Title: Automotive Powertrain

Date: 03/01/19
Objective: To understand the power train components of automobiles both
visually and conceptually
Observation/Theory:
The engine of the vehicle creates a rotational power. To move the car, we
need to transfer that rotational power to the wheels. That’s what the car’s drivetrain
does and the clutch, transaxle and transmission are part of it.
Manual Transmission
There are a few problems with power produced by an internal combustion
engine. First, it only delivers usable power, or torque, within a certain range of
engine speed (this range is called an engine’s power band). Go too slow or too fast,
and you don’t get the optimal amount of torque to get the car moving. Second, cars
often need more or less torque than what the engine can optimally provide within
its power band.
What is the difference between engine speed and engine torque?
Engine speed is the rate at which the engine’s crankshaft spins. This is measured in
revolutions per minute (RPMs). Engine torque is how much twisting force the
engine generates at its shaft for a particular speed of rotation.
The transmission ensures that the engine spins at an optimal rate (neither too slow
or too fast) while simultaneously providing the wheels with the right amount of
power they need to move and stop the car, no matter the situation you find yourself
in. It’s able to do this effective transmitting of power through a series of different
sized gears that leverage the power of gear ratio.
Inside the transmission are a series of variously sized, toothed gears that produce
torque. Because the gears that interact with each other are different sizes, torque
can be increased or decreased without changing the speed of the engine’s rotational
power all that much. This is due to gear ratios.
Gear ratios represent the gears’ relation to each other in size. When different sized
gears mesh together, they can spin at different speeds and deliver different amounts
of power.
 Fig. gear ratio in a manual transmission
First Gear- It’s the largest gear in the transmission and enmeshed with a small
gear. A typical gear ratio when a car is in first gear is 3.166:1. When first gear is
engaged, low speed, but high power is delivered. This gear ratio is great for
starting your car from a standstill.
Second Gear- The second gear is slightly smaller than first gear, but still is
enmeshed with a smaller gear. A typical gear ratio is 1.882:1. Speed is increased
and power decreased slightly.
Third Gear- Third gear is slightly smaller than the second, but still enmeshed with
a smaller gear. A typical gear ratio is 1.296:1.
Fourth Gear- Fourth gear is slightly smaller than the third. In many vehicles, by
the time a car is in fourth gear, the output shaft is moving at the same speed as the
input shaft. This arrangement is called “direct drive.” A typical gear ratio is
0.972:1
Fifth Gear- In vehicles with a fifth gear (also called “overdrive”), it is connected
to a gear that’s significantly larger. This allows the fifth gear to spin much faster
than the gear that’s delivering power. A typical gear ratio is 0.78:1.
Reverse/Idler gear- The idler gear (sometimes called “reverse idler gear”) sits
between the reverse gear on the output shaft and a gear on the countershaft. The
idler gear is what allows your car to go in reverse. The reverse gear is the only gear
in a synchronized transmission that isn’t always enmeshed or spinning with a
countershaft gear. It only moves whenever you actually shift the vehicle into
reverse.

Fig. parts of a manual transmission

Input shaft- The input shaft comes from the engine. This spins at the same speed
and power of the engine.
Countershaft- The countershaft (layshaft) sits just below the output shafts. The
countershaft connects directly to the input shaft via a fixed speed gear. Whenever
the input shaft spins, so does the countershaft, and at the same speed as the input
shaft. In addition to the gear that takes power from the input shaft, the countershaft
also has several gears on it, one for each of the car’s “gears” (1st-5th), including
reverse.
Output shaft- The output shaft runs parallel above the countershaft. This is the
shaft that delivers power to the rest of the drivetrain. The amount of power the
output shaft delivers all depends on which gears are engaged on it. The output shaft
has freely rotating gears that are mounted on it by ball bearings. The speed of the
output shaft is determined by which of the five gears are in “gear,” or engaged.
Synchronizer collars/sleeves- Most modern vehicles have a synchronized
transmission, meaning the gears that deliver power on the output shaft are
constantly enmeshed with gears on the countershaft and are constantly spinning.
Whenever you shift a car into a gear, the synchronizer collar shifts over to the
moving gear you’re looking to engage. On the outside of the gear are a series of
cone-shaped teeth. The synchronizer collar has grooves to accept those teeth.
Thanks to some excellent mechanical engineering, the synchronizer collar can
connect to a gear with very little noise or friction even while the gear is moving,
and sync the gear’s speed with the input shaft. Once the synchronizer collar is
enmeshed with the driving gear, that driving gear is delivering power to the output
shaft. Whenever a car is “neutral” none of the synchronizer collars are enmeshed
with a driving gear.
Gearshift- is what you move to put a car into gear.
Shift rods- are what move the synchronizer collars towards the gear you want to
engage. On most five-speed vehicles, there are three shift rods. One end of a shift
rod is connected to the gearshift. At the other end of the shift rod is a shift fork that
holds the synchronizer collar.
Shift fork- holds the synchronizer collar.
Clutch- Sits between the engine and gearbox of the transmission. When the clutch
is disengaged, it disconnects power flow between the engine and transmission
gearbox.
The Clutch

Fig. the clutch assembly

The first stage in the transmission of a car with a manual gearbox is the clutch.
Operation
It transmits engine power to the gear box, and allows transmission to be interrupted
while a gear is selected to move off from a stationary position, or when gears are
changed while the car is moving.

Most cars use a friction clutch operated either by fluid (hydraulic) or, more
commonly, by a cable. When a car is moving under power, the clutch is engaged.
A pressure plate bolted to the flywheel exerts constant force, by means of a
diaphragm spring, on the driven plate. Earlier cars have a series of coil springs at
the back of the pressure plate, instead of a diaphragm spring.

The driven (or friction) plate runs on a splined input shaft, through which the
power is transmitted to the gearbox. The plate has friction linings, similar to brake
linings, on both its faces. This allows the drive to be taken up smoothly when the
clutch is engaged.

When the clutch is disengaged (pedal depressed), an arm pushes a release bearing
against the centre of the diaphragm spring which releases the clamping pressure.

The outer part of the pressure plate, which has a large friction surface, then no
longer clamps the driven plate to the flywheel, so the transmission of power is
interrupted and gears can be changed.

When the clutch pedal is released, the thrust bearing is withdrawn and the
diaphragm-spring load once again clamps the driven plate to the flywheel to
resume the transmission of power.

Some cars have a hydraulically operated clutch. Pressure on the clutch pedal inside
the car activates a piston in a master cylinder, which transmits the pressure through
a fluid-filled pipe to a slave cylinder mounted on the clutch housing. The slave-
cylinder piston is connected to the clutch release arm.

Parts of the clutch

The modern clutch has four main components: the cover plate (which incorporates
a diaphragm spring), the pressure plate, the driven plate, and the release bearing.

The cover plate is bolted to the flywheel, and the pressure plate exerts pressure on
the driven plate through the diaphragm spring or through coil springs on earlier
cars. The driven plate runs on a splined shaft between the pressure plate and
flywheel. It is faced on each side with a friction material which grips the pressure
plate and flywheel when fully engaged, and can slip by a controlled amount when
the clutch pedal is partially depressed, allowing the drive to be taken up smoothly.

The Transaxle
A transaxle is a single mechanical device which combines the functions of an
automobile's transmission, axle, and differential into one integrated assembly. It
can be produced in both manual and automatic versions.

Fig. Transaxle assembly

The operation of any transaxle is exactly the same as that of any transmission. The
difference is this: Instead of being connected via a long driveshaft to the rear axle,
the transmission's output shaft drives a large gear that meshes directly with the
differential's ring gear. And the differential itself (which would be mounted on the
rear axle in a rwd car) is located in the transaxle housing, mounted parallel to the
transmission. As power is applied, the differential distributes it to the two front
wheels via halfshafts.
Transaxles can be oriented either longitudinally or in a transverse fashion.
Transverse transaxles are used in concert with transverse engines in a large
percentage of modern front-wheel drive vehicles, which is a configuration that
places the entire drive train and the drive wheels in the front end of the vehicle.
On the flip side, most rear-wheel drive vehicles utilize a longitudinal engine
configuration with a conventional transmission and drive train. However, rear-
wheel drive vehicles with transaxles that have either mid- or rear-engined layouts
do use transverse-mounted transaxles. When the engine is located in the rear, the
overall configuration is very similar to a front-engine layout.
The components of a transaxle can vary from one design to another, but they
typically contain most of the same components as a transmission and a differential.
Some of the major components include:
Shafts (input, idler, counter, etc)
Clutches and gears
Bearings
Of course, a transaxle contains these components in different amounts and
configurations than either a transmission or a differential. In addition to allowing
the driver to change gear ratios (the function of the transmission), it also has to be
able to distribute torque to the drive wheels.
The differential
A differential is a gear train with three shafts that has the property that the
rotational speed of one shaft is the average of the speeds of the others, or a fixed
multiple of that average.

The differential has three jobs:

 To aim the engine power at the wheels

 To act as the final gear reduction in the vehicle, slowing the rotational
speed of the transmission one final time before it hits the wheels
 To transmit the power to the wheels while allowing them to rotate at
different speeds (This is the one that earned the differential its name.)
Car wheels spin at different speeds, especially when turning. each wheel travels a
different distance through the turn, and that the inside wheels travel a shorter
distance than the outside wheels. Since speed is equal to the distance traveled
divided by the time it takes to go that distance, the wheels that travel a shorter
distance travel at a lower speed. Also note that the front wheels travel a different
distance than the rear wheels.

The differential is a device that splits the engine torque two ways, allowing each
output to spin at a different speed.
The differential is found on all modern cars and trucks, and also in many all-wheel-
drive (full-time four-wheel-drive) vehicles. These all-wheel-drive vehicles need a
differential between each set of drive wheels, and they need one between the front
and the back wheels as well, because the front wheels travel a different distance
through a turn than the rear wheels.

Part-time four-wheel-drive systems don't have a differential between the front and
rear wheels; instead, they are locked together so that the front and rear wheels have
to turn at the same average speed. This is why these vehicles are hard to turn on
concrete when the four-wheel-drive system is engaged.

We will start with the simplest type of differential, called an open differential.
First we'll need to explore some terminology: The image below labels the
components of an open differential.

Fig. Open Differential

When a car is driving straight down the road, both drive wheels are spinning at the
same speed. The input pinion is turning the ring gear and cage, and none of the
pinions within the cage are rotating -- both side gears are effectively locked to the
cage.

Note that the input pinion is a smaller gear than the ring gear; this is the last gear
reduction in the car. You may have heard terms like rear axle ratio or final drive
ratio. These refer to the gear ratio in the differential. If the final drive ratio is 4.10,
then the ring gear has 4.10 times as many teeth as the input pinion gear. See How
Gears Work for more information on gear ratios.

When a car makes a turn, the wheels must spin at different speeds.

In the figure above, you can see that the pinions in the cage start to spin as the car
begins to turn, allowing the wheels to move at different speeds. The inside wheel
spins slower than the cage, while the outside wheel spins faster.

The open differential always applies the same amount of torque to each wheel.
There are two factors that determine how much torque can be applied to the
wheels: equipment and traction. In dry conditions, when there is plenty of traction,
the amount of torque applied to the wheels is limited by the engine and gearing; in
a low traction situation, such as when driving on ice, the amount of torque is
limited to the greatest amount that will not cause a wheel to slip under those
conditions. So, even though a car may be able to produce more torque, there needs
to be enough traction to transmit that torque to the ground. If you give the car more
gas after the wheels start to slip, the wheels will just spin faster.

On Thin Ice one of the drive wheels may have good traction, and the other one is
on ice or in Off Road applications If one of the front tires and one of the back tires
comes off the ground, they will just spin helplessly in the air, and you won't be
able to move at all. This is where the problem with open differentials comes in

The solution to these problems is the limited slip differential (LSD) Limited slip
differentials use various mechanisms to allow normal differential action when
going around turns. When a wheel slips, they allow more torque to be transferred
to the non-slipping wheel.The clutch-type LSD is probably the most common
version of the limited slip differential

This type of LSD has all of the same components as an open differential, but it
adds a spring pack and a set of clutches. Some of these have a cone clutch that is
just like the synchronizers in a manual transmission.
 Fig. Clutch type LSD

The spring pack pushes the side gears against the clutches, which are attached to
the cage. Both side gears spin with the cage when both wheels are moving at the
same speed, and the clutches aren't really needed -- the only time the clutches step
in is when something happens to make one wheel spin faster than the other, as in a
turn. The clutches fight this behavior, wanting both wheels to go the same speed. If
one wheel wants to spin faster than the other, it must first overpower the clutch.
The stiffness of the springs combined with the friction of the clutch determine how
much torque it takes to overpower it.

The steering system

The steering system converts the rotation of the steering wheel into a swivelling
movement of the road wheels in such a way that the steering-wheel rim turns a
long way to move the road wheels a short way.

The system allows a driver to use only light forces to steer a heavy car. The rim of
a 15 in. (380 mm) diameter steering wheel moving four turns from full left lock to
full right lock travels nearly 16 ft (5 m), while the edge of a road wheel moves a
distance of only slightly more than 12 in. (300 mm). If the driver swivelled the
road wheel directly, he or she would have to push nearly 16 times as hard.
The steering effort passes to the wheels through a system of pivoted joints. These
are designed to allow the wheels to move up and down with the suspension without
changing the steering angle.

They also ensure that when cornering, the inner front wheel - which has to travel
round a tighter curve than the outer one - becomes more sharply angled.

The joints must be adjusted very precisely, and even a little looseness in them
makes the steering dangerously sloppy and inaccurate.

There are two steering systems in common use - the rack and pinion and the
steering box.

On large cars, either system may be power assisted to reduce further the effort
needed to move it, especially when the car is moving slowly.

The rack-and-pinion system

The pinion is closely meshed with the rack, so that there is no backlash in the
gears. This gives very precise steering.

At the base of the steering column there is a small pinion ( gear wheel) inside a
housing. Its teeth mesh with a straight row of teeth on a rack - a long transverse
bar.

Turning the pinion makes the rack move from side to side. The ends of the rack are
coupled to the road wheels by track rods.
This system is simple, with few moving parts to become worn or displaced, so its
action is precise.

A universal joint in the steering column allows it to connect with the rack without
angling the steering wheel awkwardly sideways.

The steering-box system

At the base of the steering column there is a worm gear inside a box. A worm is a
threaded cylinder like a short bolt. Imagine turning a bolt which holding a nut on
it; the nut would move along the bolt. In the same way, turning the worm moves
anything fitted into its thread.

Depending on the design, the moving part may be a sector (like a slice of a gear
wheel), a peg or a roller connected to a fork, or a large nut.

In worm-and-peg steering the worm moves the drop arm by means of a peg
connected to a fork.

The nut system has hardened balls running inside the thread between the worm and
the nut. As the nut moves, the balls roll out into a tube that takes them back to the
start; it is called a recirculating-ball system.

The worm moves a drop arm linked by a track rod to a steering arm that moves the
nearest front wheel.

In recirculating-ball steering, the thread between the worm and nut is filled with
balls.

A central track rod reaches to the other side of the car, where it is linked to the
other front wheel by another track rod and steering arm. A pivoted idler arm holds
the far end of the central track rod level. Arm layouts vary.

The steering-box system has many moving parts, so is less precise than the rack
system, there being more room for wear and displacement .

Power-assisted steering
On a heavy car, either the steering is heavy or it is inconveniently low geared - the
steering wheel requiring many turns from lock to lock.

Heavy gearing can be troublesome when parking in confined spaces. Power-

assisted steering overcomes the problem. The engine drives a pump that supplies
oil under high pressure to the rack or the steering box.

Valves in the steering rack or box open whenever the driver turns the wheel,
allowing oil into the cylinder. The oil works a piston that helps to push the steering
in the appropriate direction.

As soon as the driver stops turning the wheel, the valve shuts and the pushing
action of the piston stops.

The power only assists the steering - the steering wheel is still linked to the road
wheels in the usual way.

Wheels and Tires

A tire is a ring-shaped component that surrounds a wheel's rim to transfer a
vehicle's load from the axle through the wheel to the ground and to provide traction
on the surface traveled over. Most tires, such as those for automobiles and
bicycles, are pneumatically inflated structures, which also provide a flexible
cushion that absorbs shock as the tire rolls over rough features on the surface. Tires
provide a footprint that is designed to match the weight of the vehicle with the
bearing strength of the surface that it rolls over by providing a bearing pressure
that will not deform the surface excessively.

Fig. Tyre side wall numbers

Construction
A tire comprises several components: the tread, bead, sidewall, shoulder, and ply.
The tread is the part of the tire that comes in contact with the road surface. The
portion that is in contact with the road at a given instant in time is the contact
patch. The tread is a thick rubber, or rubber/composite compound formulated to
provide an appropriate level of traction that does not wear away too quickly.
The tire bead is the part of the tire that contacts the rim on the wheel. The bead is
typically reinforced with steel wire and compounded of high strength, low
flexibility rubber. The bead seats tightly against the two rims on the wheel to
ensure that a tubeless tire holds air without leakage. The bead fit is tight to ensure
the tire does not shift circumferentially as the wheel rotates. The width of the rim
in relationship to the tire is a factor in the handling characteristics of an
automobile, because the rim supports the tire's profile.

Fig. components of a tyre

The sidewall is that part of the tire, or bicycle tire, that bridges between the tread
and bead. The sidewall is largely rubber but reinforced with fabric or steel cords
that provide for tensile strength and flexibility. The sidewall contains air pressure
and transmits the torque applied by the drive axle to the tread to create traction but
supports little of the weight of the vehicle, as is clear from the total collapse of the
tire when punctured. Sidewalls are molded with manufacturer-specific detail,
government mandated warning labels, and other consumer information, and
sometimes decorative ornamentation, like whitewalls or tire lettering.[citation
needed]
The shoulder is that part of the tire at the edge of the tread as it makes transition to
the sidewall.[citation needed]
Plies are layers of relatively inextensible cords embedded in the rubber[62] to hold
its shape by preventing the rubber from stretching in response to the internal
pressure. The orientations of the plies play a large role in the performance of the
tire and is one of the main ways that tires are categorized.
Types of tyre
Radial tire construction utilizes body ply cords extending from the beads and
across the tread so that the cords are laid at approximately right angles to the
centerline of the tread, and parallel to each other, as well as stabilizer belts directly
beneath the tread. The belts may be cord or steel. The advantages of this
construction include longer tread life, better steering control, fewer blowouts,
improved fuel economy, and lower rolling resistance. Disadvantages of the radial
tire are a harder ride at low speeds on rough roads and in the context of off-
roading, decreased "self-cleaning" ability and lower grip ability at low speeds.
Bias tire construction utilizes body ply cords that extend diagonally from bead to
bead, usually at angles in the range of 30 to 40 degrees, with successive plies laid
at opposing angles forming a crisscross pattern to which the tread is applied. The
design allows the entire tire body to flex easily, providing the main advantage of
this construction, a smooth ride on rough surfaces. This cushioning characteristic
also causes the major disadvantages of a bias tire: increased rolling resistance and
less control and traction at higher speeds.
a wheel is a circular block of a hard and durable material at whose center has been
bored a circular hole through which is placed an axle bearing about which the
wheel rotates when a moment is applied by gravity or torque to the wheel about its
axis, thereby making together one of the six simple machines. When placed
vertically under a load-bearing platform or case, the wheel turning on the
horizontal axle makes it possible to transport heavy loads; when placed
horizontally, the wheel turning on its vertical axle makes it possible to control the
spinning motion used to shape materials (e.g. a potter's wheel); when mounted on a
column connected to a rudder or a chassis mounted on other wheels, one can
control the direction of a vessel or vehicle (e.g. a ship's wheel or steering wheel);
when connected to a crank or engine, a wheel can store, release, or transmit energy
Construction
 Fig. components of wheels
Rim
The rim is the "outer edge of a wheel, holding the tire." It makes up the outer
circular design of the wheel on which the inside edge of the tire is mounted on
vehicles such as automobiles. For example, on a bicycle wheel the rim is a large
hoop attached to the outer ends of the spokes of the wheel that holds the tire and
tube.
Hub
The hub is the center of the wheel, and typically houses a bearing, and is where the
spokes meet.
A hubless wheel (also known as a rim-rider or centerless wheel) is a type of wheel
with no center hub. More specifically, the hub is actually almost as big as the
wheel itself. The axle is hollow, following the wheel at very close tolerances.
Spokes
A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a wheel (the
hub where the axle connects), connecting the hub with the round traction surface.
The term originally referred to portions of a log which had been split lengthwise
into four or six sections. The radial members of a wagon wheel were made by
carving a spoke (from a log) into their finished shape. A spokeshave is a tool
originally developed for this purpose. Eventually, the term spoke was more
commonly applied to the finished product of the wheelwright's work, than to the
materials used.
Wire
The rims of wire wheels (or "wire spoked wheels") are connected to their hubs by
wire spokes. Although these wires are generally stiffer than a typical wire rope,
they function mechanically the same as tensioned flexible wires, keeping the rim
true while supporting applied loads.
Offset measures the distance from the centerline of the wheel to the mounting
surface. It is measured in millimeters. It can be a zero, positive, or negative offset.
With a 0 (zero) offset, the mounting surface is exactly in the center of the wheel.
With a positive offset, the mounting surface is to the front of the wheel. It is
expressed as the number of millimeters from the centerline. With a negative offset,
the mounting surface is to the back side of the wheel. It is expressed as the number
of millimeters from the centerline. For example, if a wheel is 9 inches wide, the
centerline is at 4.5 inches. A positive offset is the number of millimeters beyond
4.5 inches and a negative offset would be the number of millimeters in the opposite
direction.

A positive offset makes the wheels look like they are coming further out from the
wheel well and a negative offset makes the wheels look like they are deeper in the
wheel well.
Reference

https://www.howacarworks.com

https://en.wikipedia.org

https://auto.howstuffworks.com