
2%∼12%, 6.87% on average, and the permeability distribution
is primarily 0.01∼5×10−3 μm2 and 0.76×10−3 μm2 on
average; therefore, it is composed of low-porosity, low-perme-
ability tight sandstone reservoir strata (Folk 1968). The dis-
tribution of porosity and permeability throughout the different
layers are roughly the same (figures 1 and 2), while the porosity
and permeability of the Shiqianfeng and Shihezi formations are
slightly higher than those of the Shanxi and Taiyuan formations.
According to slice observation and statistics, the main pore types Figure 3. Core mercury injection capillary pressure curve.
in the study area are secondary pores, such as intergranular
solution pores, intragranular solution pores, and primary pores content of different layers varies slightly. Overall, the quartz
based on intergranular pores, of which most of the intragranular particle content was a maximum of 68%, a minimum of 27%,
solution pores are feldspar solution pores, rock debris solution and 46.3% on average, followed by the feldspar content
pores, and calcite solution pores. The entire reservoir in the maximum of 61%, 6% minimum, and 29% average. The rock
study area has low porosity and low permeability, multiple pore debris content was a maximum of 35%, 3% minimum, and
types, and complicated pore structure (figure 3). 16.6% on average. The rock debris granulometric composi-
According to the microscopic observation and statistics tion was mainly sedimentary rock, while metamorphic rock
on 70 rock slices from the research area, the rock mineral debris was the second most common type (figure 4). While, in

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J. Geophys. Eng. 14 (2017) 1599
Figure 4. Histogram of relative content of detrital composition.
figure 4, abscissa in turn is quartz, flint, sedimentary rock
debris, metamorphic rock debris, alkaline feldspar, plagio-
clase, heavy mineral, mica, quartz group, feldspar group and
rock debris group. According to the sandstone classification
standard (Folk 1968) (table 1), the main rock types are
feldspathic litharenite, lithic arkose, some feldspathic sand-
stone, litharenite, and lithic quartz sandstone.
Because there is an abundance of feldspar in the research
area, this scheme was adopted to classify the lithology based on
a hybrid sandstone content of quartz, feldspar, and rock debris.
Differences between the main lithology the feldspathic lithar-
enite and lithic arkose of the sandstone pore structure were
small (figure 3). The differences in the physical properties of
various kinds of sandstone in the reservoir were not obvious
(figure 5), while the sandstone porosity of different types was
distributed between 2%∼12% and the permeabilities were
between 0.001–6×10−3 μm2. In addition, there were small
differences in the response characteristics of the natural gamma
log curve, tri-porosity log curve, photoelectric absorption cross
section exponential log curve, and resistivity log curve, between
various kinds of sandstone in the reservoir (figure 5). According
to the analysis, the main reason for these findings is that among
rocks with the same lithology, mineral composition varies
greatly, while mineral composition differs slightly among rocks
with different lithology. This makes it difficult to highlight the
effects of a certain mineral on physical reservoir properties and
results in large changes within the same lithology, while the
logging response characteristics of different lithologies are not
clear. Lithologic classification no longer maintains its prior
significance, making it difficult to improve log lithology
recognition accuracy.
Therefore, because the tight sandstone reservoirs in this
area are low-porosity and low-permeability, with multiple
pore types and complicated pore structure, combined with
existing reservoir classification ideas (Lai et al 2013a, b, Ge
et al 2014, Ge et al 2015a, b, c), it is necessary to conduct
more refined research on the relationship between various
rock components, reservoir properties, and the log curve
response to obtain a lithologic classification method suitable
for the tight sandstone reservoirs in this area and assist in
refined reservoir parameter modeling and classification.
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X Zhou et al
3. Petrological component-based lithology model
3.1. Relationship between the petrological components and
reservoir physical properties
It can be seen from the casting slice and scanning electron
microscope data that the primary pores in the study area were
mainly intergranular, while the secondary pores were mainly
intragranular and intergranular solution pores (figure 6). The
physical reservoir properties were influenced by various fac-
tors, of which the deposition process and diagenesis were the
most important (Zheng and Ying 1997, Zhong et al 2003).
Meanwhile, the influence of deposition and diagenesis was
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mainly reflected in the content of quartz, feldspar, and rock
debris among the rock (Liu et al 2011, Lai et al 2013a, b).
Quartz maintained primary pores and has higher porosity and
permeability (figure 7); the physical reservoir properties
improved as the quartz content increased. Minerals in the
feldspar group were mainly alkali feldspar and plagioclase.
The study area mainly contained alkali feldspar, while pla-
gioclase was mainly composed of neutral acerbic soda feld-
spar. The two physical reservoir properties, porosity and
permeability, of the study area reduce as the total feldspar
content increased. (figure 7) (Pechnig et al 1997). This is
primarily due to the fact that the relationship between the
minerals and feldspar group properties was comprehensively
influenced by the content, brittleness, and solubility. During
the compaction process, anorthite, with a high level of brit-
tleness, was easily broken along the cleavage to form various
micro-cracks that improved reservoir permeability. However,
the study area had a low anorthite content, mainly being
composed of soda and potash feldspar, two types of feldspar
that during the compaction process were difficult to break and
produce seepage channels, but on the other hand, they provide
poorer protection for primary pores than quartz, hence the
primary porosity tends to decrease. The rock debris in the
study area was composed of quartzite rock debris, flint stone
rock debris, and metamorphic rock debris, all three of which
are rigid (Zhong et al 2013), and the total rock debris content
was positively related to porosity and permeability (figure 7).
Therefore, the quartz, feldspar, and rock debris content
can be used to propose a lithologic classification index for
tight sandstone that is capable of reflecting different physical
reservoir properties.
3.2. New lithology classification method for compacted rock in
combination with logging response characteristics
According to the previous analysis in this article, all of the
quartz, feldspar, and rock debris in the rock components in
the study area exerted an influence on the physical reservoir
properties, which means that the lithology of the reservoir
under good conditions had a high content of quartz and rock
debris, and a low content of feldspar. Poor quality reservoir
lithology was characteristically low in quartz and rock debris,
while being high in feldspar.
The logging curves response characteristics were capable of
reflecting the reservoir characteristics directly, and could also be
J. Geophys. Eng. 14 (2017) 1599 X Zhou et al

Table 1. Sandstone classification.

Lithological triangle Kinds of rocks Quartz+flint (%) Feldspar/rock debris

I quartz sandstone …90
II feldspathic quartz sandstone …75∼90 >1
III lithic quartz sandstone …75∼90 <1
IV feldspathic sandstone <75 …3
V lithic arkose …1∼<3
VI feldspathic litharenite …1/3∼<1
VII litharenite <1/3

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Figure 5. Cross plot of porosity, permeability and logging response.

used as a reference for lithologic classification. As a result of the
differences in mineral physical properties, the rock minerals
corresponded to different logging curve response values. The
rock debris in the study area was primarily quartzite rock debris,
which has similar physical properties to quartz; therefore the
logging response value was close to that of quartz. Feldspar was
mainly composed of soda and potash feldspar, and the theoretical
response value of its logging curves integrated the response
characteristics of soda feldspar and potash feldspar, as shown in
table 2. It can be seen from table 2 that quartz (and rock debris),
in comparison with feldspar, had low natural gamma ray (GR)
response values, low photoelectric absorption cross section (PE)
response values, and low compensated neutron log (CNL)
response values, while differences in the density logging (DEN)
and acoustic logging (AC) were not large.
Therefore, in this article, we proposed to use (quartz+rock
debris)/feldspar as the lithologic classification index. The index,
from the perspective of logging response, magnified the differ-
ences in the different lithologic logging response to improve the
logging lithologic recognition accuracy. The lithology classifi-
cation also made use of the rock mineral content and the phy-
sical reservoir properties mentioned earlier, so there was a
correspondence between the different lithology classifications
and physical properties.

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Figure 6. Types of pore and its assembly in research area. (a) Crude residual intergranular pore; (b) intragranular solution pores; (c) crack; (d)
intergranular solution pores.

Figure 7. Relationship between the physical properties and clastic composition.

The logging response characteristics were the direct them based on the original log curve and core slice data in the
reaction of the actual formation conditions. If the logging data study area to obtain the most suitable lithologic classification
are able to correctly discriminate between two types of standard. The final lithologic classification standard is shown
lithology, they can reverse describe the boundary between in table 3.

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Table 2. Theoretical values of logging response for every mineral.
Well logging response Quartz Feldspar
GR/API low high
DEN/(g cm−3) 2.65 2.56–2.63
CNL/% −2 −1–1.3
AC/(s/m) 165.3×10−6 154.8–180.7×10−6
PE/(B/E) 1.806 2.3–2.8
Table 3. Lithology classification standard.
Lithologic classification standard Condition Lithology
(Quartz+rock debris)/Feldspar <3.8 high feldspatite
(Quartz+rock debris)/Feldspar >3.8 low feldspatite
3.3. Analysis of logging response characteristics with different
lithology
According to the lithologic classification standard proposed in
this article, the capillary pressure curves under core mercury
injection of the two lithology types were of clearly different
shapes (figure 8). High feldspatite had a larger replacement
pressure and sharper capillary pressure curve than the low
feldspatite, which meant that the two types of lithologic
physical properties were clearly different and the pore struc-
tures of the low feldspatite were superior to those of high
feldspatite. The logging response characteristics under dif-
ferent lithology can be seen in figure 8. High feldspatite had
high PE, high GR, relatively high DEN, and high CNL, while
low feldspatite had low GR, low PE, relatively low DEN, and
low CNL. Because the GR and PE lithologic curves mainly
reflect changes in lithology, high feldspatite had high feld-
spar, low quartz, and low rock debris, so that it approached
the logging response characteristics of the quartz. DEN, CNL
and AC are the tri-porosity log curves, and the theoretical
response values of the tri-porosity log curves for quartz,
feldspar and rock debris were not large. The low DEN and
low compensated neutron log of low feldspatite was due to
the fact that the physical properties of low feldspatite were
better than those of high feldspatite, with higher porosity and
low density values in terms of density logging. The study area
also contained a low-porosity and low-permeability air layer,
the excavation effect of which may have resulted in the low
neutron log of the low feldspatite. The acoustic logging and
resistivity logging were not sensitive to the two types of
lithology, so differences in logging response characteristics
were not obvious.
3.4. Lithology recognition
According to the logging response characteristics of different
lithology, different lithology and logging curves are non-
linear. In order to improve the accuracy of lithology recog-
nition, we use a support vector machine (SVM) to distinguish
lithology. In pattern recognition, the SVM algorithm con-
structs nonlinear decision functions by training a classifier to
perform a linear separation in high-dimensional space which
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X Zhou et al
is nonlinearly related to input space. It is based on Vapnik
(Vapnik 1982) statistical learning theory; the SVM method
showed the advantage of the following two aspects (Bing
et al 2012): first of all, SVM is based on theory. SVM
learning problems can be expressed as a convex optimization
problem, so it can effectively use known algorithms to find
the global minimum value of the objective function. Other
classification methods (such as neural networks) adopt a
greedy learning strategy to search the hypothesis space. This
method can only obtain the local optimal values. Secondly, in
view of the problems of small sample data, nonlinear, high
dimension, based on the structural risk minimization principle
(Zhang 2011), which may produce a better generalization
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performance than other nonlinear approximation methods.
The training sample set is {(xi , yi ), i = 1, 2, ⋅⋅⋅, n}, the
sample input value is xi Î RN , the sample output value is
yi Î R, and n is the sample number.
A nonlinear transformation is used to map the input data
in the training set to a high-dimensional feature space. In this
infinite dimensional linear space, we can find a linear
regression estimation function. The form of the estimation
function f (x) is as follows:
f (x ) = w T F (x i ) + b (1 )
where w Î RNH , b Î R, F (⋅): 
RN RNH ,
it is nonlinear
mapping, mapping the input space to a high-dimensional
feature space, and b is the offset. The purpose of the solution
is to seek parameters w T, b, so that the input has:
∣ f (x ) - w T F (x i ) - b ∣  e , (2 )
where ε is a relaxation variable that represents the error metric
of the data point. According to the response characteristics of
the logging curves for different lithologies, we selected the
four logging curves from the natural gamma ray, photoelectric
absorption cross section index, density, and neutron to be the
input curves for the model, and set lithology as the output
curve, while 15 of the 70 slice data points from 18 wells were
randomly selected as the samples for forecasting. The residual
57 modeling samples were divided into three equal sets to
obtain optimum classification parameters where gamma=
0.0039, nu=2 for cross validation. Comparing the perfor-
mance of SVM and BPNN methods in the training and testing
process. The final lithologic modeling results can be seen in
table 4.
4. Applied examples
In this article, we used established litholigic models to eval-
uate a particular well in the study area with two sections of
1475 m–1485 m and 1050 m–1060 m as the example. The
lithologic profile is shown in figure 9. In this figure, the first
track is the lithologic curve track containing three curves, GR,
PE and CAL; the second track is the porosity curve track
containing DEN, CNL and AC; the third track is the depth
track that indicates well depth; the fourth track is the litho-
logic section for the lithologic model calculation established
by the support vector machine; and the fifth track is the slice
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Figure 8. Cross plot of logging response and core mercury injection capillary pressure curve.

Table 4. Comparing the performance of SVM and BPNN methods in the training and testing process.

Model Number of modeling sample Regression rate Forecast number of sample Discrimination accuracy
SVM 57 91.28% 13 84.62%
BPNN 57 89.47% 13 69.2%

photo. At 1050 m–1057 m, the logging lithologic model
classification was high feldspatite, which was identical to the
lithology corresponding to the core slice at 1052.46 m; at
1476–1482 m, the logging lithologic model classification was
low feldspatite, which was consistent with the lithology of the
core slice at 1480.55 m. The upper core porosity was
4.5238% and permeability was 0.112×10−3 μm2, while the
lower core porosity was 7.82% and permeability was
0.474×10−3 μm2. The physical properties of the low feld-
spatite were superior to those of high feldspatite, while the
entire lithologic section matched well with the slice data and
physical reservoir properties.
To better validate the accuracy of the lithologic classifi-
cation, we summarized the lithology of the 17 wells in the 27
test layers of the study area obtained by the proposed litho-
logic index (figure 10). The figure clearly shows that for the
seven natural and highly productive test layers, the lithology
was low feldspatite. For test layers with fractured makeup, the
lithology of the 14 test layers with relatively higher produc-
tion capacity were primarily low feldspatite and the lithology
of the test layers with lower capacity were primarily high
feldspatite. In addition to the physical reservoir properties, the
capacity was also influenced by features such as fractured
makeup, gas saturation, and more, while the lithologic clas-
sification method proposed in this article can be regarded as
one evaluation index that can assist in identifying favorable
reservoirs and their production capacity.
5. Conclusions
(1) The existing lithologic classification scheme for tight
sandstone reservoirs follows the composition-formation
classification scheme in petrology, while the study area for
this paper was mainly composed of lithic feldspathic
sandstone and feldsarenite, with feldspathic sandstone,
lithic sandstone, or lithic quartz sandstone. The differences

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Figure 9. Lithologic profile.

between the physical properties of the lithology layers and

(2) The quartz, feldspar, and rock debris found in the
Figure 10. Frequency statistics of different productive capacity levels
of different lithology.
the logging response characteristics were not obvious, so it
was difficult to identify the lithology using the log curve.
petrological grouping had an important influence on the
physical reservoir properties. Quartz was positively
related to the physical properties because quartz is a
rigid mineral that preserves primary pores well during
reservoir anadiagenesis. Feldspar was negatively related
to the physical properties because the study area was
composed of soda and potash feldspar, two types of
feldspar that does not produce favorable seepage
channels during the compaction process, in addition to
the fact that they do not preserve primary pores as well
as quartz. The rock debris was primarily rigid and
improved the physical properties of the reservoir.

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(3) The best application for using the (quartz+rock debris)/
feldspar lithologic classification index is in the division
of the study area into high feldspatite and low
feldspatite, where the lithology differs on the physical
reservoir properties and the logging response character-
istics have a high log discrimination accuracy. The
classification scheme proposed in this article can guide
reservoir identification efforts and subsequently evalu-
ate their production capacity, improving the exploration
and development of tight sandstone resources.
Acknowledgments
This research project was financially supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 41404084
and no. 41504094). The authors would also like to thank the
anonymous reviewers for their valuable advice and comments
that improved this paper.
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