Calculus 1, Topic 2. Limits

Republic of the Philippines
Sorsogon State College

EDUCATION, ACCOUNTANCY, AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEPARTMENT
Sorsogon City
First Semester, SY 2020 - 2021
Bachelor of Secondary Education major in Mathematics (BSEd – Math)

Second Year
Topic 2: Limits
Anthony L. Madrazo
Instructor I
Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 1

LIMITS
Calculus is the mathematics of change. It is necessary to study limits as the backbone of calculus for us to
understand the change in detail. The formulation of differential and integral of a function brought about by the
concept of limit.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define limits.
2. Determine the limits of functions.
3. Apply the concepts of limits into various situational problems.
LESSON PROPER
Limits
Imagine you going to watch a concert of certain well known artist. In choosing your seat, you want the
one that closer to stage for best view of the concert but not on stage. This example portrays the concept of limit.
Limits describes what is happening to the function. It talks about the series of numbers that getting
closer and closer to a constant but not the constant itself.
Consider a function 𝑓 of a single variable 𝑥. Consider constant 𝑐 which variable 𝑥 will approach (𝑐 may or may
not be in the domain of 𝑓). Limit is denoted by 𝐿, the unique real value 𝑓(𝑥) will approach as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐.
In symbol:
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐
Read as, “The limit of function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐 is 𝐿.”

For example:
lim (4 − 2𝑥 ) = −2
𝑥→3
Read as, “The limit of 4 − 2𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches 3 is −2.”
This example illustrates that as the value of 𝑥 is getting closer and closer to 3 the result is also getting
closer and closer to −2. Note that by definition, we are not talking about 𝟑 and −𝟐 but the series of
numbers that is very close to 𝟑 and −𝟐.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
Limits of Polynomial Functions
Example 1. Determine the limit of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4 − 2𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches 3.
lim (4 − 2𝑥 ) = 𝐿
𝑥→3
The series of numbers that is getting closer and closer to 3

comes from left and right of 3. Using table of values, we need
to consider the number from left and right of 3. That is
called the Left Hand Side (LHS) and Right Hand Side
(RHS), respectively.

lim (4 − 2𝑥 ) = 𝐿
𝑥→3
Left Hand Side (LHS) Right Hand Side (RHS) For instance, if 𝑐 = 2, then:
𝑐 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿 4 − 2𝑥 = 𝐿 ⟹ 4 − 2(2) = 𝐿 ⟹ 4 − 4 = 𝐿 ⟹ 𝟎 = 𝑳
2 𝟎 4 -4 Suppose 𝑐 = 2.5, then:
2.5 −𝟏 3.5 -3 4 − 2𝑥 = 𝐿 ⟹ 4 − 2(2.5) = 𝐿 ⟹ 4 − 5 = 𝐿 ⟹ −𝟏 = 𝑳
2.9 -1.8 3.1 -2.2 And, so on… as shown in the table.
2.99 -1.98 3.01 -2.02
2.999 -1.998 3.001 -2.002
2.9999 -1.9998 3.0001 -2.0002
Observations:
1. As the value of 𝑐 from left becomes closer to 3 or as 𝑐 approaches 3 from left, the value of 𝐿 is close to −2.
2. As the value of 𝑐 from right becomes closer to 3 or as 𝑐 approaches 3 from right, the value of 𝐿 is close to
−2.
3. Both LHS and RHS gave numbers that is very close −2.
Conclusion:
Since both numbers from left and right closest to 3 are −1.9998 and −2.0002 respectively which are very close
to −2, therefore the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 − 2𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches 3 is −2. Or, simply:
lim (4 − 2𝑥 ) = −2
𝑥→3
Take note we are talking about the behavior of number close to 3 not 3 itself. In addition, the limit of a function
must be unique.
In other words, for limit to exist, the limits from left and right must both exist and be equal to L. Symbol.
1. lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿1 , 𝐿1 ∈ ℝ, 𝑐 − means from left
𝑥→𝑐 −
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿2 , 𝐿2 ∈ ℝ, 𝑐 + means from right
𝑥→𝑐 +
3. 𝐿1 = 𝐿2 = 𝐿
3
Example 2. What is L in lim (2𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 + 1) = 𝐿?
𝑥→−2
Solution.
Left Hand Side (LHS) Right Hand Side (RHS)
𝑐 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿
-2.1 12.97 -1.9 11.07 (−2,12)
-2.01 12.0952 -1.99 11.9052
-2.00001 12.000095 -1.99999 11.999905
In both LHS and RHS, as 𝑥 approaches −2 from left

and right respectively, both limits approaches 12,
therefore:
3
lim (2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) = 12
𝑥→−2 2

In all cases of determining the limit of any polynomial functions, besides using LHS and RHS tables (see Example
1 and 2), we can just substitute the value of 𝑐 to 𝑥 in the function. We will understand this in the next module.
Example 1. Determine the limit of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4 − 2𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches 3.

lim (4 − 2𝑥 ) = 𝐿
𝑥→3
4 − 2(3) = 𝐿 ⟹ 4 − 6 = 𝐿 ⟹ −𝟐 = 𝑳
3
Example 2. What is L in lim (2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) = 𝐿?
𝑥→−2 2
3
2(−2)2 − (−2) + 1 = 𝐿 ⟹ 2(4) + 3 + 1 = 𝐿 ⟹ 8 + 4 = 𝐿 ⟹ 𝟏𝟐 = 𝑳
2
Limits of Rational Function
1
Example 3. lim (𝑥)
𝑥→2
Solution.
𝑐 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿
1.9 0.52631579 2.1 0.47619048
1.999 0.50025013 2.001 0.49975013
1.999999 0.50000025 2.00001 0.4999975
In both LHS and RHS, as 𝑥 approaches 2 from left and
1
right respectively, both limits approaches 0.5 𝑜𝑟 ,
2
therefore:
1 1
lim ( ) =
𝑥→2 𝑥 2
In this, besides using table of values, we can directly

substitute the value of c to x to determine the limit.
1 1
𝐿= =
𝑥 2
1
The graph of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 is asymptotic to 𝑦 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (𝑥 = 0) because if we divide 1 by 0 the answer is undefined, therefore the graph won’t cross the equation
𝑥 = 0 or y-axis.
Similarly, the graph is also asymptotic to the equation 𝑦 = 0 or simply 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, because there is no value for
1
𝑥 which gives 𝑦 = 0. Another justification, 𝑥 = 𝑦 is the inverse function of the given. If we assume 𝑦 = 0, then
the value of 𝑥 will also be undefined because by definition: “Any number divided by zero except zero is undefined or
no answer.”
1
Example 4. lim (𝑥)
𝑥→0
Solution. We have the same function as Example 3, therefore graph will be the same. This this time c approaches
0. If we try to directly substitute the value, then:
1 1
= 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑥 0

By direct substitution, the answer is undefined or there is no answer, because the function is asymptotic to 𝑥 =
0. Does it means that there is no limit? The answer is there is possibility that there is no limit, but there is also
that limit exist, so we have to verify. We need to use the table of values.
In LHS, as 𝑥 approaches 0 from left, the limit becomes
smaller or approaching negative infinity (−∞). Meanwhile,
𝑐 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿
in RHS, as the value of 𝑥 approaches 0, the limit becomes
-0.1 -10 0.1 10
bigger or approaching positive infinity (+∞).
-0.001 -1000 0.001 1000
-0.00001 -100000 0.00001 100000 By definition, limit should be UNIQUE. Since −∞ ≠ +∞,
therefore, the limit of the function Does Not Exist or DNE.
1
Example 5. lim (𝑥2 )
𝑥→0
Solution. By direct substitution, the answer is again undefined, but we have to verify if limit exist or not.
1 1 1
2
= 2 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑥 0 0
Using table of values.
In both LHS and RHS, as 𝑥 approaches 0 from left and
Left Hand Side (LHS) Right Hand Side (RHS) right respectively, both limits becomes larger or
𝑐 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿 approaching positive infinity (+∞). And, +∞ = +∞,
-0.1 100 0.1 100 therefore:
-0.01 10000 0.01 10000 1
-0.001 1000000 0.001 1000000 lim ( ) = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑥2
The graph is asymptotic to 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

because there if we let 𝑥 = 0, there is no answer or
the answer is undefined. Hence, there is no value
of 𝑥 which gives 𝑦 = 0, therefore the graph is also
asymptotic to 𝑦 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝑥 2 +1
Example 6. lim (𝑥4 −1)
𝑥→−1
Solution. We must first simplify the given.

𝑥2 + 1 𝑥2 + 1 1
4
= 2 2
= 2
𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 1
By direct substitution the answer is undefined. But, we must verify using table of values.
Left Hand Side (LHS) Right Hand Side (RHS) As 𝑥 approaches −1 from left, the limit approaches positive
𝑐 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿 infinity (+∞)or it becomes larger.. However, as 𝑥
-1.1 4.76190476 -0.9 -5.26315790 approaches −1 form right, the limit approaches negative
-1.01 49.7512438 -0.99 -50.2512563 infinity (−∞) or it becomes smaller. Since it the limit is
-1.001 499.750125 -0.999 -500.250125 not unique, therefore:
𝑥2 + 1
lim ( ) 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→−1 𝑥 4 − 1

𝑥2 + 1 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4 = 2
𝑥 −1 𝑥 −1
From the given, 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1 cannot be value of x since it
makes the result undefined. Therefore, the graph its
asymptotic to both 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −1. In addition, there is
no value for 𝑥 which gives 𝑦 = 0, therefore, the graph is also
asymptotic to 𝑦 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Specifically, the set of domain for the function is:

𝐷 = {𝑥 |𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 1 & − 1}
Hence, the set of range is:
𝑅 = {𝑦| − 1 ≥ 𝑦 > 0}
Explanation and proof for the set of range

1 1 1 1 𝑦 1+𝑦 𝟏+𝒚
𝑦= ⟹ 𝑥2 − 1 = ⟹ 𝑥2 = + 1 ⟹ 𝑥2 = + ⟹ 𝑥2 = ⟹ 𝒙 = ±√
𝑥2 −1 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝒚
From this, y cannot be zero since it is positioned in the denominator. If the denominator is zero, there is no
answer. This is why the function is asymptotic to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 0. But 𝑦 can assume any value greater than
zero.
About the expression inside the radical, if 𝑦 = −1, the answer is zero. And, y can assume any value less than
−1, because it gives positive result. But, 𝑦 cannot assume any value between 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1, because it gives
negative value, and the nth root (if index is positive even number) of negative number is imaginary. Therefore,
the set of range is:
𝑅 = {𝑦| − 1 ≥ 𝑦 > 0}
Limits of Radical Function

Example 7. lim √𝑥
𝑥⟶1
Solution. The index of radical function is even, 2 to be specific, therefore the base (expression inside the radical)
must not be negative. Since the given is 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥, therefore the set of domain is:
𝐷 = {𝑥 |𝑥 ≥ 0}
Since one is included in the set of domain, we can simply substitute it to the given. Using table of values is also
possible. Therefore:
√𝑥 = √1 = 1
lim √𝑥 = 1
𝑥⟶1

𝑥⟶0
Solution. We have the same given as Example 7, but this time 𝑐 = 0. Zero is included in the set of domain. If
we directly substitute, the result is 0.
√𝑥 = √0 = 0
But we cannot say that the limit is 0, because this is the endpoint of the graph or function. Take note that limit
is not talking about the value of c, rather limit is about the behavior of numbers close to 𝑐. We need to consider
the behavior of numbers close to c from both sides.
Left Hand Side (LHS) Right Hand Side (RHS) In LHS, all results are imaginary. In RHS, as x
𝑐 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿 approaches zero from right, the limit approaches 0. In
-0.1 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 (𝑖) 0.1 0.316227766 light with this, since one do not exist, although one
-0.01 𝑖 0.01 0.1 limit is zero, therefore:
-0.001 𝑖 0.001 0.031622777 lim √𝑥 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥⟶0
𝑥⟶−3
Solution. Since −3 is not one in the set of domain and there is no part of the graph close to it, we immediately
conclude that that limit is DNE.
Example 9. lim+ √𝑥
𝑥⟶0
Solution. This is special case, it only consider RHS. From solution in Example 8 (see Example 8), we determined
that as x approaches 0 from right, the limit approaches 0. Therefore:
lim+ √𝑥 = 0
𝑥⟶0
Example 10. lim− √𝑥

𝑥⟶0
Solution. Another special case, it only consider LHS, from solution in Example 8 (see Example 8), we determined
all numbers from left of 0 is imaginary, therefore:
lim+ √𝑥 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥⟶0
Example 11. lim √𝑥 2 − 4

𝑥⟶−3
Solution. Since the index of the radical function is even, we must determine first the restrictions of set of domain.
From the given, (±𝑥 )2 − 4 ≥ 0. Since the square of positive numbers and square of negative numbers,
we should consider both.
(𝑥 )2 − 4 ≥ 0 (−𝑥 )2 − 4 ≥ 0
(𝑥 )2 ≥ 4 (−𝑥 )2 ≥ 4
√(𝑥)2 ≥ √4 √(−𝑥)2 ≥ √4
𝒙≥𝟐 −𝑥 ≥ 2
−𝑥 2
≥
−1 −1
𝒙 ≤ −𝟐
Therefore the set of domain is 𝐷 = {𝑥 | − 2 ≥ 𝑥 ≥ 2}. Since −3 is one of the domains, we can directly substitute
this to the given.
√𝑥 2 − 4 = √(−3)2 − 4 = √9 − 4 = √5
Hence, lim √𝑥 2 − 4 = √5
𝑥⟶−3

Based on the restrictions for domain,
this shows the graph of the function.
From (2,0), the graph is extended to
right and upward. And, from (−2,0), it
is also extended to the left and upward.
(−3, √5)

𝑥⟶0
Solution. We have the same given. The value of 𝑐 = 0, which not one of the domains, therefore in this case, limit
does not exist (DNE). Or even we use direct substitution or tables of values we will still arrived at
limit that DNE.
3
𝑥⟶3
Solution. If the index is an odd number, the base can be any real
numbers (ℝ). Thus, in this case we can directly
substitute the 3 to x. Reminder this not applicable to
all cases, we also consider the restrictions of
3 𝑥 2 −1
expressions inside the radical sign (e.g. lim √ ,
𝑥⟶3 𝑥
𝑥 ≠ 0 based on conditions for rational functions)
3
√32 − 1 = 3√9 − 1 = 3√8 = 2
3
lim √𝑥 2 − 1 = 2
𝑥⟶3

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
Exponential Functions
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
Where 𝑒, is an irrational number approximately equal to 2,71828182846. This called Euler’s (/ˈȯi-lər/) Number,
named after the Swiss mathematician, physicist, astronomer, geographer, logician, and engineer Leonhard
Euler.
Example 14. lim (𝑒 𝑥 )

𝑥⟶0
Solution. The set of domain in this example is the set

of all real numbers (ℝ). Even without using
the table of values, we can simply substitute
the value of c to x.
𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒0 = 1
lim (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 1
𝑥⟶0
In this example, the graph of the function is
asymptotic to x-axis or y=0, because it not possible to
get 0 as one in the set of range. And negative numbers
is not an element of range. Since even our exponent is
negative, the result is still positive. For instance,
1
𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 −2 = 2 ≈ 0.14
𝑒
The lower the exponent, the graph becomes closer to x-axis.
Example 15. lim (𝑒 −𝑥 )

𝑥⟶−2
Solution.
𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑒 −(−2) = 𝑒 2 ≈ 7.39
lim (𝑒 −𝑥 ) = 𝑒 2 ≈ 7.39
𝑥⟶−2

Example 16. lim (−𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑥⟶−1
Solution.
1
−𝑒 𝑥 = −𝑒 −1 = − ≈ −0.37
𝑒
𝑥
1
lim (−𝑒 ) = − ≈ −0.37
𝑥⟶−1 𝑒
Example 17.
𝑥
lim (𝑒 + 1)
𝑥⟶0
Solution.
𝑒 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑒0 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2
lim (𝑒 𝑥 + 1) = 2
𝑥⟶0
Since 1 is added as constant, therefore the graph is lifted 1
unit.
Power Function
Power function is exponential function, here the base is not 𝑒, but any other real numbers, that is 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 .
For instance:
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 𝑥
The same procedure or algorithm is applied as exponential
function in determining the limits. Graph is almost similar
to exponential, but it varies depends on the value of its
base. The figure on the left shows the comparison of
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 (black) and 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 (red).

Logarithmic Functions
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥
Here, 𝑎 is the base. For example:
𝑦 = log 2 8
2𝑦 = 8
2𝑦 = 23
𝒚=𝟑
𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑥
Now, if we interchange variables and x and y, we will get the exponential function. This concluded that
logarithmic function is inverse of exponential function vice versa.
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙
Consider this two functions:

1. 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 (logarithmic function)
2. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 (exponential function) 𝑦 = 2𝑥
The upper graph (black) is the exponential
function, and its inverse in logarithm form is the
lower graph (red).
Consider the blue broken line as the mirror, each
graph is a mirror image of each other. 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥
The set of domain and set of range of 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥

are:
𝐷 = {𝑥 |𝑥 ≥ 0}
𝑅 = {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
The graph is asymptotic to 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0.
Example 17. lim (log 2 𝑥 )

𝑥→2
Solution. Since 𝑐 = 2 which is one in the set of domain. We can simply substitute it to the given.
log 2 𝑥 = log 2 2 = 𝐿
2 = 2𝐿 ⟹ 𝑳 = 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟐 𝒙) = 𝟏
𝒙→𝟐
Refer to graph above for illustration.

Example 18. lim (log 2 𝑥 )
𝑥→0
Solution. Using substitution, or even table of values, there is no limit.
Example 19. lim+(log 2 𝑥 )

𝑥→0
Solution. Base on notation it only consider, the right hand side.

Right Hand Side (RHS)
𝑐 𝐿 From RHS table, as x approaches 0 from right, the limit approaches negative
0.1 -3.321928095 infinity because the value becomes smaller.
0.01 -6.64385619 lim (log 2 𝑥 ) = −∞
𝑥→0+
0.001 -9.965784285 Refer to the same graph in the previous page.
Example 20. lim−(log 2 𝑥 )

𝑥→0
Solution. It given only consider the LHS.

Left Hand Side (LHS)
𝑐 𝐿 From LHS table, as x approaches 0 from right, the results are imaginary.
-0.1 𝑖 Therefore:
-0.01 𝑖 lim (log 2 𝑥 ) 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→0+
-0.001 𝑖 Refer to the same graph in the previous page.
Example 21. lim (log 8 (𝑥 + 2))

𝑥→−1
Solution. The restriction is 𝑥 + 2 > 0, because it must be zero and

negative. Therefore:
𝑥 + 2 > 0 ⟹ 𝑥 > −2
The set of domain is any real number greater than -2. Since -1 is one
of these, therefore, we can simply substitute it to the given.
log 8 (𝑥 + 2) = log 8 (−1 + 2) = log 8 (1) = 0
lim (log 8 (𝑥 + 2)) = 0
𝑥→−1
The graph is asymptotic to 𝑥 = −2.
There are special logarithmic function, namely common logarithmic function and natural logarithmic function.
The base of common logarithm is 10, and the base of natural logarithm is 𝑒.
Common Logarithmic Function Natural Logarithmic Function
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = log10 𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = log 𝑒 𝑥
But, we simply write this as: But, we simply write this as:
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = log 𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ln 𝑥
The same procedure or algorithm is applied in determining the limit.

Example 22. lim (log(8 − 𝑥 ))
𝑥→−2
Solution.
log(8 − 𝑥 )
= log(8 − (−2))
= log(8 + 2)
= log 10 = 1
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝟖 − 𝒙)) = 𝟏

𝒙→−𝟐
The graph is asymptotic to

𝑥 = 8.
Example 22. lim +(ln(𝑥 + 3))

𝑥→−3
Solution. The only consideration is the behavior of numbers from right of −3. Also, mere substitution will not
work because it will be ln(0) which is not possible. Use of table of values is recommended.
Right Hand Side (RHS) From RHS table, as x approaches −3 from right, the limit approaches negative
𝑐 𝐿 infinity because the value becomes smaller.
-2.9 -2.302585093 lim (ln(𝑥 + 3)) = −∞
-2.999 -6.907755279 𝑥→−3+
-2.9999 -9.210340372
The graph is asymptotic to

𝑥 = −3.

Trigonometric Functions
There 6 fundamental trigonometric functions.
1. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥 (sine)
2. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = cos 𝑥 (cosine)
3. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = tan 𝑥 (tangent)
4. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = cot 𝑥 (cotangent)
5. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = sec 𝑥 (secant)
6. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = csc 𝑥 (cosecant)
The arrows shows that the two trigonometric functions is reciprocal of each other.
The graph of above are the graphs of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥 (red) and 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = csc 𝑥 (blue) as reciprocal of one another.
The graph of above are the graphs of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = cos 𝑥 (red) and 𝑓(𝑥 ) = sec 𝑥 (blue) as reciprocal of one another.

The graph of above are the graphs of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = tan 𝑥 (red) and 𝑓(𝑥 ) = cot 𝑥 (blue) as reciprocal of one another.
The domains of basic sine and cosine functions are any real numbers. But, the other trigonometric functions
namely tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant have restrictions in the set of domain.
NOTE: If we are evaluating trigonometric functions, always set you calculator in radian form, unless the
given is in degree form.
Example 23. lim (sin(2𝑥 ))

𝑥→𝜋
Solution. Similarly, like every

other functions, we
could use table of
values and/ direct
substitutions,
depending on the
nature of the given.
sin(2(𝜋)) = sin(2𝜋) = 0
lim (sin(2𝑥 )) = 0
𝑥→𝜋
The period of the function is

doubled.
Example 24. lim

𝜋 −
(sec(𝑥 ) + 1)
𝑥→( )
2
Solution. By substitution.
𝜋
sec(𝑥 ) + 1 = sec ( ) + 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
2
But, we have to verify using table of values.

Left Hand Side (RHS) 𝜋
𝑐 𝐿 In LHS, as the value of x becomes closer to , the limit becomes larger or
2
𝜋 approaching positive infinity. Therefore:
− 0.1 11.01668613
(sec(𝑥 ) + 1) = +∞
2 lim
𝜋 −
𝜋 𝑥→( )
2
− 0.01 101.0016667
2
𝜋
− 0.001 1001.000167
2
NOTE: There is no cotangent, secant, or cosecant in most scientific calculators. We can still evaluate these
functions using its reciprocal as shown below.
1
cot 𝑥 =
tan 𝑥
1
sec 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥
1
csc 𝑥 =
sin 𝑥
Absolute Value Function
The fundamental form of absolute value function is

denoted by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = |𝑥 |. The two bars is the absolute
value symbol. And, the absolute value of any real
number is positive. Because of this condition, its
graph is:
The set of real numbers is the domain of fundamental

absolute value function. Restrictions for domains are
found, if the expression inside the absolute value
symbol is another function such as rational function.
In most cases, mere substitution will be sufficient to
determine the limit. For assurance, you need can still
use the table of values.
Example. lim (|𝑥 − 1| + 2)

𝑥→−3
Solution.
|𝑥 − 1| + 2 = |−3 − 1| + 2 = |−4| + 2 = 4 + 2 = 𝟔
lim [|𝑥 − 1| + 2] = 6
𝑥→−3
The constant, inside the absolute value symbol will determine

the movement of from left or right. Negative means right, and
positive is left. The constant or expression outside the absolute
value symbol will determine the up or down movement of the
graph. Positive is up, and negative is down.

Greatest Integer Function
Generally, greatest integer function is denoted by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ⟦𝑥 ⟧. In this function, the result of decimal number is
always rounded to its lower integer. For example:
⟦2⟧ = 2, ⟦2.1⟧ = 2, ⟦2.5⟧ = 2, ⟦−1⟧ = −1, ⟦−1.1⟧ = −2, ⟦−1.9⟧ = −2
The graph on the right is the graph of the function

𝑓(𝑥 ) = ⟦𝑥 ⟧. The graph is like a stair as a result to
definition of the function which round down to the
number to its lower integer.
https://www.onlinemath4all.com/graphing-greatest-integer-function.html
Greatest integer function is subdivided into two types of function.

1. Floor function – denoted by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ⌊𝑥 ⌋, the greatest integer that is less than or equal.
Example.
⌊0⌋ = 0, ⌊0.1⌋ = 0, ⌊0.6⌋ = 0, ⌊−0.1⌋ = −1, ⌊−0.8⌋ = −1
The graph at the right is the graph of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ⌊𝑥 ⌋.
2. Ceiling function – denoted by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ⌈𝑥 ⌉, the least integer that is greater than or equal.
Example.
⌈0⌉ = 0, ⌈0.1⌉ = 1, ⌈0.6⌉ = 1, ⌈−0.1⌉ = 0, ⌈−0.8⌉ = 0
The graph at the right is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ⌈𝑥 ⌉.
Source: https://www.mathsisfun.com/sets/function-floor-ceiling.html

For Example 25 and Example 26, consider the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ⟦𝑥 + 1⟧ + 2.
Example 25. lim (⟦𝑥 + 1⟧ + 2)

𝑥→1.5
Solution.
Left Hand Side (LHS) Right Hand Side (RHS) Using both LHS and RHS, the limit of the function
𝑐 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿 is 4. Therefore,
1.49 4 1.51 4
1.499 4 1.501 4 lim (⟦𝑥 + 1⟧ + 2) = 4
𝑥→1.5
1.4999 4 1.5001 4
Source: https://www.onlinemath4all.com/graphing-greatest-integer-function.html
Example 26. lim (⟦𝑥 + 1⟧ + 2)

𝑥→1
Left Hand Side (LHS) Right Hand Side (RHS) In LHS, as x approaches 1 from left, the limit is 3.
𝑐 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿 On the other hand, as x approaches 1 from right,
0.9 3 1.1 4 the limit is 4. Therefore,
0.99 3 1.01 4
0.999 3 1.001 4 lim (⟦𝑥 + 1⟧ + 2) 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→1.5
The graph illustrates this example.

Piecewise Functions
Piecewise function is one which is defined by two or more equations valid for some interval. Consider this
piecewise function, the graph is shown at the right.
1 − 𝑥, 𝑥 ≤ 0
( )
𝑓 𝑥 ={ ln ( 𝑥 + 1) , 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2
𝑥 2 − 4, 𝑥 ≥ 2
(2,1.10)
The function is composed of 3 portions of (0,1)
different functions, 1 − 𝑥 is linear function
(polynomial) where the domain is any real (0,0) (2,0)
number less than or equal to zero (0).
Hence, ln(𝑥 + 1) is natural logarithmic
function where the domain is any real
number greater than or equal to zero (0) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ln(𝑥 + 1) , 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2
but less than 2. Meanwhile, 𝑥 2 − 4 is
quadratic function where its domain is any
real number greater than or equal to 2.
Legends: Close circle (inclusive), means the point is included.

Open circle (exclusive), means the point is not included.
On Example 27 and Example 28, we will consider this given. Consider also the graph above for illustrations of
each example.
1 − 𝑥, 𝑥 ≤ 0
( )
𝑓 𝑥 ={ ln( 𝑥 + 1) , 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2
𝑥 2 − 4, 𝑥 ≥ 2
Example 27. lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )

𝑥→1
Solution. The value of 𝑐 = 1, this is one of the domains in 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ln(𝑥 + 1) , 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2. To solve for limit, we
could use table of values, or simply substitution. The latter is the most convenient.
𝑓 (1) = ln(𝑥 + 1) = ln(1 + 1) = ln(2) ≈ 0.69
Therefore:
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(𝟐) ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗
𝒙→𝟏
Example 28. lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )

𝑥→0
Solution. Here, 0 is domain of both 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 1 − 𝑥, 𝑥 ≤ 0 and 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ln(𝑥 + 1) , 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2. We must arrive at
unique limit.
Let us use table of values, any real numbers less than zero (0) are domains 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 1 − 𝑥, 𝑥 ≤ 0, so we will use
this equation for LHS. Meanwhile, any number greater zero but less than 2 are domains of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
ln(𝑥 + 1) , 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2, so we will use this for RHS.

Left Hand Side (LHS) Right Hand Side (RHS) In LHS, as 𝑥 approaches 0 from left, the limit
𝑐 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿
approaches 1. Meanwhile, in RHS, as 𝑥
-0.1 1.1 0.1 0.09531018
-0.01 1.01 0.01 0.009950331
approaches 0 from right, the limit approaches 0.
-0.001 1.001 0.001 0.0009995 And, 1 ≠ 0, therefore the limit is not unique. We
can conclude that:
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→0
LIMIT THEOREMS
1. The limit of a constant is itself. If 𝑘 is any constant, then,
lim 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑥→𝑐
Example. lim 5 = 5, where is any real number.
𝑥→𝑐
2. The limit of 𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches c is equal to 𝑐. This may be thought of as the substitution law, because 𝑥
is simply substituted by 𝑐.
lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
Example. lim 𝑥 = −2
𝑥→−2
3. The Constant Multiple Theorem: This says that the limit of a multiple of a function is simply that
multiple of the limit of the function.
lim 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑘 ∙ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑘 ∙ 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
Example. Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4 − 2𝑥, find lim 7 ∙ 𝑓 (𝑥 ).
𝑥→−3
lim 7 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 7 ∙ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 7(4 − 2(−3)) = 7(4 + 6) = 7 ∙ 10 = 70
𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3
4. The Addition Theorem: This says that the limit of a sum of functions is the sum of the limits of the
individual functions. Subtraction is also included in this law, that is, the limit of a difference of functions
is the difference of their limits.
lim[𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝐿 + 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
Example. Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 1, find lim [𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 )].
𝑥→−1
lim [𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = lim (2(−1) − 3) + lim ((−1)2 + 1)
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
= lim (−2 − 3) + lim (1 + 1) = lim (−5) + lim (2) = −5 + 2 = −3
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
5. The Multiplication Theorem: This is like the Addition Theorem, with multiplication replacing
addition as the operation involved. Thus, the limit of a product of functions is equal to the product of
their limits.
lim[𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
Example. Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 1, find lim [𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥 )].
𝑥→−1
lim [𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = lim (2(−1) − 3) ∙ lim ((−1)2 + 1)
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
= lim (−2 − 3) ∙ lim (1 + 1) = lim (−5) ∙ lim (2) = −5 ∙ 2 = −10
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

6. The Division Theorem: This says that the limit of a quotient of functions is equal to the quotient of
the limits of the individual functions, provided the denominator limit is not equal to 0.
lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝐿
𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑥→𝑐
lim = =
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔 (𝑥 ) lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐
2 𝑓(𝑥)
Example. Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 1, find lim 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥→0
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) lim (2(0) − 3) lim (0 − 3) lim (−3) −3
𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑥→0
lim = = 𝑥→0 2 = 𝑥→0 = 𝑥→0 = = −3
𝑥→0 𝑔(𝑥 ) (
lim 𝑔 𝑥 ) (
lim 0 + 1) (
lim 0 + 1) lim (1) 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
7. The Power Theorem: This theorem states that the limit of an integer power 𝑝 of a function is just that
power of the limit of the function.
𝑝 𝑝
lim(𝑓(𝑥)) = (lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )) = 𝐿𝑝
2 2
Example. Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 , find lim (𝑓(𝑥)) .
𝑥→−2
2 2 2
lim (𝑓(𝑥)) = ( lim 𝑓(𝑥 )) = ( lim (−2 − (−2)2 ))
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2
2 2
= ( lim (−2 − 4)) = ( lim (−6)) = (−6)2 = 36
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2
8. The Radical/Root Theorem: This theorem states that if n is a positive integer, the limit of the nth
root of a function is just the nth root of the limit of the function, provided the nth root of the limit is a
real number. Thus, it is important to keep in mind that if 𝑛 is even, the limit of the function must be
positive.
𝑛 𝑛
lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √𝐿
Example. Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 4, find lim 3√𝑓(𝑥 ).

𝑥→12
3 3
lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 3√ lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3√ lim (12 − 4) = 3√ lim (8) = √8 = 2
𝑥→12 𝑥→12 𝑥→12 𝑥→12
REFERENCES
Stewart, J. (2016). Calculus Early Transcendentals, 8th Edition. Cengage Learning, Inc., Boston, USA. ISBN:
978-1-285-74155-0
Larson, R. and Edwards, B. (2019). Calculus Early Transcendental Functions, 7th Edition. Cengage Learning,
Inc., Boston, USA. ISBN: 978-1-337-55303-2
Anton, H. et. al (2012). Calculus Early Transcendentals. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., United States of America.
ISBN 978-0-470-64769-1
https://www.mathsisfun.com/sets/function-floor-ceiling.html
https://www.onlinemath4all.com/graphing-greatest-integer-function.html

Calculus 1, Topic 2. Limits

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Calculus 1, Topic 2. Limits

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Republic of the Philippines

Sorsogon State College

Bachelor of Secondary Education major in Mathematics (BSEd – Math)

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 1

Read as, “The limit of function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐 is 𝐿.”

The series of numbers that is getting closer and closer to 3

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 2

In both LHS and RHS, as 𝑥 approaches −2 from left

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 3

Example 1. Determine the limit of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4 − 2𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches 3.

In this, besides using table of values, we can directly

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 4

The graph is asymptotic to 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Solution. We must first simplify the given.

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 5

Specifically, the set of domain for the function is:

Explanation and proof for the set of range

Limits of Radical Function

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 6

Example 10. lim− √𝑥

Example 11. lim √𝑥 2 − 4

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 7

Example 12. lim √𝑥 2 − 4

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 8

Example 14. lim (𝑒 𝑥 )

Solution. The set of domain in this example is the set

Example 15. lim (𝑒 −𝑥 )

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 9

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 10

Consider this two functions:

The set of domain and set of range of 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥

Example 17. lim (log 2 𝑥 )

Refer to graph above for illustration.

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 11

Solution. Using substitution, or even table of values, there is no limit.

Example 19. lim+(log 2 𝑥 )

Solution. Base on notation it only consider, the right hand side.

Example 20. lim−(log 2 𝑥 )

Solution. It given only consider the LHS.

Example 21. lim (log 8 (𝑥 + 2))

Solution. The restriction is 𝑥 + 2 > 0, because it must be zero and

The graph is asymptotic to 𝑥 = −2.

The same procedure or algorithm is applied in determining the limit.

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 12

𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝟖 − 𝒙)) = 𝟏

The graph is asymptotic to

Example 22. lim +(ln(𝑥 + 3))

The graph is asymptotic to

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 13

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 14

Example 23. lim (sin(2𝑥 ))

Solution. Similarly, like every

The period of the function is

Example 24. lim

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 15

Absolute Value Function

The fundamental form of absolute value function is

The set of real numbers is the domain of fundamental

Example. lim (|𝑥 − 1| + 2)

The constant, inside the absolute value symbol will determine

Calculus I with Analytic Geometry – Limits, Madrazo, A. @2020, anthonymadrazo5@gmail.com | 16

The graph on the right is the graph of the function

Greatest integer function is subdivided into two types of function.