4.

1 Model calibration and validation

The first step, in FE simulations, was to calibrate and validate a numerical
model based on experimental tests.
In order to obtain a model able to replicate the behaviour observed in
experimental tests, the following were taken into account:
measured imperfections (d2 type imperfections). For this type of
imperfection, it was considered the distortional mode obtained from
a buckling analysis, scaled to measured imperfection. The measured
imperfections confirmed a distortional buckling mode initial
imperfection.
real material behaviour. It is known that the cold forming process
modifies the material behaviour, especially in the corners where the
deformation due to cold forming is significantly higher. The material
behaviour curves for RS125 section are presented in Fig. Error! No
text of specified style in document..1. The material was
considered to have a perfectly plastic behaviour after the tensile
strength point.
the presence of residual stresses was modelled as initial stress
condition using the real residual stress distribution. (see Chapter 3).

6 7 7 6
8

5 5

3 4 4 3
3 3

2 2

1 1

Fig. Error! No text of specified style in document..1 Material behaviour curves defined in
FE models for RS125 models

The numerical model was created using 3D deformable shell shape, created
by extrusion. A homogeneous shell continuum section using a Simpson integration
rule on thickness with 5 points was used.
A RIGID BODY with PINNED nodes constrained was created for each end, in
order to model the end assembly. The rigid body constraint allows one to constrain
the motion of regions of the assembly to the motion of a reference point. The
relative positions of the regions that are part of the rigid body remain constant
throughout the analysis. Constraining the end region to the reference point motion,
restrained the translational DOFs of the section and, in the same time, allowed the
point’s rotation. The reference point position was considered in the sections gravity
centre, 55mm outside the profile. The 55mm distance accounts the end plates
(10mm), the pressure pads (30mm), the ball indentation (-5mm) and half of the
ball bearing (40/2=20mm).
164 Error! No text of specified style in document. – Error! No text of
specified style in document.

Fig. Error! No text of specified style in document..2 End constrains

In order to create a reliable mesh and to account the holes present along
the specimen’s length a mesh size of about 5x5mm was chosen. The elements were
constrained to a rectangular form and a structured mesh was used.

a) section without perforations b) section with perforations

Fig. Error! No text of specified style in document..3 Mesh details for RS125 STUB
specimen

To investigate the influence of different element types i.e. S4, S4R, S8R,
S8R5 (ABAQUS codification), geometric imperfections, material properties i.e. Young
modulus, yield stress and/or residual stresses on ultimate failure load, a parametric
study was conducted on RS125 STUB column specimen.
According to Error! Reference source not found. the elements are
defined as follows:
S4 is a 4-noded doubly curved general-purpose shell element, with
finite membrane strains;
 4.1 – Model calibration and validation 165

S4Ris a 4-noded doubly curved general-purpose shell element with

reduced integration, hourglass control and finite membrane strains;
S8R is an 8-noded doubly curved thick shell, reduced integration
S8R5 is an 8-node doubly curved thin shell with reduced integration, using
five degrees of freedom per node
For Abaqus analyses, the element codification respects the following
schema:
warping considered in small-strain
formulation in ABAQUS/Explicit (optional)

S 8 R 5 W
continuum stress/displacement shell (SC);
triangular stress/displacement thin shell (STRI);
heat transfer shell (DS)
reduced integration (optional)

number of nodes
conventional stress/displacement shell (S)
continuum stress/displacement shell (SC);
triangular stress/displacement thin shell (STRI);
heat transfer shell (DS)

For numerical simulations, the specimen was considered pinned at one end
and simply supported at the other. For the pinned end, all three translations
together with the rotation about the longitudinal profile’s axis were restrained, while
the rotations about maximum and minimum inertia axis were allowed. For the
simply supported end, the sectional translations and the rotation about longitudinal
profile’s axis were restrained, while the rotations about major and minor inertia axis
together with longitudinal translation were allowed.
The pined end was considered to replicate the end support of the real test
specimen, while the simply supported end was considered to reproduce the loading
machine end, allowing for direct force/displacement specification. For test
specimens, the rotation about longitudinal axis was prevented by friction, while for
numerical model the rotation was restrained, in order to remove rigid body
displacements (rotations in this case).
The FE analysis was conducted in two steps:
step 1: an eigen buckling analysis (LBA), in order to find a buckling
mode or combination of buckling modes, affine with the measured
imperfections. A unitary force was applied in the reference point of
the simply supported end constraint and the resulting buckling
modes were exported as deformed geometry.
step 2: After imposing the initial geometric imperfection, obtained as
a linear combination of eigen buckling modes from previous step, a
GMNIA analysis with arc-length (static, Riks) solver was used to
determine the profiles capacity. A unit displacement was applied at
the simply supported end in order to simulate a displacement
controlled experimental test.
In Error! Reference source not found. are presented the considered
imperfections, together with the load eccentricities used for numerical model
calibration. The multiplication factor for distortional buckling mode, i.e. IMP,
166 Error! No text of specified style in document. – Error! No text of
specified style in document.

considered as initial imperfections, was determined using Eq. Error! Reference

source not found..