Active Solar Thermal Facades (Astfs) : From Concept, Application To Research Questions

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Active Solar Thermal Facades (ASTFs): From concept, application to research

questions
Article in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · April 2015

DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.108
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 32–63
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Active Solar Thermal Facades (ASTFs): From concept, application

to research questions
Xingxing Zhang a,b, Jingchun Shen a, Yan Lu e, Wei He a,c, Peng Xu a,d, Xudong Zhao a,n,
Zhongzhu Qiu a, Zishang Zhu a, Jinzhi Zhou a, Xiaoqiang Dong a
a
School of Engineering, University of Hull, UK
b
Department of Architecture and Built Environment, University of Nottingham, Ningbo, China
c
Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, China
d
School of Environment and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing, China
e
China Academy of Building Research Southwest Institute, China
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The aim of the paper is to report a comprehensive review into a recently emerging building integrated
Received 30 December 2013 solar thermal technology, namely, Active Solar Thermal Facades (ASTFs), in terms of concept, classifica-
Received in revised form tion, standard, performance evaluation, application, as well as research questions. This involves the
22 March 2015
combined effort of literature review, analysis, extraction, integration, critics, prediction and conclusion. It
Accepted 23 April 2015
is indicated that the ASTFs are sort of building envelope elements incorporating the solar collecting
devices, thus enabling the dual functions, e.g., space shielding and solar energy collection, to be
Keywords: performed. Based on the function of the building envelopes, the ASTF systems can be generally classified
Active Solar Thermal Facade as wall-, window-, balcony-and roof-based types; while the ASTFs could also be classified by the thermal
Efficiency collection typologies, transparency, application, and heat-transfer medium. Currently, existing building
Building components
and solar collector standards are brought together to evaluate the performance of the ASTFs. The
Building integration
research questions relating to the ASTFs are numerous, but the major points lie in: (1) whole structure
Modelling
Experiment
and individual components layout, sizing and optimisation; (2) theoretical analysis; (3) experimental
Economic and environmental assessment measurement; and (4) energy saving, economic and environmental performance assessment. Based on
the analysis of the identified research questions, achievements made on each question, and outstanding
problems remaining with the ASTFs, further development opportunities on this topic are suggested:
(1) development of an integrated database/software enabling both architecture design and engineering
performance simulation; (2) real-time measurement of the ASTFs integrated buildings on a long-term
scheme; (3) economic and environmental performance assessment and social acceptance analysis;
(4) dissemination, marketing and exploitation strategies study. This study helps in identifying the
current status, potential problems in existence, future directions in research, development and practical
application of the ASTFs technologies in buildings. It will also promote development of renewable energy
technology and thus contribute to achieving the UK and international targets in energy saving,
renewable energy utilization, and carbon emission reduction in building sector.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2. Concept, classification, standard and performance measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Abbreviations: ASTFS, Active Solar Thermal Facades; BIM, building information modeling; CFD, computational fluid dynamics; CPD, construction products directive; CPR,
construction products regulation; CPBT, cost payback time; DHW, domestic hot water; EC, embodied carbon; EE, embodied energy; EPBD, energy performance of buildings;
EPBT, energy payback time; FMEA, failure modes and effects analysis; FYFS, first year fuel savings; LCA, life cycle assessment; NPV, net present value; O&M, operational and
maintenance; PCM, phase change material; PV, photovoltaic; PV/T, photovoltaic/thermal; PVD, physical vapour deposited; STC, solar thermal collector; SWHS, solar water
heating system; TISS, thickness insensitive spectrally selective; TSTC, transparent solar thermal collector; TSSS, thickness sensitive spectrally selective; UTSC, unglazed solar
thermal collector; VTC, vacuum tube collector
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 44 1482 466684; fax: þ44 1482 466664.
E-mail address: Xudong.zhao@hull.ac.uk (X. Zhao).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.108
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Zhang et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 32–63 33
2.1. Concept and fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.2. Classification and structural configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.1. Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.2. Structural configuration of ASTFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3. Standards and performance measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.1. Existing standards and their future development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.2. Indic0 ative performance parameters and recommended figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.3. Energy performance comparison of the ASTF systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3. ASTF Products and their building applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4. Research questions – current status and deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1. Concept, geometry and optimisation of the integrated structure and operational conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.1. Components design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.2. Dimension and position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1.3. Operational conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.1.4. Summary of deficiencies in existence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2. Theoretical simulation and prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.1. Theoretical and computer modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.2. Digital tools for building integration design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3. Experimental works. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.1. Introduction of the past experimental works. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.4. Economic and environmental performance assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4.1. Economic performance assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4.2. Environmental performance and social acceptance analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5. Summary of the previous works. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5. Opportunities for the future development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1. Development of an integrated platform (including database/software) enabling both architectural design and engineering performance
analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2. Real-time measurement of the ASTFs integrated buildings on a long-term scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.3. Economic and environmental performance assessment and social acceptance analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.4. Dissemination, marketing and exploitation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1. Introduction secure supply of low carbon and renewable energy [4]. In this
report, the solar driven water heating system was predicted to
It has been well known that global energy demand is con- have a potential to provide around 70 to 90% of total energy
tinuously growing, and buildings are consuming one third of the required for hot water generation and supply [5,6]. In 2011, around
total energy supply in developed countries and one-fourth in 131 GWh of domestic hot water was delivered by the solar
developing countries [1]. Reducing energy demand and making systems, which significantly reduced the gas and electrical uses
good use of renewable energy are considered to be the major route in the UK [7]. In Europe, there was around 10 GWth (‘th’ stands for
towards the low energy and sustainable future, in particular, for ‘thermal’) of solar thermal systems in operation in 2005. This
building sector. capacity is expected to grow to 200 GWth by 2030, of which up to
Solar technologies have been well explored for many years, and 50% will be used for delivering the low and medium temperature
solar photovoltaic (PV), solar thermal and hybrid photovoltaic/ water [8]. Apart from hot water production and space heating,
thermal (PV/T) are regarded as the most feasible renewable solar thermal was also used to drive air conditioning systems for
solutions to building application. Solar thermal, as the most buildings, which could be operated at water temperature of 90 1C
mature technology among all currently available solar technolo- or above [9]. According to the Government’s Renewable Heat
gies, is proved to have relatively higher solar conversion efficiency, Premium Payment scheme, solar thermal will be an important heat
2 to 4 times higher than that in PV systems [1]. Furthermore, the source, which will provide a major support to develop the
solar thermal technology, owing to the wide range of application sustainable cities and towns, boost the UK economy and create a
and massive scale production at global level, can obtain a much low carbon future.
shorter payback period compared to its lifetime [2]. Compared to conventional solar thermal equipment, ‘Active
In the UK, space heating consumes a large amount of energy. Solar Thermal Façade’ (ASTF) is a new building integrated solar
The Digest of the UK Energy Statistics 2013 indicated that 148.2 thermal product, which allows integration of a solar thermal
million tonnes of oil equivalent was consumed annually in collecting device into a building envelope element (e.g. wall,
domestic house sector, of which 66% was used for space heating window, shading, or roof), thus creating both the shielding and
and 17% for hot water production [3]. The cost of heating is around solar energy collecting functions for the façade. Recently, many
d33 billion in the UK each year, which was higher than that for types of ASTFs have been found in market and applications of
transporting and for power generation as well. In this regard, ‘The these ASTFs have also been discovered in various buildings
Future of Heating: A Strategic Framework for Low Carbon Heating in globally. Although many works have been carried out in the ASTFs,
the UK’ was recently published to address this particular challenge certain levels of ambiguity still remains in several aspects: (1) type
and to plan a vision for future energy with particular emphasis of and classification; (2) advantages and disadvantages;
34 X. Zhang et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 32–63
Nomenclatures Qaux,t overall auxiliary heat required, W

Qcd conductive heat transfer, W
A collecting/absorber surface area, m2 Qcv convective heat transfer, W
Ac aperture area of collector, m2 QE electrical output of the cells, W
APV total area of PV, m2 Qload,t overall thermal load required, W
C temperature coefficient of the PV cells based on Qf solar absorbing, W
power, K 1 Qrd irradiative heat transfer, W
ee electrical exergy Qu useful solar energy, W
eth thermal exergy SE system efficiency
Eac annual electricity saving of the HVAC system Ti temperature of the fluid delivered into the collector
Eth annual useful heat gain (equivalent) collector, 1C
EPV annual useful electricity output Ta ambient temperature, 1C
F solar fraction Tcm mean PV temperature, 1C
FR heat removal factor Tref reference temperature for the cell efficiency, 1C
G global irradiance, W/m2 Twm ending-up temperature of the working fluid, 1C
Gt total (direct plus diffuse) solar energy incident on the ΔT temperature difference, 1C
collector aperture (W/m2) ΣASTF embodied energy of the ASTF system
hcv convection coefficient, W/m2 K Σbos embodied energy of the balance of system
pF PV packing factor (Pf ¼APV/Ac) Σmtl embodied energy of the replacing building materials
(3) performance data and evaluation methods; (4) current status For radiation heat transfer
and future potential of the ASTFs application; (5) research pro-
Q rd ¼ Aσ T 4 ð4Þ
blems and progress; and (5) opportunities for further develop-
ment. To provide the clear answers to these questions, this paper where A is collecting area, m ; αf is the absorptance of the facade
2
will deliver a comprehensive critical review into relevant aspects surface layer; G is global irradiance, W/m2; Ucd is thermal trans-
of the ASTFs, which is obviously the most wanted information in mittance, W/m2 K; ΔT is temperature difference, 1C hcv is convec-
the solar thermal sector. This review study will help in identifying tion coefficient, W/m2 K; σ is Stefan–Boltzmann constant [10].
the current status, potential problems in existence; and future An ASTF ot only increases the thermal insulation of a building but
directions of research, development and practical application of also collects a certain amount of heat from the solar radiation striking
the ASTFs technology in buildings. The results of the study will onto its surface. Due to the prevailing prefabrication of building
help promote development of such a building integrated renew- construction, the industrialized production of precast slabs and precast
able energy technology and thus contribute to achieving the UK facade modules become more and more popular, which provides an
and international targets for energy saving, renewable energy opportunity for massive production of the ASTF modules. Apart from
utilization, as well as carbon emission reduction in building sector. the basic functions as a window, wall, balcony, or roof, the ASTF should
also have the heating, ventilation, and shading functions, which enable
both the energy capture and distribution for the served building.
2. Concept, classification, standard and performance measures In recent years, the ASTFs have become increasingly attractive,
owing to the following distinguished merits: (1) enabling collecting,
2.1. Concept and fundamentals transferring and storing large amount of solar energy in form of heat
used for various purposes in buildings; (2) enabling removal of the
In building sector, the term ‘façade’ stands for the outer envelopes solar gains away from the building envelops thus reducing the
of a building, including the transparent or translucent part, opaque buildings’ cooling load; (3) enabling the multiple functions including
part and shading part. An ASTF is a special building facade that
incorporates a solar thermal absorber into its structure. This combina-
tion will create the dual functions for the façade, i.e., shielding and
solar energy collection. For a typical ASTF, energy absorption, conver-
sion and transfer processes involve (1) solar absorption and heat gain
by the thermal absorber; (2) conductive and convective heat transfer
between thermal absorber and surrounding air or other medium; and
(3) thermal radiation transfer between facade and its surrounding, as
shown schematically in Fig. 1. The fundamental equations governing
these energy conversion/transfer processes are given below:
For solar absorbing
Q f ¼ AαF G ð1Þ
For conductive heat transfer
Q cd ¼ AU cd ΔT ð2Þ
For convective heat transfer
Q cv ¼ Ahcv ΔT ð3Þ
Fig. 1. Schematics of the operational mechanisms of an ASTF.
Table 1
Overall classification of ASTF with different classification methods.
Classification methods Classification results
Facade element Wall

Window
Balcony
Sunshield
Roof
Collecting TYPOLOGIES Evacuated tube collector (direct-flow/heat-pipe)

Flat plate collector (glazed liquid or air based)
Unglazed flat plate collector (unglazed liquid or air based/perforated plate/transpired air collector)
Facade Transparency Transparent solar collector for window integration

Translucent-air heating vacuum tubes collector
Opaque-angle selective see-through glare protection building integrated photo-voltaic
Opaque to human eye but highly transparent to solar energy
Facade application Ventilation or heat recovery

Hot water production
Heating/cooling-dual use
Electricity/heat-dual use
Heat transfer medium Air

Water
Heat pipe filling liquid
PCM (PCM can be integrated with each coolant above)
shielding, thermal collection, piping connection, and mitigation to the to the human eye but highly transparent to solar thermal
extreme weather condition et al.; (4) enabling saving in building energy [19].
services’ occupation space; (5) enabling creating a weather skin thus In terms of heat-transfer medium, the ASTFs can be classified
improving the building’s thermal insulation. into air-, hydraulic- (water/heat pipe/refrigerant) and PCM-based
types. Air based type has the feature of low cost, but is also low
efficient in collecting solar energy due to the air’s relatively low
2.2. Classification and structural configuration density. This system usually uses the collected solar heat to pre-
heat the intake air for purpose of building ventilation or space
2.2.1. Classification heating. Hydraulic-based ASTFs are most commonly used building
Classification of the ASTFs can be made by building function, integrated solar thermal devices that enable the effective collec-
thermal collection typologies, transparency, application, as well as tion of the striking solar radiation, converting it into the heat for
heat-transfer medium, which is briefly illustrated in Table 1. purpose of hot water supply and space heating. The PCM-based
In terms of building function, the ASTFs can be classified as type is usually operated in combination with air, water or other
wall-, window-, balcony-, and roof-based types. These ASTF hydraulic measures that enable storing part of the collected heat
components can naturally replace the traditional building compo- during the high solar radiation period, which is then released to
nents and meanwhile, remain the function of the solar heat the passing-through fluids (air, water, or others) during the low
collector [2]. Within an ASTF shown in Table 1, there is a thermal solar radiation period, thus achieving a longer period of ASTFs
insulation layer that is also used to resist the solar heat to enter operation.
the building’s internal space, an absorbing plate or a top glazing
that also has waterproof and anti-corrosion function.
In terms of solar collecting typologies, the ASTFs can be 2.2.2. Structural configuration of ASTFs
classified into the evacuated tube, glazed,unglazed flat-plate and The structure of ASTFs is stemmed from the conventional solar
hybrid PV/T types. Among the glazed and unglazed flat-plate solar thermal collectors, i.e., flat-plate and evacuates tube shapes. The
thermal collecting systems, the common component is the solar flat-plate-panel based ASTF is composed of a flat-plate solar
absorber, which is made of a thin metal or polymeric sheet coated absorber, an insulation layer, a supporting enclosure, as well as a
with selected coating material to maximize its solar absorption top glass cover when in need. The cylinder ASFT normally consists
rate and minimize the infrared loss to the surrounding. For a PV/T of the evacuated tubes within which the solar thermal absorbers
ASTF, a layer of photovoltaic cells is laid above the solar absorber, were assembled. However, the specific structures of the ASTF
thus enabling simultaneous electricity and heat yields. As the PV/T systems vary with building components in real applications, as
ASTFs address both electricity and heat generation [11–17] which shown in Table 2. The advantages and disadvantages of various
is beyond the scope of this review topic, the remaining part of the ASTFs, in terms of functional, constructive and aesthetic aspects,
paper will not discuss this type of the device. are listed in Table 3.
In terms of facade transparency, the ASTFs can be classified as
transparent, translucent, opaque, and selective see-trough types.
The transparent and translucent types offer the dual functions of 2.3. Standards and performance measures
solar heat absorption and daylight transmission [18]. The semi-
transparent type selectively transmits part of solar light within a 2.3.1. Existing standards and their future development
certain spectrum range, and absorbs the remaining part of solar A quality building integrated solar thermal device should meet
radiation in form of heat. The selective see-trough type is opaque the requirements of the current standards and regulations in
Table 2
Summary of ASTF structures in terms of building components.
Schematic structure Schematic structure
Flat-plate structures have wide applications in the wall-based ASTFs which consist of modular rectangular boxes with several
layers as:
a glazing cover (optional);
a metal plate with a selective treatment as solar absorber;
a fluid-cooling circuit adhere to the absorber;
a back insulation layer;
the supporting enclosure;
The wall-based ASTFs could either be glazed or unglazed structure and are usually opaque to buildings with the heat transfer
medium of air or hydraulic or PCM slurry.
Flat-plate structures are also commonest in the window-based ASTFs which consist of several layers in the module:
an external glazing cover;
a metal plate with a selective treatment as solar absorber;
a fluid-cooling circuit adhere to the absorber;
an argon gap or vacuum insulation space;
an internal glazing cover (optional);
The window-based ASTFs could be with multiple glazing units fixed in the frames for insulation, natural lighting and building
service, which are usually translucent to buildings with the heat transfer medium of air or hydraulic or PCM.
Evacuated tubes are especially recommended for integration of balcony. They are composed of several individual glass tubes,
each containing:
a glass tube;
a black or black-tube thermal absorber;
a fluid-cooling unit bond to a heat pipe;
a vacuum insulation;
The high-level vacuum insulation minimises the heat losses to obtain higher working efficiency. The standard arrangement is a
field of several glass tubes with manifold tubes at top and bottom. The tubes are standardized products with easy joining while
the number of paralleled tubes can be flexible according to heat demand or construction size. The balcony-based ASTFs are
usually translucent with the heat transfer medium of air or heat pipe fluid.
Flat-plate structures are the most promising in the roof-based ASTFs with either modular rectangular or tile geometry. They
normally consist of several layers:
a glazing coverer (optional);
a plate with a selective treatment as solar absorber (optional);
a fluid-cooling circuit adhere to the absorber or glazing cover;
a back insulation layer;
The roof-based ASTFs could either be glazed or unglazed structure and are usually opaque or transparent to buildings with the
heat transfer medium of air or hydraulic.
terms of the efficiency, effectiveness, safety, durability and flex- 3: Absorber surface durability; and some more parts to address
ibility [20]. glazing and insulation materials lead by CEN [22,23].
Table 4 [20–21] outlines the currently available standards in Apart from the above addressed solar thermal collection
relation to solar thermal systems. In general, the items addressed provisions, the ASTF standards should also address the issues
in the standards contain high temperature resistance, exposure, relating to envelopes’ function, construction, hydraulic and hygie-
external thermal shock, internal thermal shock, rain penetration, nic provisions. In terms of the function concern, shielding, comfort
impact resistance and mechanical load. Most of those provisions measure and communication availability should also be addressed.
are applied to system testing. There are only a few standards, e.g., In terms of the construction concern, protections from external
European Standards EN 12975-1, EN 12978-1 and EN12977-1, intrusions, load-bearing capability, prevention of thermal bridge
address the quantified provisions relating to the ASTF products and moisture condensation, mechanical stress, stability, energy
manufacture [20]. efficiency, thermal reservation, safety in use, provision to material
Most standards and regulations are only applied to the named volume expansion, as well as fitting with other envelop materials
regions or countries. However, efforts have been made when should be considered. In terms of hydraulic concern, prevention
updating the EN 12975 standard to address the global concerns from the water leakage, and balance to the hydraulic pressure
in evaluating the conventional and advanced solar thermal pro- difference should be considered. In terms of hygienic concern,
ducts. Furthermore, efforts have also been made to create the health, environmental adaptability should be addressed [2,24].
multi-parts standards for various solar collectors including their In terms of the conventional construction components, cur-
components and materials; these include Vienna Agreement Part rently available standards include (1) the Regulation 305/2011 that
1: evacuated tube durability and performance; Part 2: Heat pipes addresses the essential requirements for life cycle; (2) ETAG023
for evacuated tubes – Durability and performance lead by ISO; Part and ETAG025 that address the technical requirements for the
Table 3
Characteristics of ASTF integration with building□.
Facade Advantages Disadvantages

element
Wall-based A economical and high efficient solution to embed an active solar Renewable energy component requires high demands in self quality, material
collector in the finishing layer of the external insulation; expansions compatible and installation due to totally external exposure;
lessen climate disturbance of original facade unit; more costs for outdoors cleaning and maintenance;
improving building’s thermal insulation; risk of condensation and thermal frost within insulation;
offset against the cost of conventional facade. cold bridge and acoustic problem at penetration hole;
most solar collecting area; additional imposed static, wind that requires additional fixed structure.
simplify in piping arrangement;
well suited for superimpose in existing building;
high grade of pre-fabrication possible;
Window- If the renewable energy component is placed within cavity of Low light transmission through renewable energy component;
based glazing unite, it has no reduced life expectancy; additional moveable shading in clear vision area is necessary;
regulating the visual relations inside/outside and the supply of have risks in reducing life expectancy caused by water leakage, or thermal
fresh air/daylight and passive solar gains; breakage and expansion under high temperature.
high grade of pre-fabrication possible;
Balcony/ Optimum overall shading with full room height vision allows Renewable energy component requires high demands in both quality and
sun- adequate daylight distribution; installation due to totally external exposure (for both overall performance and
shield- energy output independent for orientation and solar angle for the safety aspect;
based vacuum tube collector; additional moveable shading in clear vision area necessary;
easy cleaning and maintenance; additional support structure is needed.
making solar energy visible;
well suited for superimpose in existing building;
high grade of pre-fabrication;
offset against the cost of shading.
Roof-based Simplify in piping arrangement; Additional imposed static, wind, snow load that requires additional fixed
lessen climate disturbance of original roof structure; structure and load assessment;
improving the roof’s thermal insulation; have risks in reducing life expectancy caused by water leakage or thermal
less costs for outdoors installation, cleaning and maintenance. breakage and expansion under high temperature.
prefabricated building units and metal frame kits [25]; (3) the with no consideration of the losses by convection and radiation.
Construction Products Directive (CPD) and Construction Products This reflects the situation when the absorber temperature is equal
Regulation (CPR) that gave the upper and lower limit figures to the ambient temperature
relating to the construction products; and (4) the Directive on η0 ¼ τc α ð5Þ
the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD) that specifies the
detailed requirements for building, with extensive impacts to where τc is the transmittance of the front glass cover and α is the
selection and application of a range of construction products. In absorptance of the absorber.
connection to the ASTFs, CE mark addresses the essential require-
ments to certain thermal/electrical components, e.g., photovoltaic 2.3.2.2. Solar thermal efficiency, ηth. The thermal performance is a
(PV) panels, transparent solar thermal collectors (TSTCs), and factor determined under a heat balance evolving convection,
vacuum tube collector (VTCs). Although no specific guidelines or conduction and radiation. Under the steady-state conditions,
standards are globally applicable to the ASTFs, some European the useful heat delivered by a Solar Thermal Collector (STC) is
adaptable requirements for ASTFs could still be found and these equal to the energy absorbed by the heat transfer fluid minus
summarized in Table 5 [26]. the direct or indirect heat losses from the surface to the
Furthermore, as the ASTF components are relatively heavier surroundings, therefore the equation for the thermal efficiency
than the conventional façade components, risk assessment and can be written as
management should be particularly addressed to enable achieving QU T Tα
the safe installation. The standards relating to the safety issues of ηth ¼ ¼ F α τα F R U L i ð6Þ
GT A C GT
the ASTFs include (1) the Micro-generation Installation Standard
where Ac is the aperture area of collector; FR is the heat removal
MIS 3001(Issue 1.5); (2) EST CE131, Solar water heating systems –
factor due to the fact that the fluid entering the collector is heated
guidance for professionals – conventional models [27].
in the direction of the flow, which is effected by the STC
characteristics, fluid type, and fluid flow rate through the
2.3.2. Indic0 ative performance parameters and recommended figures collector; QU is the useful solar energy; GT is the total (direct plus
Up to date, very few published legal standards are available to diffuse) solar energy incident on the collector aperture (W/m2);
specifically address the performance of the ASTFs. In this case, the UL is the overall heat loss coefficient respectively; Ti is the
methods used for evaluating the solar thermal collector were temperature of the fluid entering collector (1C) and Ta is the
recommended to determine the performance of ASTF systems. To ambient temperature (1C).
summarize, the technical performance of the ASTF systems is In some cases, if the system includes photovoltaic cells, the
usually evaluated by using following indicative parameters. energy balance can be expressed as
2.3.2.1. Optical efficiency, η0. The optical efficiency, η0, also termed QU T T a
ηth ¼ ¼ F R τα F R U L i ηPV ð7Þ
zero loss efficiency, represents the collector’s thermal efficiency GT AC GT
Table 4
Characteristics of ASTF integration with building.
Country(ies) Standard Description Focal point
Australia/New AS/NZS 2712:2007 Solar and heat pump water heaters – Design and construction Collector &
Zealand System
0.5
Brazil ABNT/NBR 10184/ Flat plate solar collectors for liquids Collector
1988;
EN 12975;
ANSI/ASHRAE 93-
2003;
ANSI/ASHRAE 96-
1980;
RA 1989;
ASTM E 823-81;
FSEC-GP-5-80.
0.5
Canada CSA F378-87 (R2004) Solar collectors Collector
CSA F379-09 Packaged Solar Domestic Hot Water Systems (liquid–liquid heat transfer) Collector&
System
0.5
China GB/T 17049-2005; All glass evacuated solar collector tube; Collector
GB/T 17581-1998;
GB/T 6424-1997 Evacuated tube solar collector; Specification for flat plate solar collectors;
GB/T 19141-2003 Specification of domestic solar water heating system System
0.5
EU EN 12975:2006 Thermal solar systems and components – Solar collectors – Part 1: General RequirementsþPart 2: Test methods; Collector
EN 12976:2006 Thermal solar systems and components – Factory made systems – Part 1: General Requirementsþ Part 2: Test System
methods
EN 12977:2008 Thermal solar systems and components – Custom built systems – Part 2: Test methods for solar water heaters and System
combisystem þPart 3: Performance test methods for solar water heater stores þPart 4: Performance test methods
for solar combistoresþ Part 5: Performance test methods for control equipment
prEN12975-3-1 Qualification of solar absorber surface durability. Collector
0.5
India IS 12933:2003 (IS 1516) Solar Flat plate Collector Part 1-5 Collector
0.5
International ISO 9459-5 Solar heating – Domestic water heating systems – Part 5: System performance characterization by means of whole- System
system tests and computer simulation
ISO 9806 Test methods for solar collectors – Part 1: Thermal performance of glazed liquid heating collectors including Collector
pressure dropþPart 2: Qualification test proceduresþ Part 3: Thermal performance of unglazed liquid heating
collectors (sensible heat transfer only) including pressure drop
0.5
South Africa SANS 1307:2009 Domestic solar water heaters Collector
SANS 6211 Domestic solar water heaters Part 1: Thermal performance using an outdoor test method þ Part 2: Thermal Collector
performance using an indoor test method
SANS 9459-2 Solar heating – Domestic water heating systems Part 2: Outdoor test methods for system performance System
characterization and yearly performance prediction of solar-only systems
0.5
U.S.A ASHRAE 93-2010 Methods of Testing to Determine the Thermal Performance of Solar Collectors (ANSI approved) Collector
ASTM E905-87 (2007) Standard Test Method for Determining Thermal Performance of Tracking Concentrating Solar Collectors Collector
0.5
UK BS EN 12975 2001 Thermal solar systems and components Collector
BE EN 12976 2001 Thermal solar systems and components System
Table 5
Compliance of ASTF with construction sector requirements.
Requirement Component type Source of the requirement and classification
CE marking based on CPR and relevant directives TSTC/PVVTC From 2014 onwards
Deutsches Institutfü r Bautechnik/EOTA member TSTC/PV/VTC From 2013 onwards
Energy labeling TSTC/VTC From 2013 onwards
Solar Keymark TSTC/VTC From 2014 onwards
EN 61646 PV PV type approval
EN 61730 PV PV safety qualification
EN 13501 PV Fire classification
Note: TSTC stands for transparent solar thermal collector, and VTC stands for air-heating vacuum tube facade collector system.
where ηPV is the efficiency of photovoltaic, which can be expressed as where QE is the electrical output of the cells (W), τc is the
transmissivity of the glass covers, ηPV,ref is the photovoltaic efficiency
QE at Tref; C is the temperature coefficient of PV cells based on power
ηPV ¼ ¼ τC ηPV ;ref ρF½ð1 C T cm T ref ð8Þ (K 1), Tcm is the Mean PV temperature (1C), Tref is the reference
GT A C
Table 6
Cost range for novel components used in renovation concepts.
Component Price range Unit
Active Solar Façade system with individual heat pump and local thermal storage tanks 450–550 €/m2 facade
KF vacuum tube solar collector 300–500 €/m2 facade
Transparent Solar Thermal single skin facade 250–350 €/m2 absorber
Transparent Solar Thermal double skin facade 150–250 €/m2 absorber
PV-sun shading 500 €/m2
Note: all cost data are including 20% VAT and include cost of labour for installation.
Table 7
Technical performance comparisons of ASTFs by façade components.
Integrated Model name Collector type Conversion factor Stagnation Typical solar yields (kWh/m2)b
type η0a temperature
Domestic hot Water pre- Space
water heating heating
Wall AKS Doma Glazed flat plate 0.824 194 500 727 331
H þ S MegaSlate II 0.825 182 541 791 374
WAF solar wall 0.67–0.79 N/A N/A N/A N/A
ASTFþ heat pump Unglazed flat plate N/A N/A N/A N/A 979.2
Heat-pipe ASTF 0.45–0.72 N/A N/A N/A 606.9
PCM ASTF 0.11–0.40 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Heliopan Glazed flat plate N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
0.525–0.538 127.81 400 N/A N/A
Window RobinSun 0.58–0.61 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Transparent ASTF Evacuated Tube 0.7–0.9 N/A N/A N/A
Vacuum-tube ASTF 0.878 N/A 669 860
Balcony Swiss Pipe Glazed flat plate 0.36–0.48 N/A N/A N/A N/A
LHP ASTF 0.67–0.79 N/A N/A N/A N/A
WAF solar balcony N/A N/A 450 N/A N/A
Sunshield S-Solar 0.68 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Ritter XL 0.79 N/A 502 720 341
VarioSol E 0.829 164 504 749 336
Genersys 0.84 175 497 776 320
Energie Solaire 0.878 187 549 813 372
COBRA Evo
Roof Quickstep Solarthermie Unglazed flat plate 0.54 90 N/A N/A N/A
Atmova roof title N/A N/A 800
TECU Solar System N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Heliopower Natural 0.2–0.3 N/A 250
slate
Heliopower Roof system 0.25–0.4 N/A 250–400
SolTech Sigma Glazed flat plate N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
a
The technical data of both the Conversion factor η0 and the Typical solar yields are evaluated from SPF Testing.
b
Climate: Central Switzerland, orientation of the collectors: South, cold water 10 1C, hot water 50 1C, irradiance Gs ¼1000 W/m2, Ambient temperature ta ¼30 1C
temperature for cell efficiency (1C), pF is the PV packing factor demand, and could be expressed as
(pF¼APV/Ac) and APV is the total area of PV (m2).
Q load;t Q aux;t
f¼ ð10Þ
Q load;t
2.3.2.3. Overall exergy efficiency (in case of PV cells
inclusive),ηex . Overall exergy efficiency is obtained by ignoring where Qload,t and Qaux,t are the overall thermal load and auxiliary
the loss to ambient environment, as well as the internal heat required respectively. The higher the solar fraction in solar
irreversibility of the system from the first law of thermal system, the lower amount of fossil energy required for
thermodynamics. This is an essential qualitative analytic factor auxiliary heating.
to the solar thermal collector and used to determine the system’s
thermal capabilities in operation. Its expression is obtained from
2.3.2.5. System efficiency, SE. The system efficiency gives the ratio
the second law of thermodynamics [28–29], as follow:
of solar heat yield to the global solar irradiance on the absorber
eo ¼ eth þ ee ¼ ξth þ ξe GT ¼ ηC ηth Gr þ ηPV GT ð9Þ surface with respect to a given period of time, e.g., one year. It
could be written as
where eth and ee are the thermal and electrical exergy respectively;
ξth and ξe are the thermal and electrical exergy efficiency Q load;t Q aux;t
SE ¼ ð11Þ
respectively; and ηC ¼ 1 ð293=293 þ ðT wm T a ÞÞ is the ideal GT A
Carnot efficiency, of which Twm is the outlet temperature of the
where A is the absorber surface area (m2). The system efficiency is
working fluid (1C).
strongly dependent on the solar fraction. If solar fraction is
increased by increasing the collector area, the system efficiency
2.3.2.4. Solar fraction, f. Solar fraction is defined as the ratio of the will decrease. This means that the cost per kilowatt-hour energy
primary energy saving that a STC can achieve to the overall energy generation is high.
2.3.2.6. Economic and environmental evaluation. In terms of the more cost effective than the sole-functional ST collectors, due to
economical evaluation, ASTFs can be assessed by using Cost the relatively high yield of PV panels in terms of primary energy
Payback Time (CPBT). CPBT evaluation is based on the predicted and the relatively low initial cost compared to a solar heating and
annual energy savings of an ASTF and its initial cost, representing cooling system.
the cost difference between the ASTF and the conventional facade In terms of the environmental impact assessment, the Energy
of the same area. But CPBT evaluation only provides an Payback Time (EPBT) and the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are
approximate index without considering the time related factors commonly used. EPBT is the ratio of ASTF embodied energy to its
and maintenance cost. annual energy output; while the embodied energy refers to the
As the technically innovative ASTF is generally more expensive quantity of required energy during the production period of the
than a ‘business as usual’ product, the economic feasibility is the ASTF. Chow[30] suggested a mathematic expression of the EPBT, as
principal concern in application of the ASTF systems. Therefore, follow:
the basic cost information of the components of an ASTF is critical P P P
EPBT ¼ ASTF þ bos mtl
to the comparative study between technical renovation and ð12Þ
EPV þEth þ Eac
financial value of an ASTF. Based on the referenced price list given
in Table 6 [26] and a study made by Koene et al. [26], The whereas ΣASTF, Σbos and Σmtl are the embodied energy of the ASTF
following can be concluded: (1) in terms of economic benefits, system, the balance of system and the replacing building materi-
the ASTF appears to be a very cost effective for it provides a low als; EPV is the annual useful electricity output; Eth is the annual
temperature heat for heat pump use; (2) the concepts using useful heat gain (equivalent), and Eac is the annual electricity
conventional PV-panels or (to a less extent) PV sun shading are saving of HVAC system due to thermal load reduction.
According to ISO 14040/14044, Life Cycle Assessment method
takes into account the inputs and outputs of the manufacturing,
Table 8 system installation and associated operational and maintenance
Typical technical parameters relating to different collecting typologies. costs over the system's life cycle [31]. For each step, a list of input
and output data for the used materials, consumed energy and
Collector Optical Operating Energy Energy Price
typology efficiency temperature effi- production variation associated emissions are quantified. Combination of the process
ciency (kWh/m2/ (€/m2)(2) input and output data into the impact categories by means of
year)(1) characterization model enables an impact assessment. The results
of such an impact assessment can provide information relating to
Evacuated 0.6–0.8 70–130□ 80–85% 480–650 500–1100
the potential environmental impacts that a product might have, e.
tube
Glazed flat 40.8 60–90□ 65–70% 400–600 320–480 g. the potential contribution to climate change or the consumption
plate of resources [32].
Unglazed n.a.(3) 30–40□ 40% 300–350 200–260 The approach has been presented for assessing the environ-
flat
mental influence of energy generating components for the existing
plate
European high-rise buildings [32]. It is suggested to provide the
Note: (1) Switzerland -field surface: 6 m; (2) Switzerland -field surface: 6 m2, data following definitions when taking up a LCA evaluation: (1) the
2010; (3) stands for “not applicable”. function of the component in a building; (2) the boundaries of
Table 9
Characteristics comparison by heat absorption medium.
ASTF type Collector performance Advantages Disadvantages
Air þ Anti-freezing or boiling, and non-corrosive; Low heat capacity and thermal mass;
low cost; potential leakage and noise;
simple structure; lower efficiency;
large volume;
high in heat loss.
Hydraulic-water þþþ Nontoxic; Potential mineral deposits;

high in specific heat; possible leakage, freezing, corrosion and overheating;
cost effective; unstable heat removal effectiveness.
perform well in cold climates;
almost constant energy collected;
smaller storage volume;
Hydraulic-refrigerant þþþþ Small fluid volume; High cost;

quick response to solar heat; unbalanced liquid distribution;
stable performance; requirement of recharging refrigerant.
high efficiency;
Hydraulic -Heat pipe þþþþþ Compact and super high heat exchange ability; High cost;
low in hydraulic and thermal resistances; high degree in vacuum processing;
Versatility, scalability, and adaptability of the design
PCM þþþ Improvement in thermal comfort and building envelop; Difficult to operate;
diversity in building integration; complex behaviour;
diverse affection factors;
sensitive heat injection;
Table 10
Overview of commercial ASTF systems□.
System schematic structure Distinct features
Aluminium absorbers with a highly selective coating;

laser-welded copper pipes guarantee optimum performance;
wood or aluminium frame provides a very high level of freedom in both size and shape;
AKS Doma Flex [33]

Thickness is only 38 mm;
same gluing technique as double-glazing manufacture eases the integration into building skin
and provides a new level of freedom in the field of glazed flat plates;
in-between gap is filled with argon gas helping reduce heat losses;
H þ S MegaSlate II [34]
Mainly composes with a series of weatherboarding, a connection metal sheet, a group of
copper heat-transfer pipe and an insulation layer;
all the weatherboarding pieces are assembled via the mounting clicks, enabling an easy self-
assembly approach;
WAF solar façade [35]

This solar thermal window comprises two layers of glass panes, a certain volume of argon
filling, a group of \ -shape profiled thermal absorbers, and a copper serpentine pipe with
working fluid and aluminium strips.
semi-transparent window appearance;
multifunction as insulation, natural lighting, domestic hot water and heating and/or air
conditioning;
RobinSun solar thermal glass [36]

Peculiar evacuated tube collector in a parallel module;
each tube is composed of individual glass tube, a black or black-tube thermal absorber with
fluid-cooling system, surrounded by a vacuum interior space.
The tubes are standardized products with easy joining while the number of paralleled tubes
can be flexible according to the heat demand or construction size.
Swisspipe [37]
SKYTECH absorber technology, which is made by roll-folding technology connects absorber
sheet and tube over it’s entire circumference leading an optimised heat transfer to the fluid
inside;
“VarioSol E ” are made on a one-off wood basis, while “VarioSol A ” is a unit from aluminium
with no screw at the surface providing tightness on the long run;
the thin collectors can be simply mounted onto flat roof rather than modified original building
structure, providing an optimum solution for building renovation;
VarioSol A/E collectors [38]

Consisting of a one-piece forged metal casing by means of a frame made from non-corrosive
aluminium profile;
The stamped Al–Mg sheet absorber fins with high-selective conversion layer span the copper
pipe meander;
Table 10 (continued )
the series connected collectors ensure the good options for the building integration as
construction or integration elements into sloping roof, stand on flat roof and building façade;
Genersys [39]
A specially developed tile more transparent active energy roofs;
underneath the glass tiles, the specially developed liquid based absorber modules harvest the
energy from the sun, and the generated solar energy ends up in a specific storage tank that is
connected to the building’s central heating system;
SolTech Sigma [40]

The consistently lasered copper serpentine coil, which makes both the arches and the manifolds
thermally active. There are a large range of mounting accessories for roof- mounted, stand on flat
roof and building façade;
COBRA Evo. [41]

An innovative, low efficiency, unglazed system for roofs;
the system can be integrated into the standard Rheinzink QUICK STEP roof covering system,
the module look exactly like the traditional non active ones without any field positioning and
dimensioning issues
QUICK STEP Solar Thermie [42]

The cooper tile can collect thermal energy from the ambient air, wind, and rain as well as any
available solar radiation;
the high-energy yield (500 W/m2 and COP43.5) together with the long lifetime of the system
guarantee the above- average economic benefit of the system;
Atmova roof title [43]

The heats transfer fluid in the rectangular copper path, capturing the solar heat to produce
thermal energy;
the whole collector is positioned integrally with roof system, therefore it is fully protected
from external intrusions and completely invisible;
TECU Solar System [44]

The world's first 100% invisible collector with two innovative materials of natural slate and
bitumen
its efficiency is around 20 to 30%, while the asfalt roof system has the efficiency of 25% with a
measured temperature up to 70 degrees on the upper side of the roofing felt.
HelioPower A/S [45]

Two corrugated stainless steel sheets are welded together to form a thermal absorber with the
cushion structure upon the rubber roof insulation;
the peculiar structure enables various types of integration on all types of roof profiles, even
curved ones;
this roof-based one has a perfect waterproof quality owing to the self-draining aluminium
profiles beneath the solar thermal absorber.
Energie Solaire Solar Roof [46]
system, drawn as energy generation unit or counted for the HVAC flow channels and their geometrical sizes, absorber types and
technologies; (3) the assignment of “credits” and “net credits”. external climatic conditions etc.
A hydraulic water based ASTF system has reliable performance
and is usually used for providing domestic hot water supply. The
2.3.3. Energy performance comparison of the ASTF systems water temperature delivered from the system is relatively stable
2.3.3.1. Comparison in terms of commercial facade comp- compared to ambient air. The heat collection efficiency by the
onents. Table 7 [33–46] provides a general comparison among water is higher than by air, and therefore the water-based system
the commercially available ASTF systems in terms of their is small-sized in both container and piping compared to the air-
functions which is detailed in Table 10. based ASTF. For this type of system, the potential risk of piping
It can be concluded that the flat-plate glazed ASTFs have a freezing is in existence, but this could be removed through
higher conversion factor. This is because the solar efficiency is charging a certain amount of antifreeze liquid, e.g., glycol. How-
mostly applied to low heat absorption of water pipes (or air ducts) ever, the glycol-containing water system, owing to the problems of
and low heat transfer within the heat exchange units. In the other leakage and blockages in fluid transportation line, has a negative
side, the limitation of heat transfer capacity is also inherently impact on the performance of the system.
related to the working fluid, as the commonly used antifreeze fluid A hydraulic refrigerant based ASTF system usually operates in
could lose its chemical nature leading to change of state from the conjunction with a heat pump that can react to solar heat more
liquid to gas, which may generate a range of problems: (1) an swiftly than other working fluids, thus enabling an effective
increased pressure drop and a reduced heat transfer [25]; (2) roof operation even at the cloudy days. The refrigerant generally has
based ASTFs seem to be more adaptable to the simply shaped a low boiling point and a great heat capacity, thus enabling
buildings, owning to their larger outer skin area; (3) overheating is transfer a large amount of heat very efficiently even with a small
sensitive to most plastic and silicone parts and may cause amount of refrigerant. The thermal performance of the system
unsatisfactory stagnation phenomenon for the ASTF components depends on a number of factors, including the flow rate of the
when being integrated into buildings. Normally, well-insulated refrigerant, evaporation and condensation temperature/pressure,
glazed flat-plate collectors achieve maximum stagnation tempera- the number of flow channels and their geometrical sizes, the
ture of 160–200 1C, while the evacuated tube solar collectors have absorber’ type, as well as the climatic condition. Although the
the maximum stagnation temperature of 200–300 1C. structure of refrigerant-based ASTF is largely similar to that of the
water-based ASTF, it has such a unique feature – placing the
2.3.3.2. Comparison in terms of collecting typologies. Comparison of evaporation-coil panel underneath the absorber. This allows a
the ASTFs could be made in terms of the heat collection methods. refrigerant to absorb the heat from the PV, thus resulting in a
On this basis, the typical optical efficiency, operational significant increase in solar thermal efficiency. In practical opera-
temperatures, energy efficiency, energy output and custom price tion, the basic advantages and disadvantages of the refrigerant-
for different ASTF types are summarized in Table 8 [2,47,48]. based ASTF are similar to that of the water-based ASTF. However,
this type of system has also some disadvantages that require
further investigation, e.g., difficult operation due to pressurisation
2.3.3.3. Comparison in terms of working medium. Comparison of and depressurisation in different parts of the system, risks of
the ASTFS could also be made in terms of the heat-absorption leakage and unbalanced refrigerant distribution across the multi-
medium, which is detailed in Table 9 [49,50]. In overall, air based ple coils during the whole process [14].
ASTF system is an air heating technology with the major merits of A hydraulic heat-pipe based ASTF system usually operates in
anti-freezing or anti-boiling operation, non-corrosive medium, conjunction with a heat pump or a heat cycle. It is therefore more
low cost and simple structure. This technology, however, has compact, requiring less piping space in facade for higher thermal
disadvantages of large air volume and poor thermal removal capacity and more efficient performance to overcome the most
effectiveness, owing to the air’s low heat capacity (only 1.005 kJ/ difficulties associated with the water based ASTF. The two-phase
kg K). In the other word, a larger wall or roof area is needed to thermo-siphons and thermal diode heat transfer effects make heat
deliver the same amount of heat and consequently, and the pipes more appropriate to solar applications in building facades. It
parasitic power consumption is higher than that of liquid has been applied in several projects as a part of passive solar
systems, which leads to higher heat losses and lower thermal thermal facade to transfer heat through an insulated wall from a
efficiency. It has been concluded that several critical factors put façade-based solar absorber to a storage tank inside the building
the impacts on the thermal performance of the system; these [51–53]. The thermal performance of such a system depends on
include the air flow rate, heat transfer resistance in the airflow the structure/material and vacuum degree of the heat pipe, type of
channel, optical properties of the transparent cover, number of the heat pipe fluid, temperature and flow rate of the secondary
Table 11
Demonstration projects with ASTF application□.
Category 1: Family house cases
No. 1 “Home for life” concept house, Aarhus, Denmark

The house is a kind of active house with a living area of 190 m2, whose 50% of the room heating is contributed by
the passive solar heating. The 6.7 m2 solar collectors are integrated in the lowest part of the roof surface with
auxiliary heat pump system, which cover 50–60% of the yearly household hot water heating demand as well as a
supplement for room heating. The total heat demand is estimated as 53 kWh/m2 BTA per year. The start
efficiency of VELUX solar collectors is 0.79 and 3.756 W/m2 K.
Picture source: VKR Holding A/S

No. 2 Jadarhus ISOBO Aktiv, Sandnes, Norway
This timber house with traditional rafter construction is designed based on passive measures with a total living
area of 178 m2 and an annual heat demand of 44 kWh/m2. The solar collectors make up an area of 8 m2 as the
roof surface for 90% of hot water preparation and 95% of space heating.
Picture source: Jadarhus AS

No. 3 Penthouse Wien, Vienna, Austria
The two direct flow vacuum tube collectors with 2.88 m2 are installed at the roof terrace for a modern 2 flat
penthouse with total living area of 364 m2. They have dual-functions as both DHW preparation and sunshades.
The available heat sources of this system can be contribute from solar collectors, gas burner and electricity.
Photo:Viessmann
No. 4 Sun house, Tyrol, Austria
The low energy house uses 80% of the solar thermal energy as the primary heating system with additionally
heating covered by a log-wood heating system, tiled stove or heat pump powered by a photovoltaic
installation on the roof.
The solar thermal collectors with a total area of 55 m2 are integrated on the roof with 45° inclination for a
maximum yield in the summer, and in the facade with 701 inclination for a maximum yield in the winter.
Therefore it shows a good exhibition for both the solar thermal collectors and the photovoltaic modules
perfect adaption into the house.
Picture source: SIKO SOLAR GmbH

No. 5 House Oedegaard, Bærum, Norway
This modern brick house is integrated with 12 m2 solar collectors as a part of the south facade. Solar energy is
utilized for both hot water preparation and space heating. A low temperature water-based floor heating
system is used for space heating. In this project, solar energy cost is about 7.3€cent/kWh.
Photo: Aventa AS
No. 6 KOMBISOLs house, Tyrol, Austria
Because of the combination of a solar thermal system, a heat pump and a photovoltaic system, the house has total
collector area of 70 m2. The perfect solar thermal facade integrated house collects all energy needed for hot
water preparation and space heating with an additional geothermal heat pump. When there is excess energy
from the solar thermal collectors, it can be not only stored in the ground collector but also in the concrete core of
the house, which enables a comfortable and warm climate in winter and also a cooling function in summer.
Picture source: SIKO SOLAR GmbH

No. 7 Passive house Caldonazzi, Austria
The energy concept of this house is from minimization heat loss from good insulation, passive solar energy and
energy from solar collectors. Especially the south facing wall is constructed with 75% windows as solar passive
and 25% facade integrated solar collectors (17 m2). The solar system is a combined system for both hot water
preparation and space heating. It was calculated that the building cost was 1.4 Euro/m2 in all.
Picture source: AEE INTEC

No. 8 Passive house Rudshagen, Oslo, Norway
Parts of the south facing facade of the ”solar house” is covered with a 19.5 m2 solar collector to satisfy both space
heating and domestic hot water preparation, which is 61 kWh/m2/year in total heat demand. Th1e advanced
AventSolar solar collectors are made of high performance polymer materials, so that it can be are easy to install
due to lightweight.
Picture source: Aventa AS

No. 9 Petersbergenstrasse, Austria
The 50 m2 wall based glazed flat plate solar collector has been erected 101 southwest oriented for DHW
preparation and space heating. These pre-manufactured fields are made by fixing the wooden back wall of the
collector to the timber frames with only about 10 steel angles for the fixation, which causes almost no effect on
thermal bridges.

No. 10 The Norwegian House, Bo01 Malmoe, Sweden
The house has a massive wood/solid timber construction and solar energy is used for DHW preparation and space
heating. The total collector area is 16 m2, which covers 35% of the total heat demand in the building with 144 m2
living area. With the water-based floor heating system, the solar thermal system can get solar gain of 3500 kWh/
year, and energy consumption is 30% lower than similar houses.
Photo: Bjørn Larsen

Category 2: Commercial and public building cases
No. 11 Alpiner Stü tzpunkt Schiestlhaus of the Austria Tourist Club, Austria
The building is the first large mountain refuge built with the capacity to accommodate 70 people. The upper south-
facing facade has been designed as an energy-facade system for the generation of thermal energy. Through heat
exchanger, the solar collector transfers heat to three buffer storage tanks with a total capacity of 2000 l. Besides,
both a rape oil operated unit and a solid fuel range can also load heat into the buffer storage tanks
Photo: DI Wilhelm Hofbauer/Treberspurg and

Partner Architekten
No. 12 Retrofitted Office Building in Ljubljana, Slovenia
This building was built in 1982 with total 6 storeys. The pilot size is 109 m2 net floor area. The air heating vacuum
tube collectors replace the balustrade on the fifth floor, while the transparent solar thermal collectors are
attached to the stairwell. Both collector areas face almost south, the TSTC 151 towards east and the air-heating
tubes 151 towards west. Both components were developed to be a substitute for the building skin as well as the
thermally activated building system of 100 m2 office space with fluid at temperatures above 35 1C during
heating season.
56
No. 13 Production Hall Meusburger, Austria

In this building, total 66 m2 solar collectors integrated in the roof and 84 m2 solar collectors integrated in the
facade contributing to space heating, while floor-heating system is then used for heat distribution.

No. 14 HQ, AKS DOMA Solartechnik
The neutral CO2 energy supply of the offices with 470 m2 and the production hall with a floor area of 1380 m2 is
achieved through 80 m2 facade integrated solar collectors, which are directly south oriented. The whole heating
system combines with a wall heating and a floor heating operated with very low flow temperatures, which offer
ideal conditions for the operation of the solar thermal plant.

No. 15 Hotel Jezerka, Czech Republic
The modern hotel was built in 1988 with 150 beds. In 2007, 236 m2 solar collectors were integrated in the south
facing balconies, heating tap water and swimming pools. Special consideration was given for horizontal
installation. These collectors were designed as handrails of balconies, or as flat roofs where vertical collectors
would be overloaded by wind. The price of each collector was € 364.8 with total solar gain of 120 000 kWh/year
Photo: Thermosolar
No. 16 Kindergarten Bludesch, Austria
This kindergarten building consists of 3 parts and mainly composed with prefabricate wooden elements. There are
44 m2 roof integrated solar collectors and 18 m2 facade integrated solar collectors for DHW preparation with the
supplemental heating from a gas boiler.

No. 17 Environmental Research Station Schneefernerhaus – UFS, Germany
The research station is located at Germany’s highest mountain retrofitted from a stone building from early 30s of
the 20th century. With adding additional thermal insulation, 100 m2 solar collectors are integrated in the
building facade as well for both DHW preparation and space heating. The related water based heat distribution
consists with floor heating and radiators, while heat pump and electricity are set for auxiliary heating. The price
of each collector was €943 with total solar gain of 60 000 kWh/year.
Photo: Fraunhofer ISE (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar

Energy Systems)
No. 18 Granby Hospital, Granby (Quebec)/Canada
The transpired solar fresh air heating system in this hospital is specially designed to satisfy the demand of large
mounts of fresh air. The solar system is aesthetically presented with 82 m2-curved facade to provide 4800 CFM
to the space below. The working principle is that the perforated metal absorber draws in heated fresh air off the
surface of south-facing walls, where it is then distributed throughout the building as pre-heated ventilation air.
Overall, the system owns operating efficiencies up to 70% with total payback’s within 5 years with energy
savings about 149.1G J.
Photo: Matrix Energy

No. 19 Social housing in Paris, France
This is the first social house building with a facade made out of solar panels. The solar panel facade captures solar
energy to produce enough power to meet 40% of the domestic hot water needs. The double skin solar facade,
which weights 45 kg, offers complete privacy from the passengers commuting nearby, ensure light penetrate
into the back of room, as well restricts the noise flow, while providing 44% of domestic hot water needs.
Photo:ROBIN SUN
No. 20 The Bellona Building, Oslo, Norway
This building is constructed of in situ concrete with facades in plaster and glass. The installation shapes of solar
collectors serve as self-shading facade and cover large parts of the south-facing wall. There are windows on the
inward-facing part and 240 solar collectors on the outward-facing part. Owning to good insulation, excellent
window, minimized thermal bridge and low air leakage factor, solar collectors and geothermal heat pump can
cover all the heating demand. The whole energy consumption of the building is estimated just 68 kWh/m2/year,
which is far below the requirement towards class A buildings with additional 10% costs only.
Photo: Finn Staale Feldberg
fluid, composition type and external climatic conditions. Com- Integration of PCM to enable latent heat storing, however, is
pared to the refrigerant-based system, the heat-pipe-based system regarded as one of the most promising features in an ASTF [54].
could achieve an instant equivalent performance if the heat pipes Owing to the phase changing feature of the PCM, the PCM-based
operate at an adequate temperature. This system may overcome ASTF has a greater thermal capacity under a certain operational
the difficulties existing in the refrigerant-based system and temperature and presents an almost isothermal behaviour during
become the next generation technology of heat remover [14]. the charging and discharging processes, resulting in several distin-
However, this type of system is also found some disadvantages guished advantages, namely, relative low weight, high heat storage
that require further investigation, e.g., high cost of the heat pipes density and thermal charging/discharging capacity at nearly con-
and difficult control of the heat pipe performance. stant temperature [55]. For these reasons, the PCM-based ASTF
A PCM-based ASTF system is a recent development. It is well could achieve a higher solar thermal efficiency than the conven-
known that the ASTF has the capacity to store sensible heat. tional ST collector when the ambient temperature is low and solar
Fig. 2. The relation between vacuum thermal insulation and vacuum degree.
Fig. 3. Different absorber surface geometries for ASTF system.
PCMs [55]. Furthermore, the PCMs are still very expensive that
affects their wide deployment in practical projects.
3. ASTF Products and their building applications
Although the ASTF technology is still in the start-up stage, a

large number of commercial products and engineering projects
can be found in the real world. The successful combinations
between the solar thermal energy systems and building facades
are particularly addressed in this section.
Table 10 provides a list of typical commercial ASTF systems
[33–46], while Table 11 [56] presents a list of representative ASTF
incorporating projects, which are based on various types of
Fig. 4. Approximate solar fraction provided by glazed coloured ST collectors. buildings within Europe.
The above mentioned commercial ASTF devices has created
radiation intensity is weak. However, in contradiction with the considerable energy saving potentials, and endorsed an innovative
theoretical predictions, the system seemed not to be able to achieve solar thermal approach for building integration with efficient and
the expected performance owing to the complex behaviours of the durable devices, variable choices of colours and textures and mature
Table 12
Comparisons of common connection approaches between absorber and pipes.
Type Advantage Disadvantage
Roll-bonded absorber Numerous branches can be produced in single Subject to corrosion of aluminium in connection with
materials; copper tube
good heat transfer with inside working fluid;
Absorber strips with pressed-in copper tube High flexibility in form and shape for composed Many solder points
collector;
beneficial to mass production
Absorber sheets with pressed-in tube system No mixed materials; Heat transfer not optimal
simplifies subsequent recycling;
Absorber with all-around contact with tube Same materials between tube and absorber; High in manufacture cost
system optimal heat transfer;
Absorber with soldered-on tube system Flexible in design; Asymmetrical heat transfer
Full flow-through absorber good heat transfer to liquid; High weight, thermal inertia
easy processing;
Serpentine absorber only two solder points in tube system; Higher pressure loss and temperature difference;
easy in piping connection; cannot work effectively in thermosiphon mode;
Full-surface register tube Lower pressure loss than serpentine absorber Many solder points in tube system; expensive
Vane register tube Lower pressure loss than serpentine absorber Many solder points in tube system
Fig. 5. Schematic of air heat extraction improvement of the PVT/air system by using (a)/(e) roughening channel wall with ribs or fins, (b)/(d) interposition of corrugated
sheet or thin metal sheet (TMS) and (c) placement of tubes.
processing techniques. The endeavors of these ASTF devices can be 4. Research questions – current status and deficiencies
summarized into two aspects: one is for improving heat transfer
capacity and the other is for the optimal design of the building 4.1. Concept, geometry and optimisation of the integrated structure
integration. All these are expected to achieve a large market. and operational conditions
However, taking into consideration of the technical parameters of
the ASTFs, it can be concluded that the ASTFs in essence still have 4.1.1. Components design
some problems that affect their future market penetration. The In a solar thermal system, the glass has been widely used as the
major concerns are the bulky size, complex structures, overheating cover of the solar collectors owing to its high transmittance in
risk, relatively low solar efficiency, and high capital cost. shortwave irradiation while transmitting virtually none of the
Such a wealth of ASTF applications present the successful long-wave radiation. A glass cover normally accounts for around
combination between solar thermal energy systems and building half of the weight of the glazed flat-plate collector, giving the
facades regardless of the size of the house, the function of the overall glazed flat-plate weights in the range 15 and 20 kg/m2 [21].
building, the location or status of the construction (retrofitted/ The existence of the glass cover(s) has direct influence to the
new). The core element of a solar thermal in the above buildings convective and radiation heat transfer coefficients, proportion of
has exhibited a high energy capacity, and the end users therefore solar radiation absorption, and surface temperature of the ST
gain benefit of an attractive payback. collector. For a single glazed collector, the increase in glass cover
temperature due to absorption of solar radiation could be as high radiation (approximately 0.85–0.87) and an essentially zero trans-
as 6 1C, while the increase of first and second glass covers in a mittance for the long-wave thermal radiation (5.0–50 μm) [59,60].
double glazed collector could be as high as 14 1C and 11 1C, Khoukhi et al. [61,62] studied the glass cover of a flat ST collector
respectively [57]. As a result, the difference for including and taking both the absorption and emission effects into account. The
excluding the convective heat transfer coefficient between the profiles of resulted efficiencies curves seemed not to be linear in
absorber plate and the first glass cover was as high as 49% [58]. shape for both the systems with clear and low-iron glasses
Nowadays, the conventional clear glass is being replaced by the accordingly, and the instantaneous efficiency was higher in case
low iron glass owning to its relatively high transmittance for solar of low-iron glass cover. As for the evacuated tube collector, since
glass cylinders are positioned outside the absorbers to reduce the
thermal losses, different levels of vacuum degree have the direct
relevance to the thermal losses through convection and conduc-
tion, as shown in Fig. 2 [21], whereby the selective coating can
reduce the radiation losses in the same way as the glass panel
(Fig. 3,[2]).
Instead of the glass material, more cover choices are feasible for
the unglazed ST collector, which can be briefly categorized into
asphalts, polymeric materials, massive materials and metals.
Although wide use of the metal ST collector offers good heat
transfer performance and flexible ability in moulding, they are
expensive and require special treatment for anti-corrosion.
Instead, the economic competitive polyolefin materials are more
appropriate to absorbers offering supplemental function of over-
heating protection. The experimental study investigated the
characteristics of optical, thermo-analytical, mechanical and mor-
Fig. 6. Schematic of double channel ST collector with porous media. phological properties and structures of the black solar absorber,
Fig. 7. Cross-sectional views of the tested solar air collectors.

which is made of polypropylene and black pigment. The results First of all, paint and coatings have a few clear advantages
showed that the investigated PP grades were of high potential for including altering the surface optical and radiation properties, low
black absorbers of collectors with overheating control [62]. D’an- cost, simple and ease of application [68]. The absorbance depends
toni et al. [64] critically reviewed the massive solar collector and on the nature and colour of the coating and incident angle. The
concluded that massive materials have good thermo-physical absorber plate is typically finished with a black coating material in
properties with a high workability and stability to thermal order to absorb as much heat as possible, however the mono-
stresses, with low cost and offering a great freedom and harmony tonous colour has been replaced by various colour coatings in
construction component. However, the time-lag between solar literatures to pursue a dramatic outlook [59,69]. Kalogirou et al.
availability and building demand is an outstanding problem. Yang [70] analyzed the applications of ST collectors with coloured solar
et al. introduced an all-ceramic solar collector which is character- absorbers using the well-known simulation program TRNSYS in
ized by low cost, long lifetime, no attenuation of absorbance, and three different countries. The drops in the amount of collected
building integration. The thermal efficiency was tested in site, solar energy were in satisfactory level for a solar absorber with the
giving the figures of 47.1% for the balcony railings and 50% for the medium absorptivity value (α ¼ 0.85) in the three locations (about
pitched building roof [65]. In spite of having a lower thermal 7–18%) compared to the collectors with black absorbers (α ¼ 0.95).
conductivity and heat storage capacity than the massive collector, Additionally, the life cycle analysis (LCA) indicated that the
the black colour and asphalt mixtures ensure that asphalt solar economics of the systems employing colour collectors were
collectors perform better than the massive ones. However special attractive for fabrication and application in buildings. Later on,
attention should be paid during the construction process with hot Anderson et al. [71] theoretically and experimentally examined
mix asphalt, since the high temperature of asphalt mixture can the relation between thermal performances and a series of colours
damage the tube system [66]. of absorber’s plate. The results showed that different coloured
Furthermore, the additional films and coatings on the cover can absorbers keep solar yields at a reasonable level, as shown in Fig. 4
provide a ST collector with a high light-absorption capacity and low [71].
thermal emissivity. To give an example, plastic films and sheets The emission of thermal radiation from a surface can be
possess high shortwave transmittance which can resist the over- controlled spectrally and spatially. It is particularly important to
heating of the sheets, thus preventing the sheet deterioration or incorporate the selective surfaces when the collector surface
dimensional variation. However, only a few types of plastics can temperature is significantly higher than the ambient air tempera-
withstand the sun’s ultraviolet radiation for long periods [60]. ture [70]. The solar selectivity of any surface is the ratio of the solar
Hellstrom et al. studied the importance of solar absorbance and absorptance to thermal emittance, which is used to evaluate the
thermal emittance of the absorber in-depth via the addition of a spectral property of solar selective absorbing coatings. Certain
Teflon film or a Teflon honeycomb, antireflection treatment of the degree of solar selectivity of any solar thermal system can be
cover glazing and combinations of these improvements. It was achieved with the help of spectrally selective paint. Basically there
concluded that a combined increase in absorbance from 0.95 to are two types of spectrally selective paints, i.e., “thickness sensitive
0.97 and a decrease in emittance from 0.10 to 0.05 enhance the spectrally selective” (TSSS) and “thickness insensitive spectrally
annual performance by 6.7% at 50 1C of operational temperature. The selective” (TISS) [72–74]. These paints can achieve solar absor-
augment in the performance by installing a Teflon film and the bance of 0.94 and thermal emittance of 0.15 [75]. Various types of
antireflection treatment of the glazing cover expected to increases the TISS paints are also well documented in the literature by Orel et al.
annual output by 5.6% at 50 1C and 6.5% at 50 1C respectively [67]. [72]. A preliminary long-term stability study indicated that these
In addition to the heat collection performance, colour, texture paints were suitable for unglazed solar absorbers with the scaling
and finish of cover surface are the specific factors to consider in factor of 0.34 in the façade-based collector systems. In addition,
designing the building integrated ASTF system. Combined con- the paint and coating technologies have also been exploited with a
sideration of both the collector appearance and building external variety of materials and composites. Metal films show high
layer is needed to enable a good compatibility between the ASTF reflectance in the infrared region and semi-transparency in the
and building. Furthermore, the ASTF’s surface geometries and visible region [68]. For instance, the free electron metals (e.g., Cu,
finishing effect are the factors that should be considered in ASTF Ag) have emittance values of 0.02–0.04, thus exhibiting the
building integration design [2]. desirable selective properties. In addition, some inorganic com-
It is expected to minimise the heat loss to ambient when the pounds, e.g., black chrome, black nickel, and metal/dielectric
ASTF absorber absorbs the incident solar radiation, and transfers composites, can be used as coatings in various solar thermal
the retained thermal energy to the passing-through fluid. Enhan- applications [63,68,75]. Recently, metallic and non-metallic nano-
cing the solar absorbtivity and heat collection rate and reducing particles have been applied as well [76]. There are a large number
the surface’s long-wave emittance are the major concerns for the of techniques to apply the selective coatings. The wet chemical
ASTF design. In addition, the aesthetical appealing effect should routes were commonly used under less than 300 1C of operational
also be considered. temperature (in air and vacuum). However, owning to the low
Fig. 8. Comparison of the monthly sun radiation available on a 421 (in Stockholm, Sweden) 331 (in Zurich, Switzerland) and 321 (Rome, Italy) south exposed tilted surface vs.
a vertical south exposed surface.
Fig. 9. Most prevailing configurations of heat exchange.
Fig. 10. Schematic design of Tanks (Store A is the novel stratified-store, while Stores B and C are commonly used).
thermal stability and associated environmental problem, a great the heat transfer penalty caused by lower heat transfer coefficients
deal of researches have been carried out to develop physical between air/gas absorber [82]. Dymond et al. suggested that the
vapour deposited (PVD) coatings, e.g., evaporation, ion plating, perforations, also known as porosity, generally had the fraction in
cathodic arc evaporation, pulsed laser deposition and sputtering, the range 0.5% and 2% of total area for the single pass TSC to
which are the alternative routes for both mid- and high- achieve a better flow distribution [83]. Sopian et al. [84] studied
temperature applications. Among these, the sputtering technique the double-pass ST collector with porous media placed in the
has been used successfully to deposit these coatings on large area downside channel using a theoretical model, as shown in Fig. 6
substrates of flat-plate collectors and receiver. The commercial [84]. The experimental testing was conducted to validate the
PVD coatings are SS–AlN, CrN–Cr2O3, eta Plus, TiNOX, Al–AlN, Ni– model prediction. Through both the theoretical analyses and
NiO, and a-C:H/Cr, which are dedicated to medium temperature experimental testing, it was concluded that the presence of porous
applications [77]. media in the second channel increased the outlet temperature,
The improvement in the collector’s heat transfer capacity can be therefore increased the thermal efficiency of the system by around
achieved by designing an appropriate absorber, and good heat 60–70% [84]. However, such a method of increasing the heat
transfer between the piping system and absorber. Furthermore, transfer area would lead to increase in pump power consumption.
owing to the increased cost of copper materials, the absorber Ucar et al. studied the passive heat transfer augmentation techni-
material has gradually adopted the aluminium or aluminium alloys. ques through modification of the shape and arrangement of the
A horizontal comparison of the heat transfer approaches baffles, as shown schematically in Fig. 7 [85]. By partly blocking
between the absorber and pipe system is presented in Table 12. the absorber surface, attaching fins to the absorber surface and
The cost effective cassette modules are recommended for this creating a tilt angle to the sectional surfaces, the efficiency of solar
purpose that can offer greater freedom in dimension selection. collector was increased by 10% to 30%, while the exergy loss was
Tripanagnostopoulos et al. concluded that the good design of the decreased from 64.38% to 43.91% in comparison with the conven-
interior elements in the absorbers are essential; these include tional solar collector [84]. Based on baffle design, Romdhane put
roughening channel wall with ribs or fins, interposition of corru- forward the concept of turbulence creation by using obstacles or
gated sheet or thin metal sheet, additional tube placement etc., as baffles, which was considered the best configuration enabling
shown in Fig. 5 [78,79]. Ackermann et al. [80] further studied the extending the trajectory of the airflow and increasing the speed
effects of internal fins on ST collector panels, which drew up a of the air within the collector, and therefore maximising the heat
conclusion that the heat transfer performance could be even transfer rate [85].
further improved by decreasing fin pitch, increasing fin thickness Furthermore, application of the external recycle design to
and increasing thermal conductivities of the fin materials. strengthen forced heat convection is an alternative route for the
Unlike the water based ST collector, the air/gas based ST air/gas based ST collector to enhance its heat transfer performance.
collector is relatively new to Europe. This kind of collector is Ho et al. [86] theoretically and experimentally investigated a
especially useful for preheating fresh air, and its metallic sheet double-pass structure for recyclable solar absorbing plate. Con-
provides the possibility for the building façade integration. The siderable improvement in heat transfer was obtainable in compar-
external perforated sheet is around 100–300 mm that is sealed to ison with those in single-pass devices or conventional double-pass
create an air channel from the back sheet; all these together could solar heaters under the same flow rate. It was concluded that
form a building envelope for building integrated implementation channel thickness ratio and adding recycle at both ends were able
or a non-perforated insulated sheet in case of standalone system to increase the collector’s thermal efficiency. The combined effects
[81]. The principal to ensure a good heat transfer between air/gas from the attached fins and external recycle were theoretically
and absorber requires a larger contact area in order to overcome investigated in the upward-type double-pass flat-plate solar air
heaters. It was found that the collector efficiencies increased with three different locations, and the great variations appeared during
the air flow rate, number of attached fins and incident solar summer time, when thermal energy was at the lowest demand
radiation increased, enabling achieving more than 80% of improve- (Fig. 8 [25]). Thanks to these features, façade integrated collector
ment in the collector’s thermal efficiency [88]. could achieve solar fractions up to 90% without the common
Despite of the significant thermal transport capability between overheating problem and ensured proper sizing to match real
the absorber plate and pipe system, the proper mechanical joining needs with less influence to weather conditions and the external
in between is another concern enabling a good heat transfer in powers [25,48,92–93].
solar thermal systems [60]. The joints should fulfil various require- The relation between collector area and slope tilt angle was
ments, including conductivity, mechanical strength, deformation, jointly analyzed. Matuska et al. found that facade ST collectors
reliability and durability. Up to date, the common mechanical should have around 30% more surface area than the conventional
connection process is by welding or soldering [89]. Because roof ST collectors with a 451 slope, in order to achieve a 60% solar
soldering has the limitation in operational temperature and fraction. To increase the solar fraction to above 70%, the façade
corrosion risk, modern manufacturing techniques of ultrasonic surface area should be doubled [93]. Correlations between the
welding and laser beam welding have been introduced by the solar energy yields and other operational parameters (e. g.,
industry. Unfortunately, less literature has been found to cover absorbance, emissivity, orientation, wind, surface, radiator outlet
these manufacturing techniques so far. temperature) were also analysed using the TRANSYS program for
different European climatic conditions. The results indicated that
the steel-made coloured unglazed absorbers can obtain the high-
4.1.2. Dimension and position est efficiency for domestic water preheating in wind-sheltered
There are several major factors concerning position and sizing environment than for space heating, and the acceptable sizing
determination of the ASTF system, such as available area on parameters were advisable with high absorbance, less sensitive
building façade, seasonal solar radiation on accessible surface, emissivity and tilt angle between 501 and þ 501 [94]. Lobaccaro
desired solar fraction and storage volume [48]. et al. discussed the thermal energy generation of the solar
The accurate determination of the optimum tilt angle for the ST envelopes from the building oriented angle using a set of dynamic
collector is critical to its efficient operation. From the “thermal annual simulations in urban contexts. The shape modification of
system” point of view, Tang et al. [90] conducted a series of the building, selection of claddings and solar access of surrounding
comparative studies into water-in-glass evacuated tube ST collec- buildings have been recognised to impact on the sizing of ASTF
tor in the aspect of collector tilt-angle from 221 to 461. The system because of the variation in solar radiation and superficial
experimental results indicated that collector tilt-angle had sig- temperature [95]. Golic et al. defined a general model for the ASTF
nificant impact on the daily collectible radiation and daily solar systems in order to facilitate the problem-solving and to enable
heat gain, and less significant impact on the heat removal capacity the individual optimization processes for a variety of residential
from collector to storage tank and the daily solar thermal conver- building refurbishment designs [96].
sion efficiency. Chandel et al. [91] briefly reviewed the topic of tilt Thermal energy storing and release is another essential measure
angle optimization and recommended a number of optimization to reduce the size of the ASTF system and increase its efficiency. The
techniques. He mentioned that for urban areas, the obstacles that internal configurations of both the tank and immersed heat exchan-
affect the solar radiation should also be considered in determining ger were considered to have significant effects to the storage
the optimum tilt angles. Apart from the direct influence on the performance [97]. The materials used for solar thermal energy
efficiency of energy production, Giovanardi compared the monthly storage can be classified as the sensible heat storage, latent heat
sun radiation available on the optimal south exposed tilted surface storage and chemical heat storage [59]. Sensible heat storage using
vs. a vertical south exposed surface in Stockholm (Sweden), Zurich, thermal mass or water tank is the most common-used technology
(Switzerland) and Rome (Italy) from the standpoint of the aesthe- with a large number of available materials in both solid status and
tical building integration [25]. The energy production profiles of a liquid status in a more cost-effective way. However, this type of
the ST collector showed that annual solar energy production storage depends on the material mass and specific heat, which can
profiles had almost the constantly lowest performances in the make the storage unit unsatisfactorily large. PCMs, instead of being
Table 13
Summary and overview of some collector and system level approaches to stagnation control.
Stagnation control scheme Protects Protects Fail-safe operation? Cost impact? Performance or durability impact?
collectors? system
components?
Drain-back or drain-down No Yes Yes (must be installed to drain Pumping power consumption Collector loop open to atmosphere
completely if also used for freeze may be increased may increase corrosion or fouling
protection)
Control based (e.g., night Yes Yes No. (requires active control and Not for hardware. (additional May result in available energy
heat rejection, pumping) pump use and potential energy being dumped at night
recirculation etc.) loss)
Steam back Not always Not always Yes (careful design and placement of Expansion tank may have to be Potential thermal shock/scalding
system components required) oversized on restart
Collector venting (integral Yes (if Yes (if Yes (for thermally activated versions) Modest hardware cost May experience small
to collector) carefully carefully performance penalty if not
designed) designed) carefully implemented
Heat waster on collector Yes Yes Some designs operate passively – Significant hardware cost If powered may require aux.
loop others require power or pumps, fans generators or PV
etc.
Heat pipe control No Yes Yes (for thermally activated versions) Modest hardware cost System may be inoperable for
(evacuated-tube remainder of day
collector)
used directly as the working fluid, provides a nearly isothermal way achieve a high volume heat-extraction. The internal structure of
when storing/releasing thermal energy with a reasonable storage the immersed heat exchanger has significant influence to the
size due to the increased storage density [98]. Arkar et al. presented a stratification along the store height, the heat transfer and the
solar air heating system with a cylindrical heat storage with two recovery process of the immersed heat exchanger [97].
corrugated tubes, which was filled with PCM powder. The optimal
mass of PCM was around 150–200 kg/m2 for night heat discharging
used in a low heating demand building [98]. It is also worth to point 4.1.3. Operational conditions
out that the effective, reliable and practical application of PCMs is still In terms of the operation, proper control of operational
a problem that has restricted their wider deployment. In order to environment, such as temperature and flow rates, could help
overcome the problem of low thermal conductivity of the PCMs, the enhance the performance of the ASTFs [29]. Unlike the solar
embedded metal foam or graphite-PCM composite, owing to their radiation which is not the critical factor affecting the efficiency
increased thermal conductivities and specific surface area [98,100], of the air-based solar collector [102,103], the airflow distribution
was recommended to be in use in this case to enhance the heat and upward heat loss caused by ambient wind and the approach
transfer across the phase change materials. Compared to the MJ/m3 velocity have greater impact on the operational performance of
level of heat densities in the latent heat storage, chemical heat the air-based ASTF system. Gunnewiek et al. [104] studied the
storage has much higher storage densities which is in the order of GJ/ airflow distribution on the face of an unglazed solar thermal
m3. However, chemical storage has not yet been extensively inves- collector (UTSC) using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
tigated yet, and the application of chemical storage was still very model at a constant wind speed of 5 m/s. The wind was found to
limited owing to following problems: complicated reactors needed reinforce the factors producing outflow, and the recommended
for specific chemical reactions, weak long-term durability (reversi- minimum average suction velocity required to avoid such out-
bility) and chemical stability [100]. flow were given for four operational conditions. Fleck et al.
In an indirect ASTF system, the heat exchanger is an unavoid- experimentally studied the effects of the ambient wind on the
able component to transfer the absorbed solar heat from the operational performance, including the effect of the wind direc-
working fluid to the storage. The prevailing configurations of heat tion, speed and fluctuation intensity onto an UTSC. The measure-
exchange are the immersed coil-in-tank, the shell-and-tube, and ments indicated that a high magnitude of turbulence occurred at
the mantle heat exchanger, as shown in Fig. 9 [101]. To simplify the the near wall, and the maximum collector efficiency occurred at
system configuration and reduce the equipment space, the the wind speeds between 1 and 2 m/s instead of non-wind speeds
immersed heat exchangers are commonly combined into the solar [105]. Kumar et al. conducted a two-year field study focusing on
systems for one- and two-family houses. These immersed heat the relation between wind induced convective heat transfer and
exchangers are normally made of Cu- plates, finned tubes plain upward heat losses in unglazed collectors. The estimated wind
steel plates, or stainless steel tubes [21]. heat transfer coefficient has been found to correlate to the wind
Spur et al. studied the performance of the immersed coil-in- speed by linear regression and power regression [106]. Shukla
tank based heat exchanger/storage, as shown schematically in et al. reported that the increase in the approach velocity enhanced
Fig. 10 [97]. Based on the simulation and experimental results, it the collector’s efficiency. However, when the approach velocity
was concluded that performance difference between that of the increased to a certain level, its effect on efficiency became
novel store and standard ones reached over 20% when applied to negligible [107].
the DHW supply temperatures and 32% when applied to the hot- For the liquid-based solar collector, mass flow rate has been
water equivalent volumes delivered. The immersed heat exchan- considered to be a variable for extraction of maximum exergy,
ger should be such positioned to leave it above the tank in order to which can lead to the identification of inefficient parts and
Fig. 11. Test rig of the building-integrated dual-function solar system.

optimum operational conditions. Early approaches on energy gain flow rate and properties of working fluid and heat transfer
maximization through the mass-flow rate control are reported by condition in a glazed solar collector. The decreased flow rate and
Kovarik et al., Bejan et al. and Hollands et al. with different content of glycol in the glycol/water mixture were discovered to
objective functions [108–120]. Although the present control lead to a growing risk of overheating in the upper part of the
method that regulates the outlet temperature of the collector field collector panel [115]. The magnitude of the stagnation tempera-
by properly adjusting the working fluid flow may ensure a smooth ture for any solar collector depends on solar radiation level and
operation [110], the reported experimental results in literatures ambient air temperature [116]. Many approaches have been tried
were usually around 3% for the maximum exergetic efficiency. to prevent the overheating of both the solar absorbers and ASTF
Badescu implemented a direct optimal control method in a system. In addition to the simple approaches such as utilizing high
detailed collector model with realistic meteorological data. The temperature tolerant components, venting or shading absorbers, a
proposed operation at a properly defined constant mass-flow rate more intelligent method is to purposely reduce the optical
may be necessarily associated to the maximum exergy extraction performance. The relevant techniques are optical switches based
[29]. A variety of optimisation analyses were presented in a on scattering layers [117], thermotropic layers and temperature
general simulation model for the optimal design and operation varied particle solubility fluid [118]. However, these techniques
of the solar collectors [112]. Apart from the aforementioned could still not block the initial light to the collector. In that case, an
assumptions, Jafarkazemi et al. compared and evaluated the optical solution by incorporating a prismatic structure in a solar
energetic and exergetic performance of the flat plate solar collec- collector was proposed, based on the principle of switchable total
tor. Based on the theoretical results, it was obvious that energy and reflection using a prismatic structure. The experimental study
exergy efficiencies had conflicting behaviours in many cases. indicated that the maximum temperature within the collector
Designing the system with the inlet water temperature approx- could be regulated by the thermal evaporation or manual regulat-
imate to 40 1C higher than the ambient temperature as well as a ing the fluid level to the height of the prisms, and there was a
lower flow rate could increase energy and exergy efficiency by 80% strong light reducing effect around the noon with less sensitivity
and 8% respectively, whereas increasing the back insulation by for seasonal changes [119]. On the other side, the enhancement of
5 cm had little effect on both energy and exergy performance [28]. heat transfer using oscillatory flows to prevent the overheating
On the other side, high temperature is detrimental to the phenomenon is another way to degrade thermal performance of a
reliability, durability and safety for the liquid-based solar coll- solar thermal system [120]. The preliminary estimations showed
ector. Normally, well-insulated glazed flat-plate collectors achieve that a dramatic heat transfer enhancement could be achieved by
maximum stagnation temperatures of 160–200 1C, and evacuated using oscillatory flows compared to the standard unidirectional
tube collectors of 200–300 1C [21]. Overheating problems usually flows. Furthermore, Harrison et al. provided an overview of the
occur when no hot water is used or the circulation of working fluid stagnation control from both the collector level and system level,
fails to transfer enough thermal heat [113,114]. Fan et al. elucidated as presented in Table 13 [115]. To optimise the performance of the
the relation between different operational conditions, including latent heat storage in a solar air heating system, Arkar et al.
Fig. 12. Comparison of both numerical simulation and experimental measurements during a typical summer/autumn day.
Fig. 13. Structure of solar water collector of H2OSS.
Fig. 14. Transparent solar thermal collector with its HVAC system (TSTC ¼transparent solar thermal collector, TABS¼ thermally activated building system).
studied the relations between the PCM melting temperatures, air These studies were dedicated to (1) reveal the relations between
flow-rate through the thermal storage and the overall perfor- the thermal performance and structure of a ST collector in terms of
mance of solar air heating system. Based on the transient layers, surface condition and colour; (2) optimise the structural/
conduction-dominated numerical model, the optimal air flow- geometrical parameters of a ST collector including the constitu-
rate of 40 nu3/h per m2 was suggested [121]. tion, connection, geometrical shape and sizes; and (3) recommend
the favourite operational conditions to enhance both energy and
4.1.4. Summary of deficiencies in existence exergy efficiencies, e.g. flow rate, inlet temperature, etc.
In summary, the major shortfalls in current ASFT designs are: Theoretical analyses can be basically divided into the
(1) most concepts of absorber parts in the ASTF are directly analytical-model-based and numerical-model-based. The analyti-
inherited from the conventional solar thermal collectors, which cal models refer to the study on the effect of absorption or/and
have the problems of instability under long term weather expo- emission with surface temperature of the glass cover(s) [58,61,62];
sure, difficulty in both on-site assembly and practical application address optical, thermo, mechanical and morphological properties
and complexity in fluid channel structure resulting in the bulk and structures of the solar absorbers using black pigmented
volume and fragile for the ASTF application; (2) there are insuffi- polypropylene materials [63]; examine the fully developed lami-
cient considerations in ASTF’s geometry, colour and texture design nar flow and heat transfer characteristics in solar collector panels
leading to the poor building appealing; (3) there are insufficient with internal, longitudinal, corrugated fins [80]; comparatively
building-related studies in terms of lighting pollution, acoustic study the tilt angle and direction on the efficiency of energy
effect, structural load and building-scale thermal performance. production for the ST collector from different aspects [25,90–91];
pinpoint parameters that have direct effect on the entropy gen-
eration rate for the ST collector [122]; investigate the energy
4.2. Theoretical simulation and prediction collection characteristics with different coloured absorbers in
different geographical locations [70]; develop the relation
Overall, there are plenty of research methodologies applied to between the energy yields and operational parameters (e.g.,
theoretical studies of solar thermal systems, depending on the absorbance, emissivity, orientation, wind, surface, radiator outlet
contents and objectives of the researches. Generally, the research temperature) in different European climatic conditions [94]; and
works can be classified as theoretical and numerical study and understand the influence on the sizing of the ASTF system by
digital tool development. building shape, claddings structure and solar access of the sur-
rounding buildings [95].
4.2.1. Theoretical and computer modeling The numerical models include the one-dimensional and multi-
A large number of theoretical works have been carried out dimensional one. The one dimensional model was used to deter-
focusing on investigation of the performance of solar collector. mine the physical parameters of a flat-plate solar collector using a
special water-alumina or the Al2O3 nano-fluid [123], and under- Table 14

stand the heat transfers occurring in different parts of a solar Life cycle inventory (LCI) of the studied BI solar thermal systems.
thermal collector [64]; while the multi-dimensional numerical
Materials Mass (kg)
model was used to understand the heat transfers in solid matrix in
the massive solar thermal collectors [64], analyse the heat transfer One collector materials/components
enhancement using PCM metal foams [99], study the airflow Black absorber (aluminium) 0.196
distribution across the face of an UTSC with the presence of wind Cover (glass) 1.417
Tube for cold water (copper) 0.253
to avoid outflow in the air based ASTF system [104], provide the Tube for hot water (copper) 0.253
best operational strategies for open loop flat-plate solar collector Thermal insulation (rockwool) 0.231
system with a detailed simulation model and real meteorological External casing (aluminium) 0.615
data [29], develop the energy and exergy analyses to evaluate the Two blades (polycarbonate) 0.048
Polyester (at the case) 0.007
thermal and optical performance, exergy flows and losses, as well
Gutter: external casing (aluminium) 0.728
as exergetic efficiency for a typical flat plate solar collector under Polyester (at the gutter) 0.010
dedicated operational conditions [112]. 0.5
System additional materials/components
Storage tank (stainless steel) 12.479
4.2.2. Digital tools for building integration design
Storage tank (rockwool insulation) 4.081
Unlike the common solar thermal devices, the ASTF acts as the Tubes (copper) 5.637
critical part of the building envelope. For this regard, development Tubes (polyurethane insulation) 1.804
of the dedicated design tools is important to building design. From Propylene glycol 1.400
the previous studies, the digital design tool seems to be cost- Pump (stainless steel) 3.000
effective and informative in determining the system size, optimiz-

ing system configuration and predicting its solar yield and asso-
ciated energy saving in the building. Up to date, there are some individual component to the whole system scheme with the
architecture-related digital tools available for architect, engineer following objectives: (1) understand the real performance of
and researcher, which can be mainly classified into: computer- components and whole system under particular working condi-
aided architectural design (CAAD) tools, visualization tools and tions; (2) determine the optimal operation parameters for ener-
simulation tools [21,124,125]. getic and exergetic evaluation; (3) examine the reliability and
In terms of building design, the CAAD tools, as part of building accuracy between the theoretical analysis and practical application
information modelling (BIM) programme, were mainly used to and establish their further correlations; and (4) provide evidences
simulate and refine the geometry of ASTFs and the whole building. for amendment and modification to theoretical model for
Till now, the direct and explicit feedbacks from building parameter future use.
modification on passive solar gains basically relied on plug-ins Experimental and combined modelling/experimental works
from connected third-party software to realize energy simulation done so far include: (1) system efficiency and its relevance to
prediction [126]. The visualization tools mainly study the direct various design parameters, surface treatment and structure
and diffuse light penetration patterns and shading effects on improvements [67,84,87,88,93,127–129]; (2) the impacts of the
building facades and internal luminous environment. Overall, the operational parameters on system’s working performance
simulation tools can be classified as the static calculation program, [28,105]; (3) the thermal performances variation with different
dynamic time-dependant program and comprehensive program. colours of the absorber plate [71,72]; (4) overheating protection
Till now, the available simulation tools for active solar thermal and its relevance to the material composition, surface treatment,
design are Ecotect, IES (VE), TRNSYS, DK-INTEGRAL, IDA ICE, structure modification, control method and ambient environment
LESOSAI, Polysun, SOLTOP and TSol [21,124,126]. [116–120,130,131]; and (5) comparison between the modelling
Based on the multiple functions of the computer programs, the results and experimental results [71,127,132] and subsequent
prediction and interpretation of the performance of multi- model validation.
functional building facades could be easily accomplished and the Jie Ji et al. [129] conducted the outdoor experiment of a dual-
results of the modelling could form the supplementary part of the functional solar facade to validate the dynamic numerical model
whole building simulation and used to carry out the whole based on practical air-conditioned room design conditions, as
building performance assessments. shown in Fig. 11. The water heat gain in the tank was found to
be 3.41 MJ/m2 and 6.57 MJ/m2, based on the water temperature
4.2.3. Summary of deficiencies in existence rise from the initial 26.8/18.2 1C at 8:00 to the final temperature of
In summary, the established theoretical and computer model- 41.8/47.6 1C at 16:00 with the overall thermal efficiency of 50.8%/
ling studies could be used to predict the performance of the ST 48.4%, as shown in Fig. 12 [129]. The operational performance of
collector, determine its operational conditions, and optimise its the solar façade in a typical autumn day seemed to be better than
geometrical sizes. The further efforts on this topic may include: in a typical summer day.
(1) study of the dynamic performance of a whole ASTF system Fabrice Motte et al. [133] presented a new conceptual ASTF
under long-term operational conditions; (2) investigation of the component with remarkable shape and rainwater gutter applica-
relation between the ASTF system’s energy yield and thermal tion with the validation of 1 year’s experimental data under
comfort indexes within the interior of the building; and (3) review various meteorological situations. A good accuracy between mod-
of the potential interactions between architectural and building elled and experimental temperatures was achieved by computing
services designs, thus developing the more advanced digital tools the absolute and relative Root Mean Square Errors for the outlet
to guide through the ASTF building integration design process. water temperature over the four seasons (about 90 days). The
thermal efficiency was around 60%, which is similar to conven-
4.3. Experimental works tional solar collectors when operating at low temperature. Future
improvements, such as influence of material change, structure
4.3.1. Introduction of the past experimental works modification or possible improvements would follow on with the
As a high grade of practical technology, experimental study is proper validation, as shown in Fig. 13 [133]. Anderson et al. looked
not negligible for the ASTF application, running from the into the thermal performances variation with different colours of
the absorber plate. By using the combined experimental and brought into consideration and this included a few critical factors:
numerical techniques, the performance of coloured solar collectors (1) instalmentsþinterest to return the investment over a 15 year
can be accurately presented, as shown in Fig. 4. Although the duration; (2) operational & maintenance costs (O&M); (3) fixed
conventional black-coloured collector has the highest thermal energy service charge in case that an ESCO provides the energy
efficiency, the least performed white-coloured collector yet pro- services; (4) energy costs minus revenues from renewable electricity
vides approximately 25% of the heating load. Therefore, there generation, and (5) rent. A list of costs of all the elements in all
would be large scope of variation in terms of solar collector colour renovations was entered into the business model, for instant, the
and solar heat output [71]. Christoph Maurer et al. [134,135] costs for the novel ASTFs were in the range 450 to 550 €/m2 per
experimentally studied a transparent solar thermal system speci- façade including 20% VAT and labour cost for installation. A sensitivity
fically for high-rise buildings integration with a detailed physical analysis using the Monte Carlo model was then undertaken by
model based on the laboratory measurements. The showcase considering the variation of a number of parameters, including the
installation in Ljubljana not only delivered extensive real-time investment cost and discount rate. From this study, it was found that
operational data, but also provided a comparison between the the main parameters that determine a positive outcome of the
modelling and on-site testing results, as shown in Fig. 14 [134,135]. business cases were the rent and the investment cost, nevertheless,
The dedicated modelling indicated that the primary energy sav- the effect of the energy bill (and its annual increase) had a much
ings of around 30% could be achieved if replacing the opaque walls smaller effect on the outcome of the business cases [26]. Apart from
with transparent collectors, while the solar factor proved to the basic functional structure investment, auxiliary facilities as the
depend not only on the irradiation, but also on the operation of temperature control measures are also essential. Harrison et al. [116]
the solar collectors [134,135]. summarised and compared some collector and system level
approaches of stagnation temperature control and noticed that the
4.3.2. Summary of deficiencies in existence temperature control measures were indispensable with considerable
In summary, the above mentioned researches solely focused on potential benefits. The stagnation temperature control is necessary to
efficiency study of the ASTFs. However, less works have been prevent losses such as replacement or collateral damage, inefficient
found on measurement of the building envelope function or thermal performance, wastes of operational time and energy due to
indoor thermal comfort. As the solar collection is only achievable increased maintenance or shut down periods, the reduction of
during sunny daytime, the other building related factors, such as component life, increased service and maintenance costs etc.
local solar irradiation, ASTF‘s shading effect, etc. should reach the Expenses vary depending on the approach used and level of tem-
satisfactory standards during the remaining time. In addition, perature stagnation protection desired. Further, most of the men-
careful considerations should be made on the ASTF structures, it tioned costs and gains should be evaluated using the time value of
initial investment, payback time, type of target building and users’ money as well, including inflation, tax and/or company discount rates.
demands. Furthermore, as the real-time measurement results for
the thermal efficiency of the ASTFs are usually lower than that of
solar collector under standard testing conditions and varied with 4.4.2. Environmental performance and social acceptance analyses
locations and building energy systems, the offset approach for Based on the studies carried by Lamnatou et al., there were very
real-time ASTF thermal efficiency should also be determined. To few literatures addressing the LCA works relating to the ASTF systems
enable this, a comprehensive comparison between the modelling and their real building integration [137]. Katrin Löwe et al. [32] carried
and experimental results should be conducted. out an EU funded project “Cost-Effective” which focused on the
existing European high-rise building stock for non-residential use
with an approach for assessing the environmental influence of energy
4.4. Economic and environmental performance assessment generating components by means of parameterized LCA models
within the GaBis software. On the basis of the modular approach
Some literatures address the energy saving and environmental for environmental impacts calculation, the LCA assessment was
beneficial potentials for using the ASTF systems in real buildings. In divided into “multifunctional component” and “technical concept
terms of economic concern, simple payback time and life cycle composed of the component integration and modernization activ-
analysis were addressed, taking into account the primary fossil fuel ities”. It followed a “Cradle to Grave” approach for the both parts,
energy conservation, increasing in manufacturing and maintenance considering the various stages of the product life-cycle process
costs during the operational phase, while the approaches of enhancing including construction, in-use, and end-of-life, according to the
system energy and exergy efficiencies, and reducing the greenhouse- regulation of European Standard prEN15978. K. Golic ́ et al. [96]
gas emissions, were also presented in order to assess the environ- defined a general model of solar water heating system (SWHS)
mental impact of the ASTFs. integration in the residential building to explore its potential energy
saving and associated environmental impact. The model was divided
4.4.1. Economic performance assessment into five basic phases including (1) calculation of integration; (2) type
Generally, the overall ASTF performance was simply evaluated by selection; (3) generation and optimization of the integration design
the outputs of heat in different ways. One way is to determine the variants; (4) evaluation of the SWHS integration design variants; and
cost saving from the tariffs of heating energy, which was a market- (5) selection of optimal SWHS integration design variants to solve
based approach to assess the energy cost savings and associated problems related to the functional and aesthetic, energy performance,
benefit to energy management. However, this method has a draw- economic and ecological conflicting classes of requirements. The
back of not considering the impact of policy factor that is therefore measures for ‘Building Potential’, PB, and ‘Degree of Feasibility’, pB,
not universally valid [136]. As the implementation of the ASTF system were first introduced to assess the adaptability of the SWHS integra-
is much different from a ‘business as usual’ component, it is worth to tion. Finally, a decision on SWHS integration in the building is made
treat the business related problems as an investment project to make by the Decision-Maker (i.e., Investor) on the basis of pB value. Till now,
it financially attractive. Koene et al. [26] assessed the cost effective- the proposed general model has been successfully applied to a real
ness for a financially attractive ASTF in the building renovation using a problem in the suburb of “Konjarnik” in Belgrade, Serbia. Currently,
more practical method. In terms of economic issue, the PV is defined the case for the life-cycle impact assessment by Lamnatou et al. taught
as the present discounted value to represent a future amount of us the lessons in another direction, which is presented in Table 14 for
money discounted to reflect its current value. A business model was Life cycle inventory sourced from literature [137]). They investigated
a patented building-integrated solar thermal collector with three operated and adaptable to different buildings at different climatic
configurations based on both methodologies of embodied energy conditions [96].
(EE) and embodied carbon (EC). Two databases, as inventory of carbon The previous economic and environmental analyses are simply
& energy and Alcorn, and multiple scenarios (related to material the indications of the performance of the sole ASTF technology in
recycling, electricity mix, etc.), were considered. The results showed terms of its economic and carbon benefits. Future works should
that the EPBT of the reference system fell to less than 2 years by focus on the investigation of the long-term performance of these
means of the parallel connection and even to 0.5 years by using the systems that are integrated into different types of buildings and
material recycling, the EE of the systems was around 3 GJprim/m2 and operated in different climatic conditions.
around 0.4–0.5 GJprim/m2 by recycling, the EC of the configurations
was approximately 0.16 t CO2.eq/m2 without recycling and around
4.5. Summary of the previous works
0.02–0.03 t CO2.eq/m2 with recycling, which were strongly related to
the electricity mix. This study also exhibited a promising potential for
The previous researches on the ASTF systems have focused on
further development, e.g., by improving heat transfer processes [137].
(1) revealing the energy transfer and conversation occurring in the
Although the ASTFs could achieve a better environmental
ASTF modules and the integrated system; (2) optimising the struc-
benefit in the climatic regions of high solar radiation, cold regions
tural/geometrical parameters of the ASTF modules; (3) suggesting the
with low solar radiation were also studied, indicating that ASTFs
appropriate operational conditions; (4) developing the link between
can harvest certain environmental benefit in these areas. An
the theoretical analysis and practical application through real-time
integrated solar water heater incorporating a reflector and a heat
measurement; (5) analysing the economic and environmental benefits
storage unit was studied for its application in Northern Europe, i.e.,
of the ASTF module and its associated system; (6) developing appro-
Ireland, indicating that the primary embodied energy of the
priate computerised tools for the ASTF systems to determine the
materials was 2.94 GJ while the total embodied energy for the
system size, optimize its structure, and predict both solar yield and
unit was 3.81 GJ. In general, the total energy used in the manu-
building energy saving potentials; and (7) considerations of proper
facture of the collector was recovered in less than 2 years [138].
ASTF systems with compensation of operational performance and
It is seen that the solar energy use in the UK is steadily growing
capital cost.
over the past years owing to the implementation of a number of
low carbon legislations [139]. To study this impact, Burnett et al.
carried out a series of assessments of the solar irradiation resources
5. Opportunities for the future development
at the present and future climatic conditions across the UK, using
the UKCP09 probabilistic climate change projections. This indicated
5.1. Development of an integrated platform (including database/
that the current average UK annual solar radiation intensity was
software) enabling both architectural design and engineering
101.2 W m 2, with the maximum of 128.4 W m 2 in the south of
performance analyses
England and the minimum of 71.8 W m 2 in the northwest of
Scotland. This suggested that the southern regions of the UK would
One of the major difficulties in promoting the ASTF technologies is
be most suitable for application of solar thermal technologies [139].
the shortage of the interactions between the architects and engineers
In the residential building context, according to statistics, a solar
during the integration process. An interactive platform enabling
thermal system incorporating a 4 m2 of solar collector can provide
communication between architects and engineers should be able to
up to 50–60% of a typical household’s annual hot water demand, or
create such an opportunity. This platform will gather together the
space heating demand in summer time. In the commercial building
knowledge, information and experiences developed from large num-
context, a well designed solar system may be able to meet 30–40%
ber of previous ASTFs integrated building projects, which should cover
of the annual hot water load. In order to fully replace the traditional
the architecture solutions, structural loadings and building energy
gas-fired domestic heating systems, a large area of solar collectors
metrics et al. This kind of platform will be designers-oriented enabling
should be installed on the building facades or integrated into the
them to find as much information as need and helping them to make
building construction; these should also be in combined use with a
decision on any design stage. The database is an important part of the
heat pump [4]. In summary, solar water heating could provide 9.5%
platform that will enable continuous inclusion of the newly developed
of domestic heat consumption in a typical UK house [140].
ASTF cases, as well as their performance data. These could be used to
Rogers et al. studied the potential of the solar thermal water
guide through the future ASTFs project design, their performance
heaters to meet household hot water demand during the summer
assessment and decision making etc.
period in a high solar intensive area [140], i.e., the latitude
between 501 to 601 north, giving a positive solution of the
technology. It is seen that laying down a solar panel in an inclined 5.2. Real-time measurement of the ASTFs integrated buildings on a
angle was not necessary in summer; instead, a vertically mounted long-term scheme
solar panel could provide a very high solar fraction.
This real-time measurement of the ASTFs integrated buildings
should be an important direction to move on. This will involve the
4.4.3. Summary of deficiencies in existence measurement of the energy performance of the buildings, their
In summary, works related to economic and environmental services systems, structural performance, architectural performance,
analyses cover (1) development of the relation between life cycle electrical and gas consumptions et al., over a relatively long duration
savings and annual bill savings (FYFS) using various coloured solar (e.g. 412 months). The testing results will reflect the operational
collectors [69]; (2) determination of the life cycle costs of stagnation performance of the ASTFs system under the real building and
in ST collectors [116]; (3) assessment of the life cycle of active façade real climatic conditions. Comparison between the modelling and
components during operation phase [32]; (4) estimation of the experimental results will be made to enable updating the model to
potential saving of fossil-fuel energy and reduction in CO2 emission a close-to-reality status. The results will also be used to assess the
through the application of the building integrated solar collector energy saving potential, economic and environmental benefits of the
system [141,142]; and (5) development of a comprehensive model ASTF systems under real operational conditions, which will help
for the solar collector system that has good solar collecting determination of the adaptability of the technology for a specific
performance, is aesthetically building integrated, economically building and under a dedicated climatic condition.
5.3. Economic and environmental performance assessment and of ASTF products and explore innovative design methods enabling
social acceptance analysis their wider applications in building sector.
ASTF is a special kind of facade combing solar thermal collector
The economic assessment will address the capital cost, life into a building component. Unlike the conventional solar thermal
cycle cost, energy/bill saving, as well as payback time in relation to collector, the ASTF is an integrated device with solar-collecting,
the ASTFs technology and its integration in a building. The architectural, and structural functions. Currently, the established
environmental analysis will address the potential annual and symbiotic relationship among architectural design, functional
life-cycle fossil fuel energy saving and carbon emission reduction properties, economical efficiency and energy conservation are
of the technology when being installed on a building. Social generally underestimated and/or considered as merely subjective
acceptance and feasibility of the ASTFs technology will be eval- in the physical integration. Compared to the simple physical
uated taking into account the survey results to public and the combination between the façade and solar thermal collector, the
economic and environmental assessment results. The potential ASTF has significantly enhanced operational performance, namely
impact of the new ASTF technology will be assessed under both (1) greater solar collecting capacity; (2) easy modular installation;
the environmental certification programs and building simulation (3) reduced equipment space; (4) improved building thermal
platforms. Based on the above works, it seems necessary to comfort and inhabitability; and (5) satisfactory aesthetic, technical
develop an social-economic model to predict the economic and and safety performance leading to the easy pipe connection,
social effect performance of the technology for building applica- increased load bearing, and improved capacity to withstand the
tion, which should takes into account the building energy saving, extreme weather et al.
façade costs, life cycle cost, fossil fuel consumption, billing saving, ASTFs could be classified by facade envelope type, solar collect-
carbon emission reduction, as well as payback time et al. ing typologies, facade transparency and heat-transfer medium. In
terms of facade envelope type, the ASTFs are classified as the wall-,
5.4. Dissemination, marketing and exploitation strategies window-, balcony-, and roof-based types. Based on this, a number
of representative real ASTF projects were introduced to address
In order to motivate the application of the ASTF technology, well their performance in both solar energy collection and building
planned dissemination activities should be organised to attract the integration. The evaluation standards of the ASTFs were then
interests of the general public. The approaches for this are numer- studied addressing the relevant requirements to ASTFs from the
ous, including the publications, showcases, workshops, site visits, architectural, energy efficiency, structural, safety and economic
open days, newsletter, conferences and exhibition presences. These aspects. Furthermore, the dedicated R&D works in relation to ASTFs
events may invite both local and national media (television, news- were analysed in terms of the design, simulation, experiment, and
papers, etc.) to conduct live reports throughout the processes. social economic issues. Last but not least, the future opportunities in
Analysis of the market potential is crucial for the development of ASTFs related R&D and business development were indicated.
ASTF products. It is well known that solar technology is expected to It was found that the key challenge relating to the ASTFs is to
provide nearly 50% of the low-and-medium temperature heat maintain both enhanced solar thermal efficiency and improved
within the EU. A market study of the ASTF products is suggested architectural integration. The current ASTFs have problems of
and this should proceed by the following ways: (1) case studies of (1) bulky size; (2) complex structure; (3) easy to reach over-
existing ASTF products to identify their applicability for end users, heating; (4) low optical efficiencies; and (5) high capital cost. In
climatic regions, market positions, and recommendations; (2) a line with these deficiencies, numerous R&D efforts have been
feasibility study of ASTF application in various locations, building made to: (1) understand the mechanism of energy transfer and
types and energy systems; (3) a market survey of customers’ conversion occurring in ASTF systems; (2) optimise their struc-
preferences; and (4) the establishment of a generic extrapolating tural/geometrical configurations; (3) suggest adequate operational
methodology for the market analysis of ASTF systems. conditions; (4) build the link between theoretical analysis and
The exploitation strategies will involve collection/identification practical application; (5) analyse the economic and environmental
of the important technical breakthroughs or findings, and exploi- benefits of the solar thermal system; and (6) develop appropriate
tation of the results through appropriate routes to help achieving computer assisted tools to guide through the ASTF system design
the successful replication and deployment of the dedicated ASTF and performance analyses.
technology throughout Europe and worldwide, including (1) iden- In terms of the future development, four potential directions are
tifying sensitivity of the publishing items; (2) dealing with suggested: (1) development of an integrated database/software
intellectual property related issues; (3) completing license agree- enabling both architecture design and engineering performance
ment; (4) identifying the potential business opportunities and simulation; (2) real-time measurement of the ASTFs integrated build-
setting up business ventures; (5) completing technology imple- ings on a long-term scheme; (3) economic and environmental
mentation plans; (6) developing a commercial plan; and (7) devel- performance assessment and social acceptance analysis; (4) dissemi-
oping a financial plan for commercialisation. nation, marketing and exploitation strategies study.
6. Conclusion Acknowledgement
A review into R&D works and practical application of the The authors would like to express our appreciation to European
recently emerging ASTF system has been carried out. The results Commission for its financial support under the FP7 Marie Curie
of this work help to understand the current status of the specific Action Programme, with the Contract FP7-PEOPLE-2010-IIF-
solar thermal technology, i.e., Active Solar Thermal Facade system. 272362, FP7-PEOPLE-2011-IIF-298093.
Furthermore, the review will also help (1) identify both technical
characteristics of ASTFs in design, installation and operation, and
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Active Solar Thermal Facades (ASTFs): From concept, application to research

Article in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · April 2015

Xingxing Zhang Jingchun Shen

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Active Solar Thermal Facades (ASTFs): From concept, application

2.1. Concept and fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Nomenclatures Qaux,t overall auxiliary heat required, W

For conductive heat transfer

Classiﬁcation methods Classiﬁcation results

Facade element Wall

Collecting TYPOLOGIES Evacuated tube collector (direct-ﬂow/heat-pipe)

Facade Transparency Transparent solar collector for window integration

Facade application Ventilation or heat recovery

Heat transfer medium Air

Schematic structure Schematic structure

Facade Advantages Disadvantages

Country(ies) Standard Description Focal point

Requirement Component type Source of the requirement and classiﬁcation

Component Price range Unit

ASTF type Collector performance Advantages Disadvantages

Hydraulic-water þþþ Nontoxic; Potential mineral deposits;

Hydraulic-refrigerant þþþþ Small ﬂuid volume; High cost;

System schematic structure Distinct features

Aluminium absorbers with a highly selective coating;

AKS Doma Flex [33]

WAF solar façade [35]

RobinSun solar thermal glass [36]

VarioSol A/E collectors [38]

System schematic structure Distinct features

SolTech Sigma [40]

COBRA Evo. [41]

QUICK STEP Solar Thermie [42]

Atmova roof title [43]

TECU Solar System [44]

System schematic structure Distinct features

HelioPower A/S [45]

Energie Solaire Solar Roof [46]

Category 1: Family house cases

No. 1 “Home for life” concept house, Aarhus, Denmark

Picture source: VKR Holding A/S

Picture source: Jadarhus AS

Picture source: SIKO SOLAR GmbH

Category 1: Family house cases

Picture source: SIKO SOLAR GmbH

Picture source: AEE INTEC

Picture source: Aventa AS

Picture source: AEE INTEC

Photo: Bjørn Larsen

Photo: DI Wilhelm Hofbauer/Treberspurg and

Category 1: Family house cases

No. 13 Production Hall Meusburger, Austria

Picture source: AEE INTEC

Picture source: AEE INTEC

Picture source: AEE INTEC

Category 1: Family house cases

Photo: Fraunhofer ISE (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar

Photo: Matrix Energy

Photo: Finn Staale Feldberg

Fig. 3. Different absorber surface geometries for ASTF system.