Combinational Logic

Circuits

+ Demonstrate the ability to use basic Boolean laws.

+ Use the sum-of-products method to design a logic circuit based on a design truth
table.
+ Be able to make Karnaugh maps and Entered variable maps and use them to simplify
Boolean expressions.
+ Use the product-of-sums method to design a logic circuit based on a design truth
table.
+ Use Quine-McClusky tabular method for logic simplification
+ Analyze hazards in logic circuit and provide solution for them.

This chapter discussesBooleanalgebraand several simplificationtechniques.After learning the laws and

theoremsof Booleanalgebra,you can rearrangeBooleanequationsto arrive at simpler logic circuits. An
alternativemethodof simplification is basedon the Kamaughmap. In this approach,geometricratherthan
algebraictechniquesare used to simplify logic circuits. Quine-McCluskytabular methodprovidesa more
systematicreductiontechnique,which is preferredwhen a large numberof variablesare in consideration.
There are two fundamentalapproachesin logic design: the sum-of-productsmethodand the product-
of-sumsmethod. Either methodproducesa logic circuit correspondingto a given truth table. The sum-of-
productssolution results in an AND-OR or NAND-NAND network, while the product-of-sumssolution
resultsin an OR-AND or NOR-NOR network. Either can be used,althougha designerusually selectsthe
simplercircuit becauseit costslessandis morereliable.A practicallogic circuit canshowhazarddueto finite
propagationdelayinvolved in eachlogic gate.This gives glitchesor showsmultiple transitionsat the output.
This chapterdiscussesdifferent types of hazardsand ways to preventthem.
 Combinational Logic Circuits

3.1 BOOLEAN LAWS ANO THEOREMS

You shouldknow enoughBooleanalgebrato make obvious simplifications. What follows is a discussionof

the basic laws and theoremsof Booleanalgebra.Someof them will look familiar from ordinary algebrabut
otherswill be distinctly new.

Basic laws
The commutativelaws are
A+B=B+A (3.1)
AB =BA (3.2)
Thesetwo equations indicate that the order of a logical operationis unimportantbecausethe sameanswer
is arrived at either way. As far as logic circuits are concerned.Figure 3.la showshow to visualize Eq. (,.1).
All it amountsto is realizing that the inputs to an OR gate can be transposedwithout changingthe output.
Likewise, Fig. 3.lb is a graphicalequivalentfor Eq. (3.2).
The associativelaws are
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (3.3)
A(BC) = (AB)C (3.4)

;=[)-r !=f:>-r
(a)

~=[)-y !=[)-r
(b)

~=e>-=D-y ;~y
(c)

B~Y
C
A=C>;=[)- y
B
C
(d)

A y

C
(e)

Commutative, associative,and distributive laws

 Digital Principles and Applications

Theselaws show that the orderof combiningvariableshasno effect on the final answer.In termsoflogic
circuits, Fig. 3.lc illustrates Eq.(3.3), while Fig. 3.ld representsEq. (3.4).
The distributive law is
A(B + C) = AB + AC (3.5)
This law is easyto rememberbecauseit is identicalto ordinaryalgebra.Figure3.1 e showsthecorresponding
logic equivalence.The distributive law gives you a hint about the value of Boolean algebra.If you can
rearrangea Booleanexpression,the correspondinglogic circuit may be simpler.
The first five laws presentno difficulties becausethey are identical to ordinary algebra.You canusethese
laws to simplify complicatedBooleanexpressions and arrive at simpler logic circuits. But beforeyou begin,
you haveto learn other Booleanlaws and theorems.

OR Operations
The next four Booleanrelationsare aboutOR operations.Here is the first:
A+O=A (3.6)
This saysthat a variableORedwith Oequalsthe variable.If you think aboutit, makesperfectsense.When
A is 0,
O+O =O
And whenA is 1,
1+ 0 = 1
In either case, Eq.(3.6) is true.
AnotherBooleanrelation is
A+A =A (3.7)
Again, you can seeright through this by substitutingthe two possiblevaluesof A. First whenA = 0, Eq.
(3.7) gives
O+O =O
which is true. Next, A = I resultsin
1+ 1 = 1
which is also true because1 ORed with 1 produces1. Therefore,any variable ORed with itself equalsthe
variable.
AnotherBooleanrule worth knowing is
A+ I= 1 (3.8)
Why is this valid? WhenA= 0, Eq. (3.8) gives
0+1 =1
which is true. Also. A = 1 gives
1+ 1 =1
This is correct becausethe plus sign implies OR addition, not ordinary addition. In summary,
Eq. (3.8) saysthis, if one inputto an OR gate is high, the output is high no matterwhat the other input.
 Combinational Logic Circuits

Finally, we have
A+ A= I (3.9)
You shouldseethis in a flash. If A is 0, A is 1 and the equationis true. Conversely,if A is 1, A is Oand
the equationstill agrees.In short, a variable ORedwith its complementalways equalsI.

AND Operations
Here are threeAND relations
A· 1 =A (3.10)
A ·A =A (3.11)
A ·O =O (3.12)
WhenA is 0, all the foregoingare true. Likewise, whenA is 1, eachis true. Therefore,the threeequations
are valid and can be usedto simplify Booleanequations.
One moreAND formula is
A· A =O (3.13)
This one iseasyto understandbecauseyou get either
0·l =0
or
I· 0 =0
for the two possiblevaluesof A. In words, Eq. (3.13) indicatesthat a variableANDed with its complement
always equalszero.

Double Inversion and De Morgan's Theorems

The double-inversionnde is
A =A (3.14)
which showsthat the double complementof a variable equalsthe variable.Finally, there are the De Morgan
theoremsdiscussedin Chapter2:
A+B =AB (3.15)
AB= A +B (3.16)
You already know how important these are. The first says a NOR gate and a bubbledAND gate are
equivalent.The secondsaysa NAND gateand a bubbledOR gateare equivalent.

Duality Theorem
The duality theoremis one of those eleganttheoremsproved in advancedmathematics.We will statethe
theoremwithout proof. Here is what the duality theoremsays. Starting with a Booleanrelation, you can
derive anotherBooleanrelation by
1. ChangingeachOR sign to an AND sign
2. ChangingeachAND sign to an OR sign
3. Complementingany O or 1 appearingin the expression
 Digital Principles and Applications

For instance,Eq. (3.6) saysthat

A+O=A
The dual relation is
A· 1 =A
This dual property is obtainedby changingthe OR sign to an AND sign, and by complementingthe Oto
get a 1.
The duality theoremis useful becauseit sometimesproducesa new Booleanrelation. For example,Eq.
(3 .5) statesthat
A(B+C) =AB+AC
By changingeachOR and AND operation,we get the dual relation
A + BC = (A + B)(A + C) (3.17)
This is new, not previouslydiscussed.(If you wantto prove it, constructthe truth table for eachside of the
equation.The truth tableswill be identical, which meansthe Booleanrelation is true.)

Covering and Combination

The covering rule, where one term covers the condition of the other term so that the other term becomes
redundant,can be representedin dual form as
A +AB =A (3.18)
and A(A +B) =A (3.19)
The abovecan be easily provedfrom basic laws because,
A + AB = A · I +AB= A(I + B) = A · I = A
and A (A + B) = A · A +AB= A + AB = A
The combiningrules are,
AB+AB =A (3.20)
and in its dual form (A + B)(A + B) = A (3.21)
Eq. (3.20) can easily be proved asB + B =1
Expandingleft handside ofEq. (3.21)
A·A+A·B+A·B+B·B =A+A(B+B)+O
= A + A · 1 = A + A = A = right handside

Consensus Theorem
The consensustheoremfinds a redundantterm which is a consensusoftwo other terms. The idea is that if
the consensusterm is true, then any of the othertwo termsis true andthus it becomesredundant.This canbe
expressedin dual form as
AB+ AC+ BC =AB+ AC (3.22)
(A + B)( A + C) (B + C) = (A + B)( A + C) (3.23)
In the first expression,BC is the consensusterm and thus redundant.This is becauseif BC= 1, then both
B = 1 and C = 1 and anyof the other two termsAB or AC must be one as eitherA = 1 or A = 1. Similarly,
 Combinational Logic Circuits

in the secondexpression,(B + C) is the consensusterm and if this term is O then both B = 0 and C = 0. This
makesone of the other two sum terms Oas eitherA= 0 or A= 0.

For future reference,hereare someBooleanrelationsand their duals:

A+B=B+A AB=BA
A+ (B + C) =(A+ B) + C A(BC) = (AB)C
A(B + C) =AB+ AC A +BC= (A+ B)(A + C)
A+O=A A·l=A
A+l =1 A-0=0
A+A=A A·A=A
A+A =1 A· A =0
A=A A=A
A+ B= AB AB= A+B
A+AB=A A(A +B) =A
A+AB=A+B A(A +B)=AB
AB+AB =A (A+ B) (A+ B) = A
AB+ AC+ BC= AB+ AC (A+ B) (A + C) (B + C) =(A+ B) (A + C)

Provethat, A(A' + C) (A'B + C) (A'BC + C') = 0

Solution
LHS =(AA'+AC)(A'B+C)(A'BC+C') : distributive law
=AC(A'B + C) (A'BC+ C') : since,XX' = 0
=(AC· A'B +AC· C) (A'BC+ C') : distributive law
=AC(A'BC+ C') : since,){){' =0
=AC A'BC+AC· C' : distributive law
=O=RHS : since,.-IT' = 0

Simplify, Y= (A+ B) (A'(B' + C'))' + A'(B + C)

Solution
Y =(A+ B) ((A+ (B' + C')') +A'(B + C) : De Morgan'stheorem
. =(A+ JJ).(A +BC)+ A'(B + C) : De Morgan'stheorem
=(AA +ABC+ AB+ BBC)+ A'(B + C)
=(A +AB +ABC+BC)+A'(B + C)
=A(l + B +BC)+ BC+ A'(B + C)
+ BC +A 1(B + C)
(A+ A'(B + C)) +BC
=A +B + C+BC
=A+ B + C(l + B)
=A+B+C
 Digital Principles and Applications

A logic clip is a device that you can attach to a 14- or 16-pin DIP. This troubleshooting
tool contains16 light-emitting diodes(LEDs) that monitor the stateof the pins. When a pin
voltageis high, the correspondingLED lights up. If the pin voltage is low, the LED is dark.
Supposeyouhavebuilt thecircuitofFig. 3.2a,but it doesn'twork correctly.Whenyou connect
a logic clip to the 7408, you get the readingsofFig. 3.2b (a black circle meansan LED is off,
anda white onemeansit's on). Whenyou connecttheclip to the 7432,you getthe indicationsof
Fig. 3.2c. Which of the gatesis faulty?

e1 140 fill 140

A 02 13 0 92 130
e3 120 lll3 120
B
y
04 11 0 • =Off
0 =On
94 110
A 05 100 05 100
B 06 90 06 90
97 80 e7 80
(a) (b) (c)

Solution Whenyou usea logic clip, all you haveto do is look at the inputs and outputto isolatea faulty gate. For
instance,Fig. 3.2b appliesto a 7408 (quad2-inputAND gate).The First AND gate(pins l to 3) is all right because
PinJ-,-low
Pin2-high
Pin3-low
A 2-inputAND gateis supposedto havea low outputif any input is low.
The secondAND gate(pins 4 to 6) is defective,Why? Because
Pfa4-high
Pin5-high
Pin6--low
Somethingis wrong with this AND gatebecauseit producesa low outputeven.thoughboth inputs arehigh.
If you checkFig. 3.2c (the 7432),all OR gatesarenormal. For instance,the first OR gate(pins! to3) is all right
becauseit producesa low output when the 2 inputs are low. The secondOR gate (pins 4 to 6) is working.correctly
sinceit producesa high outputwhen I input is high.

L All the rules for Booleanalgebraare exactlythe sameas for ordinaryalgebra.(Tor F)

2. Expandusing the distributive law: Y = A(B + C).
3. Simplify: Y= AQ+ AQ.
 Combinational Logic Circuits

3.2 SUM-Of-PRODUCTS METHOD

Figure3.3 showsthefour possiblewaystoAND two inputsignalsthatarein complementedanduncomplemented

form. Theseoutputsare calledfimdamentalproducts.Table 3.1 lists eachfundamentalproduct next to the
input conditions producing a high output. For
instance,AB is high when A and B are low; AB Fundamental Products for Two
is highwhenA is low andBis high; andso on. The Inputs
fundamentalproductsare also called minterms.
A B FundamentalProduct
ProductsA' B', A'B, AB', AB are representedby
m0, mi, m2, and m3 respectively.The suffix i ofmi 0 0 AB
comesfrom decimal equivalentof binary values 0 AB
(Table 3.1) that makes correspondingproduct 0 AB
term high. AB
i =[]-AB ~ =[]-As ~ =[]-As ~ =[]-AB
00 ~ ~ ~

ANDing two variables and their complements

The idea of fundamentalproductsapplies to three or more input variables.For example,assumethree

input variables:A, B, C and their complements.Thereare eight ways to AND threeinput variablesand their
complementsresultingin fundamentalproductsof
ABC, ABC, ABC, ABC, ABC, ABc, ABC, ABC

j~
C
(a)

Examples of ANDing three variables and their complements

The abovethreevariablemintermscan alterna-

Fundamental Products for
tively be representedby mo, m1, 1112, 1113, 1114, 1115,
Three Inputs
1116, and 1117 respectively.Note that, for n variable
problem there can be 211 number of minterms. B FundamentalProducts
Figure 3.4a shows the first fundamentalproduct,
Fig. 3.4b the second,and Fig. 3.4c the third. (For 0 ABC
practice, draw the gatesfor the remaining funda- 0 0 1 ABC
mentalproducts.)for twice variablecase. 0 0 ABC
Table 3.2 summarizesthe fundamentalproducts 0 1 ABC
by listing eachone next to the input condition that 1 0 0 ABC
resultsin a high output. For instance,whenA = 1, 1 0 ABC
B = 0 and C = 0, the fundamentalproduct results 1 0 ABC
in an output of I 1 ABC
Y= ABC= 1 · 0 · 0= 1
 Digital Principles and Applications

Sum-of-Products Equation
Here is how to get the sum-of-productssolution, given a truth table like Table 3.3. What you have to do is
locate eachoutput 1 in the truth table and write down the fundamentalproduct. For instance,the first output
1 appearsfor an input of A = 0, B = 1, and C = 1. The correspondingfundamentalproductis ABC. The next
output 1 appearsfor A = 1, B = 0, and C = 1. The correspondingfi.mdamentalproduct is ABC. Continuing
like this, you can identify all the fundamentalproducts,as shown in Table 3.4. To get the sum-of-products
equation,all you have to do is OR the fundamentalproductsof Table 3.4:
- - -
Y =ABC+ ABC+ ABC+ ABC (3.24)
Alternaterepresentationof Table 3.3,
Y = F(A, B, C) = I: m (3, 5, 6, 7)
where 'I:' symbolizessummationor logical OR operationthat is performedon correspondingmintem1sand
Y = F (A, B, C) meansY is a function of threeBooleanvariablesA, B and C. This kind of representationof a
truth table is also known as canonicalsum.form.

Design Truth Table Fundamental Products for

y Table 3.3
A B C
A B C y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 l l 1-, ABC
1 0 l 1 l 0 0 0
I 1 0 1 l 0 I I-, ABC
I 1 1 1 1 l 0 1-, ABC
1 I I 1 -,ABC

logic Circuit A ABC

B
After you havea sum-of-productsequation,you canderivethe C
co1Tespondinglogic circuit by drawing an AND-OR network,
or what amountsto the samething, a NAND-NAND network. A ABC
In Eq. (3.24) each product is the output of a 3-input AND B
gate. Furthermore,the logical sum Yis the output of a4-input C
y
OR gate. Therefore,we can draw the logic circuit as shown
A
in Fig. 3.5. This AND-OR circuit is one solutionto the design ABC
B
problem that we startedwith. In other words, the AND-OR c
circuit ofFig. 3.5 has the truth table given by Table 3.3.
We cannot build the circuit of Fig. 3.5 becausea 4-in- A
ABC
put OR gate is not available as a TTL chip (a synonym for B
C
integratedcircuit). But a 4-input NAND gate is. Figure 3.6
showsthe logic circuit as a NAND-NAND circuit with TTL
AND-OR solution
pin numbers.Also notice how the inputs comefrom a bus, a
 Combinational Logic Circuits

group of wires carrying logic signals.In Fig. 3.6, the bus has six wires with logic signalsA, B, C, and their
complements.Microcomputersare bus-organized,meaningthat the input and output signalsof the logic
circuits are connectedto buses.

Supposea three-valuabletrnth table has a high output for theseinput conditions: 000, 010,
100, and 110. What is the
AABBCC
sum-of-productscircuit?

Solution Here are the fundamentalproducts:

ooo: ABC
010: ABC
100: Alic
110 :ABC
When youOR theseproducts,you get y

Y=ABC +ABC +ABC +ABC

The circuit of Fig. 3.6 will work if we reconnect.the
input lines to the busas follows:
A :pins. I and 3 2 12
----- o--~
B : .pins 2 and 10 13
7410
C : pinsB, 5,11,and 13
A : pins 9 and!
B :pins4and2
Combinational logic circuit

Simplify the Booleanequationin Example3.4 and describethe logic circuit.

Solution The Booleanequationis

y =ABC+ ABC+ ABC+ ABC
Since C is commonto eachterm, factor as follows:
Y=(AB +AB+AB + AB)C
Again, factor to get
f;::[A(B +B)+A(B+B)]C
Now, simplify the foregoingas follows:
r= [A (I)+ A(l)Jc = (A + A)c
or
Y=c
This final equationmeansthatyou don't evenneeda logic circuit; All you needis a wire connectinginput·C to output
Y.
Thelessonis clear.TheAND-OR (NAND-NAND) circuit you getwith thesum-of-productsmethodisnotnecessarily
as simple as possible.With algebra,you often can factor and reduce the .sum-ofcproductsequationto arrive at a
simplerBooleanequation,which meansa simplerlogic circuit. A simpler logic circuit is prefon-edbecause.it usually
costslessto build.andis morereliable.
 Digital Principles and Applications

4. How many fondamental products are there for two variables? How many for three
variables?
5. The AND-OR or the NAND-NAND circuit obtainedwith the sum-of-productsmethodis
alwaysthe simplestpossiblecircuit. (T or F)

3.3 TRUTH TABLE TO KARNAUGH MAP

A Karnaugh map is a visual display of the fundamental

products neededfor a sum-of-productssolution. For instance,
here is how to convert Table 3.5 into its Karnaughmap. Begin A B y
by drawing Fig. 3.7a. Note the variables and complements: 0 0 0
the vertical column has A followed by A, and the horizontal 0 l 0
row has B followed by B. The first output 1 appearsfor A = 1 1 0 1
and B = 0. The fundamentalproduct for this input condition is 1 1
AB . Enter this fundamentalproduct on the Karnaughmap as
shownin Fig. 3.7b. This 1 representsthe product AB becausethe 1 is in row A and column Ji.
Similarly, Table 3.5 hasan output 1 appearingfor inputs of A= 1 and B = 1. The fundamentalproductis
AB, which canbe enteredon the Karnaughmap as shownin Fig. 3.7c.The final stepin drawingthe Karnaugh
map is to enterOs in the remainingspaces(seeFig. 3.7d).
In terms of decimal equivalenceeach position of Karnaugh map can be drawn as shown in
Fig. 3.7b. Note that, Table 3.5 can be written using mintermsas Y= L m(2, 3) and Fig. 3.7erepresentsthat.

B B B B B B

(a)
A~
A I2
(b)
3
(c)
:~ (d)
A~
A I1
(e)
1

Constructing a Karnaugh map

Three-Variable Maps
Here is how to draw a Karnaughmap for Table 3.6 or for y
A .... B C
logic equation,Y = F(A, B, C) = Lm(2,6,7). First, draw
0 0 0 0
the blank mapof Fig. 3.8a.The vertical columnis labeled
0 0 l 0
AB, AB, AB, and AB. With this order,only onevariable 0 1 0 1
changesfrom complemented to uncomplemented form (or 0 I 1 0
vice versa)as you move downward.In terms of decimal 1 0 0 0
equivalenceof each position the Karnaugh map is as l 0 I 0
shown in Fig. 3.8b. Note how mintennsin the equation 1 1 0 1
getsmappedinto correspondingpositionsin the map. l l 1 I
 Combinational Logic Circuits

Next, look for outputls in Table3.6. Output ls appearfor ABCinputsof 010, 110and 111.The fundamental
productsfor theseinput conditionsare ABC, ABC, andABC Enter 1s for theseproductson the Kamaugh
map (Fig. 3.8b).
The final stepis to enterOs in the remaining spaces(Fig. 3.8c).

c C c C c C c C
AB AB 0 AB AB 0 0
AB AB 2 3 AB AB 0
AB AB 6 7 AB AB
AB AB 4 5 AB AB 0 0
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Three-variable Karnaugh map

Four-Variable Maps
Many digital computersand systemsprocess4-bit
numbers.For instance,some digital chips will work y
A B C D
with nibbleslike 0000, 0001, 0010, and so on. For this
reason,logic circuits are often designedto handlefour 0 0 0 0 0
input variables (or their complements).This is why 0 0 0 l
you must know how to draw a four-variableKamaugh 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 I l 0
map.
0 I 0 0 0
Here is an example. Supposeyou have a truth 0 0 1 0
table like Table 3.7. Start by drawing a blank map 0 I 0 J
like Fig. 3.9a.Notice the order. The vertical column 0 1 1 1
is AB, AB, AB, and AB. The horizontal row is I 0 0 0 0
CD, CD, CD, and CD. In terms of decimal equi- 0 0 1 0
valenceof eachpositionthe Kamaughmapis as shown 0 1 0 0
in Fig. 3.9b. In Table3.7, you haveoutput ls appearing 0 I. 1
for ABCD inputs of 0001, OllO, 0111, and 1110. The 0 0
0
fundamentalproducts for theseinput conditions are
ABCD,ABCD,ABCD,and ABCD. After entering
ls on the Karnaughmap, you haveFig. 3.9c. The final
stepof filling in Os resultsin the completemap of Fig. 3.9d.

6. WhatisaKarµaughmap?
7. How manyentriesare thereon a four-variableKamaughmap?

Entered Variable Map

As the namesuggests,in enteredvariable maponeof the input variableis placedinside Kamaughmap. This
is done separatelynoting how it is relatedwith output. This reducesthe Karnaughmap size by one degree,
 Digital Principles and Applications

ci5 CD G7J CD c:15 CD CD CD c:15 CD CD CD cl5 CD CD CD

AB AB 0 3 2 AB 0 3 2 AB 0 0 0
AB AB 4 5 7 6 AB 4 5 7 6 AB 0 0 1
AB AB 12 13 15 14 AB 12 13 15 14 AB 0 0 0
AB AB 8 9 11 10 AB 8 9 11 10 AB 0 0 0 0
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Constructing a four-variable Karnaugh map

i.e. a three variableproblemthat requires23 = 8 locationsin Karnaughmap will requirei 3-ll = 4 locations
in enteredvariablemap.This techniqueis particularlyuseful for mappingproblemswith more thanfour input
variables.
We illustrate the techniqueby taking a threevariable example,truth table of which is shownin Table 3.6.
Let's chooseC as map enteredvariable and see how output Y varies with C for different combinationsof
other two variablesA and B. Fig. 3.1 Oa showsthe relation drawn from Table 3.6. For AB= 00 we find Y = 0
and is not dependenton C. For AB= 01 we find Y is complementof C thus we can write Y = C'. Similarly,
for AB= 10, Y = 0 and for AB= 11, Y= 1. The correspondingenteredvariablemap is shownin Fig. 3.10b. If
we chooseA as map enteredvariable we havetable shown in Fig. 3 .1 Oc showingrelation with Y for various
combinationsof BC; the correspondingenteredvariablemap is shown in Fig. 3.10d.

A B Y B B B C Y c C
0 0 0 7i~l' 0 0 0 B~
o c AIO 1 0 0 Bl I A
0 0 0

l A
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Entered variable map of truth table shown in Table 3.6

3.4 PAIRS, QUADS, AND OCTETS

Look at Fig. 3.lla. The map containsa pair of cl5 CD CD CD cl5 CD CD CD

ls that are horizontally adjacent(next to each
other).The first l representsthe productABCD;
the second l standsfor the product ABCI5.
As we move from the first 1 to the second 1,
only one variable goes from uncomplemented
AB
AB
AB
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 ~1:I
AB 0
0
0
0
0
0

C[J)
0
0

to complementedform (D to D); the other

AB 0 0 0 0 AB o 0 0 0

variablesdon't changeform (A, BandC remain (a) (b)

uncomplemented). Wheneverthis happens,you
can eliminatethe variable thatchangesform. Horizontally adjacent 1 s
 Combinational Circuits

Proof
The sum-of-productsequationcorrespondingto Fig. 3.1 la is
Y=ABCD + ABCD
which factors into
y = ABC(D + D)
SinceD is ORedwith its complement,the equationsimplifies to
Y=ABC
In general,a pair of horizontally adjacentIs like thoseof Fig. 3.11a meansthe sum-of-productsequation
will have a variableand a complementthat drop out as shownabove.
For easyidentification, we will encircle two adjacentIs as shown in Fig. 3.11b. Two adjacent1s suchas
thesearecalleda pair. In this way, we cantell at a glancethat onevariableand its complementwill drop out of
the c01TespondingBooleanequation.In otherwords, an encircledpair of ls like thoseof Fig. 3.1 lb no longer
standfor the ORing of two separateproducts,ABCD and ABCD. Rather,the encircledpair is visualizedas
representinga single reducedproductABC.
Here is anotherexample.Figure 3.12ashowsa pair of 1s that are vertically adjacent.Thesels correspond
to ABCD and ABCD. Notice that only one variable changesfrom uncomplementedto complementedform
(B to B). Therefore,B and B can be factored and eliminated algebraically,leaving a reducedproduct of
ACD.

CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD cB CD CD c75 CD CD CD CD
AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0 AB () 0 0 0
AB 0
AB 0
0
0
0
0
0 AB 0
AB 0
0
0
~
()
0
0
AB 0
AB 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
AB 0 <:CJ)
0 0
0
0
AB 0 0 0 ~. AB 0 0 0 0 AB cc=J) 0 0
A~~
AB I 0 0 0
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Examples of pairs

More .Examples
Wheneveryou seea pair of horizontally or vertically adjacent1s, you can eliminatethe variablethat appears
in both complementedand uncomplementedform. The remainingvariables(or their complements)will be
the only ones appearingin the single-producttenn correspondingto the pair of ls. For instance,a glance
at Fig. 3.12b indicatesthat B goesfrom complementedto uncomplementedform when we move from the
upperto the lower I; t~ other variablesremain the same.Therefore,the encircledpair of ls in !::ig. 3.12b,
representsthe product A CD. Likewise, given the pair of 1sin Fig. 3.12c,the only changeis from D to D. So
the encircledpair of ls standsfor the product ABC,
If more than one pair exists on a Kamaughmap, you can OR the simplified productsto get the Boolean
equation.For instance,the lower pair of Fig. 3.12d representsthe simplified product ACD; the upperpair
standsfor ABD. The correspondingBooleanequationfor this map is
Y= ACD + ABD
 Digital Principles and Applications

The Quad
A quadis a group of four ls that are horizontally or vertically adjacent.The ls may be end-to-end,as shown
in Fig. 3.13a,or in the form of a square,as in Fig. 3.13b.Whenyou seea quad,alwaysencircleit becauseit
leadsto a simpler product.In fact, a quadeliminatestwo variablesand their complements.

cl5 CD CD CD c:15 CD CD CD cl5 CD CD CD

AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0
AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0
AB
AB 0
~
0
(a)
0 0
AB 0
Ali 0
0
0
(b)
0 1
AB
AB 0
CC}) CC})
0
(c)
0 0

Examples of quads

Here is why a quad eliminates two variables and their complements.Visualize the four 1s of
Fig. 3.13aas two pairs (seeFig. 3.13c).The first pair representsABC; the secondpair standsfor ABC. The
Booleanequationfor thesetwo pairs is
Y=ABC +ABC
This factors into
Y=AB(C + C)
which reducesto
Y=AB
So, the quadof Fig. 3. l 3a representsa productwhosetwo variablesand their complementshavedropped
out.
A similar proof appliesto any quad.You can visualizeit as two pairs whoseBooleanequationleadsto a
singleproductinvolving only two variablesor their complements.There'sno needto go throughthe algebra
each time. Merely step through the different ls in the quad and determinewhich two variablesgo from
complementedto uncomplemented form (or vice versa);theseare the variablesthat drop out.
For instance,look at the quadof Fig. 3.13b. Pick any 1 as a startingpoint. When you move horizontally,
D is the variable that changesform. When you move vertically, B changesform. Therefore,the remaining
variables(A and C) are the only ones appearingin the simplified product. In other words, the simplified
equationfor the quadof Fig. 3.13b is
Y=AC

The Octet
Besidespairsandquads,thereis onemoregroupto adjacent1sto look for: the octet.This is a groupof eight 1s
like thoseof Fig. 3.14aon the next page.An octetlike this eliminatesthree variablesandtheir complements.
Here'swhy. Visualize the octetas two quads(seeFig. 3.14b).The equationfor thesetwo quadsis
Y=AC +AC
 Combinational Logic Circuits

CD CD CD c75 CD CD CD c75
AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0

A~GD A~o D
AB

AB
0 0

I .· · 1

(a)
0

I
0

1
AB

AB
0

I
0

(b)
0 0

Example of octet

After factoring,
Y=A(C +C)
But this reducesto
Y=A
So the octet of Fig. 3.14a meansthree variablesand their complementsdrop out of the corresponding
product.
A similar proof appliesto any octet. From now on don't botherwith the algebra.Merely stepthroughthe
ls of the octet and detenninewhich threevariableschangefom1. Theseare the variablesthat drop out.

8. On a Kamaughmap, tvvo adjacentls are calleda __.

9. On a Kamaughmap, an octetcontainshow many ls?

3.5 KARNA UGH SIMPUFICA TIONS

As you know, a pair eliminatesone variableand its complement,a quad eliminatestwo variablesand their
complements,andan octeteliminatesthreevariablesandtheir complements.Becauseof this, after you draw
a Kamaughmap, encircle the octets first, the
quadssecond,andthe pairs last. In this way, the CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD
greatestsimplification results. AB o AB o

An Example
Supposeyou have translateda truth table into
the Karnaughmap shown in Fig. 3.15a. First,
look for octets.There are none. Next, look for
AB
AB

AB
o

(a)
0
0 0

AB l 1

(b)
A~ol
AB

0
O o 0
0

quads.When you find them, encirclethem. Fi-

nally, look for and encirclepairs. If you do this Encircling octets, quads and pairs
correctly, you arrive at Fig. 3.l 5b.
The pair representsthe simplified product ABD, the lower quadstandsfor AC, andthe quadon the right
representsCD. By ORing thesesimplified products,we get the Booleanequationcorrespondingto the entire
Kamaughmap:
Y=ABD+AC+CD (3.25)

Overlapping Groups
You are allowed to use the same1 more than once. ci5 CD CD CD cl5 CD CD CD
Figure 3.16aillustratesthis idea. The I representing
the fundamentalproductABCD is part of the pair AB o o o o AB 0 0 0 0
and part of the octet. The simplified equationfor the 0 0 AB 0 0 0
overlappinggroupsis AB 1
Y=A + BCD (3.26) AB
It is valid to encircle the ls as shown in Fig.
3. l 6b, but then the isolated1 resultsin a more com- (a) (b)
plicatedequation:
Y=A+ ABCD Overlapping groups

So, always overlap groups if possible.That is,

usethe 1s more than onceto get the largestgroupsyou can.

Rolling the Map

Another thing to know about is rolling. Look at cl5 CD CD CD cl5 CD CD CD
Fig. 3.17aon the next page. The pairs result in
this equation: AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0

Y=BCD +BCD
Visualize picking up the Kamaughmap and
(3.27) AB
AB (J 0
0
0
0 (J AB
AB J
0
0
0
0 G
rolling it so that the left sidetouchesthe right side. AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0
If you are visualizing correctly, you will realize
the two pairs actually form a quad. To indicate (a) (b)
this, draw half circles aroundeachpair, as shown
in Fig. 3: 17b. From this viewpoint, the quad of Rolling the Karnaugh map
Fig. 3.17bhas the equation
Y=BD (3.28)
Why is rolling valid? BecauseEq. (3.27) can be algebraicallysimplified to Eq. (3.28). The proof starts
with Eq. (3.27):
Y=BCD +BCD
This factors into
Y=BD(C+C)
which reducesto
Y=BD
But this final equationis the one that representsa rolled quad like Fig. 3.17b. Therefore,ls on the edges
of a Kamaughmap can be groupedwith ls on oppositeedges.
 Combinational Circuits

More Examples
If possible, roll and overlap to get the largest
groups you can find. For instance,Fig. 3.18a
ci5 CD CD CD ci5 CD CD CD
showsan inefficient way to encircle groups.The AB 0 0 AB 0 0

a
octet and pair havea Booleanequationof
AB 0 AB l 0
Y=C +BCD
You can do betterby rolling and overlapping
as shown in Fig. 3.18b; the Boolean equation
AB
AB
0

0 0
AB
AB
J I 0

0
~ 0
now is (a) (b)
Y= C + BD
Here is anotherexample.Figure 3.19ashows · Rolling and overlapping
an inefficient grouping of ls; the corresponding
equationis
y = C + A CD+ ABCD

ci5 CD CD CD ci5 CD CD CD ci5 CD CD CD

AB
AB
AB
0

0
a
0
AB
AB
AB
0

0
~ 0
AB
AB
AB
0

0
f 0

AB 0 CD AB 0 C[ AB 0 C[
(a) (b) (c)

Different ways of encircling groups

Ifwe roll and overlapas shownin Fig. 3.19b,the equationis simpler:

Y=C +AD +ABD
It is possibleto group the 1s as shownin Fig. 3.19c.The equation nowbecomes
Y=C+AD+BD (3.29)
Comparethis with the precedingequation.As you can see,the equationsare comparablein simplicity.
Either grouping(Fig. 3.19b or c) is valid; therefore,you can usewhicheveryou like.

Eliminating Redundant Groups

After you have finished encircling groups, eliminate any redundantgroup. This is a group whose ls are
alreadyusedby othergroups.Hereis an example.Given Fig. 3.20a,encirclethe quadto get Fig. 3.20b.Next,
group the remaining1sinto pairsby overlapping(Fig. 3.20c). In Fig. 3.20c,all the 1s of the quadareusedby
the pairs. Becauseof this, the quadis redundantand can be eliminatedto get Fig. 3.20d.As you see,all the
ls are coveredby the pairs. Figure 3.20d containsone lessproductthan Fig. 3.20c; therefore,Fig. 3.20d is
the most efficient way to group the ls.
 Digital Principles and Applications

cl5 CD CD CD CJ5 CD CD CD cl5 CD CD CD cl5 CD CD CD

AB 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 AB 0 0 1 0 AB o o r\ o
\y
AB
AB 0
AB 0 0
0

0
AB
AB 0
AB 0
0 l
0
0

0
AB
AB
AB
0

0
AB CC})

~;: ~~
0

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Eliminating an unnecessary group

Conclusion
Here is a summaryof the Karnaugh-mapmethodfor simplifying Booleanequations:
1. Enter a 1 on the Kamaughmap for each fundamentalproduct that producesa I output in the truth
table. Enter Os elsewhere.
2. Encircle the octets,quads,and pairs. Rememberto roll and overlapto get the largestgroupspossible.
3. If any isolated ls remain,encircleeach.
4. Eliminate any redundantgroup.
5. Write the Booleanequationby ORing the productscorrespondingto the encircledgroups.

Simplification of Entered Variable Map

This is similar to Kamaughmap method.Refer to enteredvariable mapsshownin Fig. 3.10. The groupings
for theseareas shownin Fig. 3.21aandFig. 3.21b.Note that in Fig. 3.21aC' is groupedwith 1 to get a larger
group as I can be written as 1 = 1 + C'. Similarly A is groupedwith 1 in Fig. 3.21b.

~1:~ :r;
Next, the product term representingeach group B B C C
is obtainedby including map enteredvariable in the
group as an additionalANDed term. Thus, group 1 of
Fig. 3.21agivesB.(C') = BC' and group 2 givesAB.(1)
= AB resulting Y =BC'+ AB.
In Fig. 3.21b, group 1 givesproductterm B.(A) = AB (a) (b) (c)
and group 2 gives BC'.(l) = BC' so that Y= BC'+ AB.
The final expressionis samefor both as they represent Simplification of entered
the sametruth table (Table 3.6). variable map
Note that, enteredvariable map shown Fig. 3.21c
for a different truth table (Take it as an exerciseto preparethat truth table) has only two productterms and
doesn'tneeda separatecoverageof 1. This is becauseonecanwrite 1 = C + C' andC is includedin onegroup
while C' in other.The outputof this map can be written as Y =AC+ BC'.

What is the simplified Boolean equationfor the following logic equationexpressedby

minterms?
Y=F(A,B,C,D)=I:.m(7,9,10, 11, 12, 13, 14,15)
 Combinational Logic Circuits

Solution We know, eachmintermmakescorrespondinglocationin I(arnaughmap 1 and thus Fig. 3.22arepresents

the given equation.Thereare110 octets,but thereis a quadas shownin Fig. 3.22b. By overlapping,we can find two
more quads(seeFig. 3.22c).We can encircle theremaining l by making it part of an overlappedpair (Fig. 3.22d).
Finally, thereareno redundantgroups.
Thehorizontalquadof Fig. 3.22dcorrespondsto a simplified productAB. The squarequadon theright corresponds
to AC, while the one on the left standsfor AD. The pair representsBCD. By ORing these products,we get the
simplified Booleanequation:
Y=AB+AC+AD+BCD (3.30)

CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CDCD CD CD CD CDCD CD
AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0

AB 0 0 0 AB 0 0 1 0 AB 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0
AB l 1 l 1 AB ~ AB 1

AB 0 1 l AB 0 1 1 1
A~~
ABO 1 1 1 AB 0 l
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Using the Karnaugh map

10. Write the sum-of-producttermsfor the entriesin Fig. 3.18. Use Booleanalgebra tosimplify
the expression.

3.6 DON'T-CARE CONDITIONS Truth Table with Don't-

Care Conditions
In some digital systems,certain input conditions
A B C D y
never occur during normal operation;therefore,the
correspondingoutput neverappears.Sincethe output 0 0 0 0 0
neverappears,it is indicatedby an X in the truth table. 0 0 0 0
For instance,Table 3.8 on the next pageshowsa truth 0 0 l 0 0
table wherethe outputis low for all input entriesfrom 0 0 1 1 0
0000 to 1000, high for input entry 1001, and an X 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
for l O10 through 1111. The X is called a don 't-care
0 l 1 0 0
condition. Wheneveryou seeanXin a truth table, you
0 1 1 l 0
can let it equal either O or 1, whicheverproducesa 1 0 0 0 0
simplerlogic circuit. 1 0 0 1
Figure 3.23a shows the Karnaughmap of Table 1 0 1 0 X
3.8 with don't-caresfor all inputs from 1010 to 1111. 1 0 1 1 X
Thesedon't-caresare like wild cardsin pokerbecause 1 1 0 0 X
you can let them standfor whateveryou like. Figure 1 0 1 X
3.23b showsthe most efficient way to encircle the l. 1 l 0 X
1 X
Notice two crucial ideas. First, the 1 is included in a
 Digital Principles and Applications

quad, the largestgroup you can find if you visualize all X's as ls. Second,after the 1 has been encircled,
all X's outsidethe quadare visualizedas Os. In this way, the Xs are usedto the bestpossibleadvantage.As
alreadymentioned,you are free to do this becausedon't-carescoITespondto input conditionsthat neverap-
pear.
The quadof Fig. 3.23bresultsin a Booleanequationof
Y=AD
The logic circuit for this is an AND gate with inputs of A and D, as shown in Fig. 3.23c. You can check
this logic circuit by examiningTable 3.8. The possibleinputs are from 0000 to 1001; in this rangea high A
and a high D producea high Y only for input condition 100I.

ci5 CD CD CD ci5 CD CD CD

tttt=o-y
AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0
A BCD
AB 0 0 0 0 AB 0 0 0 0

AB
0
X X X X AB X X

AB 0 X X AB 0 X X

(a) (b) (c)

Don't-care conditions

Remembertheseideasaboutdon't-careconditions:
I. Given the truth table, draw a Kamaughmap with Os, Is, and don't-cares.
2. Encircle the actual ls on the Kamaughmap in the largestgroupsyou can find by treating the don't-
caresas ls.
3. After the actual ls have beenincluded in groups,disregardthe remainingdon't caresby visualizing
them as Os.

SupposeTable 3.8 has high output for an input of 0000, low output, for 0001 to 1001, and
don't caresfor l O10 to 1111. What is the simplestlogic circuit with this truth table?

Solution The truth table has a I output only CDCD CD CD

fortheinputcondition0000.Thecorresponding
fundamentalproductis ABCD.Figure3.24a AB CD 0 0 0 ABc D
shows the Karnaugh map with a 1 for the AB 0 0 0 0
fundamentalproduct, Os for inputs 0001 to
1001,andXsfor inputs 1010 to UlL In this AB X X X X ~ y
case,the don't-caresare ofno help. The best AB 0 0 X X
we can do is to encirclethe isolated 1, while
treatingthe don't-caresasOs. So, the Boolean (a) (b)
equationis
Y=ABCD Decoding0000
Figure 3.24b showsthe logic circuit. The 4-
inputAND gateproducesa high outputonly for the inputcondition.A = 0, B = 0. C = 0, andD = 0.
 Combinational Circuits

Give the simplestlogic circuit for following logic equationwhere d representsdon't-care

condition for following locations.
F(A, B, C, D) = I,m(7) + d(lO, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)

Solution Figure 3.25a is the Karnaughmap. CD CDCD CD

The most efficient encircling is to group the ls
AB

a Ht=o-y
into a pair using the don't-careas shown. Since 0 0 0 0 ABCD
this is the largest group possible,all remaining
AB 0 0 0
don'i caresaretreatedasOs. The equationfor the
pair is AB X X X

Y=BCD AB 0 0 X X
and Fig. 3.25b is the logic circuit. This 3.input
(a) (b)
AND gateproducesa high output only for anin-
put of A = 0, B = 1, C = 1, and D I because
the input possibilities range only from 0000 to Decoding 0111
1001.

11. What is meantby a don't-careconditionona Karnaughmap?How is it indicated?

12. How canusing don't-caresaid circuit simplification?

3.7 PRODUCT-Of-SUMSMETHOD
With the sum-of-productsmethodthe designstartswith a truth tablethat summarizesthe desiredinput-output
conditions.The next stepis to convertthe truth table into an equivalentsum-of-productsequation.The final
stepis to draw the AND-OR network or its NAND-NAND equivalent.
The product-of-sumsmethodis similar. Given a truth table, you identify the fundamentalsumsneeded
for a logic design.Then by ANDing thesesums,you get the product-of-sumsequationcorrespondingto the
truth table. But there are somedifferencesbetweenthe two approaches.With the sum-of-productsmethod,
the fundamentalproductproducesan output l for the correspondinginput condition. But with the product-
of-sumsmethod,the fundamentalsum producesan output O for the correspondinginput condition. The best
way to understandthis distinction is with an example.

Converting a Truth Table to an Equation

Supposeyou are given a truth table like Table 3.9 and you want to get the product-of-sumsequation.What
you haveto do is locateeachoutputO in the truth table andwrite down its fundamentalsum. In Table 3.9, the
first output O appearsfor A= 0, B = 0, andC = 0. The fundamentalsum for theseinputs is A+ B + C. Why?
Because thisproducesan output zero for the correspondinginput condition:
Y=A+B+C=O+O+O=O
 Digital Principles and Applications

A B C y Max:term
0 0 0 0"""7A+B+C Mo
0 0 1 1 M1
0 I 0 I M2
0 1 l 0"""7A+B+C M3
I 0 0 I M4
1 0 1 I Ms
l I 0 0"""7A+B+C M6
l 1 I 1 M1

The secondoutput Oappearsfor the input condition of A= 0, B = I, and C = 1. The fundamentalsum for
this is A + B + C. Notice that B and Carecomplementedbecausethis is the only way to get a logical sum
of O for the given input conditions:
Y=A+B+C=O+I+I=O+O+O=O
Similarly, the third output O occurs for A = l, B = I, and C = O; therefore,its fundamentalsum is
A +B +C:
Y=A+B+C=T+T+O=O+O+O=O
Table 3.9 showsall the fundamentalsumsneededto implementthe truth table. Notice that eachvariableis
complementedwhen the correspondinginput variableis a l; the variableis uncomplemented when the corre-
spondinginput variable is 0. To get the product-of-sumsequation,all you haveto do is AND the fundamental
sums:
Y=(A+ B+ C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C) (3.31)
This is the product-of-sumsequationfor Table 3.9.
As eachproductterm was called minterm in SOPrepresentationin POS eachsum term is called maxterm
and is designatedby Mi as shownin Table 3.9. Equation3.31 in terms ofmaxtenncan be representedas
Y = F(A, B, C) = IlM(O, 3, 6)
where 'Il' symbolizesproduct,i.e. AND operation.This kind ofrepresentationof a truth table is also known
as canonicalproductform.

logic Circuit
After you have a product-of-sumsequation,you can get the logic circuit by drawing an OR-AND network,
or if you prefer, a NOR-NOR network. In Eq. (3.31) eachsum representsthe output of a 3-input OR gate.
Furthem10re,the logical product Y is the output of a 3-input AND gate. Therefore,you can draw the logic
circuit as shown in Fig. 3.26.
A 3-input OR gate is not availableas a TTL chip. So, the circuit of Fig. 3.26 is not practical. With De
Morgan'sfirst theorem,however,you canreplacethe OR-AND circuit of Fig. 3.26 by the NOR-NORcircuit
ofFig. 3.27.
 Combinational Logic Circuits

A A B JJ C C
7427
2
A--r--..... 13
B
c-_,_---- 3
4
A-_.--..... 5
Jj y
c-_,_---- 9
10
1 _ __,---....
Jj 11
c-_,_-
Product-of-sums circuit

Conversion between SOP and POS

We have seenthat SOP representationis obtainedby consideringones in a truth table while POS comes
consideringzeros.In SOP,eachone at output gives oneAND tem1which is finally ORed.In POS,eachzero
gives one OR term whichis finally ANDed. Thus SOPand POS occupycomplementarylocationsin a tmth
table and one representationcan be obtainedfrom the otherby
(i) identifying complementarylocations,
(ii) changingmintennto maxtennor reverse,and finally
(iii) changingsummationby productor reverse.

Thus Table 3.9 can be representedas

Y = F(A, B, C) = ITM(O, 3, 6) = Lm(l, 2, 4, 5, 7)
Similarly Table 3.4 can be representedas
Y = F(A, B, C) = Lm(3, 5, 6, 7) = TIM(O, 1, 2, 4)
This is also known as conversionbetweencanonicalforms.

Supposea truth table has alow output for the first threeinput conditions:000, 001, and 010.
If all otheroutputsare high, what is the product-of-sumscircuit?

Solution Theproduct-of~sumsequationis
Y =(A+B+C)(A +B+ C)(A+ii +C)
circuit of Fig. 3.2Twill work if wereconnectthe input lines asfollows:
A: pins I, 3, andi
B: pins 2 and4
C: pins Band11
s:pin10
: pin 5
 Principles and Applications

13. A product-of-sumsexpressionleadsto what kind oflogic circuit?

14. Explain how to convertthe complementaryNAND-NAND circuit into its dual NOR-NOR
circuit

3.8 PRODUCT-Of-SUMSSIMPLIFICATION

After you write a product-of-sumsequation,you can simplify it with Booleanalgebra.Alternatively, you

may prefer simplification basedon the Kamaughmap. There are severalways of using the Kamaughmap.
One canusea similar techniqueas followed in SOPrepresentationbut by forming largestgroup of zerosand
then replacingeachgroup by a sum term. The variable going in the formation of sum term is inverted if it
remainsconstantwith a value 1 in the group and it is not invertedif that value is 0. Finally, all the sum terms
are ANDed to get simplestPOS fonn. We illustrate this in Examples3.11 and 3.12. In this sectionwe also
presentan interestingalternativeto abovetechnique.

Sum-of-Products Circuit
Supposethe designstartswith a truth table like Table 3.10. The first thing to do is to draw theKamaughmap
in the usualway to get Fig. 3.28a.The encircledgroupsallow us to write a sum-of-productsequation:
Y= AB +AB+AC
Figure 3.28bshowsthe correspondingNAND-NAND circuit.

Complementary Circuit
To get a product-of-sumscircuit, begin by comple-
menting each O and 1 on the Kamaughmap of Fig.
3.28a. This results in the complementedmap shown y
A B C D
in Fig. 3.28c. The encircled ls allow us to write the
following sum-of-productsequation: 0 0 0 0 l
0 0 0 1 I
y =AB+ABC 0 0 l 0 1
Why is this Y insteadof Y? Becausecomplement- 0 0 l 1 l
ing the Kamaughmap is the sameas complementing 0 1 0 0 0
the outputof the truth table, which meansthe sum-of- 0 l 0 1 0
productsequationfor Fig. 3.28c is for Y insteadof Y. 0 1 I 0 0
0 1 1 I 0
Figure 3.28d shows the correspondingNAND- 1 0 0 0 0
NAND circuit for Y. This circuit does not produce l 0 0 1 0
the desiredoutput; it producesthe complementof the 1 0 1 0 1
desiredoutput. I 0 1 1 1
l l 0 0 1
finding the NOR-NOR Circuit 1 1 0 1 l
1 l l 0 1
What we want to do next is to get the product-of-sums 1 l l l l
solution, the NOR-NOR circuit that producesthe
 Combinational Logic Circuits

Cl5 CD CD CD A
B
AB cCIT))
A y
AB 0 0 0 0
B

~~
ABO O I I
A
C
(a) (b)
Cl5 CD CD CD
A
AB 0 0 0 0 B
y
AB cCIT)) A
AB 0 0 0 0 B
AB CC]) 0 0
c
(c) (d)

Deriving the sum-of-products circuit

original truth table ofTable 3.10. De Morgan'sfirst theoremtells us NAND gatescanbe replacedby bubbled
OR gates;therefore,we can replaceFig. 3.28dby Fig. 3.29a.A bus with eachvariable and its complement
is usually availablein a digital system.So, insteadof connectingA and B to a bubbledOR gate,as shown
in Fig. 3.29a,we can connectA and B to an OR gate, as shown in Fig. 3.29b. In a similar way, insteadof
connectingA, B, and C to a bubbledOR gate, we have connectedA, B, and C to an OR gate. In short,
Fig. 3.29b is equivalentto Fig. 3.29a.
The next steptoward a NOR-NORcircuit is to convertFig. 3.29binto Fig. 3.29c,which is doneby sliding
the bubblesto the left from the outputgateto the input gates.This changesthe input OR gatesto NOR gates.
The final step is to use a NOR gate on the output to produceYinsteadoff, as shown in the NOR-NOR
circuit ofFig. 3.29d.

A A
B B
y y
A A
B B
c C
(a) (b)

A A
B B
y y
A A
B B
C C
(c) (d)

Deriving the product-of-sums circuit

 Digital Principles and Applications

From now on, you don't have to go through every step in changinga complementaryNAND-NAND
circuit to an equivalentNOR-NOR circuit. Instead,you can apply the duality theoremas describedin the
following.

Duality
An earlier sectionintroducedthe duality theoremof Booleanalgebra.Now we are readyto apply this theo-
rem to logic circuits. Given a logic circuit, we canfind its dual circuit as follows: ChangeeachAND gateto
an OR gate, changeeachOR gate to an AND gate, and complementall input-outputsignals.An equivalent
statementof duality is this: ChangeeachNAND gateto a NOR gate,changeeachNOR gateto a NAND gate,
and complementall input-outputsignals.
Comparethe NOR-NOR circuit of Fig. 3.29d with the NAND-NAND circuit of Fig. 3.28d. NOR gates
have replacedNAND gates.Furthermore,all input and output signalshavebeencomplemented.This is an
applicationof the duality theorem.From now on, you can changea complementaryNAND-NAND circuit
(Fig. 3.28d) into its dual NOR-NOR circuit (Fig. 3.29d) by changingall NAND gatesto NOR gatesand
complementingall signals.

Here is a summaryof the key ideasin the precedingdiscussion:

1. Convertthe truth table into a Karnaughmap. After grouping the ls, write the sum-of-products
equationand draw the NAND-NAND circuit. This is the sum-of-productssolution for Y.
2. Complementthe Karnaughmap.Groupthe 1s, write the sum-of-productsequation,anddraw the
NAND-NAND circuit for Y. This is the complementaryNAND-NAND circuit.
3. Convertthe complementaryNAND-NAND circuit to a dual NOR-NOR circuit by changingall
NAND gatesto NOR gatesandcomplementingall signals.Whatremainsis the product-of-sums
solutionfor Y.
4. Comparethe NAND-NAND circuit (Step 1) with the NOR-NOR circuit (Step 3). You can use
whichevercircuit you prefer,usuallythe one with fewer gates.

Showthe sum-of-productsandproduct-of-sumscircuits for the Karnaughmap of Fig. 3.30a.

Solution The Booleanequatio11forFig. J.30aott the nextpageis

Y=A+BCD
f'igure 3.301:iisthe sum-of-prod1.1ctscircuit.
After colllplementingandsimplifying theKamaughmap,weget Fig. 3.30c.The Bool~ equationfor this is
=AB+AC+AD
Figure3.30dis the sum-of-productsciffuit fo:rthe shownearlier, we can convertthe dualcircriitinto aNOR-
NOR equivalentcircuit to getFig. 3.30e:
Thetwo desigttchoicesareFig. 3,30band3.30e,Fignre3.30bis simpler.
 Combinational Logic Circuits

AB 0 0 0
0
1
1 1
(a) (b) (c)

(d)

Give simplestPOSform ofKarnaughmap shownin Fig. 3.30aby groupingzeros.

Solution Refer to groupingof zerosas shown in Fig. 3.31a.ThreegroupscoveralHhe zerosthat give three sum
terms.Thefirst grouphasA' andC' constantwitb-
CJ5 CD CD CD CJ5 CD CD CD
in tbe groupthat gives sumterm (A+ C). Group2
hasA' and D constantgiving sum term (A + JY). AB 0 1(2?
Group3 hasA' andB' constantgenerating(A + B)
as sumterm.
AB 0

The final solution is thus productoftbesethree AB l 1 1 1 AB X X l

sumtermsand expressedas A1i 1 1 l 1 AB '-'"'_x_, X ~
Y =(A+ B) (A +C)(A+D')
(a) (b)
Note that, the aboverelation can be realizedby
OR-AND circuit or NOR-NOR (Fig. 330e) cir-. Simplification by grouping zeros
cuit.

Give simplestPOS form ofKarnaughmap shownin Fig. 3.31bby groupingzeros.

Solution In a Karnaughmapif don'tcareconditionsexist, we mayconsiderthemaszerosif thatgiveslargergroup

size. This in turn reducesnumberofliterals in tbe sum term.· Refer to groupingof zerosin Fig. 33lb; We require
minimum two groupsthat includesall the zerosandarealsolargestin sizes.In group 1, only C' is constanttbatgives
only one literal in. sumterm as C. Group 2 hasB' .andD' constantgiving sumterm CB+ D). The final solution is thus
produ<:tof tbesetwo sum termsandexpressedas
= C(B+D)