Professional Documents
Culture Documents
of Arabic-English
Translation
The Nuts and Bolts
of Arabic-English
Translation:
An Introduction to Applied
Contrastive Linguistics
By
Ali Almanna
The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation:
An Introduction to Applied Contrastive Linguistics
By Ali Almanna
All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.
Introduction ................................................................................................. 1
Key features of the book 2
Objectives of the book 2
Main elements of methodology 3
Aspects of difference 4
Addition 235
Clauses of concession 240
Clauses of reason 246
Clauses of purpose 251
Result clauses 258
Time clauses 261
Conditional clauses 269
Transition & contrasting 277
It is/was + adjective/past participle + that/to ... 281
Back to simple sentences 285
Revision 292
Adj Adjective
AdjP Adjective phrase
Adv Adverb
AdvP Adverb phrase
C Complementizer
Conj Conjunction
CP Complementizer phrase
Det Determiner
e Empty
Infl Inflection
NP Noun phrase
P Preposition
PP Preposition phrase
Pro Pronoun
S Sentence
Sb Somebody
Sth Something
TT Target text
V Verb
VP Verb phrase
INTRODUCTION
The book is designed primarily for those whose mother tongue is either
Arabic or English and who have some knowledge of both linguistics and
translation. It is aimed primarily at undergraduate students of translation
along with their instructors throughout the world in view of the growing
number of universities in the UK, USA, Canada, Australia, and the Arab
world that are now offering such courses in translation. The book aims at:
! raising awareness of the pitfalls specific to translation and
! developing and honing translators’ competences, in particular
linguistic, translational, contrastive, and evaluative competence.
2 Introduction
embrace not just contrasting grammar but also such matters as awareness
of collocations, stylistics and cohesive devices, and the identification of
text types. The intention behind this very practical course is to gradually
build up familiarity with the linguistic and stylistic norms of the target
language, whether English or Arabic, through examples and practical tests
that also demonstrate and highlight the professional skill of translation
annotation. Being a practical course, the book seeks to develop the
application of intelligent translation procedures, with reference as
necessary to the theories underpinning them.
Aspects of difference
There are a number of books available that explain the principles of
translation with a focus on contrastive grammar, such as:
! Aziz, Y. (1989). A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic.
Iraq: Mosul University Press.
! Khalil, A. (1999). A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic.
Jordan: Jordan Book Centre Company Limited.
! Husni, R. and Newman, D. (2013). The A-Z of Arabic-English-
Arabic Translation. London: Saqi Books.
PRE-TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
1 Syntactic parsing
Syntactic parsing here refers to the act of analysing the units of the
original text (be they sentences, clauses, phrases, and the like). Before
embarking on translating any sentence/paragraph/text, the translators need
to identify (depending on their level, and the level of the text, of course):
‘Who went to school?’ = the subject = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ذھﺐ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ؟
In this verbal sentence, there is only one finite clause. The ُذھﺒﺖ
subject can be identified by raising this question َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي
ذھﺐ؟
َ = the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‘ أﻧﺎI’
expressed by the letter تattached to the verb ذھﺐ
َ ‘to go’.
The tense is ‘past’ indicated by the letter تsuffixed to the
verb as well as the time marker ‘ أﻣﺲyesterday’, and the
emphasis is placed on its completion. A number of
circumstances that answer different questions are utilized
by the language user, as follows:
where? إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ
when? أﻣﺲ
with whom? ﻣﻊ أﺑﻲ
how? ﺑﺎﻟﺴﯿﺎرة
(to learn more about ‘Circumstances’, see Chapter 4)
= َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﺬھﺐُ ؟the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‘ أﻧﺎI’
expressed by the letter أattached to the verb ذھﺐَ ‘to go’. The tense is a
simple present tense, as the emphasis placed on the frequency of the action
as a matter of routine is indicated by ‘ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎusually’.
Here, there are two finite clauses and an embedded clause that starts with ﻟـ
‘to’. The subject of the first finite clause ﻛﻨﺖ أﺷﺎھﺪ اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺎز اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔis ‘ أﻧﺎI’
and the tense is ‘past’, as indicated by the verb ﻛﺎنand the time marker
‘ اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔlast night’. The emphasis, i.e. the aspect, is put on the continuity of
the described activity ﻣﺸﺎھﺪة/َ ﺷﺎھﺪin a specific period in the past. The act
of watching in such a process of behaving is characterized by atelicity, that
is having no natural finishing point, but the behaver has to stop watching
for a particular reason. The subject of the second finite clause ﺟﺎء ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ
is ‘ ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲmy friend’ and the tense is ‘past’ where the emphasis is put on
the completion of the action which occurred in the middle of the act of
watching.
As can be observed, the same verb form ﻛﻧت أﺷﺎھدis used in these two
examples. However, in this example, there is an implicit word ُﻣﻌﺗﺎدًاthat
gives rise to a habitual interpretation of a simple past tense clause. To
express habituality in the past in English, ‘used to’ may be used.
~ In order to apply for this job, you must speak two languages, but
you don’t have to have a degree in international relations.
. ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻞ ﺒﻲ ِاﺒ ﻲ أﻤ ~
ّ
As can be seen, the morphological tense in both examples is ‘past’
indicated by the particle ﻟﻢ. However, by the effect of the phrase ﻓﻲ اﻵوﻧﺔ
‘ اﻵﺧﯿﺮةin recent days’ used in the first example, the emphasis is put on the
whole period that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the moment
of speaking as modelled below:
To reflect both the morphological tense and contextual tense, one may opt
for a present perfect tense, that is ‘have/has + past participle’. On the other
hand, in the second example, by the effect of the time marker أﻣﺲ
‘yesterday’, the emphasis is placed on the completion of the act of not
calling in a specific period in the past; therefore, it can be translated into a
simple past tense.
To show how failing to determine the subject of the sentence may lead to
an inaccurate translation, the following example along with three selected
translations (TT) offered by three BA translation students may be
discussed:
.ﺎء ﻻ أﺨﻲ وﻻ أﺨ ﻲ
ً ﻤ ﻟ ﯿ رﻨﻲ أﻤ ~
= َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﻟﻢ ﯾﺰرﻧﻲ؟the subject of which is ‘ أﺧﻲ وأﺧﺘﻲmy brother and sister’.
The tense is ‘past’ indicated by the particle ﻟﻢand time marker أﻣﺲ, and
the emphasis (aspect) is placed on the completion of the action, which is in
the negative form.
TT 1:
I did not visit neither my brother nor my sister yesterday evening.
Here, the translation trainee has been confused, and accordingly, changed
the subject of the sentence to ‘I’, thus producing an inaccurate translation.
Further, she has used the negative form with ‘neither … nor’, thereby
producing an ungrammatical structure.
TT 2:
Neither my brother nor my sister visited me yesterday in the evening.
10 Chapter One
Here, the translation trainee has succeeded in figuring out the subject of
the sentence and the other important elements, such as the tense, aspect,
negation, etc. thus producing an accurate translation.
TT 3:
My brother and sister could not visit me yesterday evening.
Here, the translation trainee has succeeded in figuring out the subject of
the sentence ‘my brother and sister’. However, she has opted for the
modal verb ‘could’ in the negative form, thus emphasizing the doers’
inability to visit somebody.
Had the translation students analysed the sentence and identified its main
elements, in particular the particle ﻟﻢ, which is used in Arabic to indicate
both ‘past’ and ‘negation’, they could have suggested renderings such as:
My brother and sister did not visit me yesterday evening.
Neither my brother nor my sister visited me yesterday evening.
Or, one may go for a passive voice, as in:
I was not visited yesterday evening by my brother or my sister.
But, there will be a ‘structure shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) terminology
(for more details on ‘Shift’, see Chapter 2).
Let us now try to identify the types of the sentences used in the following
text, the subject of each clause/sentence, the tense and aspect of each
clause/sentence, and so forth:
In the first sentence, in addition to the finite clause ُﻗﺮرت ‘ ﱠI decided …’,
there is an embedded clause that functions as the complement of the
verb ﻗﺮر
‘ ﱠto decide’, that is, ... ( أن أﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪfor more details, see next section).
In this mental process ُﻗﺮرت ‘ ﱠI decided’, the scope of intention is greater
than the extent of causation as the speaker may change his mind later (for
more details, see Chapter 4).
Similarly, in the second sentence, there is a non-finite clause that begins
with ‘ ﻛﻲin order to’.
Finally, let us analyse the following text titled ‘The Farmer and His Sons’
syntactically prior to translating it into Arabic:
In a small village, there was a farmer with five sons. How many verbs
His sons were strong and hardworking. But they are used in the
always quarrelled with one another. Sometimes, they text?
even fought.
Identify the non-
The farmer wanted his sons to stop quarrelling and finite verbs (go to
fighting; he wanted them to live in peace. But, page 17).
unfortunately, plain words of advice or scolding did
not have much effect on these young people. How many
adverbs are used
The farmer always thought what to do to keep his sons in the text?
united.
How many
One day, he called all his sons together. He showed adjectives are
them a bundle of sticks and said, “I want to see if any used in the text?
of you can break these sticks without separating them
from the bundle”. How many
connectors are
Each of the five sons tried one by one. They used their used in the text?
full strength and skill. But none of them could break the
sticks. Then the old man separated the sticks and gave How many
each of them just a single stick to break. They broke the partitives are used
sticks easily. in the text? (go to
page 203)
The farmer said, “A single stick by itself is weak. It is
strong as long as it is tied up in a bundle. Likewise, you Identify the
will be strong if you are united. You will be weak if you modes of
are divided”. narration used in
the text? (go to
page 149)
12 Chapter One
2 Semantic parsing
Semantic roles (also known as ‘thematic roles’, ‘theta roles’, and ‘thematic
cases’) are classified in this section into verb-specific semantic roles, i.e.
semantic roles that are derived from the verb itself. To explain, the
following example can be discussed:
. ~ أﻋ ﻰ اﻟ ُ ِّر ُس اﻟ ﺎﻟ َ ﻫ ًﺔ ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ
Here,
! اﻟﻤﺪرس
ِّ ‘the teacher’ fills a verb-specific semantic role of Giver.
! ‘ اﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐthe student’ fills a verb-specific semantic role of Receiver.
! ‘ ھﺪﯾﺔa gift’ fills a verb-specific semantic role of something Given.
! ‘ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦtwo days ago’ is an adverb of time answering the question
‘when’.
This can be modelled as follows:
.[Adverb of time] [ ﻗﺑل ﯾوﻣﯾنsth Given] [ ﻫ ًﺔReceiver] َ [ اﻟ ﺎﻟGiver] أﻋ ﻰ اﻟ ُ ِّر ُس
It is worth mentioning that what was Given was first with the teacher and
then with the student. We can also notice that what was Given was not
affected, but it was moved from the Source ﺪرس ّ ِ ‘ اﻟ ُﻤthe teacher’ to the
Goal ‘ اﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐthe student’.
Now, let us compare these five sentences expressing the same idea to
answer these questions:
1. Who was the sender? a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. ______ e. ______.
2. Who was the receiver? a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. ______ e. ______.
3. What was sent? a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. ______ e. ______.
a. I sent an email to my supervisor two days ago.
b. I sent my supervisor an email two days ago.
c. My supervisor received an email from me two days ago.
Pre-translation Techniques 13
ﻗﺮ َر؟
ﻣﺎذا ﱠ ﻘﺮر؟
ّ ِ َﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤ
ﻤ أﺨﻲ [Adverb of time] ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎ ٍم [sth Bought] ﺴّﺎرًة ُﻤ ﻌ ﻠ ًﺔ [Buyer] ُ اﺸ ~
.[Seller] اﻷﺼﻐ
[sth ﺴ اﻻً ُﻤ ًﺠﺎ [Adverb of time] ﯿ م أﻤ [Asker] ِاﺒ ﻲ [Addressee] ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ ~
.Asked]
14 Chapter One
[Adverb of place] ﻓﻲ ﺴﺎﺤﺔ اﻟ رﺴﺔ [sth Played] [ َة اﻟﻘ مPlayer] ﻻدُ ﻟﻌ َ اﻷو ~
.[Adverb of time] ﯿ م أﻤ
ﻤ [sth Offered/Accepted] ﻀﺎ
ً ﻋ [Adverb of time] [ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴﺎﺒ َﻊAccepter] ُ ﻗ ﻠ ~
.[Offerer] إﺤ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺎت
3 Revision
EX 1: The following text is adapted from a short story titled ‘ اﻟ ﻘﺔThe
Garden’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb. Complete the translation
suggested by Sadkhan and Pragnell (2012: 44-5) by paying extra
attention to the semantic roles assigned to each noun phrase.
ﺤﻰ ﻤﺎ إن ﻓ ﺢ ﺎب اﻟ... ﺒ ﺎﻤ ﻪ وﺨ ج ﻤ ﻏ ﻓ ﻪ واِرﺘ ﻨﻬ
ﺜ ﻓ ﺢ اﻟ ﻔ ﺔ ﻓﺎﻟ ﻊ،اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﺒ ﻬﺎﯿ ﻪ ﺘ ﺎول اﻨ ب اﻟ ﺎء اﻟ ﺎ وأزال اﻟ
.ﻘﻲ ﺤ ﻘ ﻪ و أ،ﻗ س اﻟ ﺎء
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
He took the rubber hosepipe, removed the mud which caked its
end, and then turned on the tap. The arc of water glistened and
he began watering his garden.
EX 3: Analyse the following text titled ‘As you sow, so shall you reap’
syntactically prior to translating it into Arabic.
One night, three thieves stole a lot of money
from a rich man’s house. They put the money How many verbs are
in a bag and went to the forest. They felt very used in the text?
hungry. So, one of them went to a nearby
village to buy food. The other two remained in Identify the semantic
the forest to take care of the bag of money . roles assigned to each
noun phrase used in
The thief that went for food had an evil idea. the first two
He ate his food at a hotel. Then he bought sentences.
food for his two mates in the forest. He mixed
a strong poison with the food. He thought, Identify the non-finite
“Those two will eat this poisoned food and verbs in the text.
die. Then I will get all the money for myself ”.
How many adverbs
Meanwhile, the two wicked men in the forest are used in the text?
decided to kill their mate on his return. They
How many adjectives
thought that they would divide the money
are used in the text?
between the two of them. All the three wicked
men carried out their cruel plans. The thief How many connectors
who wanted all the money for himself came to are used in the text?
the forest with the poisoned food. The two
How many partitives
men in the forest hit him and killed him. Then
are used in the text?
they ate the poisoned food and died.
Identify the modes of
Thus, these evil people met with an evil end.
narration used in the
text.
. ﻼﻤ ِﻪ ﯿ م أﻤ
ِ ٍ
ﻟ أﻛ ْ ُﻤ ِﻋ ً ﺎ ًا ﻤ،اﺤﺔ .3
7. She invited all her friends to her birthday party, but no one
attended.
8. Next month, I will have been teaching in this university for 12
months.
9. While I was talking with my friend, somebody threw a car key at
me.
10. Yesterday, neither the dean nor the head of the department
attended the meeting.
.اﺌﻌﺔ ِ
ً ﻛ ْ اﺒ ﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻐ ة ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ ﻗ ً ﺔ ر.2
ِ ّ ﺴﺄل اﻟ ّرس أﺤ َ اﻟ.3
.ﻼب ﺴ اﻻً ﺼﻌًﺎ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم ُ ُ َ
CHAPTER TWO
travelled Here, the finite verb ﺳﺎﻓﺮcan be translated as ‘to travel’. The
verb ﺳﺎﻓﺮis in the past indicated by ‘ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦtwo days ago’
and the emphasis is placed on its completion; therefore, it can
be translated into a simple past tense ‘travelled’. Cognitively
speaking, the open path utilized here is approached from a
distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline.
two days ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦis an equivalent of ‘two days ago’. The difference
ago between ‘ago’ and ‘before’ in English is that the former is
used with a past tense and a time expression to count back
from the present while the latter is used for past times from
another time in the past, as in:
I met my friend two weeks before I graduated.
I graduated from this school three years ago.
to meet Here, the scope of intention is greater than the extent of
my friend. causation as the Actor/Traveller may change his mind later.
To borrow terms from cognitive grammar, this non-finite
verb ‘to meet’ is not grounded, that is, its reality status has
not been established in such an example. Building on this, it
cannot stand on its own as a communicative speech event. In
such a context, the verb ‘ اﻟﺘﻘﻰto meet’ can be translated as ‘to
visit’. ‘ ﻛﻲ أﻟﺘﻘﻲ )ﺑـ(ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲto meet my friend’ is a non-finite
clause. However, when it is translated as ‘so that I could meet
my friend’, then it will be regarded as a finite clause.
Now, let us discuss the following text adapted from a short story titled
‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪادThe Train Headed up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 11):
ﻬﺎ وﺴّﻠ ﻲ أﻤﻲ ﻋﻘ ة ﻓ ّ ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺼﻔ اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﺼﻔ ﺘﻪ اﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎدة اﻟ ﻘ ﻌﺔ ﻓ
... اﻟ ﯿ ﺎر اﻟ ﺤ اﻟ ﺘ ﻠ ﻪ
When the train gave its second, sharp shrill whistle, my mother untied
the knot of her apron and gave me the only dinar she had …
Narrating Events in the Past 19
As can be seen in both texts, there are four finite clauses. They are
In these four clauses, three processes of doing and a process of having are
employed by the writer and reflected by the translators (for more details on
‘Processes’, see Chapter 4). The emphasis in the first three processes is
placed on the completion of the acts of whistling, untying, and
handing/giving in the past. In the fourth clause although the morphological
tense in the process of having is in the present, the emphasis is also placed
on its completion as there is an implicit ( ﻛﺎنsee Chapter 3, for more
details). Cognitively speaking, all these acts in such a context are
approached from a distal perspective, thus being seen as points on the
timeline. To put this differently, these finite verbs in these processes are
grounded, that is to say they have established a relationship with ‘now and
then’. As a consequence, the speaker construes them as part of known
reality.
In the first finite clause ﺻﻔﺮ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر ﺻﻔﺮﺗﮫ, a cognitive operation of
actionalizing is used by the writer (for more details, see Talmy 2000: 45).
However, such an operation of actionalizing, i.e. ‘ ﺻﻔﺮto whistle’, has
been reified to an object, i.e. ‘whistle’ by the translators to avoid the
repetition resulting from the use of the cognate accusative اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮل اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻖ
(see Section 2).
EX: Translate the following sentences using the notes that follow some of
them, paying extra attention to the finite and non-finite clauses and
verbs.
ِ ات ﻷﻋ ف ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ
.ﻔﻠﺔ ٍ ﻤ ﺨ ِ ﻤ أﻛ ا ّﺘ ﻠ ُ ﻪ ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ ~
َ َ
ِ ﻫ ًﺔ ﻷُ ِﺨ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ِ ﻤ
.ﻼدﻫﺎ أن ﺘ ادت أﻤ
ْ أر ~
! Here, there are two verbs, viz. ْ أرادتand ﺗﺸﺘﺮي. While the verb
ْ أرادتis finite, indicating tense (past), gender (feminine), number,
and person (the third person singular), the verb ﺗﺸﺘﺮيis non-
finite as it does not indicate any tense because it is preceded by
أن.
! The word ھﺪﯾﺔcan be translated into ‘gift’ or ‘present’. The two
words are used with things given to other people without expectation
of return or compensation. In English, it is common to say ‘I gave
her a gift/present on her birthday’. The difference between them is
that a ‘gift’ tends to be much more valuable than a ‘present’.
! Attention should be paid to ‘ اﻟﺘﻨﻮﯾﻦnunation’ in ھﺪﯾﺔas it lends
itself here to the indefinite article ‘a’ (for more details on ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ
‘Nunation’, see Chapter 6).
.ﺤﻠ ُ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﺤﻠ ً ﺎ ُﻤ ِﻋ ً ﺎ ~
ٍ ﺄﺸ ﺎء ﺠ
.ٍة ﻠﺔ ْ ﺤﻠ،ﻓﻲ ﺤﻠ ِ ﻬﺎ ~
! ‘Dream’ as a noun collocates well with verbs like ‘to have’ or ‘to
haunt’.
! The adjective ُﻣﺰﻋِﺞin the first example can be translated into
‘disturbing’, ‘awful’, or ‘bad’ as they collocate well with the
noun ‘dream’. Or, one may go for ‘nightmare’ ﻛﺎﺑﻮسto stand for
the phrase ﺣﻠﻢ ﻣﺰﻋِﺞ.
! The adjective ﺟﻤﯿﻞin the second example can be rendered into
Narrating Events in the Past 21
.أﺤﻼﻤ ِﻪ ُﻤ ُ ﺴ ٍﺔ
ِ ِ ﻻ ﯿ ال ﻤ ﻬ اﻟ
ﺎدث ُ ِﺎرُد ُﻩ ﻓﻲ ُ ~
! The verbs طﺒﺦ, ﻛﺘﺐ, and ﺣﺎولlend themselves to ‘to cook’, ‘to
write’, and ‘to try’ respectively.
! We need to make some pre-transferring adjustments prior to
embarking on the actual act of translating the text. Here, the
clause ﻗﺒﻞ أن ﺗﺨﻠﺪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻨﻮمsimply means ﻗﺒﻞ أن ﺗﻨﺎم, i.e. ‘before
going to bed’ or ‘before falling asleep’.
! The verb ﯾﻄﻤﺌﻦlends itself to ‘to check on’, ‘to rest in comfort’,
‘to feel better’, etc.
.ﺎن ﺼﻌًﺎ ﺠ ً ا ِ
ُ ﻛﺎن اﻻﻤ ~
ٍ
.ﺴﺎﻋﺔ ﻒ ِ ﺨ ﺠ ْ أﻤ ﻗ ﻞ ِاﻨ
ِ ﻬﺎء اﻟﻌ ِﻞ ِﺒ ~
ٍ
.ف ﺴ َ ﺘﻌِ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ُ ﻔﺎﺠﺊَ أﺨ ُت واﻟ ﺘﻲ إﻟﻰ أﻗ ِب ﻋ ﺎدة ﻲ ﻨﻌ ~
. وﻟ أﺘ ّ ﻤ اﻟ م،ﻘ ُ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ أﺘﻘّﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔ اش ~
22 Chapter Two
ُّ ﻨ َﻩ اﻟ اﺨﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎر اﻟﻘﺎﻫ ة اﻟ وﻟﻲ وز ِاﺴ ﻘ َﻞ ﯿ م أﻤ ~
.اﻟ ّ داﻨﻲ
ّ
! The expression وزﯾﺮ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔis translated into ‘the minister of the
interior’ (note UK: ‘home secretary’). As for وزﯾﺮ اﻟﺪﻓﺎع, رﺋﯿﺲ
اﻟﻮزراء, and وزﯾﺮ اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ, they can be translated into ‘the minister
of defence’, ‘the prime minister’, and ‘the minister of foreign
affairs’ respectively.
! The word ﻧﻈﯿﺮcan be translated into ‘counterpart’.
Narrating Events in the Past 23
! The verb ﺗﻌﺮضّ can be translated into ‘to be subject to’ or ‘to be
exposed to’.
! The expression ﺻﺎﺣﺒﺘﮭﺎlends itself to ‘to be accompanied by’.
The phrase ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻷﻣﻄﺎرcan be rendered into ‘a rain front’.
great victory’.
! The phrase وﺟﻤﮭﻮره
ِ أرﺿ ِﮫ
ِ ﺧﺎرجcan be translated into ‘away from
home and fans’.
! The phrase ﻧﮭﺎﺋﻲ ﻛﺄس إﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﺎlends itself to ‘the Italian Cup Final’.
1. The man who was arrested by the police yesterday was found
guilty.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. After he had bought a gift for his brother, he went to the gym.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
EX: Translate the following text titled ‘Mohandas Gandhi’ into English,
paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic norms of the
target language:
! The verb َ ُو ِﻟﺪ, which is in the past and passive, lends itself to ‘was
born’ in English.
! The adjective ( ُﻣﺤﺎﻓِﻆ)ـﺔin this context lends itself to ‘conservative’.
Narrating Events in the Past 25
EX: Identify the finite and non-finite verbs used in the source text
extracted from a short story titled ‘ ودّت ﻟﻮ ﺗﺠﻠﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﺻﯿﻒShe
Wanted to Sit on the Pavement’ by Karīm ‘Abid. Then compare them
with their equivalents in the target text (translated by and cited in
Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 108-9):
She went to her room and closed .ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﺎب إﻟﻰ ﻏ ﻓ ﻬﺎ وأﻏﻠﻘ ذﻫ
the door. She took off the plaster ... إﻟﻰ اﻟ ح ﻠﻌ
and looked at the wound … ّ اﻟﻼﺼ وﺘ رﻓﻌ
She put on it a little of that blue اﻟ ﺎﺌﻞ اﻷزرق ﻋﻠ ﻪ ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﻤ وﻀﻌ
antiseptic with a slight sting and .ﺎد وأﻋﺎدت اﻟ، اﻟ ﻔ ﻒ اﻟ ﺎو
replaced the bandage.
! emphasis, as in ﻀ ً ﺎ
َ ﻲ ﺠﻞ اﻟ
ُ ﻀ َب اﻟ َ.
! explanation of the type, as in ِﻋﻤﻞ ﻋَﻤﻼً ﻧﺎﻓِﻌًﺎ
ْ ا.
26 Chapter Two
ِ داﺨﻞ اﻟ ﱠ
.ﻒ ِ ﻓﻲ ﻼب ﻀ ً ﺎ ﻋﺎﻟًﺎ أﻤ ِ
ُ ّ ﻀ اﻟ ~
.َﻀَ َ ُﻪ ﻀ ً ﺎ ُﻤ ًﺤﺎ ﺤ ﻰ أُﻏ ﻲ ﻋﻠ ﻪ ~
. ﺴﺎﻋ ْﺘ ﻲ ﻤ ﺎﻋ ًة ﻋ ًﺔ ﻗ َﻞ ﯿ ﻤ ~
ِ
ورﺸﺔ ًة ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎر ًﺔ،ﺎء ِ
ٍ ﺒ ون اﺴ، ﺸﺎرك ﻤ ّ ﻔ اﻟ ِﺔ،ﻗ ﻞ أﺴ ع ~
.اﻟﻌ ِﻞ
. ف ﻋ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ ِاﺠ ﺎع أﻤ
ِ ًﺔ ﻟ ﻊ اﻟ ِاﺒ ﺎﻤ ًﺔ ﻋ ِاﺒ ~
ِ
.ًا ً ﻤ اﺒ ﺎﻤ ﻲ ِاﻤ
ﻌﺎﻀﺎ أﻤ زﻤ ﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ِاﻤ ﻌ ~
EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course
into English, paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic
norms of the target language:
ِ ﺨ ج ﯿ م أﻤ ٍ ﻤ ﺎت اﻟﻌ اﻗ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ارع
ﻟﻼﺤ ﺎ ِج ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ء اﻟ ﻤﺎت واِﻨﻘ ﺎع اﻟ ﺎر ُ َ َ
ِ ِ
ﻓﻲ.ً ﻗﺎﻤ ا ﺒ ﻒ اﻟ ارع ﺘ ًﻔﺎ ﺸﺎﻤﻼ، ﻌ ﻫﺎ. ﺘ ﺎﻫ وا ﻷﻛ ﻤ ﺴﺎﻋ.اﻟ ﻬ ﺎﺌﻲ
ﺎﻫ ر ﻤﻊ اﻟ إذ ﻗﺎﻤ ا ﺎﻟ ﻘﺎ اﻟ.ات اﻷﻤ ِ ﻤﻌﻬ ﺘﻌﺎﻤﻼً ﺠّ ً اُ ﺘﻌﺎﻤﻠ ْ ﻗ،اﻟ ﻘﺎﺒﻞ
. و ﻟ ﺘ زﻊ اﻟ ﺎء ﻋﻠ ﻬ
! The verb ( ﺧﺮج )إﻟﻰ اﻟﺸﻮارعcan be translated into ‘to go out’ or ‘to
take to the streets’ in the past.
! The expressions ﺳﻮء اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎتand اِﻧﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺘﯿﺎر اﻟﻜﮭﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲcan be
translated into ‘bad services’ and ‘power cut’ respectively.
‘Power outage(s)’ is possible in more technical writing, but
generally not a common usage in British English.
! The verb اِﺣﺘ ﱠﺞand ﺗﻈﺎھﺮlend themselves to ‘to protest against’
and ‘to demonstrate’ respectively.
! The expression ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞcan be translated into ‘in return’.
! Attention should be paid to the translation of the weak verb ﻗﺎم
along with its prepositional phrase. ﻗﺎم ﺑﺘﻨﻈﯿﻒ, ﻗﺎم ﺑﺎِﻟﺘﻘﺎط, and ﻗﺎم
ﺑﺘﻮزﯾﻊmean ﻧﻈﻒ, اِﻟﺘﻘﻂ, and ع ّ respectively.
َ وز
30 Chapter Two
Sentence
Subject Predicate
auxiliary prediction
(... أت ِ ٍ
َ )ﻤﺎ ﻗ.ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن ﻟ ﺘﻘ أ ﺠّ ً ا أﻤ،اﺤﺔ ~
(... ُ )ﻤﺎ ﻨ.ﻟ أﻨ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﺠّ ً ا ~
ٍ
(... َ )ﻤﺎ ﺸﻌ.اﺼﻞ ﻌْ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﺎﻟ ﻌ ِ أﻤ ﻌ ﻋ ٍﻞ ﻤ ﻟ ~
(... َ )ﻤﺎ ﺤ. ِ اﻟﻌ ِاﺠ ﺎع أﻤ ﻟ ~
ﯾﺤﻀﺮ
ْ ﻟﻢbecame ِ ْاﻟﻌ ﻟﻢto avoid اِﻟﺘﻘﺎء اﻟﺴﺎﻛﻨﯿﻦ
As shown above, in English the negative form in the simple past tense is
formed by inserting ‘did not’ before the main verb and changing the main
verb to the first form, as in:
Subject did not first form
I did not understand …
You did not read …
I did not sleep …
My friend did not feel …
The dean did not attend …
It is worth noting that the particle ﻟﻢalong with the verb is not always
translated into ‘did not + the base form of the verb’. To illustrate, let us
consider the following two examples extracted from a short story titled ﺑﺌﺮ
‘ اﻵﺑﺎرThe Well of Wells’ by ’Ahmad Khalaf (translated by and cited in
Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 57):
أﻨ ﺎل ﻓ وﺴ ﺎ اﻟ ﺎﻩ ﺘ وﻟ ّ ﺎ ﻟ ﻨ، اﺜ ﻤ ﺤﻔ ﻨﺎ داﺨﻞ اﻷرض و ﻌ
... آﺨ ﻤ ﻌ ﺤﻔ ﻨﺎ أﻛ
We dug down to a depth of two metres; having found no water under
the blades of our axes, we dug one more metre.
Following is the second example:
However, in the following example adapted from a short story titled ﺑﺌﺮ
‘ اﻵﺑﺎرThe Well of Wells’ by ’Ahmad Khalaf, ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦhas been translated by
Pragnell and Sadkhan (2011: 55) differently, as in:
اج اﻟ ﺎﻩ أﻤﺎﻤ ﺎ إﻻ دﻋ ة ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ﺎس ﻟ ﻔ اﻵ ﺎر واﺴ ﻟ:ﻗﺎل أﺤ اﻟﻔ ﺎن
ﺎن إﻻ أن ﻌ ﻠ ا ﻟ ﻞ أﻤﺎم اﻟ ﺎء واﻟ ﺠﺎل واﻟ خ واﻟ ﻟ.اﻷرض ﺎ ﻤ
…ﻨﻬﺎر
“We had no option”, said a young man, “but to call people to dig
wells and extract water from the depth of the earth”. Women, men, the
elderly and the young had no choice but to work day and night …
It is worth noting that in English, certain adjectives, verbs, and nouns can
be changed from affirmative to negative by adding a negative prefix, such
as un–, dis–, a–, il–, im–, etc. For example, the prefix un– can be attached
to the adjective ‘happy’ to create another adjective, i.e. ‘unhappy’ to refer
to the opposite meaning.
He is not happy.
He is happy. . ٍ إﻨﻪ ﻏ ُ ﺴﻌ
He is unhappy.
ٌ
Translating ‘he is not happy’ or ‘he is unhappy’ into ﺣﺰﯾﻦ ‘ إﻧﮫhe is sad’
will result in what is called by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995)
‘modulation’. Modulation, according to them, refers to the act of changing
the message by way of twisting the point of view without changing the
meaning (p. 89). To reinforce this point, following is an example quoted
from a short story titled ‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪادThe Train Heading up to
Baghdad’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell
and Sadkhan 2011: 22-3) can be considered:
ﻒ اﻟ اﺒﻞ ﯿ ّ س اﻵن ﻤﻐ ًار ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎر واﻟ، … اﻟ أة اﻟ ﻠ ﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ أور ﻨﻟ
... اﻟ ﺎس ﻫ وزوﺠ ﻪ و ﻔﻠ ﻪ
The injured woman had got off at Ur … and the withered
functionary slipped unnoticed into a flood of people with his wife
and daughter …
Here, as one may observe, the word ﻣﻐﻤﻮراً has been translated into
‘unnoticed’, i.e. ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻼﺣﻆor ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺮﺋﻲ, thus resulting in what is called
‘modulation’ by Vinay and Darbelnet (ibid.).
34 Chapter Two
Following are some English negative prefixes. Try to translate them into
Arabic:
Prefix Affirmative Negative
a– political ﺳﯿﺎﺳﻲ apolitical ﻻ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﻲ
symmetry ________ asymmetry ________
il– legal________ illegal________
legible________ illegible________
literate________ illiterate________
logical ________ illogical________
in– accurate________ inaccurate________
eligible________ ineligible________
organic________ inorganic________
decent________ indecent________
sane________ insane________
convenient ________ inconvenient ________
correct ________ incorrect ________
efficient ________ inefficient ________
dependent ________ independent ________
expensive ________ inexpensive ________
visible ________ invisible ________
tangible ________ intangible ________
ir– rational________ irrational________
reconcilable________ irreconcilable________
resistible________ irresistible________
regular________ irregular________
un– able ________ unable________
usual________ unusual________
interesting________ uninteresting________
prepared________ unprepared________
comfortable________ uncomfortable________
helpful________ unhelpful________
fortunate ________ unfortunate ________
just ________ unjust ________
healthy ________ unhealthy ________
important ________ unimportant________
truthful ________ untruthful________
successful ________ unsuccessful ________
fair ________ unfair ________
Narrating Events in the Past 35
As can be seen, the sentences ﺑﺠﺮﯾﺎن ﻻ ﯾﻌﺘﺮﺿﮫ ﺷﻲءand ﯾﻨﮭﻤﺮ ﻻ ﯾﺒﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﺸﻲء
have been translated into ‘in an uninterrupted flow’ and ‘to pour down
unconcerned’ respectively, thus resulting in a ‘unit shift’ to borrow
Catford’s (1965) terminology (see ‘Shift’ in this Chapter, for more details).
As for the negation expressed by ﻻin ﻻ ﯾﻌﺘﺮﺿﮫand ﻻ ﯾﺒﺎﻟﻲ, it has been
reflected by the use of the prefix un– attached to the words ‘interrupted’
and ‘concerned’.
EX: Translate the following sentences into English, paying extra attention
to the negative forms:
. ٍ ﺎﻟ أﱡ ِ ﻟ ﯿ ﺢ ﻓﻲ
اﻻﻤ ﺎن أﻤ ~
. أﺤ، ﻟ ﯿ ُ رﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﻲ أﻤ إﻻ ﺼ ﻘﻲ اﻟ ~
. ﻟ ﺘ اﻷﺴ ﻠ ُﺔ ﺴﻬﻠﺔ ﺠ ً ا ﻓﻲ ِاﻤ ﺎن أﻤ ~
. ﻼﻤ ِﻪ ﯿ م أﻤ
ِ ﻟ أﻛ ُﻤ ِﻋ ً ﺎ ًا ﻤ،اﺤﺔ ٍ ~
.ﻟ ﺘ إﺠﺎ ﺎﺘُ َ دﻗ ﻘﺔ ﺠ ً ا ~
ِ ﻟ ﺘ اﻷوﻀﺎع
.اﻻﻗ ﺎد ﺔ ﻓﻲ أورو ﺎ ُﻤ ﻘّ ًة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ~
ُ
ٍ ِﻞ ﺼ
. ﻟ ُ ﻤ ﻫﻼً ﻟﻠ ﻔﺔ،اﺤﺔ ~
ّ
.ﻟ ﯿ ُ رﻨﻲ أﻤ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﻲ ﻻ ﺠ اﻨﻲ وﻻ زﻤﻼﺌﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ ﻞ ~
streets …’.
! The word ﻣﻈﺎھﺮةlends itself to ‘demonstration’. Other similar
words, such as اِﻋﺘﺼﺎم, ﻣﺴﯿﺮة, and اِﺣﺘﺠﺎجcan be translated into ‘sit-
in’, ‘march’, and ‘protest’ respectively.
! The verb ﺗﻨﺎولlends itself to ‘to eat’, ‘to have’, or ‘to take’ as they
collocate well with ‘breakfast’, ‘lunch’, and ‘dinner’. However, the
three verbs here are not interchangeable. ‘Have you taken dinner?’
is not the same as ‘Have you taken your medicine?’. Similarly, the
verb ‘to eat’ is different from the verb ‘to have’ as the former
implies that although the meals were put before me, I did not eat
them, perhaps because I was ill.
! Do not use ‘neither … nor …’ when the verb is in the negative
form. So, it is wrong to say:
u I did not eat yesterday neither my lunch nor my dinner.
It can be translated in this way:
I did not eat my lunch yesterday, neither did I eat my dinner.
I did not eat my lunch yesterday, nor did I eat my dinner.
I did not eat my lunch or my dinner yesterday.
ِ اﻵداب وﻻ ﻠ ُﺔ ﻠ ِﺔ اﻟﻬ
.ﺴﺔ ِ أﻤ ﻻ ﻠ ُﺔ ﻠ ِﺔ ﻟ ~
ِ ﻟ ﻘ م ِاﺴ ﻘﺎﻟ ﻪ ﻻ وز اﻟ ﻔ ِ وﻻ وز اﻟ ر،ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ
.اﻋﺔ ~
ُ ُ َُ ّ
ِ
ﻟ ﻘّ م ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻔﺔ أﻤ ﻻ ﺤ ﻠﺔ ﺸﻬﺎدة اﻟ راﻩ وﻻ ﺤ ﻠﺔ ﺸﻬﺎدة ~
. اﻟ ﺎﺠ
.وﻻ رؤﺴﺎء اﻷﻗ ﺎم ﻟ ﯿ ّﻠ راﺘَ ُﻪ اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ﻻ اﻟﻌ ~
. ﻟ ﻠ ﻟﻲ ﻫ ًﺔ ﻻ أﺨﻲ وﻻ أﺨ ﻲ، ﻓﻲ ﻋ ِ ﻤ ﻼد ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ ~
ّ
EX: Translate the following text, written for the purposes of this course,
into English, paying extra attention to the tense/aspect and negation.
َ ﻌ ْ أر، ﻓﻲ ﻤ ِ اﻟ ّ ّ ِق. اﻟ ّ ق أﻤ
ادت أن ﺘ ﺨ ﺠ ْ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ ٍﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻤ
ﻓﻊ
َ ﻲ ﺘ وﻀﻌ ِ اﻷﻏ اض ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻠﺔ وﺘ ّﺠﻬ ْ ﻨ اﻟ ُ ﺎﺴ. ِ ّ اض ﻤ اﻟ
ِ اﻷﻏ
38 Chapter Two
ِ ﺎﻗﺔ
راﺤ ْ ﺘ ﻲ ﻤ، ﻋ ﻫﺎ.اﻻﺌ ﺎن ﻟ ﺘ ْ ﻻ اﻟ ﻘ د وﻻ، ِ ﻋ اﻟ ُ ﺎﺴ.ﺎب اﻟ
َ
.ﻫ ل اﻟ ﻔﺎﺠﺄة
EX: Translate the following text adapted from a novel titled ‘The Secret
Garden’ by Frances Hodgson Burnett (1994: 3) into Arabic, paying
extra attention to the negative forms used in the text.
She saw her mother coming into the garden, with a doctor. They did not
notice the child, who listened to their conversation.
“It’s very bad, isn’t it?” her mother asked the doctor with a worried voice.
“Very bad”, the doctor answered gravely. “People are dying like flies. It
is dangerous to stay in this village. You should leave the place
immediately; you should go to a place where there is no disease”.
“Oh, I know!” she said while shivering from fear. “We must leave as soon
as possible”.
Suddenly they heard loud cries coming from the servants’ rooms, at the
side of the house.
“What’s happened?” cried Mary’s mother wildly. To learn more
“I think one of your servants has just died. You about the negative
didn’t tell me the disease is here, in your house!” forms in different
tenses, see next
“I didn’t know!” she screamed. chapter.
Narrating Events in the Past 39
EX: Translate the following four sentences into English, using the table
following them:
. ِ ِ وﺼ ِل أﺨﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ ﻊ أن أﺘّ َﻞ ِ َ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﻲ أُﺒﻠﻐ ﻟ أﺴ ~
. ك ﻗ َﻞ ﯿ ﻤ ِ ِ
َ ﻘ ور أن أﺤ َ ﺤﻔﻠ َﺔ ﻋ ﻤ ﻼد ُ ﻟ ~
.ﺔ اﻟ ﻬﺎرات اﻟ ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋ ﻲ أن أﺴ ّ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﻨﺎﻤﺞ ﺘ ُ ﻟ ~
.ٍﻤ زﺎرِﺘ َ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ِ َ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم ّ ﻟ أﺘ ~
EX: Translate the following text into English, paying extra attention to the
linguistic and stylistic differences between the interfacing languages:
EX: Translate the following text titled ‘The Man and the Spectacles’ into
Arabic, paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic
differences between the interfacing languages:
There was a man. The man was illiterate. He did not know how to read
and write. He often saw people wearing spectacles for reading books or
papers. So, he decided to buy a pair of spectacles for himself.
One day he went to the town. There, he entered a spectacles shop and
asked the shopkeeper for a pair of spectacles for reading. The shopkeeper
gave him various pairs of spectacles and a book. The man tried all the
spectacles one by one, but he could not read anything.
Narrating Events in the Past 41
He told the shopkeeper that all those spectacles were useless for him as he
wasn’t able to read. The shopkeeper didn’t understand him. Then he
looked at the book. It was upside down!
EX: The following text extracted from a short story titled ‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎنThe
Flood’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in
Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 66). Re-translate it by using ‘was/were
able to’ in place of ‘could’, and ‘could’ in place of ‘was/were able
to’:
He could not make her love him in ﻊ أن ﯿ ﻔ إﻟﻰ أﻋ ﺎﻗﻬﺎ رﻏ أ ﺎﻨﻪ ﻟ
spite of his lands and property.
... وأﻤﻼﻛﻪ
She felt nothing for him but ... اﻟ اﻫ ﺔ ﻊ أن ﺘ ﻞ ﻟﻪ ﻏ وﻟ ﺘ
revulsion.
He could possess her body every ﻤ ّ وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ ﯿ،ﻤﻠ ﺠ ﻫﺎ أ ﺎ ًﻤﺎ
day but was not able to tame her
rebellious spirit (p. 66). .روﺤﻬﺎ اﻟ دة ﺘو
5 Shift
Shifts are defined by Catford (1965: 73) as “departures from formal
correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL” (p. 73).
Catford argues (ibid.) that there are two main types of translation shifts,
namely:
a) Level shifts where the SL item at one linguistic level (e.g.
grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e.g. lexis). For
example, to express a progressive aspect in English, one can
express it grammatically as in:
He is reading a novel.
He has been reading a novel.
He will be reading a novel.
However, to express it in Arabic, which has no grammatical
category for a progressive aspect, one can resort to lexical items
and expressions, such as ﻻﯾﺰال, ﻣﺎ ﯾﺰال, اﻵن, ﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻷﺛﻨﺎء, etc.
b) Category shifts which are divided into four types:
4. Structure shifts which involve a grammatical change between the
structure of the ST and that of the TT. Consider the following
42 Chapter Two
To explain, the following example extracted from a short story titled اﻟﺘﺒﺎس
‘Confusion’ by Fu’ād al-Takarlī (translated by and cited in Almanna and
al-Rubai‘i 2009: 196-7) can be considered:
Narrating Events in the Past 43
EX: Translate the following short text written for the purposes of this
course, and then annotate your translation by touching on the types of
shifts that may occur through translation:
ﻋ ﻫﺎ... ٍ ة و اﺘ ٍ ﻤﻐ ٍ ﻋ و،ٍ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم،أﺨ ﻨﻲ ﺼ ﻘﻲ
ﻔﺔ ﺸﺎﻏ ٍة ﻓﻲ ﺸ ﺔ
ﻟ، ﻌﺎدﺘﻲ، وﻟ،ﻔﺔ ﺎم ﺤ ﻰ ﻗّ ﻤ ُ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ِ
ٌ أ وﻓﻌﻼً ﻟ ﺘ.ًا ُ ﺘﻔﺎءﻟ
. ﺎﻟﻔ ﻲ اﻟ
Annotation:
I have translated ______________________ into ____________________.
This is an example of __________________________________________.
According to Catford (1965), ______ shift refers to __________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
EX: Identify any type of shift in the translation of the following texts
quoted from different literary sources:
(Almanna and Hall 2015: 24-5) .ﻛﺎن ﻨﺎﺌ ً ﺎ واﺴ ﻔﺎق ﻓ ﺄة
Comment
The translators have translated _______________________________into
___________________________. This is an example of___________shift,
to use Catford’s (1965) term.
___________shift means_______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
46 Chapter Two
At first he thought that they had all, for ،ﺠ ًﻌﺎ أﻨﻬ،ّ ﻟﻠ ﻫﻠﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ
some reason, decided to play truant that ر إﻟﻰ ﻗ ﺘﻐ ّ ا ﻋ اﻟ،وﻷﻤ ﻤﺎ
morning.
.ﺎح اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻫ ا اﻟ
(Husni and Newman 2008: 72-73)
Comment
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Comment
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Narrating Events in the Past 47
6 Adverbs of manner
In general, adverbs add specific information (about time, place, manner,
etc.) to the meaning of the verb used, for example an adverb of time
‘ﻏﺪًاtomorrow’, an adverb of place ‘ ُھﻨﺎhere’, an adverb of manner ُﻣﺴﺮﻋًﺎ
‘quickly’, and so forth. Further, adverbs sometimes add specific
information to adjectives, as in ‘ ﺳﮭﻞ ﺟﺪًاvery easy’. These adverbs are
called adverbs of degree, which are a subcategory of manner adverbials
(for more details, see ‘Cognate Accusative’ in this Chapter).
Adverbs of manner, such as ‘quickly’, ‘slowly’, ‘sadly’, ‘happily’,
‘angrily’, ‘greedily’, ‘softly’, and so forth (see what follows) are adverbs
that describe the verb and answer the question of how an action/activity
occurs/occurred, etc. In Arabic, adverbs of manner (known as )ﺣﺎلcan be
one word, such as ﺴﺮﻋًﺎ ِ ُﻣ, ﺿﺎﺣِ ًﻜﺎ, ﺑﺎ ِﺳ ًﻤﺎ, etc. or a prepositional phrase
followed by an adjective, such as ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﺳﺮﯾﻌﺔ, ﺴﺮع ِ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ُﻣ, ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﺎطﺊ,
ﺑﺤﺮﻛﺔ رﺷﯿﻘﺔ, ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم, etc.
By way of explanation, let us consider the following example extracted
from a short story titled ‘ ﯾﻮم ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ أﺧﺮىA Day in another City’ by
Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell
2012: 24-5):
To describe the act of pouring tea for her in the second process, the writer
employs a manner circumstance that construes the way in which the material
process is actualized and presented, thus answering a question like ‘how’.
Being fully aware of these types of processes along with their participants and
circumstances, the translators have produced the following translation:
As he spoke, he was deftly pouring tea for her …
48 Chapter Two
EX: Translate the following sentences into English by using the following
notes:
! in an unexpected way; unexpectedly ﺑﺸﻜﻞ/ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻊ)ـﺔ(
suddenly ﻓﺠﺄة
with self-confidence ﺑﺜﻘﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﯿﺔ
dramatically; noticeably ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻠﻔﺖ
in a wrong way; wrongly ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﺎطﺊ
in a quiet and low voice; quietly ﺑﺼﻮت ھﺎدئ وﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ
in a wrong way; wrongly; mistakenly ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﺧﺎطﺌﺔ
in an unexpected way; unexpectedly ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻊ
disapprovingly ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ُﻣﺴﺘﮭﺠّﻦ
angrily and disapprovingly. ﺑﻐﻀﺐ واِﺳﺘﻨﻜﺎر
رﺸ َﺢ ﻨﻔ َ ُﻪ )ِ (to propose himself as a candidateﻟﻼﻨ ﺎ ﺎت ﻓﻲ داﺌ ﺘﻪ
ّ ~
ﻞ ﻏ ﻤ ّﻗﻊ. اﻻﻨ ﺎﺒ ﺔِ
ﻘﺔ ﻏ اﻻﻨ ﺎ ﺎت اﻟ ﺌﺎﺴّﺔ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴ ٍع) (to withdrawﻤ ِ ِ
اﻨ َ ~
ﻤ ّﻗﻌﺔ.
ﻏﺎدر ِت ) (to leaveاﻟ ﺎن أﻤ ﻗ ﻞ اﻻﺠ ﺎع ﻓ ﺄ ًة.
ِ ~
ﻓﻲ ﻤﻘﺎﺒﻠﺔ أﻤ ،أﺠﺎب ) (to answerﺠ ﻊ اﻷﺴ ِ
ﻠﺔ ﺒ ﻘ ٍﺔ ﻋﺎﻟ ﺔ. ~
َ
ﻞ ﺘ ّ َ ) (to improveﻤ اﻩ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻨ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ ~
ﻤﻠﻔ ٍ .
ﻞ ﺨﺎ ﺊ. ﻤّ َر ) (to passاﻟ ة ﻓﻲ آﺨ دﻗ ﻘﺔ ﻤ ﻤ ﺎرِاة أﻤ ٍ ~
. ٍت ﻫﺎدئ وﻤ ﻔ رﱠد ) (to replyﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ اﻟﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎﻀ ِة أﻤ ~
اﻟﻌ ﺎﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ آﺨ ﻋ ِ ﺤﺎرس ﻤ ﻤﻰ اﻟ
ُ َ َد ) (to send outاﻟ ُ ~
ﻘﺔ ﺨﺎ ﺔ. دﻗﺎﺌ ﻤ ﻤ ﺎراة أﻤ
ِاﻨ َ )ِ (to deflateاﻗ ﺎد اﻟ ﺎ ﺎن ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻒ اﻷول ﻤ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ ~
ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ ٍ ﻏ ﻤ ّﻗﻊ.
ول ﻗ ًدا ﻋﻠﻰ ِاﺴ ا ِم اﻟﻌ ﺎﻟﺔ
وﻀﻌ ْ ) (to place/put/imposeﻌ ُ اﻟ ِ ~
ٍﻞ ُﻤ ﻬ ٍ .
ﺎب أﻤ ﻐ ٍ واِﺴ ٍﺎر. ﻨ ) (to lookﻤﻌ رو ِاد اﻟ ﻘﻬﻰ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ِ ~
ُ َ
Narrating Events in the Past 49
irritably
joyously
justly
kindly
lazily
loosely
loudly
madly
mortally
mysteriously
neatly
nervously
noisily
obediently
openly
painfully
patiently
perfectly
politely
poorly
powerfully
promptly
punctually
quickly
quietly
rapidly
rarely
recklessly
regularly
reluctantly
repeatedly
rightfully
roughly
rudely
sadly
safely
selfishly
sensibly
seriously
sharply
shyly
52 Chapter Two
silently
sleepily
slowly
smoothly
softly
solemnly
speedily
straight
stupidly
successfully
suddenly
suspiciously
swiftly
tenderly
tensely
thoughtfully
tightly
truthfully
unexpectedly
victoriously
violently
vivaciously
vividly
warmly
weakly
wearily
well
wildly
wilfully
wisely
Narrating Events in the Past 53
NP Infl VP
Pro V PP
will
She travel to London
54 Chapter Two
Somebody asked
CP
C S
Infl NP Infl VP
Pro V PP
NP VP
Infl
V CP
Pro
past, simple C s
As one may observe, in ‘John wrote a short story last night’, there is no
auxiliary which carries grammatical properties such as tense, aspect,
mood, modality, and the verb ‘to write’, which is in the past tense, does
not itself permit inversion, but rather requires what is traditionally known
as DO-support, i.e. do, does, did, depending on the tense and subject. This
DO-support needs to be inserted before the subject, thus making inversion
possible.
In Arabic, however, we do not need any support to form interrogative
sentences. What we need to form a yes-no question is the word ھﻞor the
interrogative particle أto be inserted at the beginning of the sentence
without any change. This is because in verbal sentences the verb typically
comes before the subject.
56 Chapter Two
?
?
?
?
ﺎء؟
ﻤ ً أﻤ ﻔﺄت اﻷﻨ ار ﻗ ﻞ ﻤﻐﺎدرِﺘ َ اﻟ
ﻫﻞ أ َ ~
ﺎء؟
ﻤ ً ﻤ ة ِاﺘّ ﻠ َ ِ ِﻪ أﻤ ~
ِ ِ
ك ﻓﻲ ﺤﻘ َ ﻫﻞ وﻀﻌ َ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﺠ ﻊ أوراﻗ َ اﻟ ُ ﻬ ّ ﺔ وﺠ َاز ﺴﻔ ِ َ
ك وﻨﻘ َد َ ~
اﻟ و ِﺔ؟
‘Aﻗﺮار ﻣﻮﺟﺰ EX: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled
Pithy Maxim’ by Ghasān Kanafānī (translated by and cited in
Almanna, forthcoming), and then complete the translation, paying
extra attention to the interrogative sentences:
58 Chapter Two
EX: Translate the following dialogue extracted from a short story titled
‘Work is Worship’ into Arabic:
He went up to the ants and asked them humbly, “Can you, please,
spare few grains for me. I haven’t eaten anything since yesterday.
So, I am almost starving to death”.
One of the ants asked him, “What were you doing the whole
summer? Why didn’t you store up the food for the winter season?”
EX: Translate the following dialogue written for the purposes of this
course into English.
ﺒﻼء ﺤ ًﺎ؟ ِ ِ
ً َ ﻛ ﻒ ﺎن اﺨ ُﺎر اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ أﻤ ؟ ﻫﻞ أﺒﻠ ~
ِ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أن. ﻻ أﺨﻔ
إﻻ إﻨ ﻲ،اﻻﻤ ﺎن ﺎن ﺴﻬﻼً ﺠ ً ا ~
َ
وذﻟ ﻷﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﻗ أ.ﻟ أﺘ ّ ﻤ اﻹﺠﺎ ﺔ ﻋ ﺠ ﻊ اﻷﺴ ﻠﺔ
،أﺒﻲ وأﻤﻲ ﺎﻟ ﻀ ع ﻷﻨﻬ ﺎ ُرﺠﺎء ﻻ ﺘ ِ ﺠ ا
.ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن
ً ًّ
. ﺴ ﻐ ﺎن ﻤ ﻲ،ﺤ ً ﺎ
ِ اﻟ ﻬ أن ﺘ ﺎول أن ﺘﻘ أ.ﺘ ﺎم
ﻤ ﻰ ﺴ ن؟.ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن اﻟ ُ ﻘ ﻞ ~
8 Revision
ﺎﺤﺎ؟
ً ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺴﻌﺔ ﺼ أﯿ ذﻫ َ أﻤ ~
وﻤﺎذا ﻋ َ أﻨ َ ؟.ُ أﺸﺎﻫ ُ اﻟ ﻠﻔﺎز .ﻟ أﺨ ْج ﻤ ﻏ ﻓ ﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔ ق ~
ﺠﻠ ﺎ، ﻌ ذﻟ. ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﯿ ﺤpyramids أﻨﺎ ذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ زﺎرة اﻷﻫ اﻤﺎت ~
و ﻠ ﻫ،ﺎن ﻗﻬ ٍةَ ﻠ ُ أﻨﺎ ﻓ.ﻓﻲ إﺤ اﻟ ﻘﺎﻫﻲ ﻟ ﺎول اﻟ ﺎ واﻟﻘﻬ ة
. ٍ ﻛ َب ﺸﺎ
.ﻌ ﻲ َ ﺘ ﻔ ّ ﺢ؟ وأﻨﺎ ﺠﺎﻟ ٌ ﻓﻲ ﻏ ﻓ ﻲ ~
! The verb ‘to accuse’ takes the preposition ‘of’. How would you
translate it along with its preposition?
! The word ‘particularly’ or its synonyms (such as ‘in particular’,
‘specially’, etc.) lends itself in Arabic to ﺻﺔ
ّ وﺑﺨﺎ, ﺻﺔ
ّ ﺧﺎ, وﻻ ﺳﯿّﻤﺎ,
etc.
! The verb ‘destabilize’, which is the opposite of ‘stabilize’,
derives from the adjective ‘stable’ ُﻣﺴﺘﻘِﺮ. How would you
Narrating Events in the Past 61
EX 3: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled ‘ اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔThe
Stand-in’ by Mahmūd Sa‘īd (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i
2009: 78-9), and then evaluate the translation, paying extra
attention to the interrogative sentences:
His wife had vented her wrath on ﻨﺎر ﻏ ِ ﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰَ ﺼّ ْ زوﺠ ُ ُﻪ
her faithful housemaid who had .ﺨﺎدﻤِ ﻬﺎ اﻷﻤ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ذﻫ ﻓﻲ إﺠﺎزة
gone on holiday
ﻫﻲ اﻟ ﻲ ﺎﻨ ﺘُ ِ ف:ﻓ ّد ْت ﻋﻠﻲ
“She was responsible for selecting ّ
my husband’s clothes and matching وﻤﻼءﻤﺔ أﻟ ان ﻤﻼ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘ
their colours”, she replied.
.زوﺠﻲ
“As she’s not here, could you please وﻷﻨﻬﺎ ﻏﺎﺌ ﺔ أرﺠ ك أن: ْ أﻀﺎﻓ
do the choosing? You’re chic and . أﻨ ِ ذواﻗﺔ وأﻨ ﻘﺔ... ﺘ ﺎر
have excellent taste”, she added.
~ Me? أﻨﺎ؟ ~
~ “Yes, you, why not? I .ﻟﻲ ﻏ ك ﻟ ﺎذا ﻻ؟ ﻟ... ﻨﻌ أﻨ
don’t have anyone but ّ
you”.
CHAPTER THREE
TRANSLATING MORPHOLOGICAL
AND CONTEXTUAL TENSES
simple
perfect
progressive
perfect progressive
Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 63
In Arabic, there is no grammatical category for aspect, but there are two
types of tense, that is, ‘morphological tense’ زﻣﻦ اﻟﺼﯿﻐﺔand ‘contextual
tense’ ﺴﯿﺎق
ّ زﻣﻦ اﻟ. When we translate from Arabic into English, the
contextual tense should be given full consideration. To illustrate, let us
consider the following example extracted from a short story titled اﻣﺮأة
‘ وﺣﯿﺪةA Lonely Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in
Husni and Newman 2008: 44-5):
By the effect of ‘ ﺑﻌﺪ أنafter’, the act of calling his wife occurred before
the act of entering the evening bar. Further, there is no time gap between
the act of entering the evening bar and stuffing a piece of paper into his
pocket. Both are approached from a distal perspective, thus being seen as
points on the timeline. Cognitively speaking, in the act of calling, an open
path with windowing over the final portion of the path is employed by the
writer.
By the effect of ﻛﺎنemployed by the writer in the last material process ﻛﺎن
ﯾﻌﺼﺮھﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ أﺻﺎﺑﻌﮫ, the emphasis is placed on the continuity of the act of
pressing the piece of paper which occurred shortly before the act of
stuffing it into his pocket. That is, the aspect is perfect progressive in the
past ‘had been pressing’. Giving full consideration to the contextual tenses
rather than adhering to the morphological tenses, the translators have
managed to produce an accurate translation, thus reflecting a similar
mental image in their readers’ minds:
He came into the evening bar after he had finished telephoning his wife,
and in annoyance stuffed into his pocket the crumpled piece of paper
he had been pressing between his fingers.
Some grammarians (see Quirk and Greenbaum 1973) limit the strict use of
‘tense’ to a grammatical, marked form of a verb, thus having two tenses
only, that is, ‘past’ and ‘present’. Future for them is not a tense but can be
expressed by many constructions. In this study, however, for the sake of
simplicity and consistency, tenses are divided into ‘past’, ‘present’, and
‘future’. This view has been adopted by a number of scholars (see for
example Biber et al. 2002; Coe et al. 2006; Freeborn 1987, among others).
In this respect, Freeborn (1987: 149) states: “The statement that there are
only two tenses in English […] seems puzzling, because it is quite clear
that we can refer to ‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’ time, and that there
should be at least three tenses to do this” (emphasis added).
2 Past tenses
As indicated above, in English, there are four aspects, viz. ‘simple’,
‘perfect’, ‘progressive’, and ‘perfect progressive’, thus having four
different combinations of tenses and aspects in the past, namely:
! Simple past tense
! Past continuous tense
! Past perfect tense
! Past perfect continuous tense
Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 65
Verb 2
ﻣﺎض
ٍ ﻓﻌﻞ
travelled ﺳﺎﻓﺮَ
went ذھﺐ َ
gave أﻋﻄﻰ
asked ﺳﺄ َل
ate أﻛ َﻞ
drank ﺷﺮب
َ
replied أﺟﺎب
َ
bought اِﺷﺘﺮى
sold عَ ﺑﺎ
brought ﺟﻠﺐ َ
met اِﻟﺘﻘﻰ
. .
. .
. .
66 Chapter Three
Here in this simple sentence, the tense is ‘past’ and the emphasis is on the
completion of the action, thus the aspect is ‘simple’. It lends itself in
Arabic to ﺳﺎﻓﺮ
َ .
.ﻟ ﻠ ﻘﻲ ﺼ َﻘ ُﻪ/ِﻘ ِﻪ ﻟ ﻠ ﻘﻲ أﻤ إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﺴﺎﻓَ واﻟ
The negative form is formed by inserting ‘did not’ before the main verb
which should be changed to the base form, i.e. Verb 1, as in:
In translating negative sentences in the simple past tense into Arabic, one
may use the particle ﻟﻢfollowed by a verb in the jussive case ﺟﺰم, as in:
.ﺼ َﻘ ُﻪ/ ِﻘ ِﻪ ﻟ ﻠ ﻘﻲ أﻤ إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﺎﻓْ واﻟ ﻟ
ﺘﻔ ﻞ ~
!ﺘﻌ ف رﻗ ﻫﺎﺘﻔﻬﺎ أردت أن أﻋ ف ﻓ ﺎ إذا
ُ ﻻ ﺸﻲء ﻓﻘ ~
~ Yes, please.
~ Oh, nothing, I just wanted to know if you had her telephone
number.
Here, the use of the past tense does not indicate that the process of
desideration expressed by ُ‘ أردتI wanted’ occurred in the past, but it is
normally used to distance the situation in time, thus softening the severity
of the face-threatening mode of action achieved by the use of a bald on-
record strategy. The use of the past in this example lets the addressee
reflect on what s/he has been asked to do and decide to cooperate or not.
EX: Make the following sentences negative. Then, translate them into
Arabic:
1. Last year, the new tax hurt a great number of families on low
incomes.
2. One of the large companies in the country declared bankruptcy
due to its inability to properly market its products.
3. Yesterday, I got up at the crack of dawn because I had an
important appointment.
4. My wife meant to tell me that my brother had phoned, but it
completely slipped her mind.
5. Two employees attended yesterday’s meeting.
3. The publisher put the first edition of the book to bed three days
before the deadline.
4. I remained fully awake last night.
5. The policemen surprised the thief while leaving the house.
Idiomatic expressions
x the crack of dawn = ﺑﺰوغ اﻟﻔﺠﺮor ____________________ .
x it completely slipped one’s mind = ﻏﺎﺑﺖ ﻋﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﮫor _______ .
x to put something to bed = أﺗ ّﻢ، أﻧﺠﺰ، أﻧﮭﻰor ___________ .
. ﻛ ُ أﻗ أ روا ﺔ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ
.ﺎء ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ ِِ
ً ﻛﺎن ﯿ ّ ُﻞ ﺄﻫﻠﻪ أﻤ ﻤ
2. ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﺎض+ وھﻲ/ وھﻮ+ … ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرعwhen we talk about two
activities, actions, etc. occurred in the past without any time gap,
as in:
... ﻗﺎل وھﻮ ﯾﺒﺘﺴﻢ
Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 69
text by the translators’ selection of the finite clause ‘while he was walking
away from her …’. Further, the act of watching conceptually presented in
the original text stretches over a period of time in the past by the effect of
the verb ‘ ﻟﺒﺚto keep’. This has been given full consideration by the
translators. By opting for certain grammatical forms and content
specifications, the writer induces his readers to place their perspective
point somewhere inside the depicted place looking at the mother while she
is standing or sitting and watching her son while he is walking away from
her towards the door.
To reinforce this point, following is another example extracted from a
short story titled ‘ اﻣﺮأة وﺣﯿﺪةA Lonely Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir
(translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 44-5):
normally one in the simple past tense, and the other in the continuous past
tense, as in:
While I was watching TV, my friend came to visit me.
ﺎء ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ ؟
ً ﻤ أﻤ ﻤﺎذا ُ ِ ﺘﻔﻌﻠ ~
I had worked …
had + Verb 3
ﻣﺎض
ٍ ( ﻓﻌﻞ+ )ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ
had worked )ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ( ﻋﻤ َﻞ
had played ﻟﻌﺐَ ()ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ
had written ﻛﺘﺐَ ()ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ
had sung
had drunk
ﻰ َ ّ)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ( ﻏﻨ
. ب
َ ﺷﺮ ِ ()ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ
. .
. .
.
In the above example, the tense is ‘past’ indicated by 2002. The emphasis
is put on the duration of the described action, i.e. working, that began in
the past (in this example in 2000) and is seen as relevant to 2002. To
reflect both the tense and aspect, the translator may use ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪfollowed by
a verb in the past, as in:
I had formed it
present
the state of realizing that he knows a lot
74 Chapter Three
When I was at the age of 30, I had studied English for two years.
. ﻛ ُ ﻗ درﺴ ُ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ ﻟ ة ﺴ، ﺴ ﺔ30 ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺎن ﻋ
After she had cleaned her flat and tidied it up, she went out with her
close friend to buy a gift for her youngest daughter.
Or: Before going out with her close friend to buy a gift for her youngest
daughter, she had cleaned her flat and tidied it up.
ﺔ )اﻟ ُ ﻘّ ﺔ( ﻟ اء ﻫ ﺔ ِﻻﺒ ﻬﺎ ﺨ ﺠ ْ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘ ﻬﺎ اﻟ،ﻌ أن ﻨ ّ ﻔ ْ ﺸﻘ ﻬﺎ ورﺘ ﻬﺎ
.اﻟ ﻐ ة
ﻨ ّ ﻔ ْ ﺸﻘ ﻬﺎ،ﺔ )اﻟ ُ ﻘ ّﺔ( ﻟ اء ﻫ ﺔ ِﻻﺒ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻐ ة ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ ْج ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘ ﻬﺎ اﻟ
.( وﺘ ﺘ... ورﺘ ﻬﺎ )أو ﻗﺎﻤ ْ ﺒ ﻒ
! in complex sentences after ‘as if’, as in:
At the party, he behaved in a way as if nothing had happened.
.ث ﺎ ﻟ أن ﺸ ًﺎ ﻟ ﻘﺔ ف
َ ّ ﺘ،ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻔﻠﺔ
The act of approaching the platform and the act of entering the restaurant
(referring here to the same referent) occurred shortly before the process of
sensing in ‘ ﺷﻌﺮتI felt’. Cognitively speaking, the three portions of the
path of the acts of approaching and entering are reduced to being seen as
two points on the timeline. However, the emphasis is put on the initial
portion in the act of entering and on the medial portion in the act of
approaching. This can be modelled as follows:
Further, by the effect of the correlative conjunction ... ﺣﺘﻰ... ﻣﺎ إن, there is
no time lapse between the act of approaching and the process of sensing in
Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 77
ﻗﺎء. ٍ
ﻋﺔ ﻤ اﻷﺼ ِ ﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻤ .3أ -ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم ُ ،2007أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ
ﻋﺔ ﻤ ﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻤ اﻟ ب -ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم ُ ،2007ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ
اﻷﺼ ﻗﺎء.
By 2002, I had been working in that company for two years.
In the above example, the tense is ‘past’, indicated by 2002. The emphasis
is on both:
1. the duration of the described action, i.e. working, that began in
the past (in this example in 2000) and is seen as relevant to 2002
and
2. the continuity of the described action or event in a specified
period in the past (2002).
While translating this tense into Arabic, one may use ﻛﺎنfollowed by a
verb in the present tense or ﻛﺎنfollowed by ‘ اﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞpresent active
participle’, thus reflecting the tense ‘past’ and the continuity of the
described event.
Or, one can change the verb or the structure, thus shifting the emphasis
slightly as in:
In the original text, the act of letting out a scream occurred before the act
of stopping; hence the use of past perfect in the target text ‘had let out a
scream’. Further, there is an implicit ﻛﺎنbefore the verb أﻓﻌﻞin ﻣﻦ دون أن
أﻋﻲ ﻣﺎ )ذا ﻛﻨﺖ( أﻓﻌﻞ, thus lending itself to a past continuous tense in the
target text ‘was doing’. The emphasis on the acts of ‘looking up’ and
‘proceeding towards’ is placed on their completion at a specific point in
80 Chapter Three
the past. However, the emphasis on the implicit act of standing in اﻟﺬﯾﻦ
ﻛﺎﻧﻮا ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﺸﺒﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺮحis put on (1) the continuity of the act indicated by the
grammatical form ﻛﺎﻧﻮاand (2) the period of the act of standing that began
in the past (unmentioned) and is seen as relevant to another act in the past,
that is, the act of coming up to me. Cognitively speaking, the act of
standing in this scene is partially bounded as it has a right boundary, as
modelled below:
present
the act of coming up to
EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying extra attention
to the tenses/aspects:
1. They had been talking for over an hour before their friend
arrived.
2. She had been working at that company for three years when it
went out of business.
3. How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?
4. My father wanted to sit down because he had been standing all
day at work.
5. Noor had been teaching at the university for more than a year
before she left for Asia.
6. A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to
Ankara?
B: I had not been studying Turkish very long.
7. She was tired because she had been jogging.
8. Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.
9. Tom failed the final test yesterday because he had not been
attending class.
10. Before you bought your new house, how long had you been living
in a flat?
Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 81
3 Present tenses
In English, there are four tenses in the present, namely:
! Simple present tense
! Present continuous tense
! Present perfect tense
! Present perfect continuous tense
In what follows, each tense will be explained in detail in a direct link with
translation.
Simple present tense
It is used when we talk about facts, habits, unchanging situations, repeated
actions, and the like. So, the emphasis (aspect) is placed on the regularity
and frequency of the action as a matter of routine, unchanging situations or
general truth.
Cast in less technical terms, it is used with:
! ‘every day’, ‘every week’, ‘every month’, ‘every year’, ‘every
Friday’, ‘every Sunday’, and the like,
! ‘daily’, ‘weekly’, ‘monthly’, ‘annually’, and so on,
! ‘per day’, ‘per week’, ‘per month’, ‘per year’, and the like,
! ‘once a day’, ‘once a week’, ‘twice a month’, ‘three times a day’,
and so forth, and
! ‘always’, ‘often’, ‘usually’, ‘sometimes’, ‘at times’, ‘generally’,
‘frequently’, ‘occasionally’, ‘seldom’, ‘scarcely’, and the like.
By way of explanation, let us consider the following example:
I present, simple brush my teeth three times a day.
events being seen as a state. The same holds true for ... ‘ ﻻ أﻧﻈﺮ وراﺋﻲI do
not look back …’ where the emphasis is placed on the habit of not looking
back while running. Again, the series of events is seen as a state. Having
given full consideration to these events, the translators have opted for a
simple present tense to reflect the frequency and regularity of the act as a
matter of routine.
Following is another example from a short story titled ﯾﺤﺪث ھﺬا ﻛ ّﻞ ﺻﺒﺎح
‘This Happens every Morning’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by
and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 58-9):
EX: Make the following sentences negative. Then, translate them into
Arabic:
1. My family often watches TV in the evening.
__________________________________________________________
EX: Make the following sentences interrogative. Then, translate them into
Arabic:
1. She does yoga twice a week.
__________________________________________________________
More examples:
.ﺎدﺘ ِﻪ اﻵن
ِ ذاﻫ إﻟﻰ ﻋ
ٌ ُ اﻟ
.ﺎب ﻫ ﻩ اﻷ ﺎمٍ ﻒ ِ اﻷﺴ ﺎ ُذ ﻋﺎﻛﻒ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘﺄﻟ
ٌ
.اﻋﺔ ﺤ ﻘِ ِﻪ
ِ ﻘ م ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻷ ﺎم ﺒ ر
ُ
At times, the present continuous tense is used with action verbs, such as
‘leave’, ‘move’, ‘fly’, ‘travel’, ‘go’, etc. to show that something is planned
and will be done in the near future, thus lending itself in Arabic to ﺳــor
ﺳﻮف, as in:
He is moving to London in October.
.اﻷول ﺘ/ ﺴ ﻘﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻓﻲ اﻛ
ﻋﻠ ﺎ ﺘ ﺘﺎح وﻟ اﻵن ﻓﻘ أﻨﺎ أﻓﻬ أﻨ.ﻨﺎﺌ أﻋ رﻨﻲ أﻨ. ﺼ ﺎح اﻟ
.وﺤ ﺘﻲ أﻨﺎﺠ
. ﻫﻼّ اﻨ ﻔ. ﻫﻼّ ﺼ. أﺤ ﺎج ﻨ ات ﺼ ﺘ
Here, by the effect of the present active participle اﺳﻢ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞ, that is ﻧﺎﺋﻢ, the
emphasis is shifted towards the middle phase of the state of sleeping, thus
presenting the event as an ongoing activity. Similarly, the emphasis is put
on the continuity of the act of having rest by the effect of the time marker
‘ اﻵنnow’. The continuity of the act of sleeping and the act of having rest
is given full consideration by the translators when resorting to ‘are
sleeping…’ and ‘are having rest…’ respectively.
In the above example, the tense is ‘present perfect tense’ marked by the
verb ‘have/has’ followed by Verb 3. The emphasis (aspect) is on the
Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 89
duration of the action that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the
present. To reflect the tense, one may use the particle ﻟﻘﺪfollowed by a
verb in the past, or just the past, as in:
.ﻟﻘ ازرﻨﻲ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻤ ﺨ ًا
To elaborate, let us discuss the following example taken from a short story
titled ‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲThe Second Flood’ by Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī
(translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 127-8):
... أر ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎ ﺑﮭﺬه اﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ
َ ﻟﻢ... أﻗﺴﻢ اﻧﮫ ﻻ ﯾﺴﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷرض ﻛﻤﺎ ﻧﺴﯿﺮ
I swear that he doesn’t walk on earth as we do. I have never seen a
creature as quick as him.
In the last clause, that is, أر ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎ ﺑﮭﺬه اﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ
َ ﻟﻢ, there is an implicit phrase
‘ ﻓﻲ ﺣﯿﺎﺗﻲin my life’ that emphasizes the whole period of not seeing such a
creature that began in the past (since the speaker was born) and is seen as
relevant to the moment of speaking, as modelled below:
present
he was born …
This has been reflected by the translators when resorting to ‘have never
seen a creature …’.
With respect to the act of walking in the negative form, it is a series of
events occurred at different times but approached from a distal perspective,
thus being viewed as a point on the timeline, on the one hand, and being
considered as a state rather than an event, on the other.
EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:
1. I think I have met him once before.
2. There have been many earthquakes in California.
3. Have you read the book yet?
4. Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
5. Joan has studied two foreign languages.
6. You have grown since the last time I saw you.
7. The government has become more interested in arts education.
90 Chapter Three
Now, let us discuss the following example taken from a short story titled
‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎنThe Flood’ by Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in
Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 66-7):
ﻟن ﺗﻧﻛﻔﺊ إﻟﻰ داﺧﻠﮭﺎ ﺳﺗﺷﮭر ﻛل... اﻵن ﺑدأت اﻟﻣواﺟﮭﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﻛﺎﻧت ﺗﻧﺗظرھﺎ
.أﺳﻠﺣﺗﮭﺎ وإذا ﻗﺗﻠت ﻻﺑد أن ﺗﻣوت واﻗﻔﺔ
Now, the confrontation she has been waiting for has started. She will
not retreat inside herself, but she will make use of all her weapons and
if she is to be killed, she will die fighting.
In the relative clause introduced by اﻟﺘﻲ, by the effect of ﻛﺎن, the emphasis
is placed on the continuity of the act of waiting. Further, there is an
implicit time phrase such as ‘ ﻣﻨﺬ وﻗﺖ طﻮﯾﻞfor a long time’ that emphasizes
the whole period of waiting that began in the past and is seen as relevant to
the moment of speaking. This has been reflected by the translators when
opting for ‘have been waiting’.
EX: Correct the following sentences and then translate them into Arabic:
1. He has watering the plants for half an hour.
2. I have been studied since 3 O’clock.
3. Has it raining for three day?
4. Have I been living in America since 2003?
5. Has he been playing cricket since two hour.
6. Has they been watching television for 6 O’clock?
7. Has she be working in this office for 2007?
Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 93
4 Future tenses
In both Arabic and English there are several words and expressions that
indicate future, such as: ‘tomorrow’ ﻏﺪًا, ‘next week’ اﻟﻘﺎدم/اﻷﺳﺒﻮع اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻞ,
‘next month’ اﻟﻘﺎدم/اﻟﺸﮭﺮ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻞ, ‘next year’ اﻟﻘﺎدﻣﺔ/اﻟﺴﻨﺔ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻠﺔ, ‘next
summer’ اﻟﻘﺎدم/اﻟﺼﯿﻒ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻞ, ‘next Friday’ اﻟﻘﺎدﻣﺔ/اﻟﺠﻤﻌﺔ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻠﺔ, ‘in (the)
future’ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ, ‘soon’ ﻗﺮﯾﺒًﺎ, and so forth.
In what follows, future tenses will be explained in detail with reference to
translation.
In Arabic, however, the particle ﻟﻦis used without ﺳــor ﺳﻮفas it has the
potential resource to reflect both negation and futurity. As an illustration,
the following two examples quoted from a collection of short stories titled
‘ أﻣﻮتُ ﻛ ّﻞ ﯾﻮمI Die Every Day’ by Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by
and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017) may be considered:
... ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺤﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ﻟ أﺘ ك اﻟﻔ ﺼﺔ ﻟ... ﺴﺄوﻗﻒ اﻻﻨﻐ ﺎس ﻓﻲ اﻫ اﺌ
In these two finite clauses, the speaker talks about two events in the future
indicated by ﺳـin ﺳﺄوﻗﻒand ﻟﻦin ﻟﻦ أﺗﺮك. These two acts do not represent
immediate reality that covers the portion of time in which the speech event
occurs, but rather they refer to certain events that have not been occurred
yet, thereby being considered as part of irreality (for more details, see
‘Modality’ in this book). To put it differently, they are approached from a
distal perspective, thus being seen as two points on the timeline, as
modelled below:
I will stop …
present
I won’t give
I will stop giving in to your nagging. I will never give up the chance for
more wading around in mud. (pp. 83-4)
Following is the second example (pp. 127-8):
ﻓﻬ ﺴ... رة ﺘ ﻔ ﺦ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺤﻞ ل اﻟﻘ ﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺠ ﻒ ﻤ اﻟ ﻓﺎن ﺴ ﻌ وﺘ
.اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ اﻟ ﻞ اﻷﺤ
In the above example, four finite clauses are employed by the writer to talk
about different events in the future. They are:
Morphological tense Clause
The morphological tense in this clause is اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن ﺳﯿﻌﻢ
‘future’ indicated by ﺳـin ﺳﯿﻌﻢ.
The morphological tense in this clause is
ﺟﯿﻒ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘﺮﯾﺔ وﺗﺘﺤﻮل
‘present’ ﺗﺘﺤﻮل
ّ .
ﻣﻄﻤﻮرة
The morphological tense in this clause is
... ﺗﺘﻔﺴﺦ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺣﻞ
‘present’ ﺗﺘﻔﺴّﺦ.
The morphological tense in this clause is
ﺳﯿﺠﺮﻓﮭﻢ اﻟﺴﯿﻞ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ اﻟﺜﻘﯿﻞ
‘future’ indicated by ﺳـin ﺳﯿﺠﺮف.
As indicated above, all these clauses are in the future as there is an implicit
ﺳـor ﺳﻮفin the second and third clauses, that is, ﺳﺘﺘﺤﻮل اﻟﻘﺮﯾﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺟﯿﻒّ
ﻣﻄﻤﻮرةand ﺳﺘﺘﻔﺴّﺦ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺣﻞ. Being fully aware of the morphological and
contextual tenses used in the original text, the translators have opted for
the use of a simple future tense in all clauses, as in:
The flood will cover the village and it will transform it into
underground corpses that will disintegrate in the mud. The heavy red
stream will sweep them away.
To reinforce this point, the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‘ ﺣﻜﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻘﻨﺪﯾﻞThe Tale of the Lamp’ by ‘Izz al-Dīn al-Madanī
(translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 30-1) may be
considered:
وﻫ ﺎك ﺘ، واﺴﻠ اﻟ ﺎدة إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻬﺎﻫﺎ، ))ارﺤﻞ ﺎ أﺨﻲ ﻋ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻠ:أﺠﺎ ﻪ اﻟ ﺠﻞ
.((... – إﻟﻰ ﺴﻠ ﺎﻨﻬﺎ ﻤ ﺸ و دﺨ ﻟﻬﺎ أن ﺘﻘ م ﻫ ﺔ – أ ﺎً ﺎﻨ،ﻤ ﯿ ﺔ
The traveller replied: “Leave this land, my friend, and follow the road
until its end. There, you will find a city, and one of the conditions for
entering it is that you offer a gift – any gift – to its Sultan…”.
96 Chapter Three
In the fourth clause ... وھﻨﺎك ﺗﺠﺪ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ, there is an implicit ﺳـor ﺳﻮفas the
emphasis is put on the act of finding a city in the future. It is approached
from a distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline. This
has been taken into account by the translators when opting for ‘you will
find a city …’.
At times, some of the future constructions can be used in the past,
particularly in a direct mode of narration. As an illustration, let us consider
the following example taken from a short story titled ‘ اﻣﺮأة وﺣﯿﺪةA Lonely
Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in Husni and
Newman 2008: 144-5):
.(( ))ﺴﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟ ﻤﺎ ﺘ:ﻬﺎ ار ذﻫ ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻌ
وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻤ ﺴ ًا ﻗﺎﻟ
In the above example, a direct mode of narration is utilized by the writer
where a verbal process is employed. To begin with, the letter تattached to
the verb ﻗﺎلis the Sayer of the process, the verb ‘ ﻗﺎلto say’ in the past is
the process of saying, ﺳﻮارا ذھﺒﯿًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﺼﻤﮭﺎ
ً ‘ وھﻲ ﺗﺮﻣﻖwhile giving a look
at the gold bracelet on her wrist’ is a manner circumstance construing the
way in which the process is actualized and presented, and ﺳﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟﻚ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﯾﺪ
‘I’ll pay you what you want’ is the Verbiage of the process, that is, what
has been said. In the Verbiage of the process ‘ ﺳﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟﻚ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﯾﺪI’ll pay you
what you want’, a material process is employed by the writer where:
~ the implicit pronoun ‘ أﻧﺎI’ indicated by the letter أattached to the
verb ‘ دﻓﻊto pay’ is the Actor.
~ ‘ دﻓﻊto pay’ which is in the future indicated by the letter ﺳـis the
process of doing.
~ ‘ ﻟﻚto you’ is a participant filling the role of Recipient.
~ ‘ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﯾﺪwhat you want’ is the Goal. Here a desideration process is
used where the implicit pronoun َ‘ أﻧﺖyou’ is a participant filling
the role of Senser, ‘ أرادto want’ is the process of sensing/desiring
(for more details, see Chapter 4).
This verbal process can be modelled as follows:
As can be seen, there are two timelines, and the process of saying occurred
in the past and is approached from a distal perspective, thus being viewed
as a point in the future on the past-timeline (indicated by a horizontal
dotted line), but in the past on the present-timeline (indicated by a
horizontal straight line).
Being fully aware of the modes of narration along with the process and its
participants and circumstances, the translators have suggested:
Staring at the gold bracelet on her wrist, she said: “I’ll pay you what
you want”.
In this process of doing, the Actor has been working in the company for 17
years, but she needs more three years to complete 20 years. As such, the
emphasis is put on the period that began in the past and is seen as relevant
to another point of time in the future.
In Arabic, the future perfect tense is formed by
... ﺗﻜﻮن ﻗﺪ/ﯾﻜﻮن/ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن/ﺳـ
followed by a verb in the past, as in:
... ﺴ ف أﻛ ن ﻻ أزال/ﺴـ
It is worth noting that this tense is
rarely used in Arabic. ... ن ﻻ ﯿ ال ﺴ ف/ﺴـ
... ﺴ ف ﺘ ن ﻻ ﺘ ال/ﺴـ
followed by a verb in the present, as in:
will have been + Verb1 + ing ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع+ ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزال/ﺳـــ
will have been teaching سُ أدرّ ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل/ﺳــ
will have been working ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل أﻋﻤ ُﻞ/ﺳــ
will have been waiting
ُ ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل ا/ﺳــ
ِﻧﺘﻈﺮ
will have been learning
ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل أﺗﻌﻠ ُﻢ/ﺳــ
.
. .
. .
.
ٍ
.ﺴﺎﻋﺔ ﻟ ِة/ ُ وﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ ِاﻨ َك ﻤ، َ ( ﻟ ِ ﯿ َ إﻻ ﺨ ُ دﻗﺎﺌa
ٍ
.ﺴﺎﻋﺔ ُ ِﺎﻨ ﺎرك ﻤ/ وﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻻ أزال أﻨ ك، َ ( ﻟ ﯿ َ إﻻ ﺨ ُ دﻗﺎﺌb
In the above sentences, the tense is future, indicated by ﺳــ. However, the
emphasis is different.
In group (a), the emphasis is put on the duration of the described actions
and events, viz. ﻋﺎش
َ , ِﻧﺘﻈﺮ
َ ا, and ﻋﻤ َﻞthat began in the past and will be
completed in the future, indicated by ﻗﺪfollowed by a verb in the past, thus
lending themselves to ‘the future perfect tense, i.e. ‘will have
lived/waited/worked’.
The emphasis in group (b), however, is on:
1. the duration of the described actions that began in the past and are
seen as relevant to a specified time in the future, and
2. the continuity of these actions in the future.
As such, to reflect the tense (future) and the aspect (perfect + progressive),
one may well resort to using the future perfect continuous tense, i.e. ‘will
have been living/waiting/working’.
5 Revision
EX 1: Translate the following dialogue between two friends, paying extra
attention to the tenses:
ﻤﺎذا ﺘﻘ ل؟ ~
.ﻔﻰ ﻓﻬ ﻓﻲ اﻟ. َ ﻤ ﻠ ﺎ ﺴ ﻌ ~
ﻔﻰ؟ وﻤ ﻰ دﺨﻞ اﻟ ~
.ﺔ ﻗﺎدر ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻔﻰ وﻏ ﻤ ﺨ ﺔ ﺸﻬ ر وﻫ راﻗ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻤ أﻛ ~
ﯿ و أﻨ ﻻ ﺘﻌ ف؟
ﻔﻰ؟ وﻫﻞ زرﺘﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ.ف
ُ ﻨﻌ ﻻ أﻋ ~
Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 103
ﻨﻌ زرﺘﻪ ﻋ ة ﻤ ٍ
ات. ~
ّ
ﻋ ﺤﺎﻟ ﻪ؟ وﻤﺎذا ﻗﺎل اﻟ ~
ﻌ ف. ﻠﺔ ،ﻟ ﻪ ﻟ ﻤ ﻓ ة ﻘ ل إﻨﻪ ﻌﺎﻨﻲ ﻀ ًﻘﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّﻔ ~
ﺴﺄزورﻩ ﻏ ً ا .ﻫﻞ ﺘ ّد أن ﺘ ﻫ ﻤﻌﻲ. ~
. ﻨﻌ ،ﺴﺄﺼﺎﺤ َ ،ﻓﻬ ﺼ ﯿ ٌ ﻋ ~
EX 3: Correct the following sentences and then translate them into Arabic,
paying special attention to the differences between the two
languages:
1. I did not see you for ages.
2. My brother has been living in London for 2005.
3. My teacher asked us to bring our books with us recently.
4. I called my friend before my father arrived home.
5. Last semester, there was 40 students in my class.
6. At the weekend, my youngest daughter usually sleep in till 10 a.m.
7. I heard that my friend has fight bravely before he dies.
8. The teacher promised us that he will explain a new topic.
9. By the end of this year, I will publish 3 articles.
10. Last night, I did not slept well; I stayed tossing and turning.
ِ ﺎر ِﺎﻨ
ﺎر أُﺨ ﻲ اﻟ ﻲ ِ ﻓﻲ اﻟ، ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ، ﺴﺄﻛ ُن،ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ ~
ُ َ أن، ﻟ ا.ِ وﻟ أﺨ َج ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ﻓﻲ اﻟ، ﻌ ﻫﺎ. ﺴ ُﻞ ﻤ ﺎر
اﻟ اﺠ ﺎت ﻗ أﻨﻬ ُ ﻌ،ِﻋ ﻫﺎ ، ﺴﺄﻛ ُن.ﺎء ِ ِ
ً ﺘﺄﺘﻲ ﻌ اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺴﻌﺔ ﻤ
. َ و ﻟ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ُﻤ ﻔّ ًﻏﺎ ﻟ
ِ
.ﺎء َ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ﻋ،ﺤ ًﺎ
ً ك ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎ ِم اﻟ ّ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺴﻌﺔ ﻤ ~
Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 105
~ Yes. . ﻨﻌ ~
~ Well, give me the ﻓﻐ ﻓ ﻲ. ِاﺨ ﻨﻲ ﻋ رﻗ ِ ِﻬﺎ.ﺤ ًﺎ ~
number as my room
hasn’t got one. .ﺒﻼ ﺤ ّ ﺎم
The boy walked alongside her until ارﻫﺎ إﻟﻰ أن وﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻲ وﺴﺎر اﻟ
he reached the starting point that he
had set limits for himself that he ودا ﻻ
ً ﺎن ﻗ وﻀﻊ ﻟ ﻔ ﻪ ﺤ ﻨﻘ ﺔ
would not cross.
.ﯿ ﻌ اﻫﺎ
It was on the pavement in front of the اﻟ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺼ ﻒ أﻤﺎم اﻟ ﻛﺎﻨ
big store that occupied the ground
floor of a giant building touching the ﻞ اﻟ ور اﻷرﻀﻲ ﻟﻌ ﺎرة ﻋ ﻼﻗﺔ اﻟ
sky.
... ﺎب ﺘﻌﺎﻨ اﻟ
“Could you help me, sir?” ﻫﻼ ﺴﺎﻋ ﺘ ﻲ؟..م اﻟ أﯿﻬﺎ اﻟ
His huge face was (to flash) _______, اﻟ ﻼﻤﺢ وارﺘ ﻒ واﺤ ﻘ وﺠﻬﻪ اﻟ
and his thick black moustache, yellow
from excessive smoking, (to twitch) ﻤ ﻔ ﺸﺎرﻪ اﻟ ﻒ اﻷﺴ د اﻟ
_______.
ﺘ ﺎﻟ ﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺨﺎن
I (to find) _______ my mother pressing ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨﺎﻓ ة أﻤﻲ ﻗ ﻋﻠﻘ ﻓﺄﻟﻔ
her eyes on my carriage window while
Oda (to smile) _______ bitterly. .ارة ﻋ ﻲ ﺒ ﺎ ﻛﺎن ﻋ دة ﯿ
CHAPTER FOUR
1 Transitivity
Process of doing
Processes of doing are material processes as they are concerned with
experiences of material world. They cover acts such as playing, eating,
drinking, giving, cutting, digging, and writing, to mention but some.
Unlike other types of processes, they are not limited in number. By way of
explanation, the following two examples taken from a short story titled
‘ ودّتْ ﻟﻮ ﺗﺠﻠﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﺻﯿﻒShe wanted to sit on the pavement’ by Karīm
‘Abid (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 108-9) can
be considered:
Salma [Actor] had put [process of doing] a plaster on her injured finger. In
this way she found an excuse not to go back [process of doing] to the
kitchen …
Causativity and Transitivity 109
Process of happening
According to Halliday (1994), processes of happening are also material
processes as they are concerned with experiences of material world.
Processes of happening are typically expressed by intransitive verbs, such
as ‘to spring’, ‘to slip away’, ‘to disappear’, ‘to die’, ‘to rain’, and the like.
To illustrate, let us consider the following text extracted from a short story
titled ‘ اﻟﺸﺒﺎك واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔThe Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 12-
3):
اﻟ ﺎرﻤﺔ ﻨ [process of happening] ﺘ ﺤ ج،[ اﻟ ة ﻤ زﻤ ﻠﻪprocess of happening] ﺘﻔﻠ
ﯿ ﻌﻬﺎ ﺼ ﻲ ﺒ ﯿ،إﻟﻰ ﻏ ﻓﺔ اﻹدارة اﻟ د ﻓﻲ اﻟ [process of happening] وﺘﻐ
.ﻫ اﻵﺨ وراءﻫﺎ [process of happening] ﺎول اﻟﻠ ﺎق ﺒﻬﺎ ﻓ ﻐ
The ball slips away [process of happening] from his playmate, rolling down
[process of happening] towards the veranda and disappearing [process of happening]
in the corridor leading to the administration room. It is followed by a
fat lad who tries to catch it. He too disappears [process of happening].
Process of saying
Processes of saying (also known as ‘verbal processes’) include all modes
of expressing and indicating. They can be either explicit when verbs such
as ‘to say’, ‘to tell’, ‘to utter’, ‘to inform’, ‘to express’, ‘to complain’, and
so on are used, or implicit when verbs such as ‘to show’, ‘to indicate’, etc.
are employed. Following are examples of the common verbs that can serve
as verbal processes in both languages:
، ِاﺴ ﻌ ﻒ، ﺘ ّﺴﻞ، ﻫّ د، أﻤ، ِاﺴ ﻌﻠ، ِاﺴ ﻔ، ﺴﺄل، ﺘﻔّ ﻩ، أﺨ،ﻗﺎل
، ﺒّﻠﻎ، أﺒﻠﻎ،أﻟﺢ ِ
ّ ، أﺠﺎب، أﻀﺎف، ﻫ ﻒ، اﻟ، ﻨﺎﺸ، ﺘ ّع، اﺴ
110 Chapter Four
، ﺠﺎدل، أﻛ ِ ِ ِ
ّ ، اّدﻋﻰ، َ زﻋ، اﻗ ح،وﻀﺢ ّ ، ﺸ ح، أﻋﻠ، اﺸ ﻰ، أﻋﻠ
، وّﺦ،ذم
ّ ،ﻻم
َ ، َ ﺸﻬ
ّ ، ّ ﺴ،أﻫﺎن
َ ، ﻫ ﺄ،ﺠﺎﻤﻞَ ، ﻤ َح، َ وﻋ، أﻗ ﻊ، ﻨﺎﻗ
، ِاﺴ ﻬ، ِاﺴ، ﻨّ َد، أدان، َ اﺘّﻬ، َ زﺠ، ﻋّﻒ، ّأﻨ، َ ِاﻨ ﻘ،ﻗّع
... َ ﺸ
to say, to tell, to utter, to ask, to enquire, to command, to
order, to require, to threaten, to beg, to implore, to add, to
reply, to urge, to inform, to complain, to report, to
announce, to notify, to explain, to suggest, to claim, to
assert, to confirm, to argue, to persuade, to convince, to
promise, to praise, to flatter, to congratulate, to insult, to
slander, to abuse, to blame, to rebuke, to criticize, to chide,
to accuse, to censure, etc.
To illustrate, the following two examples extracted from a short story
titled ‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮAli the Red’ by Lu’aī Hamza ‘Abbas (translated by and
cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 90-1) can be discussed:
ﻷﻨ ﺎ،ﻞ ﻫ ﻩ اﻷﺸ ﺎء أﻨﻪ اﻟ ﻤ ﺤ:[Sayer] اﻟ ﺠﻞ [process of saying] ﻗﺎل
.[Content] ب ﻓﺎرﻏﺔ اﻟ ﻏﺎﻟًﺎ ﻤﺎ ﻨ ّر
“Luckily, he carries these things, because we often get involved
with bodies with empty pockets” [Content], said [process of saying] the man
[Sayer].
Process of behaving
Processes of behaving (also known as ‘behavioural processes’) reflect
physiological and psychological behaviours (Halliday 1994: 139; Halliday
and Matthiessen 1985/2014: 302). They can be divided into:
a. processes manifesting physiological acts, such as
Causativity and Transitivity 111
To explain, the following two examples quoted from a short story titled
‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪادThe Train Heading Up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 12-
3), can be considered:
Process of sensing
Processes of sensing (also known as ‘mental processes’) are not concerned
with experiences of material world, but rather they express a state of mind
or psychological events (Halliday 1994: 116-118). They can be classified
into four types according to the verb used in the process:
a. verbs of feeling, such as
، َ ﻤﻘ، َ َﻩ،ود
ّ ، ﻫ، ﻤﺎل إﻟﻰ،ﺒـ أﻋ، ﻋ، ِاﺴ ﻬ، ّ أﺤ
()اﻨ ﺎ ﻪ اﻟ ف ِ ﺨﺎف، ﺘ ﻊ، ِاﺴ ﻊ، ﻨ م، ِأﺴﻒ، اﺸ ﺄز ﻤ، ﻨﻔ ﻤ، ﻐ
ّ َ َ َ َ
...
to love, to fancy, to hate, to like, to dislike, to adore, to
detest, to regret, to enjoy, to fear, etc.
، َ ِاﻋ ﻘ، ّ ﺘ، اﺴ ﻋ، َﻓﻬ، ِا ّ ﻠﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ، َ ِ ﻋﻠ، َ ﺒـ، أّﻟ ﺒـ،ف
َ ِ َﻋ
... اﺴ ّ ﻒ، ّ ﺘ، ﻟ اﻟﻔ ق، ﺘﻌّ ف ﻋﻠﻰ، َ ّ ﻤ،أدركَ
Causativity and Transitivity 113
... ّ ﺸ، ﺘ ّوق، َ أ، ّ ﺤ، ّ أﺤ، َ ﻻﺤ، َ ﺸﻌ، ﺴ ِ َﻊ، أر
to see, to hear, to overhear, to feel, to notice, to perceive,
to sense, to taste, to smell, etc.
ﺘﺎق، ﺨ،أﻤﻞ
َ ، رﻤﻰ إﻟﻰ،ﺴﻌﻰ ، ِاﻋ َم، َ ﻗ، ﻨ، َ رﻏ،أرَاد
... ﻗﱠ ر، ﻋﻘ اﻟﻌ م ﻋﻠﻰ، ِ
ّ ﺼ، ﺠ إﻟﻰ، ﺘ ّﻠﻊ إﻟﻰ،إﻟﻰ
to want, to desire, to intend, to hope for, to yearn for, to
plan, to determine, to decide, etc.
To illustrate, the following text taken from a short story titled ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺰاﺑﻞ
‘Among the Dustbins’ by ‘Abdulmalik Nūrī (translated by and cited in
Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 152-3) can be considered:
و ﺎن ﺠﺎﻟ ً ﺎ [process of sensing] و ﺄﻤﻞ [process of sensing] ّ [ ﻔSenser] ﻛﺎن ﻤ
ﻌ اﻟ .ﻩ إﻟﻰ اﻷرض ﺜ ﯿ ﻲ ﺒ ﯿ ﻠﻊ آﻨﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘ.ﺨﻪ ﺎﻟﻘ ب ﻤ
ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ دﺒ [process of sensing] ﻒ أن [process of sensing] و ﺄﻨﻪ ﯿ،ًﻼ ﻓ ﻬﺎ
... اﻟ ﺎﻓ ﺘﻠ ﺎ اﻟﻘ ﻤ
Process of being
Processes of being can be classified into two main processes. They are:
~ processes of being expressed by verb ‘to be’ followed by an
adjective phrase (AdjP) or verb ‘to be’ followed by a noun phrase
(NP), as in:
:ﻣﺒﺘﺪأ وﺧﺒﺮ
handsome .____ ﻛﺎن/إﻧﮫ وﺳﯿ ٌﻢ/ھﻮ
He is/was well organized ّ إﻧﮫ/ھﻮ
.____ ﻛﺎن/ﻣﻨﻈ ٌﻢ
poor .____ ﻛﺎن/ﻓﻘﯿﺮٌ إﻧﮫ/ھﻮ
strong . ____ ﻛﺎن/ي ٌ إﻧﮫ ﻗﻮ/ھﻮ
:ﻣﺒﺘﺪأ وﺧﺒﺮ
a business man .____ ﻛﺎن/إﻧﮫ رﺟ ُﻞ أﻋﻤﺎل/ھﻮ
He is/was a minister .____ ﻛﺎن/وزﯾﺮ
ٌ إﻧﮫ/ھﻮ
a lawyer .____ ﻛﺎن/إﻧﮫ ﻣﺤﺎم/ھﻮ
:ﻣﺒﺘﺪأ وﺧﺒﺮ
To explain, the following two examples extracted from a short story titled
‘ وﺟﮫFace’ by ‘Abdulhamīd al-Gharbāwī (translated by and cited in
Almanna and Hall 2015: 24-5) can be considered:
Causativity and Transitivity 115
Process of having
Processes of having are expressed by verbs such as ‘to have’, ‘to own’, ‘to
belong’, ‘to possess’, ‘to include’, ‘to contain’, ‘to consist of’, etc.
followed by a noun phrase (NP) or prepositional phrase (PP), as in:
Note that this is a process of being
Processes of existing
Processes of existing (also known as ‘existential processes’) are realized
by ‘there’ + verb ‘to be’, as in:
There + verb ‘to be’ or some other related verbs ... ھﻨﺎﻟﻚ/ﺛﻤﺔ/ﯾﻮﺟﺪ
is a book on the table. ._____ ﺛﻤﺔ
was a man in the garden. ._____ ﻛﺎن ھﻨﺎﻟﻚ
There are many students in class. ._____ ﯾﻮﺟﺪ
were a lot of girls in the party. ._____ ﻛﺎن ھﻨﺎك
will be many buses. ._____ ﺳﯿﻜﻮن ھﻨﺎك
To explain, the following two examples adapted from a short story titled
‘ وﺟﮫFace’ by ‘Abdulhamīd al-Gharbāwī (translated by and cited in
Almanna and Hall 2015: 22-3) can be considered:
EX: The following text taken from a short story titled ‘ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺰاﺑﻞAmong
the Dustbins’ by ‘Abdulmalik Nūrī (translated by and cited in
Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 156-7). Identify as many processes as
you can in the source text and then compare them with their
translations.
…and answered, her shame ﺨﻔًﻘﺎ ﻔ وﺤ ﺎؤﻫﺎ ﯿ داد وﻗﻠ ﻬﺎ وأﺠﺎﺒ
increasing and her heart violently ﻒ؟ إﻨﻪ ﻤ ﻠﻎ... وﻟ... ))وﻟ:ﺸ ﯿ ً ا
beating: “But ... but ... how? It’s a
huge sum of money, Muhsin”. .((! ﺎﻤ ﺎﻫ
EX: In the following text taken from a short story titled ‘ واﺧﺰﯾﺎهWhat a
Shame!’ by Samīra al-Māni‘ (translated by and cited in Almanna and
al-Rubai‘i 2009), the translators have translated the verb ﯾﻜﺜﺮ/ أﻛﺜﺮand
the noun إﻧﺠﺎبinto two processes of having. Comment on their
translation.
Only they and their like deserve to ﻛﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ ﺸﺎﻛﻠ ﻬ ﻤ ﻫ وﺤ ﻫ وﻤ
have lots of children, so that ﻟ ﺄﺘﻲ أﻨﺎس إﻟﻰ، اﻹﻨ ﺎب اﻟ
people who like to chat and talk
can come into this miserable ّ ن اﻟ ردﺸﺔ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ة اﻷرﻀ ﺔ اﻟ ﻌ ﺔ
world … (pp.124-125)
... واﻟ ار واﻟ ﯿ
In studying these different types of processes, three main components
should be given serious consideration. They are:
~ the process itself normally expressed by a verbal group,
~ the participants determined in advance by the writer/speaker
which are typically realized by a nominal group, and
~ the circumstances associated with the process typically expressed
by an adverb or a prepositional phrase.
To explain the main circumstances associated with the processes, let us
begin with this process of doing in this dialogue:
He travelled … Where?
to Kuwait
With whom?
with his dad When?
by car Why?
to visit his sister …
to Kuwait with his dad two days ago by car to visit his sister
He travelled
_______________________
Spatial My brother lived in London
______________________
in 2005.
______________________
Where _________________ ______________________
_______________________ ______________________
_______________________? ______________________
___________________
Distance My sister drove 15 miles last
___________________
week.
___________________
How far ________________ ___________________
_______________________ ___________________
_______________________? ___________________
___________________
Frequency I drink tea four times a year.
___________________
How often ______________ ___________________
_______________________ ___________________
_______________________? ___________________
120 Chapter Four
____________________
Means With a knife, the thief
____________________
threatened the man.
____________________
By what means ________ ____________________
_____________________ ____________________
_____________________? ____________________
____________________
Comparison He acted as professionally
____________________
as he could.
____________________
How did ______________ ____________________
_____________________ ____________________
_____________________? ____________________
____________________
Degree All her teachers love her
____________________
deeply.
____________________
How much ____________ ____________________
_____________________ ____________________
_____________________? ____________________
___________________
Behalf The man apologized on behalf of
___________________
his wife.
___________________
On whose behalf_____________ ___________________
___________________________ ___________________
__________________________? ___________________
___________________
Lack of You can complete your studies
___________________
company without her.
___________________
Without whom ___________ ___________________
________________________ ___________________
_______________________? ___________________
___________________
Product The cake was cut into many
___________________
small pieces by my mom.
___________________
Into what _________________ ___________________
_________________________ ___________________
_________________________? ___________________
! Matter circumstances are typically expressed by prepositions,
such as ‘about’, ‘concerning’, ‘regarding’, ‘with reference to’,
‘with respect to’, ‘as for’, and the like, thus answering questions
like ‘what about’, as in:
____________________
Focusing He asked her a question
____________________
about her recent
____________________
problems.
____________________
About what __________ ____________________
____________________ ____________________
___________________? ____________________
EX: The following text is taken from a short story titled ‘ اﻟﺘﺒﺎسConfusion’
by Fu’ād al-Takarlī (translated by and cited in Almanna and al-
Rubai‘i 2009: 185-6). Identify the types of processes used in both
texts, and then comment on the translation.
It was past ten in the ﻓﺎﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ ﺠﺎوزت اﻟﻌﺎﺸ ةProcess of ________
124 Chapter Four
evening ﻤ ﺎء
and sitting in front of the ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻠ س أﻤﺎم وﻟProcess of ________
television was not right اﻟ ﻠﻔ ن ﻤﺎ ﯿ ﺢ ﺸ ً ﺎ ذاProcess of ________
for an elderly man with
hypertension. . ﻀﻐ دم ﻤ ﺘﻔﻊProcess of ________
EX: Identify the type of each process used in the following sentences
along with their translations.
1. The girl laughed [process of ______________] from ear to ear.
.ﺔ [ اﻟﻔ ﺎةُ ﻀ ﺔ ﻋprocess of ______________] ﻀ
actor of the action is explicitly mentioned, thus avoiding the forced passive,
i.e. ﻣﻦ طﺮف, ﻣﻦ طﺮف, etc. Compare these two translations:
voice ‘that had ever been made in the city’, thus resulting in a ‘structure
shift’. Added to this, ‘ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ ﻓﺎسthe city of Fes’, which is the Actor of the
process in the original text, has been changed to a location circumstance
(spatial) in the target text. This is an example of ‘modulation’ to borrow
Vinay and Darbelnet’s (1958/1995) term.
Now, let us discuss the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‘ ﯾﻮم ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ أﺧﺮىA Day in another City’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 30-
1):
و ﺒ ﻘﻪ أ ﻌ ت ﻫﻲ ﺠﺎﻨًﺎ ﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ.اﻟ ﺎدل ﯿ ﻪ وﻨﺎد ة اﻟ ﻲ ﺒ اﻟ
... أﺒ اﻟﻔ ﻲ و
As we may see, the writer opts for an active construction in the first three
finite clauses:
ﯿ ﻪ ة اﻟ ﻲ ﺒ اﻟ [ ]ﻫ
In the rest of this section, we will learn how to change active to passive.
In the simple past tense, the passive voice is formed by the use of
‘was/were’ + a past participle (Verb 3), as in the following example:
128 Chapter Four
EX: Write passive sentences in (1) Simple Past and (2) Simple Present.
Then translate them into Arabic:
1. the test / write wrote, written / the teacher
Simple Past: _________________________________________________.
Simple Present: ______________________________________________.
It is worth noting that verb ‘to get’ can be used in place of verb ‘to be’ to
form passive to talk about:
1. events or actions in an informal spoken English,
2. events that are negative or not desired,
3. events or actions that happen by accident or unexpectedly, or
4. actions where the emphasis is shifted away from the agent to be
placed on the action itself or the person involved in it.
My car got stolen some weeks .ﺴ ﻗﺔ( ﺴّﺎرﺘﻲ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴﺎﺒ ﻊ )ﺘ ُﺴ ِ ﻗ
ago.
Last week, one of our trees ( ِ ّ )أو ُﺤ ّ ﺘ،ﻓﻲ اﻷﺴ ع اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ
got damaged in the wind.
.أﺸ ﺎرﻨﺎ ﻔﻌﻞ اﻟ ﺢ إﺤ
An important report was being written yesterday at this time (by me).
To change a sentence that has a modal verb, such as ‘can’, ‘could’, ‘might’,
‘would’, etc. from active to passive, one has to use the verb ‘be’ before the
past participle (Verb 3), as in:
EX: Change the following sentences to the passive form. Then translate
them into Arabic:
1. We have not received our certificates yet.
2. You were not driving him home.
3. She invited all her friends to her birthday party, but no one
attended.
4. When my sister called me yesterday, I was painting my room.
5. She is taking a picture of him.
6. They had not bought the paper.
7. While I was talking with my friend, somebody threw a car key at
me.
8. She could not ask me any questions yesterday.
9. The enemy launched an attack on our troops some days ago.
10. You might have left the book in the library. Why don’t you go
there and check?
11. The king delivered an important speech this morning.
12. Does the police officer catch the thief?
13. Does your mum pick you up?
14. They wear blue shoes.
15. They have not caught the thieves.
16. We have cycled five miles.
17. My sister has paid the bill.
18. Just wait, she will congratulate you.
134 Chapter Four
EX: Translate the following text titled ‘Nelson Mandela’, paying special
attention to the passive forms (highlighted for you):
Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918. In 1930, when he was 12
years old, his father died. He attended a primary school in Qunu, where
he was given the name Nelson by his teacher.
In 1944, he got married to Evelyn Mase. She was a nurse at that time.
They had two sons and two daughters. However, in 1958, he divorced his
wife.
On 12 August 1988, he was taken to hospital where he was diagnosed
with tuberculosis. After more than three months in two hospitals, he was
transferred on 7 December 1988 to a house at Victor Verster Prison near
Paarl, where he spent his last 14 months of imprisonment. He was
released on Sunday 11 February 1990.
EX: Complete the translation of the following text adapted from a short
story titled ‘ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﻒA Synthesis’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb
(translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 40-1):
EX: Translate the following text into English, paying special attention to
the passive forms:
3 Causativity
Causativity (from the verb ‘to cause’) is an operation where the number of
arguments (also known as ‘noun phrases’) increases, thus indicating that
the doer of the action/activity (traditionally called the ‘subject’) causes
somebody or something else, to do, or to become, something else. To
explain, the following example extracted from a short story titled اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ
ﻲ
ّ ‘ ﻗﻠﺐ ﺣSearch for a Live Heart’ by Mūhsin al-Ramlī (cited in Almanna
and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 45) can be examined:
أﻏ ق ﻗﻠ ﻲ ﺤ ﻰ أﻏ ﺎﻨﻲ ﻋ ﻟﻘ أﻨ ﺎﻨﻲ ذﻟ ﺤّﻲ ﻟﻪ اﻟ...أن ﻟﻲ ﻗﻠًﺎ ﻟﻘ ﻨ
ّ
.رؤ ﻪ
In the above example, the intransitive verb ‘ ﻧﺴﻰto forget’ and the
transitive verb ‘ أﻧﺴﻰto make somebody forget’, which have the same stem,
have been used. In the first occurrence ‘ ﻟﻘﺪ ﻧﺴﯿﺖ أن ﻟﻲ ﻗﻠﺒًﺎI forgot that I
have a heart’, there are two arguments, namely:
~ the implicit pronoun ‘ أﻧﺎI’ expressed by the letter تattached to
the verb ‘ ﻧﺴﻰto forget’ filling a verb-specific semantic role of
Forgetter, and
~ the أن-clause that fills a verb-specific semantic role of sth
Forgotten.
This can be modelled below:
sth Forgotten أن ﻟﻲ ﻗﻠًﺎ Forgetter ﻟﻘ ﻨ
In the second occurrence, however, an argument-increasing operation
occurs where an argument is added, which is ‘ ﺣﺒﻲmy love’ filling a verb-
specific semantic role of sth Making Forget, as modelled below:
... sth Making Forget ﺤ ﻲ ﻟﻪ sth Forgotten ذﻟ Forgetter ــﻲ [ ]ﻫ ﻟﻘ أﻨ ﺎﻨـ
136 Chapter Four
Giving this operation full consideration, the translators may opt for a
rendering of the following kind:
I forgot that I have a heart – what has made me forget is my love for
him that overwhelmed my heart and blinded me from realizing that I
have a heart.
Analytic causatives
Analytic causatives in English for instance can be expressed by verbs,
such as ‘to make’, ‘to have’, ‘to get’, or ‘force’, as in:
My father made me wash his car.
Her mother had her daughter clean the flat.
The boss got the secretary to write the report.
His wife forced him to take his medication.
In all these examples, there is a causer technically called ‘antagonist’ (my
father, her mother, the boss, and his wife) and a causee technically called
‘agonist’ (me, her daughter, the secretary, and him). Unlike the causer
who is characterized by power and authority, the causee is characterized
by powerlessness and submission. Approached from a cognitive linguistic
perspective, one may observe that all these examples are characterized by
having a power differential, forcing the causee, who would tend in normal
circumstances not to wash his father’s car, not to clean the flat, not to write
the report, and not to take the medication to take these actions. As such,
the affected participant in examples (1), (2), and (4) (the car, the flat, the
medication) undergoes some changes, and the resultant in example (3) (the
report) comes into existence as a result of the causer’s action or words.
Further, in all these examples, the causee (me, her daughter, the secretary,
and him) failed to overcome the force of the causer (my father, her mother,
the boss, and his wife), thus entailing causality. This can be modelled as
follows:
Her mother causer/antagonist/powerful had her daughter causee/agonist/powerless
clean the flat.
The boss causer/antagonist/powerful got the secretary causee/agonist/powerless to
write the report.
Causativity and Transitivity 137
She celebrated my first wages when I was still in my mid-to late teens.
She gathered us in the evening around a small table, on which she
had placed a nice cake with one candle.
Causativity and Transitivity 139
As one may observe, in the above example, by virtue of the verb ‘ ﺟﻌﻞto
make’ in ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻌﻠﻨﺎ ﻧﺤﺘﻔﻞ, the causer is characterized by power and
authority while the causee is characterized by powerlessness and
submission. As such, the whole clause is characterized by having force
dynamic value of forcing the causee (i.e. us) who tends in normal
circumstances not to celebrate, to celebrate. In the target text, however, the
whole clause ‘She celebrated …’ is characterized by being force
dynamically neutral. Added to this, the celebrator is characterized by
uniplexity while in the original text is characterized by multiplexity. Had
the translators given full consideration to these issues, they would have
used the verb ‘to make’ in the past followed by the pronoun ‘us’
characterized by multiplexity, thereby entailing causality on the one hand,
and reflecting the number of the people who celebrated on the other:
She made us celebrate my first wages when I was still in my mid-to late
teens. She gathered us in the evening around a small table, on which
she had placed a nice cake with one candle.
To reinforce this point, following is another example extracted from a
short story titled ‘ طﺒﻠﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻤﺎءA Tray from Heaven’ by Yūsuf Idrīs
(translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 282-3):
Lexical causatives
Lexical causatives refer to certain lexical items that have implicit
causativity (Almanna 2016b: 40). Examples of lexical causatives in
English include verbs such as ‘to send’, ‘to kill’, ‘to feed’, and the like
(Goddard 1998/2011: 304). These lexical causatives lend themselves
respectively to أرﺳﻞ, ﻗﺘﻞ, and أطﻌﻢwhich are examples of lexical causatives
in Arabic. To explain, let us discuss the lexical item ‘to send’ along with
its equivalent in Arabic, i.e. أرﺳﻞin a sentence of the following kind:
The teacher causer/antagonist/powerful sent one of his students causee/agonist/powerless
to the secretary to bring him the attendance sheet.
In the above example, there is a closed path with gapping over the medial
and final portions. The scene is not force dynamically neutral, but rather it
is characterized by having a power differential, forcing one of the students,
who tend to stay in class with his classmates, to go to the secretary. It is
asserted that one of the students went to the secretary, thus entailing
causality. In contrast, it is not asserted that the student brought the
attendance sheet; therefore, the scope of intention in this non-finite clause
‘to bring him the attendance sheet’ is greater than the extent of causation.
To reflect all these characteristics, one may suggest a rendering of the
following kind:
.ﺐ ورﻗﺔ اﻟﺤﻀﻮر
ِ س أﺣﺪَ طﻼﺑِ ِﮫ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺴّﻜﺮﺗﯿﺮة ﻟﺠﻠ
ُ ﺪر
ّ ِ أرﺳ َﻞ اﻟ ُﻤ
Morphological causatives
Now, let us shift our focus of attention towards the third type of causatives,
i.e. morphological causatives which are created by the process of
affixation. In English, for example, the addition of the suffixes –ify or –en
to certain adjectives will not only change them morphologically,
syntactically, semantically, and sometimes phonologically, but they will
inject them with causativity as well. Below are a few examples:
Causativity and Transitivity 141
Adjective Verb
clear clarify
simple simplify
worse worsen
awake awaken
EX: Translate the following examples written for the purposes of this
course, paying extra attention to the causatives:
.ِاﺒ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻐ ة ٍ
ﻨّ ﻤ،ﺴﺎﻋﺔ ﻒ ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ ﺎم ﺒ،اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ~
! Here, the verb ﻧﺎمَ is an intransitive verb, i.e. it does not have an
object, thus lending itself to the verb ‘to sleep’, ‘to fall asleep’ (or
less formal ‘to hit the hay’ (US) or ‘to hit the sack’ (UK), but best
avoided as colloquial). However, the transitive verb ﻧﻮم ّ in ْﻧﻮﻣﺖ
ّ
(or sometimes in )ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺘﻨﻮﯾﻢcan be translated into ‘to put
somebody to bed’, ‘to send somebody to bed’, ‘to lull somebody to
sleep’, or less formal ‘to tuck somebody into bed’. Building on
this, try to translate the following English sentences:
Before going to bed, the mother put her youngest son to bed.
Causativity and Transitivity 143
ِ ِ ِ
ﱡ ْ ِ ﻤﺎ أدﻫ ﻬﺎ أﻨﻬﺎ ﺘﻌ.اﻨ ﻫ ْ ﻟ و ﺔ أﺴ ﺎذﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻔﻠﺔ
ف أﻨﻪ ﻻ ~
.اﻟ ﻔﻼت
I meant to tell my wife that her mother had phoned, but it completely
slipped my mind.
! The verb اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞlends itself to ‘to be annoyed’ in the past. This is
an example of ‘class shift’ where the verb اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞcan be translated
into the adjective ‘annoyed’ ُﻣﻨﺰَ ﻋِﺞpreceded by the verb ‘to be’.
! It is worth noting that the verb اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞ/ ﻛﺎن ُﻣﻨﺰﻋ ًﺠﺎi.e. to be annoyed
is different from ﻋ َﺞ
َ أز, i.e. to make somebody angry. How would
you translate these two sentences?
He was very annoyed as he couldn’t find his office keys.
What annoyed him is that he could not find his office keys.
4 Revision
EX 1: Translate the following text titled ‘Mother’s Day’ into Arabic,
giving adequate consideration to the types of processes along
with their participants and circumstances.
A man stopped at a flower shop to order some flowers to be wired to his
mother who lived two hundred miles away. Scarcely had he gotten out of
his car when he noticed a young girl sitting on the curb sobbing. He asked
her what was wrong. She replied:
~ “I wanted to buy a red rose for my mother. But I only have
seventy-five cents, and a rose costs two dollars”.
Wearing a smile, the man said:
~ “Come on in with me. I’ll buy you a rose”.
He bought the little girl her rose and ordered his own mother’s flowers. As
they were leaving, he offered the girl a ride home. She said:
~ “Yes, please! That’s kind of you”.
146 Chapter Four
She directed him to a cemetery, where she placed the rose on a freshly dug
grave.
The man returned to the flower shop, cancelled the wire order, picked up a
bouquet and drove the two hundred miles to his mother’s house.
3. When did he notice a young girl sitting on the curb sobbing line 3?
circumstance of _________________.
ٍ
ﻲء ﻤ
His particular attention ّ اﻫ ﺎﻤﻪ ﺒﻲ ﺠﻌﻠ ﻲ أﺤ.2
towards________________ - أﺜ ﺎءﻩ- ﻋ رت زوﺠ ﻲ.. اﻟ ﻫ
_______________________
Causativity and Transitivity 147
(“أﺴ د ﻗ ﺔ ”ﻤ،)ﺴﻼم ﻋ د
The woman pulls the curtain of the window next to her without getting
up from her seat. The tight corner between the end of the couch and
the dining room door got even darker.
EX 5: Translate the following two texts adapted from a story titled اﻟﺤﺪﯾﻘﺔ
‘The Garden’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (cited in ibid. pp. 42-3)
into English, paying extra attention to the extent of causation and
scope of intention:
1 Types of sentences
At times, Arabic does not require a tense change when the introductory
verb أﺧﺒﺮ/ ﻗﺎلis in the past, as in the following example taken from a short
story titled ‘ ﻗﺴﻤﺘﻲ وﻧﺼﯿﺒﻲQismati and Nasibi’ by Mahfouz (translated by
and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 186-7):
:ﻷﻤﻲ ﻗﻠ
.ﻬﺎ وﻨ
ُ ~ ﺴ ﻌ ﻬﺎ
:ﺼ ﺨ أﻤﻲ
. ﺴ ت ﺠ ًﻋﺎ.أﺒ ً ا ~
As can be observed, a future construction is used in the past where the
moment of speaking is in the past. In the above example, a direct mode of
narration is utilized by the writer where two verbal processes are
employed. They are
. ﻬﺎ وﻨ
ُ ﺴ ﻌ ﻬﺎ:ﻗﻠ ﻷﻤﻲ ~
. ﺴ ت ﺠ ًﻋﺎ. أﺒ ً ا:ﺼ ﺨ أﻤﻲ ~
As they are syntactically similar, let us discuss the first verbal process
only, that is, ﺳﻨﻄﻌﻤﮭﺎ وﻧﺸﺮﺑﮭﺎ:ﻗﻠﺖ ﻷﻣﻲ. The Sayer of the verbal process is
‘ أﻧﺎI’ indicated by the letter تattached to the verb ﻗﺎل. The verb ‘ ﻗﺎلto
say’ in the past is the process of saying, and ﺳﻨﻄﻌﻤﮭﺎ وﻧﺸﺮﺑﮭﺎis the content,
that is, what has been said. In the content, two material processes are
employed by the writer. They are
~ ﺳﻨﻄﻌﻤﮭﺎwhere the Actor is ‘ ﻧﺤﻦwe’ indicated by the letter ن
attached to the verb, ﯾُﻄﻌﻢ/‘ طﻌﻢto feed’ is the process of doing in
the future indicated by ﺳـ, and the explicit pronoun ‘ ھﺎher’ is the
Client.
~ ﻧﺸﺮﺑﮭﺎwhere the Actor is ‘ ﻧﺤﻦwe’ indicated by the letter ن
attached to the verb, ﯾﺸﺮب/ب
ّ ﺷﺮ
ّ ‘to make somebody drink’ is the
Translating Modes of Narration 151
To put this differently, there are two timelines, and the process of saying,
that is, ... ‘ ﻗﻠﺖ ﻷﻣﻲI said to my mother …’ occurred in the past. However,
the acts of feeding and giving her some water may or may not occur in the
past, depending on how close the present in the past (indicated by a dotted
vertical line) to the present (indicted by a straight vertical line).
Being fully aware of the modes of narration along with the processes used,
the translators have suggested:
I told my mother: “We’re going to feed her and give her some water”.
She shouted: “No, you won’t! It will die of hunger…”.
To reinforce this point, the following example written for the purpose of
this study may be discussed:
. ﺴﺄﺴﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻓﻲ اﻷﺴ ع اﻟﻘﺎدم: ﻗﺎل ﻟﻲ ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ
In the above example, a verbal process is employed where the implicit
pronoun ‘ ھﻮhe’ is the Sayer, ‘ ﻗﺎلto say’ in the past is the process of
saying, ‘ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦtwo days ago’ is a location circumstance construing the
extent of the unfolding of the process in time, and ﺳﺄﺳﺎﻓﺮ إﻟﻰ ﻟﻨﺪن ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع
‘ اﻟﻘﺎدمI’ll travel to London next week’ is the content of what has been said
where a material process is utilized:
~ the Actor/Traveller is the implicit pronoun ‘ أﻧﺎI’ indicated by the
letter أattached to the verb ‘ ﺳﺎﻓﺮto travel’,
~ the process of doing is ‘ ﺳﺎﻓﺮto travel’ in the future indicated by
the letter ﺳـ,
152 Chapter Five
EX: Identify the types of the following sentences. Then, translate them
into Arabic.
1. The teacher assured us that everything would be all right.
2. The teacher said: “I’m sure that everything will be all right”.
3. She explained that she had been extremely busy at that time.
4. The manager persuaded us not to take a break at that time.
5. The boy admitted that he had taken the money.
6. “Why don’t we have the party at your flat?” I asked him.
7. Her mother wanted her not to say anything.
8. The taxi driver assured us that there would be no delay.
9. Her father asked her whether she had done her homework.
10. “Have you seen this movie before?”, my friend asked.
11. My mother said to me: “Do not tell anybody about it, please”.
12. She wanted to know if I was her son’s friend.
13. My friend exclaimed sadly that he could not understand the
lesson.
14. My friend said: “Oh! I cannot understand the lesson!”
15. “Help me pick up these books, please”, she said to me.
16. The teacher asked the students not to disturb him while marking
their exam papers.
17. I said to him: “Thank you for explaining the lesson to me”.
18. My father said: “I want to visit Egypt one day”.
19. “What are you doing here?” she asked crossly.
20. All the time she was saying angrily to herself: “I hate my step-
daughter! I’ll hit her when she gets back”.
2 Speech acts
In the previous section, it was shown that people can use language for a
certain purpose, such as for informing (in statements), requesting,
ordering, and the like (in imperative sentences), and asking (in
interrogative sentences). However, at times, what is explicitly said or
written is different from what is meant by the speaker/writer. To illustrate,
let us discuss this sentence:
“Could you call me later, please?”, said my husband.
154 Chapter Five
Here there are two structures: one at the surface level, which is of use to
ask a yes-no question, and the other at the symbolic level, which is to
politely request somebody to call. As can be observed, the underlying
function, that is, requesting somebody to call, overrides its superficial
function, that is asking a yes-no question. To change it to indirect speech,
these underlying functions need to be given serious consideration, as in:
My husband asked me (politely) to call him later.
To reinforce this point, following are two examples adapted from a novella
titled ‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮةThe Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir
(translated by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 8-9):
.(( )) ُﺸ ًا ﻟ ِ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫ ا اﻹ اء:ُ ﻟُ ّﺔ اﻟﻔ اﺸ ُﺔ وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻗﺎﻟ
Wearing a smile, the butterfly said to Brown: “Thank you for this
compliment”.
To use an indirect mode of narration, the translator can replace the verb ‘to
say’ in the past with the verb ‘to thank’ in the past, as in:
Wearing a smile, the butterfly thanked Brown for her compliment.
Back-translation:
In the rest of this section, an attempt is made to highlight the main speech
acts that may cause a problem to the language users and translators when
dealing with the modes of narration.
a. The act of requesting
Direct: “Why don’t you call her and say ﻞ ﺒﻬﺎ وﺘﻘ ل ﻟِ َ ﻻ ﺘ:ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ
sorry?” I asked him. .أﺴﻒ
ﺸ ًا ﺠ ﻼً ﻻﺘّ ﺎﻟ ﺒﻲ ﻓﻲ:ﻗﺎل
Direct: “Thank you very much for calling ّ
me at this time”, he said. . ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ
Interrogative
wh-
if/whether = ﻓﯿﻤﺎ إذا
Further, when the reporting verb is in the past, the tenses should be
changed as follows:
1. change the present tenses to past tenses,
2. change the past tense to the past perfect (but in spoken English it
can be left unchanged when there is a state of confusion), and
3. change the modal verbs as follows:
tell me
say to me inform me
notify me
remind me
ask me
request me
say to me order me
advise me
command me
warn me
Translating Modes of Narration 159
EX: Change the mode of narration of the following short text from direct
to indirect, and then translate one of them into Arabic.
A quiet man asked a girl worn out by hunger and tiredness sitting on the
pavement sobbing: “What is wrong my darling?”
She replied in a low voice: “I wanted to buy a sandwich, but I only have
one dollar, and a sandwich costs two dollars”.
Wearing a smile, the man said: “Come on in with me. I’ll buy you what
you need”.
‘to be worn out by hunger and tiredness’ lends itself to ھﺪّھﺎ اﻟﺠﻮع
واﻟﺘﻌﺐ.
The verb ‘to sob’ can be translated as ﯾﻨﺸﺞ.
The verb ‘to assuage’, which collocates well with the noun
‘hunger’ lends itself to ﯾﺴﺪّ رﻣﻖ اﻟﺠﻮع.
EX: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled ‘ اﻟﺼﻔﻘﺔThe
Deal’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in Almanna,
forthcoming), and then complete the translation, paying extra
attention to the modes of narration:
The fetus had reached the ninth وﺤﺎن، ﺘ ﻌﺔ أﺸﻬ ﻤ اﻟﻌ ﺒﻠﻎ اﻟ
month of his life. The time had come
162 Chapter Five
for him to leave his mother’s womb ﻲ أﻤﻪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﺨ وﺠﻪ ﻤ وﻗ
and enter the world so that he may
be endowed with a name, a وأﻫﻞ ﺎﺴ وﺤﺎرة وﻤ ﯿ ﺔ وو ﻔ
neighbourhood, a city, a homeland, a
وأﺼ ﻗﺎء
family, and friends.
The mother said, wondering: “How ))إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻰ ﺴ ﻘﻰ:ﻟﻪ أﻤﻪ ﻤ ﺎﺌﻠﺔ ﻓﻘﺎﻟ
long will you stay in my belly?!?
_____________________________ ًﺢ رﺠﻼ ﺤﻰ ﺘ ﻲ؟ ﻫﻞ ﺘ ﻓﻲ
ذا ﺸﺎر ؟
___________________________?”
ﯿ ﻐﻲ ﻟ أن ﺘ ﻔ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻓﻘ ﺼ ت ﺜﻘ ﻞ
You ought to have pity on me, for you ّ
have become so heavy that I cannot اﻟ زن اﻟﻰ ﺤ أﻨﻲ ﺒ ﻻ أﺴ ﻊ
even walk”.
.((اﻟ ﻲ
The mother thought for a while, and :ﻬﺎ ﻟ ﻗﺎﻟ ﺜ،ًﻓ ت اﻷم ﻗﻠ ﻼ
then asked her baby, و ﻌ ك أم ﺘ ﻋ ًﺎ ))أﺘ
“____________________________
((ﺼ ًﻗﺎ ﻘ ل ﻟ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘ ﺔ و ﻘ ؟
___________________________?”
Glossary:
to deceive ﯾﺨﺪَع belly ﺑﻄﻦ
to please ﯾُﺴﻌِﺪ to make somebody miserable ﯾُﺸﻘﻲ
Translating Modes of Narration 163
EX: Re-translate the following text taken from a short story titled ﻣﻄﺮ أﺳﻮد
‘Black Rain’ by Salām ‘Abūd translated into English by Pragnell and
Sadkhan (2011: 95-105), by changing the modes of narration:
Now, let us analyse the following sentence as an example to see how these
structures can be translated into Arabic:
An informed source subject declared reporting verb + in the past that complementizer
the American president subject would visit modal verb/in the past + verb Cairo
soon to complementizer discuss the current situation.
In English, this is an example of indirect speech in which the modal verb
‘will’ should be changed to ‘would’ as the main verb ‘declare’ is in the
past tense. However, Arabic does not require such a tense change, thus
lending itself to ﺳـor ﺳﻮف, as in:
Translating the lexical item ‘situation’, which is in the singular form, into
أوﺿﺎع, which is in the plural form, is an example of ‘intra-system shift’ to
use Catford’s (1965) terminology.
EX: Read the notes below before translating the following examples,
paying extra attention to the modes of narration:
~ A source close to the Pentagon made it clear that the US navy
was determined to carry out military manoeuvres in the near
future.
! The reporting verb ‘to make something clear’ is used in the past,
thus lending itself to أوﺿﺢor ﺑﯿّﻦ.
! The phrasal verb‘to carry out’ can be replaced here with other
verbs, such as ‘to perform’ ﯾﻘﻮم, ‘to execute’ ﯾﻨﻔّﺬ, or ‘to conduct’ ﯾﻨﺠﺰ
as they all collocate with the noun ‘manoeuvre’ ﻣﻨﺎورة.
! Words like ‘navy’ and ‘military’ can be translated as اﻟﻘﻮات اﻟﺒﺤﺮﯾﺔ
and ﻋﺴﻜﺮيrespectively.
~ It was reported by the central bank that the current year would be
the third in succession to witness a fall in demand for oil from the
industrial countries.
! The framing verb ‘to report’ used in the past and in the passive
voice lends itself to
! In the above text, there are one simple sentence and two complex
sentences:
The Iraqi government has accused X of … (simple)
It has also declared that … (complex)
A spokesman for the Iraqi government has added that … (complex)
! The main verbs used in the text, i.e. ‘to accuse’, ‘to declare’, and
‘to add’, are in the present perfect tense, thus lending themselves to
اﺗﮭﻢ, ﺑﯿّﻦ/أوﺿﺢ, and أﺿﺎفrespectively.
! The verb ‘to destabilize’, which is the opposite of ‘to stabilize’,
lends itself to ... ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ زﻋﺰﻋﺔ اِﺳﺘﻘﺮار/ﺗﻘﻮم ﺑـ.
! The expression ‘the intensive military operations’ can be translated
into ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﻋﺴﻜﺮﯾﺔ ﻣﻜﺜﻔﺔ.
! The expression ‘a spokesman for’ can be translated into اﻟﻨﺎطﻖ
اﻟﺮﺳﻤﻲ ﻋﻦor... اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪّث ﺑﺎِﺳﻢ.
Similarly, in Arabic media, there are many verbs such as أﺷﺎر, ذﻛﺮ, ﺑﯿّﻦ,
أوﺿﺢ, أﻓﺎد, أﻋﺮب, أﻓﺼﺢ, ﺻﺮحّ , أﺿﺎف, ﺣﺬّر, ﺷﺪّد, and so on that can be used
in place of the verb ﻗﺎل. Instances of how these verbs are typically used
may be seen and studied in the following examples:
Translating Modes of Narration 169
ﺔ اﻟ ّ ﻌ د ﺔ ﻟ ﺼﺎدر ﻋ و ازرة اﻟ ﻓﺎ ِع اﻟ ّ ﻌ د ﺔ ﱠ
أن اﻟﻘ ات اﻟﻌ ٌ ٌ أﻓﺎد ﺘﻘ
َ ~
.ﺔ ﻤ ﺨ ًا أ ٍّ ﻤ وﺤ اﺘﻬﺎ اﻟﻌ ﺘﻘ ﺒ
The verb َأﻓﺎد, which is in the active form, can be translated into
the passive form as in ‘it was reported by …’.
The expression وزارة اﻟﺪﻓﺎعlends itself to ‘the defence ministry’.
The expression اﻟﻘﻮات اﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﯾﺔcan be translated into ‘troops’ or
‘military forces’.
The reporting verb ذﻛﺮ, which is in the past, can be translated into
‘to declare’, ‘to mention’, etc.
وزﯾﺮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدlends itself to ‘the minister of the economy’.
The lexical item اِﻧﺘﮭﺎج, which is derived from اِﻧﺘﮭﺞ, means ﺗﺒﻨﻲ,
thus lending itself to ‘to adopt’, ‘to carry out’, ‘to follow’, ‘to
pursue’, and the like as they collocate well with the noun
‘policy’ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ.
The adjective ﺻﺎرمlends itself to ‘strict’ as it collocates with the
noun ‘policy’.
The phrases ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎلand ﺑﮭﺪفcan be translated into ‘in the field
of’ and ‘with the aim of’ respectively.
Translating Modes of Narration 173
EX: Evaluate the translation of the following text titled ﺷﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﺒﺘﺮول
”ﺑﺘﺮوﻣﯿﻦ“ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ, paying extra attention to the differences between
the two languages, in particular the tenses/aspects and reported
speech:
EX: Translate the following journalistic text written for the purposes of
this course, paying special attention to the framing verbs and
(in)direct speech:
In a similar context, the military leaders of Gaza sent out a call yesterday
to public opinion and the international community urging them to take
rapid action to force the Israeli troops to stop the air strikes on Gaza’s
towns and rural areas.
EX: Read the notes below before translating the following examples
quoted from a collection of short stories titled ‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎءThe Scent
of Winter’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell
2012) into English, paying extra attention to the modes of narration:
ﻫﻞ ﺘ ر ﻤﻬ ﻲ؟:ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ
. إﻨ ﻤﻌّﻠ:و ﻼ ﺘ دد ﻗﺎل
: ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ ﻒ ﻋ ﻓ
.راﺌ ﺔ ﺒ ا ﺔ اﻟﻘﻠ اﻟ ﺼﺎص إن ﻟ، إﻨﻲ أﺸ ّ أﯿﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻌﻠ ن:أﺠﺎﺒ ﻲ
! The word ﺗﻤﺘﻢlends itself to ‘to mumble’, ‘to mutter’, ‘to speak in a
low voice’, etc.
! The phrase ﺑﻨﺒﺮة رﻗﯿﻘﺔ ﻣﺘﻘﻄﻌﺔcan be translated as ‘in a delicate,
interrupted tone’.
! أﺟﺎﺑﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ذھﻮلcan be translated as ‘he replied in astonishment’ or
‘astonished, and somehow confused, he replied’.
أ ً ﺎ؟ ﻫﻞ ﻨ ﺦ ﻨ:ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ
:ﻎ ﻌﺎﻤﻪ رﻓﻊ رأﺴﻪ وﻗﺎل وﻫ
.اﻵن ﻟ ~
ﻫﻞ ﻨ ﺦ ﺤًﻘﺎ؟ وﻟ:رت ﺴ اﻟﻬﺎ
ْ ﻛ
.ﻎ ﻌﺎﻤﻪ ﺒﻼ ﻤ ﺎﻻة وﺠﻬﻬﺎ ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﺜ ﻋﺎد ﺘﻔ
! The verb ﺷﺎخcan be translated into ‘to get older’ or ‘to age’.
However, in this literary context, it can be translated into
expressions like ‘to get on in years’ or ‘not to be getting any
younger’.
! The verb رﻓﻊhere can be translated into ‘to lift’, or ‘to raise’.
178 Chapter Five
ٍ ٍت
:ﻋﺎل وﻓ ﻪ ﻤﻠﻲء ﺒ ﻏ ة ﻤﻌ ن اﻷﺴ ﺎن ﻗﺎل ﻟﻬﺎ
ﻫﻞ ﺎن ﺘﻌ ً ﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻫ ا اﻟ ّ ؟ ~
:أﺠﺎﺒ ﻪ
.ﺔ ﺦ ﻓﻲ ﻞ ﻟ إﻨﻪ وﺤ ﻤﻬ م ~
ض اﻟ ﻐ ﻠﺔ ُﻤ ﺜًﺎ أﺼ اﺘًﺎ ﻤﺎؤﻫﺎ ﺎن ﻗ ﺘ ك اﻟ ﻔ ﺔ ﺴﺎﺌ ﺔ ﯿ ﺘ.ﻲء ﻬﺎ ﻟ
.ﻘﺔ ُﻤ
: ﻗﺎل ﻟﻬﺎ،وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻨ ﻤ ﻪ
.ﺎر
ًا ﺴﺄﻋ ﻞ ~
:ن ﻓ ّد ْت ﻋﻠ ﻪ
ﻋ ﻲ؟ ~ وﺘ ﻀﻰ أن ﺘﻐ
: ٍت ﻤ ﻔ ﻓﻘﺎل
.أﻤ ة ﺴﻌ ~
180 Chapter Five
! The verb دﻧﺎsimply means اِﻗﺘﺮب, thus lending itself to ‘to get close
to’, ‘to get near to’, ‘to come near to’, ‘to draw closer to’, and the
like.
! The word ﺑﺤﺎرin this structure lends itself to ‘as a sailor’.
! In وﺗﺮﺿﻰthere is an implicit reference to the future, thereby
lending itself to ‘Will you be happy …?’.
! ﺳﺘﻌﯿﺸﯿﻦ أﻣﯿﺮةmeans ﺳﺘﻌﯿﺸﯿﻦ ﺳﻌﯿﺪةor ﺳﺘﻌﯿﺸﯿﻦ ﻋﯿﺸﺔ راﺿﯿﺔ. With this
in mind, it can be translated literally into ‘you’ll live the life of a
princess’ or functionally into ‘you’ll live happily’, ‘you’ll live like a
princess’, ‘you’ll live like a real lady’, and the like. Or, it can be
translated idiomatically into ‘you’ll be living the good life’ or
‘you’ll be living the high life’.
EX: Translate the following text adapted from a short story titled ﺛﻼث
‘ ﻗﺼﺺ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻟﻠﻨﺸﺮThree Stories not for Publishing’ by ‘Abdulsattar
Nāsir (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 17-19):
... ﺔ ﺠ ﻠﺔ ﺴ واﻟ اﻓﻌﺔ ﻟ ﺘ، ﺎر ﺎﺘ ﻫ ﻩ ﻨ ﺔ ﻗ أﺘﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ رﺴ ~
.ﻛ ُ واﺜﻘﺎً ﺠ ا ﻤ ﻨﻬﺎﯿ ﻬﺎ
:أﺠﺎب اﻟ ﺎﻤﻲ
ﺔ“ ﻤ وﻗ ﺘﺎ ﻌ ُ ”اﻟﻘ. ﺄﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﺘ ْك ﺸ ﺎً ﻟﻠ ﺎدﻓﺔ،ﻛ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺜﻘﺔ ﺘﺎﻤﺔ ~
وﻟ ﻤﺎذا أﻓﻌﻞ؟ اﻨﻬ... ّأول ﯿ م إﻟﻰ آﺨ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ رأﯿ ﻲ ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺜ ﺎب اﻟﻌ ل
... َ ﺤﺎﻗ ون ﻋﻠ
: ٍ ﻏﺎﻀ ِ ﻪﻤ
ﺠﺔ ٍت ﺠﻞ
ُ ﻗﺎل اﻟ
اﻟﻘﺎﺘﻞ؟ ﺴﺄﻤ ت وأﻨﺎ وﺤ ﻞ ﺎﻨ ﻲ ﻟ ّ ق ﻌ ﻫ ا اﻟﻌ اب اﻟ ~ ﻤ
.ﻤﻌﻲ ﻓﻘ ﻤ ﻌ ف اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ وأﻨ
:ﻗﺎل اﻟ ﺎﻤﻲ
.ﺎ ﻨﻌ ﻓﻬﺎ ﻫ ﺎك ”ﺜﺎﻟ “ ﻌ ف اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ ~
:ﺼ خ اﻟ ﺠﻞ
ن؟ ﻤ ؟ﻤ ~
6 Revision
! lends itself to ‘the worldاﻟطﻠب اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺑﺗرول The expression
demand for oil’.
! The whole sentence can be broken down to two sentences.
! /ﺗﻣر The verb
ﯾﻣر ّ.ﯾﺷﮭد/ﺗﺷﮭد ّ can be translated intralingually into
EX 3: Translate the following text into English, paying special attention to
the reporting verbs used:
EX 4: Translate the following text adapted from a novel titled ‘The Secret
Garden’ by Frances Hodgson Burnett (1994: 2) into Arabic, paying
extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic differences between the
two languages:
~ “It’s very bad, isn’t it?” her mother asked the doctor with a
worried voice.
~ “Very bad”, the doctor answered gravely. “People are dying like
flies. It is dangerous to stay in this village. You should leave the
place immediately; you should go to a place where there is no
disease”.
~ “Oh, I know!” she said while shivering from fear. “We must
leave as soon as possible”.
184 Chapter Five
ّﻞ اﻷوﻻد؟
ﻒﻋ ِ ٍ
ُ ﻟ ﺎذا ﺎ أُﻤﻲ أﺨ ﻠ:ُﻤ ُﻪ
َ ﺴﺄل اﻟ ﻟ أ
َ ﻓﻲ ﻟ ﻠﺔ ﻤ اﻟﻠ ﺎﻟﻲ
. َ ﻟ َ ُﻤ ًﻠﻔﺎ ﺒﻞ ﻓ ً ا ﻤ ﻨ ﻋ:ُﻤﻪُ أَﺠﺎﺒ ْ أ
،ﱡ أن ﯿﻠﻌ َ ﻤﻌﻲ ﺎ أُﻤﻲ ﻻ أﺤ ﻤ اﻷوﻻد وﻟ:ٍن ُ ﻓﻘﺎل اﻟ ﻟ
َ
.ُ ﻤ ﻲ وﻌ ﻬ
.ﻓ ّدت اﻷم واﺒ ﺎﻤ ٌﺔ ﺘﻌﻠ ُﻤ ﺎﻫﺎ
ﻓﻌ ﻤﺎ ﻻ ﯿ ﻏ. َ َ ~ أَﻨ َ وﻟٌ ذ ﻲ و ِ أَن ﺘ ﻌّﻠ َ ﻒ ﺘُ ِ ّ َﻨﻔ
. ﻫﻨ ﻓﻬ ا ﻻ ﻌ ﻲ أﻨﻬ،ﻻد ﺎﻟﻠﻌ ﻤﻌ ﻓﻲ إﺤ اﻟ ات ُ اﻷو
Ø a/an a/an
In the above text, there are seven cases of ‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦnunation’, viz. ﻣﻤﺮ, ﺿﯿّﻖ,
ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ, أﺑﻮاب, ﻣﺮﻗﻤﺔ, ﻣﺎﺳﺤﺎ, and أﺣﯿﺎﻧﺎ. However, there are only three
nouns, namelyﻣﻤﺮ, ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ, and أﺑﻮاب. Unlike the last noun, viz. أﺑﻮاب
186 Chapter Six
‘doors’, which is a plural countable noun, the first two nouns are singular
countable nouns, and thus translatable into English using ‘a/an + noun’, as
in ‘a corridor’ and ‘a hospital’, respectively. The sentence ﯾﺜﻘﻞ ﺣﺮﻛﺘﮫ اﻷﻟﻢ
واﻟﺤﺰن اﻟﺤﺎدwhich is in the active form can be translated into passive, as in
‘his movement is weighed down by deep pain and grief/sorrow, thus
leaning now and then against both sides of the corridor for support’ or ‘he
is weighed down by deep pain and grief/sorrow, thus leaning now and
then against either side of the corridor for support’.
Following is another example:
ﻤ ﻠﺔ، ﻤ ﻔ ﺔ، ﻓ ﺸﺔ أﺴ ﺎن، ﻤ ﯿﻞ، اﻟ أة، ﻋ ﺔ،(ﺠ ّﺔ )اﻟ ﺎب/ ﺠ، )اﻟ ﺠﻞ( اﻟ ﯿ
are characterized by uniplexity, that is, the quantity of each lexical item
consists of one element (one man/one body/one trolley/one woman/one
handkerchief/one toothbrush/one wallet/one magazine). Building on this,
Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives 187
EX: Identify any cognitive operation triggered by the effect of the lexical
items utilized in the following examples. Then, translate them into
English, paying extra attention to the translation of the definite article
ألand ‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦnunation’:
.ف و ُ ﻤ ﻻً ﺼﻐ ًا ِ ﻀﺎ ﻤ اﻟً أﺨ ُت ﻗ،ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ .1
.ال اﻟ ِﺔِ ِ ﺴ ِء اﻷﺤ أﻤ إﻻ ﻋ ٌد ﻗﻠ ٌﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ﻠ ِﺔ ﻟ .2
.ﺴﺎﻓ َ إﻟﻰ ﺒﻠ ٍ أورو ﻲ وﻓ َﺢ ﻫ ﺎك ﻋ ًدا ًا ﻤ اﻟ ﺎرﻊ .3
ِ
.ﻘﺎﻻت ﻟ ﻨ ُت ﻋ ًدا ﻤ اﻟ.ﻠﺔ ﻤ ّ ٍﺔ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ٍ ﻨ ت ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤ
ُ .4
ﻲ ﺘ َﺢ ﻋﻠ أن ﺘﻘ أ اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ اﻟ، ٍ ِ
ّ ع ﻓﻲ ﺎ ﺔ أَ ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ .5
.اﻟ ّ رة ﻟ
188 Chapter Six
Note here that when the nationality adjective ends with ‘–sh’, ‘–ch’, ‘–ss’,
‘–se’, it refers to the people of that country and there is no need to add ‘–s’.
Otherwise, if it is used to refer to all people of that country, the ‘–s’ should
be added, as in:
190 Chapter Six
In the above example, to reflect the meaning of the lexical item اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ
characterized by multiplexity as its quantity consists of more than one
dead person, the translators have opted for the use of the noun phrase ‘the
dead’ that triggers a cognitive operation of unbounding (for more details
on unboundedness, see the previous section).
Following are some examples:
In some countries, life is very hard for the poor.
. اﻟ ﺎة ﻗﺎﺴ ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﻘ اء،ﻓﻲ ﻌ ِ اﻟ ﻠ ان
. اﻟ ﺎة ﻻ ﺘ ﺤ ُ اﻟﻔﻘ اء،اﻟ ﻠ ان ﻓﻲ ﻌ:أو
The rich should pay more taxes.
. ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻏ ﺎء أن ﯿ ﻓﻌ ا ﻀ اﺌ َ أﻛ
... ﯿ ﻌّ ﻋﻠﻰ/ ﯿ ﻐﻲ:أو
I like to help the disabled.
. أﺤ ﱡ أن أﺴﺎﻋ َ )اﻷﺸ ﺎص( اﻟ ُ ﻌﺎﻗ
Yesterday, the doctors worked around the clock to help the injured in
the crash.
ِ ﻒ ﻟ ﺎﻋ ِة اﻟ ﺎﺒ ﻓﻲ اﻟ
.ﺎدث ٍ دون ﺘ ّﻗ
ِ ﺎء أﻤ ﻤ
ُ ُ ﻋ َﻞ اﻷ
ِ ﻟ ﯿ ﻗﻒ اﻷ ﺎء ﯿ م أﻤ ﻋ ﻤ ﺎﻋ ِة اﻟ ﺎﺒ ﻓﻲ اﻟ:أو
.ﺎدث ُ ُ ّ
Differences …
In Arabic, the definite article ألis used before places, such as
‘school’ ﻣﺪرﺳﺔ, ‘hospital’ ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ, ‘college’ ﻛﻠﯿّﺔ, ‘university’ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ,
‘prison’ ﺳﺠﻦ, ‘jail’ ﺳﺠﻦ, ‘office’ ﻣﻜﺘﺐ, ‘work’ ﻋﻤﻞ, ‘class’ ﺻﻒ ّ ,
‘church’ ﻛﻨﯿﺴﺔ, and the like in the following structures:
.ﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ أذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻤ ًﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻗ ام
.ٍﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم ّ ﺨ َج ﻤ اﻟ
. إﻨﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻘﻪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌ ﻞ. ﻞ اﻟ ّ ﻒ ﻌ ﻟ
In English, however, such words are used without the definite article when
they are used for their primary purpose, and thus regarded as uncountable
nouns as the emphasis is not put on the building. As such, the above
sentences should be rendered as:
Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives 193
.ﻒِّ ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ّ ﻠ ِﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﱠ
ُ
.ﻌ ً ا ﻤ ﻫ ﺎ )إن( اﻟ ﱠ ﻒ ﻟﱠ
They may be translated into English as:
She went to school yesterday morning.
The school is small.
All the students are in class.
The class is not far from here.
Note that the definite article has to be used in the second sentence in each
pair in order to be specific about the place in question.
Further, in English the definite article ‘the’ is used before a superlative
degree, as in: ‘the tallest’, ‘the cleverest’, ‘the most beautiful’, ‘the ugliest’,
and so on. Following are some examples to show the differences that
result from the number of syllables in the adjective being used:
She bought the most expensive necklace in the shop.
This building is the oldest building in the city.
Ali is the tallest student in class.
In translating superlative degrees into Arabic, they are normally formed
using the ‘elative’ pattern, and so become أﻏﻠﻰ, أﻗﺪم, and أطﻮلfollowed by
a singular noun without a definite article ﻗﻼدة, ﺑﻨﺎﯾﺔ, and طﺎﻟﺐor plural
nouns with or without a definite article, such as ﻗﻼﺋﺪ/اﻟﻘﻼﺋﺪ, ﺑﻨﺎﯾﺎت/اﻟﺒﻨﺎﯾﺎت,
and طﻠﺒﺔ/ اﻟﻄﻠﺒﺔrespectively as in:
ِ
َ أو أﻏﻠﻰ ﻗﻼﺌ، )أو أﻏﻠﻰ اﻟﻘﻼﺌ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻞ. اﺸ ْت أﻏﻠﻰ ﻗﻼدة ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻞ أﻤ
(اﻟ ِﻞ
( أو أﻗ ُم ﺒ ﺎ ﺎت اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ، )أوأﻗ ُم اﻟ ﺎ ﺎت.ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎ ﺔ أﻗ ُم ﺒ ﺎ ﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ
ِ أو أ ل ّﻼ ِب اﻟ، )أو أ ل اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ.ﻒ )ﻫ ( ﻋﻠﻲ
(ﻒ ِ أ ل ﺎﻟ ٍ ﻓﻲ اﻟ
ّ ّ ُ ُ ٌ ّ ُ
194 Chapter Six
In English, to talk about the whole class of things rather than individuals,
people may opt for either a plural countable noun or uncountable noun
without any article, as in this example:
Unlike wolves [in general], dogs [in general] are not dangerous animals.
However, in Arabic, the definite article is used when referring to
something in general, as in:
.ﻤ ٍذ ان ﻏ ﱠ، ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف اﻟ ﺌ
ٌ ﻓﺈن اﻟ ﻠ َ ﺤ
Translating a plural noun, for example, into a singular noun is an example
of ‘intra-system shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) terminology. Here, although
the lexical items ‘ ذﺋﺐwolf’ and ‘ ﻛﻠﺐdog’ are singular, they are
characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than
one wolf and dog as they refer to the whole class of wolves and dogs
respectively. To put this differently, in the above example the lexical items
‘ ذﺋﺐwolf’ and ‘ ﻛﻠﺐdog’ used in the singular form evoke in the mind of
the hearer or reader a cognitive operation of unbounding, hence their
multiplexity. Building on this, the above English sentence can be also
rendered into:
.ﻤ ذ ﺔ اﻨﺎت ﻏ
ٌ ﻼب ﺤ
َ ﻓﺈن اﻟ ِ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف اﻟ
ﱠ،ﺌﺎب
To reinforce this point, let us consider the lexical item ‘ طﻼبstudents’ in
the following example extracted from a short story titled اﻟﺸﺒﺎك واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ
‘The Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated
by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 14-5):
~ “Miss, because they are kind, they bring us food, and they wrap
up our paralysed legs”.
As can be seen, the lexical item ‘ طﻼبstudents’ is used in the plural form.
So, it is characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more
than one student. However, in this text, it is bounded as it refers to the
students of a particular class. Cognitively speaking, the lexical item طﻼب
‘students’ triggers a cognitive operation of portion excerpting. This has
been taken into account when the translators have opted for the definite
article ‘the’ in ‘the children’. However, the denotative meaning of
‘children’ is wider and less specific than its counterpart ‘ طﻼبstudents’
(as not all students are children). By contrast, as not all children are
students, one may argue that the denotative meaning of the lexical item
‘ طﻼبstudents’ is wider and less specific than its counterpart ‘children’.
Following are more examples along with their respective translations:
Like men, women have the right to cast their votes in some countries.
She often reads newspapers and magazines in the morning.
Eating a lot of meat might be bad for your health.
Life without work is boring.
You have to drink water to avoid health problems.
.ِﺘﻬﺎ ﺸﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﺸﺄن اﻟ ﺠﻞ ِ ﱡ ﻟﻠ،ان
أة أن ﺘُ ﻟﻲ ِ ﻓﻲ ﻌ ِ اﻟ ﻠ
.ﻏﺎﻟ ﺎ ﻤﺎ ﺘﻘ أ اﻟ ّ ﻒ واﻟ ﻼت ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎح
. ﱡ ﺎﻟ ّ ِﺔ أو أﻛﻞ اﻟﻠ مِ ﻗ ِ اﻷﻛ ُﺎر ﻤ
.اﻟ ﺎ ُة ﺒﻼ ﻋ ٍﻞ ﻤ ّﻠ ٌﺔ
ِ اﻟ ﺎﻛﻞ اﻟ ﱠ
.ﱠﺔ ِ ِ
َ َ ّ ب اﻟ ﺎء ﻲ ﺘ َ ﻋﻠ
Unlike English which uses no article, Arabic uses the definite article أل
before:
But note …
Baghdad ﺑﻐﺪاد
Muscat ﻣﺴﻘﻂ
Damascus دﻣﺸﻖ
London ﻟﻨﺪن
Paris ﺑﺎرﯾﺲ
France ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ
Spain إﺳﺒﺎﻧﯿﺎ
England إﻧﻜﻠﺘﺮا
Note that ‘a quantity of’ or ‘quantities of’, which is most commonly used
before countable and non-countable nouns that can be measured, is more
formal than ‘a number of’ or ‘an amount of’.
It is worth mentioning that in English some expressions of quantity are
created by adding the suffix ‘–ful’ to a countable noun, as in ‘a handful of’
or ‘handfuls of’ referring to the amount held by a hand. Following are
more examples:
mouth a mouthful of arm an armful of
cup a cupful of glass a glassful of
spoon a spoonful of fork a forkful of
jar a jarful of plate a plateful of
pocketful a pocketful of spade a spadeful of
tank a tankful of room a roomful of
sack a sackful of bag a bagful of
As stated above, the nouns used in these expressions are countable nouns
that can be pluralized in this way: ‘cupfuls of’ or ‘cupsful of’, ‘spoonfuls
of’ or ‘spoonsful of’, etc. They are normally followed by a non-countable
noun, but not always. To make this point clear, these three examples can
be considered:
My sister always takes a pocketful of tissues with her when she takes
her kids out.
While she took with her a bagful of shirts, he took a bagful of rice.
Can you please add two cupfuls of milk to the mixture?
Having introduced the main expressions of quantity (also known as
‘quantifiers’), let me now discuss the cognitive operations associated with
them. To begin with, the countable noun ‘ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔslip’ in the following
example adapted from a short story titled ‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮAli the Red’ by Lu’aī
Hamza Abbas (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 88-
9) can be considered:
As can be seen, the noun ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔis used twice in this example. To begin
with the first one, the noun ‘ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔslip’ is characterized by multiplexity,
that is, the quantity consists of more than one slip as it is used in the plural
form ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺎت. Added to this, by the effect of ‘ ﺑﻌﺾsome’, the unbounded
noun ‘ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺎتslips’ becomes bounded ‘ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻘﺼﺎﺻﺎتsome slips’, thus
triggering a cognitive operation of portion excerpting. In the second
occurrence, ‘ إﺣﺪى اﻟﻘﺼﺎﺻﺎتone of the slips’ is characterized by
uniplexity, that is, the quantity consists of one slip, and boundedness as it
triggers a cognitive operation of portion excerpting. These characteristics
have been reflected by the translators as follows:
In forensic medicine, they gave me his belongings before I saw his
body. They included identity card, driving license and some slips of
paper … in a plastic transparent bag …
I carried the bag from above the table, where the man had put it, and
read my name and phone number as I had written them down to him on
a slip during his last visit.
To reinforce this, let us discuss the expression of quantity ‘the majority of’
in the following example extracted from Hans Küng’s Book ‘Islam: Past,
Present and Future’ (cited in al-Shuraīqī 2016: 29):
Here, however, it should not be overlooked that the majority of private
and public financial operations in the Islamic sphere have followed
Western patterns …
In the above example, the lexical item ‘operation’ is used in the plural
form, thus being characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity
consists of more than one operation. In other words, a cognitive operation
of unbounding is evoked here. However, by virtue of the expression of
quantity ‘the majority of’, a cognitive operation of portion excerpting is
evoked. Taking into account these characteristics and cognitive operations,
the translator may suggest different versions. Below are two versions only.
While version A is very close to the source text, version B is not:
EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying extra attention
to the expressions of quantity (highlighted for you):
1. There is much interest in learning English around the world.
2. How much money do you have?
3. There isn’t much butter left in the refrigerator.
4. Much time is spent on understanding math.
5. How many students are there?
6. There aren’t many books on that shelf.
7. There are many people who use the computer every day.
8. How many spoonfuls of sugar do you like in your tea?
9. One-third of the students have graduate degrees.
10. Half of what he writes is undocumented.
11. Fifty percent of the job is routine.
12. A majority of Canadians have voted for change.
13. The majority of investors are interested in low-risk opportunities.
14. A minority of the students are willing to pay more.
15. We use a huge amount of paper in the office every day.
16. A great number of students volunteer each year for
environmental projects.
17. I have a number of things I want to talk to you about.
18. There are a large number of individuals who prefer to do
banking online.
19. A large number of our pupils continue their studies at university.
20. There is a great deal of pressure to finish this project on time.
21. There isn’t a great deal of time to finish this report.
22. The soldiers discovered a large quantity of weapons hidden
under the floor of a disused building.
23. You only need a very small quantity of cement to mix with the
sand.
24. Large quantities of illegal drugs have been discovered.
25. Aid workers have delivered huge quantities of food to the refugee
camps.
26. Most people enjoy listening to some type of music.
27. There’s a large amount of work to be done on this project.
28. There’s a lot of juice in this jug.
29. There are lots of people who like chess.
30. There are plenty of opportunities to learn online.
202 Chapter Six
Note that ‘many’, which is followed by a plural noun, can be replaced with
‘many a/an’, which is used with a singular noun to refer to a number of
things or people in formal style, as modelled here:
multiplexity
EX: Translate the following sentences into English, paying extra attention
‘nunation’:ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ andأل to the translation of the definite article
رزﻣﺔ
a bunch of keys
ﺑﺎﻗﺔ
a bunch of flowers bunch
Further, partitives such as ‘a bottle of’, ‘a can of’, ‘a glass of’, ‘a cup of’,
‘a mug of’, and the like can be applied to different types of liquids that
come in these containers, as in:
Closely related to the use of partitives is the state of dividedness, that is, “a
quantity’s internal segmentation” (Talmy 2000: 55). According to Talmy
(ibid.), a quantity can be either ‘discrete’ (i.e. having distinct or
unconnected elements through its composition) or ‘continuous’ (i.e.
having connected elements through its composition). To illustrate, let us
consider the lexical item ‘ ﺷﺎيtea’ in the following example extracted
from a short story titled ‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎءThe Scent of Winter’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 96-
7):
In English, for example, while we use ‘a slice of’ before nouns such as
‘cake’, ‘pizza’, ‘pie’, and ‘meat’, the partitive ‘head’ before ‘lettuce’,
‘cabbage’, and ‘cauliflower’, the partitive ‘a loaf of’ is used before
‘bread’, and ‘a fillet of’ before ‘meat’ or ‘fish’ as in:
Further, there are a number of partitives that can be used to refer to the
shape, size, movement, or the amount of something:
EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying special attention
to the partitives highlighted for you:
1. Don’t you think that their house is a work of art?
2. In a fit of anger, I used some words that I shouldn’t have.
3. There are some drops of blood on the carpet. Are you okay,
honey?
4. I’m in a spot of bother because I can’t find my office key.
5. I’ll give you a bar of chocolate if you behave yourself.
6. Whether you write a letter to them or not, it won’t make a scrap
of difference. So, don’t waste your time.
Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives 209
4 Revision
EX 1: Correct the following sentences and then translate them into Arabic.
1. This ring is made of the gold.
2. He does not have many money.
3. We do not have a big quantities of rooms in our house.
4. The company exports great number of its products.
5. My grandfather has a great deal of houses.
6. Only little teachers in our department speak more than two
languages.
7. I have a little time to finish report, but I’ll send it to you
tomorrow.
8. Government has spent great amount of money on the schools.
... ُ ّ ﯿ
. ﻘ ُر أن ﯿ أ ﻤ ﻬ و ﻋﻰ اﻟ ﻠ. ُ ﻔ
TRANSLATING MODALITY
In order for the language users (be they writers or speakers) to express
their own attitudes, opinions, or moods towards what happens in the world
or towards the truth of an utterance, they need to heavily rely on modality.
Modality is a concept used widely in a direct link with such notions as
obligation (be it moral or social), necessity, lack of necessity, prohibition,
advisability, expectation, lost opportunities, possibility, ability, lack of
ability, permission, futurity, polite requests, and preference. Following are
some commonly used modalities in Arabic and English (adapted from
Almanna 2016b: 87-94).
ﯾﺠﺐ/ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ/ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ/ﯾﻔﺘﺮض/ﻋﻠﯿﻚ
e.g. You have to be at the airport at least three
hours before the flight.
e.g. I haven’t visited my family for six months. I must
ّ ﻋﻠvisit them soon.
ﯾﺠﺐ/ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ/ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ/ﯾﻔﺘﺮض/ﻲ
ﯾﺠﺐ/ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ/ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ/ﯾﻔﺘﺮض/ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ
e.g. Her doctor told her that she had to stop
smoking or she would risk serious problems.
214 Chapter Seven
ﯾﺠﺐ/ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ/ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ/ﯾﻔﺘﺮض/ﻋﻠﻰ
e.g. All invigilators have to be there 30 minutes
before the exam starts.
Lost opportunities
English Arabic
should or ought to + past ﺎن، ﺎن ُﻔ ض، ﺎن ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض، ﻛﺎن
participle
ّ ﺎن ﯿ ﻌ،ﯿ ﻐﻲ
ﻛﺎن ﯾﻔﺘﺮض أﻻ/ﻛﺎن ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ/ﻛﺎن ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض أﻻ
e.g. We shouldn’t have invited so
many people to our party! I’m worried that the food won’t be
enough.
ﻛﺎن ﯾﻔﺘﺮض أﻻ/ﻛﺎن ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ/ ﻛﺎن ﻣﻦ
e.g. My youngest daughter shouldn’t have eaten
اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض أﻻso much chocolate! She feels sick now.
Possibility/likelihood
English Arabic
may, might, can, must, ﻤ، ﻤ اﻟ ُ ّﺠﺢ،ﻞ ُ ﻤ اﻟ، ّ ﻻﺒ،ﻞ ُ ، رّ ﺎ، ﻗ
can’t اﻟ ُ ﻌ
ّﻻﺑﺪ
e.g. Our teacher drives a very expensive car. He must be very rich.
e.g. Your brother might ﻗﺪ/ ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ/ﯾُﺤﺘﻤﻞ/ رﺑّﻤﺎbe at home. Have you called
him there?
ّﻻﺑﺪ
e.g. Where is my book? It was here as I saw it earlier, so it must be in
here.
ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺒﻌﺪ
e.g. The man over there can’t be a professor; he looks far too
young.
English Arabic
May I/we, Can I/we, ... ﻟ ﺎ/ أﺘ ﺢ ﻟﻲ،ﻟ ﺎ/ﻫﻞ ﻟﻲ
Could I/we …? ّ ّ
أﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻲ/ﻲ
ّ ھﻞ ﻟ
e.g. Can I ّ use your pen, please?
أﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻲ/ﻲ ّ ھﻞ ﻟask you a question?
e.g. Could I ّ
أﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻨﺎ/ھﻞ ﻟﻨﺎ
e.g. May we go home now?
Making a suggestion
English Arabic
Shall I/we …? ... أﺘ ﻨﺎ/ أﺘ ﻨﻲ/)ﻤﺎ أر ( ﻫﻞ
ھﻞ
e.g. Shall I close the window?
ھﻞ
e.g. Shall we go out tonight?
Futurity
English Arabic
will, shall, be going to ... ﯿ، ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّﺔ، ﺴ ف،ﺴـ
ﺳـ/ﺳﻮف
e.g. Our teacher will resign this semester.
ﯾﻨﻮي أن/ﻓﻲ ﻧﯿّﺘﮫ أن
e.g. My brother is going to marry next month.
Translating Modality 217
Polite request
English Arabic
Will you, Would you, Could ﻤ،... ﻟ ﺴ،... ﻫﻞ ﺘ ّ م و، ﻫﻞ ﻟ
you …?
... ﻓ ﻠ
ھﻞ ﻟﻚ أن/ﺗﺘﻜﺮم و
ّ ھﻞ/ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ ھﻞ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎن أن
e.g. Can you close the window, please?
e.g. Would you ھﻞ ﻟﻚ أن/ﺗﺘﻜﺮم و
ّ ھﻞ/ ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ ھﻞ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎن أنcarry this bag for me,
please?
Preference
English Arabic
ﺗﻔﺿّل أن
e.g. She said that she would rather resign than apologize to him.
e.g. I would rather not أﻓﻀّﻞ أﻻ/أﺣﺒّﺬ أﻻ/ﯾُﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ/ ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻtalk about it, is
that okay with you?
أﻓﻀّﻞ أﻻ/أﺣﺒّﺬ أﻻ/ﯾُﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ/ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ
e.g. I would prefer not to work, but to be
honest with you I don’t have a lot of choices.
أﻓﻀّﻞ أﻻ/أﺣﺒّﺬ أﻻ/ﯾُﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ/ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ
e.g. I’d better not leave my bag there as
it might be stolen.
ﯾﻔﻀّﻞ أﻻ
e.g. He’d better not tell his mother about the broken glass as she’ll
go bananas!
EX: Identify the function of the modal verb highlighted for you in the
following sentences. Then, translate them into Arabic.
1. You do not have to bring a dictionary, but you can bring one if
you like. It is up to you.
218 Chapter Seven
3. My brother does not have to wear glasses when driving his car,
but he usually does.
4. I would have called and invited her if I had known that. But,
believe me, I had no idea.
7. I am going to sell my flat that I bought last year and travel to the
UK to live there.
Translating Modality 219
8. I would rather watch the match here with my wife than go out
with them. What about you?
10. It is his mistake as he mustn’t forget to lock all the doors before
he leaves.
present
past = reality =ground future = irreality
Here, as one may observe, by the effect of the modalized preposition ﻋﻠﻰ
preceded by ﻛﺎن, the whole clause is characterized by having a force-
dynamic value of forcing the speakers, who tend not to make their way
through such a dense wood of poplar, birch, and linden trees, to make their
way through such a dense wood. Having identified the function of the
modalized preposition ﻋﻠﻰalong with ﻛﺎن, the translators have opted for
‘had to’, thus reflecting such a necessity in the past.
To get to the apartment we shared, we had to force our way through a
dense wood of poplar, birch and linden trees.
To reinforce this point, the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‘ اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔThe Stand-in’ by Mahmūd Sa‘īd (translated by and cited in
Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 72-3) can be given full consideration here:
Here, having realized that she has started humiliating herself, her husband
in the story asks her to stop humiliating herself for a favour which has
been already refused. Here, ﻋﻠﯿﻚ أﻻhas advisability reading as well as
prohibition reading. Building on this, it can be translated as ‘you shouldn’t
humiliate yourself for a favour’ (advisability) or ‘you mustn’t humiliate
yourself for a favour’ (prohibition). Being fully aware of its functions, the
translators have opted for ‘mustn’t humiliate yourself for a favour’,
thereby indicating the Sayer’s being-able-to-order (authority) and the
Addressee’s willing-to-listen (submission).
They do not offer to the likes of us anything except at a price or for
something in return, and usually the value of what they take is higher
than that of what they offer. We have neither what they want nor what
they need. You mustn’t humiliate yourself for a favour which has
already been refused …
222 Chapter Seven
4 Types of modality
Modality is usually divided into two broad categories: epistemic and
deontic (Halliday 1970; Lyons 1977; Perkins 1983; Hoye 1997; Jarjour
2006; Abdel-Fattah 2005; Almanna 2016a, 2016b, among others). In this
section, an attempt is made to cast some light on both of them in a direct
link with translation.
Deontic modality
Deontic modality is a grammatical form marking the speaker/writer’s
judgement concerning issues such as obligation (be it moral or social),
prohibition, or permission. So, it is not force-dynamically neutral, but
rather has a force-dynamic value of forcing people to do (obligation), not
to do (prohibition), or letting him/her do (permission).
To illustrate, the following example extracted from a short story titled
‘ ﺻﻮرة ﯾﺎﺳﻤﯿﻦYasmine’s Picture’ by Hanān al-Shaīkh (translated by and
cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 156-7) can be considered:
Translating Modality 223
ﻟ ن، ﻟ ﺤﺎت ﻤﺎﺌ ﺔ،ﻬ ﻩ اﻟﻠ ﺤﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ران ﻌّﻠ أن ﻌ ف ﻤ ﻛﺎن
. وﺸﻔﺎﻓ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎء واﻟ ﺎء ﺘ ّع ﻤ ﻀ ﺎت اﻟﻘﻠ
As can be observed, by the effect of ﻛﺎن ﯾﺠﺐ, the emphasis is placed on the
necessity of trying to know somebody who hangs such paintings on the
walls. The emphasis here is placed on the whole period that began in the
past and is seen as relevant to the moment of speaking, hence the use of
‘should have known’ in the target text to reflect both the necessity and the
whole period.
He should have known and met someone who hangs paintings like
these on the walls – water colour in which the hues and translucence
of the water and sky quicken one’s heart …
Epistemic modality
Epistemic modality is a grammatical form marking the speaker/writer’s
knowledge, understanding, or opinion regarding issues such as likelihood,
possibility, or certainty of the proposition expressed by a clause.
224 Chapter Seven
In the following example extracted from a short story titled ﻋﺎﺑﺮ اﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺋﻲ
‘An Exceptional Passer-by’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and
cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 70-1), ّ ﻻﺑﺪand ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎنare employed by
the writer:
:ﻗﺎل ﻟﻬﺎ
ﺼﻐﺎر أو
ًا إﻤﺎ أن ﻨ ت، ﻻﺒّ ﻟ ﺎ ﻤ إﺤ اﻟ ﻬﺎﯿ،اﺴ ﻌﻲ ﺎﻋ ﺘﻲ ~
ﻫﻞ ﺈﻤ ﺎﻨ ﺎ أن ﻨﻔﻌﻞ ﻏ ذﻟ ؟.ﻨﻌ ﺤ ﻰ ﻨ ﺦ
To begin with ّﻻﺑﺪ, it is used to express strong possibility. So, it is
epistemic as it reflects the writer’s opinion regarding the possibility,
likelihood, or certainty of the proposition expressed by the sentence. As
for the prepositional phrase ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎن, it has meanings related to capacity.
Cognitively speaking, the use of ّ ﻻﺑﺪand ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎنexcludes the event from
known reality, thus being considered as part of irreality. Having figured
out their functions, the translators have opted for ‘must’ and ‘can’ to
reflect the strong possibility and ability utilized by the writer, as in:
“Listen, my dear, we must all end up in one of two ways, either we die
young or live to grow old. Can we do otherwise?” he said to her.
To finish off this section, the following two examples extracted from
‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮةThe Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated
by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 38-9), may be considered:
(( ))ﻫﻞ ﻫ ﺎك ﻘ ٌﺔ أﺸﻔﻲ ﺒﻬﺎ ﺠ وﺤ ِ ؟:ﻓﻘﺎﻟ اﻟﻔ اﺸ ُﺔ
. ٌ ِ آﻩ! ﺎ ﻋ ﺘﻲ أﻨ ِ ﻓ اﺸ ٌﺔ ﺼﻐ ةٌ وﻟ ﻗﻠ. ))ﻻ ﻻ ﺸ ًا:ُأﺠﺎﺒ اﻟ ﻠ ﻔﺎة
رّ ﺎ اﻟ م ﻫ آﺨ ﯿ م ﻓﻲ ﺤ ﺎﺘﻲ. ِ ﻋﻼﺠﻬﺎ ﺴﺄﻤ ت ﺎﻟ ﺄﻛ ﺠ وﺤﻲ ﺒﻠ ﻐﺔ ﻻ
.((ﻠﺔ اﻟ
As can be observed, in the original text two main verbal processes are
employed by the writer. In the Verbiage (also known as ‘content’) of the
first verbal process
5 Revision
EX 1: Complete the sentences using the modal verbs listed in the box
below. Then, translate the sentences into Arabic.
would rather can must don’t have to
mustn’t had better might shouldn’t
2. She ________ leave her doors unlocked when she goes out.
3. I ________ stay home with my kids than go out with them to the
party.
4. The teacher told us we ________ use our mobiles after the exam.
Translating Modality 227
5. You ________ write your CV right now, but you can do it if you
like.
6. You’re kidding, it ________ be a typo!
7. You ________ do your homework; otherwise, your teacher will
give you a low mark.
8. You ________ speak to your father like this.
EX 2: Identify the function of ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻhighlighted for you in the following
text extracted from a short story titled ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺴﺪك ﯾﻄﻮي اﻟﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻈﻠﺘﮫ
‘On Your Body, Night Folds its Umbrella’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb. Then, comment on its translation suggested by
Sadkhan and Pragnell (2012: 130-1):
ﻋﻘ إ ﺎر
. ﺘ ّ ر ﻫ ا اﻟﻌﻘ ﺒ
Translating Modality 231
! The verb أﺑﺮمis in the passive voice, thus lending itself to ‘this
contract is made between …’ or ‘this contract is conducted
between …’.
! The expression ( اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﺑﻌﺪalso اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﻌﻘﺪor
)اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ أدﻧﺎهlends itself to ‘hereinafter referred to as …’.
Compare it with اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ أﻋﻼهwhich lends itself to ‘hereinabove
referred to as …’.
! The expression ﺳﺎري اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮلlends itself to ‘to enter into force’,
‘to be effective’, ‘to be valid’, and the like, as in ‘This contract
shall enter into force/be effective/be valid ….’.
! The verb ﯾﻘﺮ
ّ lends itself to ‘to acknowledge’.
! ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﺄﺟﺮ اﻟﺤﻖ ﻓﻲor ﻻ ﯾﺤﻖ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﺄﺟﺮlends itself to ‘the tenant
has no right to …’ or ‘the tenant may not …’.
! The particle ( إذاalso )ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔcan be translated here into ‘in
case …’, ‘in the event that …’, or just ‘if …’.
! The conditional clause ... إذا ﺗﺄﺧﺮ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺄﺟﺮ ﻋﻦ دﻓﻊlends itself to ‘in
case of default of payment of the rent…’ or ‘if the tenant falls
behind paying the rent …’, etc.
! The verb ﯾﺴﺘﻘﻄﻊcan be translated into ‘to deduct’.
! The expression ( ﺷﺮﯾﻄﺔalso ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮطor )ﺑﺸﺮطlends itself to
‘provided’, ‘providing’, ‘provided that’, ‘providing that’, ‘on the
condition that’, and so forth.
! The expression ﺗﺤﺮر ھﺬا اﻟﻌﻘﺪ
ّ can be translated into ‘this contract
has been made’, ‘this contract has been written’, ‘this contract
has been drawn up’, and the like.
CHAPTER EIGHT
CONJUNCTION
1 Conjuncts introduced
A conjunction is a cohesive device that makes segments of a given text
hang together as a cohesive text (see Halliday and Hasan 1976; Almanna
and Almanna 2008; Almanna 2016a). Generally speaking, conjunctions
can be explicit or implicit. However, some languages, such as Arabic,
prefer the heavy use of connectors, while some other languages, such as
English, prefer the use of implicit conjunctions. When a conjunct is used,
then it is explicit and the relationship is marked. However, when no
conjunct is used, then it is implicit and the relationship is unmarked
(Almanna 2016a: 133). Traditional grammarians classify conjunctions into
two main types:
! Coordinating conjunctions, such as ‘for’, ‘and’, ‘nor’, ‘but’, ‘or’,
‘yet’, ‘so’, and so forth, are used to join independent clauses, as in
the examples below:
Yesterday, the teacher asked a difficult question, and nobody was able
to answer it.
My brother had a bad fever two days ago, but he refused to go to any
doctor.
Get up early or you will miss the bus.
The teacher did not come to the lecture yesterday nor did he give an
excuse.
The teacher neither came to the lecture yesterday nor gave an excuse.
She has resigned from her job recently, so she will apply for a new job
soon.
All these compound sentences can be diagrammed as follows where S
stands for the word ‘sentence’ and Conj for the word ‘conjunction’:
Conjunction 233
S1
S2 S3
Conj
S2 NP VP
Pro Infl V NP
Det -------- N
past, simple
As he was walking on the shore he met - his---------- friend
dependent clause Subject Verb Object
Following is another example where ‘so that she could buy a new t-shirt’
is a dependent clause grouped with the verb phrase (VP) of the main
clause.
finite clause
She went to the mall so that she could buy a new t-shirt.
NP _____________------_______ VP
234 Chapter Eight
It is worth noting that the dependent clause ‘so that she could buy a new t-
shirt’ can be changed to another dependent clause, such as ‘in order to buy
a new t-shirt’, which is a non-finite clause, without changing the meaning:
non-finite clause
S1
NP VP
Pro Infl V PP S2
P NP --------
Det ---- N
past, simple -
She went-----to the ----mall so that she could buy a new t-shirt
in order to buy a new t-shirt
2 Addition
The addition relationship is normally conveyed by the following additive
connectors:
In Arabic, to add information, language users can use one of the following
additive connectors, depending on the context:
ز ﺎدة ﻋﻠﻰ، ﻋﻼوة ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ، ﻓ ق ذﻟ، ﻌ ذﻟ، أﻀﻒ إﻟﻰ ذﻟ
ْ ، ﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ذﻟ
إﻟﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ ذﻟ، ﻓ ﻼً ﻋ ذﻟ، زد ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ
ْ ، ذﻟ
236 Chapter Eight
! The additive connector ‘as well as’ can be replaced with ‘in
addition to’, ‘besides’, etc. They can be rendered as وﻛﺬﻟﻚ, ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ
إﻟﻰ, etc. Further, one may go for
.... ﻓﺈن،... ﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ
! The expression ‘detective stories’ can be translated into ﻗﺼﺺ
ﺑﻮﻟﯿﺴﯿﺔ.
4. Have you not realized that he told her implicitly that she was
stupid? On top of that, he told her frankly that she was unfriendly.
5. Apply for the job as soon as possible. Do not hesitate. As far as I
know, several benefits are being offered in addition to the high
salary that you’ll get.
6. Besides the selection of good books, there is one other reason for
his excellence in writing, for which he deserves unlimited credit.
EX: Evaluate the translation of the following text titled اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ
‘ ﺑﻐﺪادThe Train Heading up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb translated by Pragnell and Sadkhan (2011: 10-11),
paying extra attention to the additive connectors used:
The train moved off sluggishly, as ِ ﺴﺎر
اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﻤ ﺎﻗﻼً ﺄﻨﻪ ﻻ ﯿ ّد أن ُﻔﺎﺠﺊ
though it did not want to surprise
those saying good-bye with its ُ ﻋ ﻪ َﻌ ُرﻛ دﻩ اﻟ ﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ُ ِّدﻋ
speed, having been so long at rest
اﻟ ّ ﺔ
in the station.
ﺤﺎر
ﻤﺎء ًا ِ ِ
ً ، َ ،وﻗ أﺨ َ َﻘ ف ﻤ ﺠ ﻓﻪ
From within, it started to let out
hot water and thick steam
furiously. This created a fearsome ﺎر ًﻔﺎ ﺸ ﱠ َﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻘ ﻤ ﻪ ﻤ ًا ُﻤﻔ ًﻋﺎ
وُ ًا
و ﺎن،زادﺘﻪ رﻫ ﺔ ﻗﻌﻘﻌ ﻪ اﻟ ِ ﺔ اﻟ ﻘ ُ زة
spectacle at the front that was
intensified by the terror of its
raucous and nauseating din. Its .ُﻐ ﱠ ﻪ اﻟ ﺼﻔ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎد َ ّ ق اﻟ
shrill whistle tore through the
surrounding air.
I turned my head towards the city, أدرت أرﺴﻲ ﺼ ب اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ ِﻓﺎﻋ ﻀ ُ
and a dark open space came into
my view, in which there shone far ﺒّ ﺔ ُﻤﻌ ﺔ ﺘﻠ ﻊ ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻤ ﻌ ﻨ
ﺔ ﺘ ّ ِ ﻼﻟﻬﺎ
off, dreary gloomy street lamps
ﻤ ﺎﺒ ﺢ ﻤ ﺤ ﺔ
that stretched their sickly
shadows along the streets of .ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺸ ِارع اﻟ ة اﻟﻔّ ارة ﺎﻟ ﺎس اﻟ
Basra bustling with people.
My craning face was enveloped ِ
ﺎردة ﻨ ﺔ وﺠﻬﻲ اﻟ ُ ِّﻠﻊ وﺤﱠﻔ
by a cold breeze; I shook with
inward pleasure and with a وأدﺨﻠ ُ راﺴﻲ،ﻏﺎﻤ ﺔ ِ ِﺒﻠ ّ ة، ُ ِﻓﺎرﺘ ﻔ
shudder brought my head in, ِ اﻟ ِﺎﻓ ة ِ
leaving the window wide-open to
ﻓﺎﻏ ة ﺘ ﻼ َ ﻬﺎ ُ ﺎرِﺘﻌﺎش وﺘ
be buffeted by clouds of dark, far- . ِأﻨ ﺎم اﻟ د اﻟ ُ اﻤﻲ اﻟ ُ ﻠ
240 Chapter Eight
reaching cold.
EX: The following two extracts are adapted from a collection of short
stories titled ‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎءThe Scent of Winter’ by Mahmūd
‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell
2012). Complete the translation by using the appropriate connector:
Text 1
Text 2
3 Clauses of concession
Finite clauses of concession are commonly introduced by ‘though’,
‘although’, ‘even though’, etc. However, non-finite clauses are introduced
by ‘in spite of’, ‘despite’, and so on, as shown below:
With non-finite clauses in spite of, despite, with all, for all,
notwithstanding (very formal)
group) nonetheless
These concessive elements are used to signal the unexpected result in view
of what has been mentioned before. By way of explanation, let us discuss
the following example extracted from Hans Küng’s Book ‘Islam: Past,
Present and Future’ (2007 cited in al-Shuraīqī 2016: 27-8):
Although they were at first small in number, they had considerable
significance, since they had a capital of tens of billions of US dollars.
As can be observed, the writer utilizes two opposing or contrasting
statements, that is, ‘they were at first small in number’ and ‘they had
considerable significance’ combined by ‘although’. To use ‘in spite of’ or
‘despite’, for instance, we need to change the finite clause to a non-finite
clause, as in:
In spite of being small in number, they had considerable significance
…
This has been translated by al-Shuraīqī (ibid.) as:
ﻘﻞ ﻤ ﺨ ًا ِ
َ إﻻ إﻨﻪ اﻨ،ة ﻓﻲ اﻟ ن اﻟ ﱡ اﻟﻌ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أﻨﻪ ﻻ ~
.ة ﻷﺴ ﺎب ﻋﺎﺌﻠ ﺔ ﻟﻠﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﯿ ﺔ
~ She invited all her friends to her birthday party, yet nobody came.
! The verb ‘to enrol’ (also spelt ‘to enroll’) means to become or
make somebody a member of a club, school, college, university,
etc. It lends itself to ﯾﺴﺠّﻞ.
! ‘I could not’ lends itself to ﻟﻢ أﺗﻤﻜﻦ, ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﺑﻤﻘﺪوري, ﻟﻢ أﺳﺘﻄﻊ, etc.
(for more details, see Chapter 2).
Conjunction 243
! The connector ‘in order to’ here can be replaced with ‘to’, ‘so as
to’, or ‘with a view to’. They all lend themselves in Arabic to
purpose particles, such as ﻟـ, ﻛﻲ, ﻟﻜﻲ, ﺑﻐﯿﺔ أن, ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ, etc.
! While the connectors ‘to’, ‘in order to’, or ‘so as to’ are followed
by the first form of the verb, ‘with a view to’ is followed by the
first form of the verb plus ‘–ing’, as in:
I sold my house and my car with a view to enrolling at the
university, but I could not pay the university fees.
~ Despite his great skills, his name was not short listed.
! Here, ‘despite his great skills’, which can be replaced with ‘for all
his skills’, is an equivalent of ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ, ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ, etc.
! ‘In spite of’ can be replaced with ‘despite’ or more formally with
‘notwithstanding’, as in:
Notwithstanding state aid, the local governments are continuing to
seek extra aid.
EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course
into English:
EX: The original text is extracted from a collection of short stories titled
‘ ﻟﯿﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺪ ﺳﻠﻤﺎنNights of Mr Salman’ by Karīm ‘Abid (translated
by and cited in Eric Winkel 2010: 14-5). Use the appropriate
connector to complete his translation.
________ the affection flowing اﻟ ﺎﻋﺎت اﻷرﻊ اﻟ ﻲ ﻏ رﻏ اﻟ ّد اﻟ
these last four hours at the café,
and the reception and concern she ﺎ وﺘ ﺤ ﻲ واﻫ ﺎﻤﻲ ﻗ ﺎﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻓ
got from me, ________ she didn’t
. ﻟ ﻬﺎ ﻟ ﺘ ﻌّ ف ﻋﻠﻲ،ﺒﻬﺎ اﻟﻼﻓ
recognize me. ّ
She kept on talking about her ّﻠ ْ ﺘ ّ ْث ﻋ أﺤ اﻨﻬﺎ وذ ﺎﺘﻬﺎ وﻟ ﻬﺎ
sorrows and sad memories,
_______ she couldn’t connect them .ﻟ ﺘ ّ ﻤ ر ﻬ ﺎ ﺒﻲ
ّ
to me.
I supposed our extended breakups ﻠﺔ اﻟ ﻲ أن اﻨﻘ ﺎﻋﺎﺘ ﺎ اﻟ ُﻀَ اﻓ
that recurred over the past three اﻟﻌﻘ د اﻟ ﻼﺜﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ ﻗ رت ﻋ
decades had muddled her memory. ْ ّ ﺘ
________ I wasn’t prepared for it ﻟ ﻲ ﻟ أﻛ أﺘ ﻗﻊ أن،ذاﻛ ﺘﻬﺎ أر
to go this far.
. ﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻫ ا اﻟ اﻷﻤ ﺴ
246 Chapter Eight
4 Clauses of reason
Finite clauses of reason are most commonly introduced by ‘because’,
‘since’, ‘as’, and ‘seeing that’. However, non-finite clauses are normally
introduced by ‘because of’, ‘due to’, ‘owing to’, ‘in view of’, ‘thanks to’,
or without any conjunction, as in:
With finite clauses because, since, as, seeing that, now that
With non-finite clauses because of, due to, owing to, in view of, thanks
to, on account of
To illustrate, let us discuss the following text extracted from a short story
titled ‘ واﺧﺰﯾﺎهWhat a Shame’ by Samīra al-Māni‘ (translated by and cited
in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 132-3):
~ All flights into Heathrow have been delayed due to thick fog.
EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course
into English, paying extra attention to the connectors used:
EX: Complete the translations of the following texts taken from different
literary sources.
When she felt that her wings ﻋﻠﻰ ﺤ ﻠِﻬﺎ ﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺘﻘ
أن أﺠّ ْ ّ ﻟ ّ ﺎ أﺤ
could not carry her _________ ﺘ َ ّﻗﻔ ْ ﻋ اﻟ ﻬ وﺠﻠ ْ ﻋﻠﻰ،اﻟ ع
hunger, she stopped at the river
and sat on a small rock near the ِ ﻨ ْت إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻬ.ﺼ ٍة ﺼﻐ ٍة ُﻗ َب ﻀﻔ ﻪ
bank. She looked at the river
and started talking to it: :أت ﺘُ ﺎﺠ ﻪ
ْ و
(“ ﻗ ﺔ ”اﻟﻔ اﺸﺔ واﻟ ﻫ ة، )زﻫ اء ﻨﺎﺼ
ْ ُ .. ﺎ ﺎ:ﺼﻐ ﺘﻲ وﺤ ﺘﻲ ﻓ ﺄة ﻫ
Suddenly, my little girl
whispered: “Daddy. Be a king!”
.ِﻤﻠ ً ﺎ
_________ I was only good at وﻷﻨﻲ ﻻ أﺠ ﺴ أن أﻛ ن ﻠًﺎ أو ﻗ ًدا أو
being a dog, a monkey, or a cat, I ﻠﺔ ﻗ ﺔ ﻓﻘ ﻘ ﻤ ﻬ ﺘًﺎ ﻟﻠ ﺎت ﻟ
remained stunned for a short
while.
5 Clauses of purpose
In English, there are two types of clauses of purpose. They are:
! finite clauses of purpose introduced by ‘so that’ or ‘in order that’,
and
! non-finite clauses which are usually infinitival introduced by ‘in
order to’, ‘so as to’, ‘to’, and the like.
However, when the clause of purpose (be it finite or non-finite) has a
negative meaning, it is normally introduced by ‘for fear that’, ‘for fear of’,
‘lest’, and so on.
To illustrate, let us discuss the following text extracted from a short story
titled ‘ ﺻﻔﺤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺎب اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰExcerpt from The Book of The Dead’ by
Ibrāhīm al-Faqīh (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 86-
7):
ﻲء ﻤﺎ اﻋ اﻩ ﻤ ﺸ ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻼﻤ ﻬﺎ إﻟ ﻬﺎ ﻋّﻠﻪ ق اﻟ ﻋﺎد ﻤ ﺠ ﯿ
.ﺤ ة وذﻫ ل
Once again he glanced over at her, and noticed something in her
features that shed light on what had baffled him.
As can be seen, by the effect of ﻋﻠﮫ, the scope of intention is greater than
the extent of causation. However, in the target text, the translators have
imposed different specifications on the scene when opting for the additive
252 Chapter Eight
~ He often changes his address so that the police cannot find him.
~ He withdrew from the election for fear that he might not obtain
votes in his constituency.
! Here, the connector ‘so as to’ can be replaced with ‘to’ or ‘in
order to’, thus lending itself to ﻟـ, ﻛﻲ, ﻟﻜﻲetc.
! In English, there is a difference between ‘to have his teeth
checked by somebody else’ and ‘he checked them by himself’. In
the above example, there is an implicit doer, that is, ‘a dentist’
that can be added in this way:
He visits the dentist from time to time so as to have his teeth checked
(by the dentist).
In Arabic, however, we say ﯾﻔﺤﺺ أﺳﻨﺎﻧﮫin both cases.
! The connector ﻛﻲcan be translated into ‘to’, ‘in order to’, or ‘so
as to’.
! The connector ( إﻻ إنalso )إﻻ أنlends itself here to ‘however’.
EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course
into English:
ﻤﺔ ﺘ ل ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓ ﺼﺔ ﻋ ﻞ ﻤ رﺠﻞ إﻟﻰ أورو ﺎ ﻗ ﻞ ﻋ ة أﻋ ا ٍم ﻐ ﺔ اﻟ
ٌ ﻫﺎﺠ
. ﻟﻪ وﻟﻌﺎﺌﻠ ﻪ اﻟﻌ اﻟ
.ﺎت و اﺘ ٍ ﻻ ﺄس ﻪ اﻟ وﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ أورو ﺎ ﺤ ﻰ وﺠ َ ﻋ ﻼً ﻓﻲ إﺤ
َ ﻤﺎ إن،ًوﻓﻌﻼ
.ﺘ ّوج ﻫ ﺎك ﻤ ﻓ ﺎة ﻋ ﺔ ﺘﻌ ﻞ ﻤﻌﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺔ ذاﺘﻬﺎ
ﺔ أن ﯿ ك ﻋ ﻠﻪ وأﺴ ﺘﻪ و ﻌ د إﻟﻰ ﻗ ﻪ اﻟ ﻲ ُوِﻟ ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻗﱠ َر ذات ﻟ ﻠﺔ و ﻞ ﻏ
.أﻤ ِﻪ
ِ ﻌ اﻋ
ً ﻊ أن ﻌ أﻨﻪ ﻻ
EX: Re-translate the following text extracted from a short story titled طﺒﻠﯿﺔ
‘ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻤﺎءA Tray from Heaven’ by Yūsuf Idrīs (translated by and
cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 279-81).
ﺎت ﯿ ﺠ ن ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻤ اﻟ ﺦ ﻋﻠﻲ أن ﻌ د إﻟ ﻪ ﻠ ﺎت ﻌ ﻠﻘ ن ﻤ ﺒ أ اﻟﻌﻘﻼء
. رﺸ ﻩ و
… some of the village elders began shouting placatory remarks from
afar with a view to making Sheikh Ali regain his senses and hold his
tongue.
He falls silent then whispers, Alas, ﺎ... ﻫﻪ... ( ت أﺨﻔ و )ﺼ
what a shame! I now find myself like ﻟﻸﺴﻒ أﺠ ﻨﻲ ﻗ ﺼ ُت ﻤ ﻞ ﺤّﻔﺎر
some gravedigger who is looking to a
rise in the death rate _________ ﯿ ﻰ ازد ﺎد ﻋ د اﻟ ﺘﻰ اﻟﻘ ر اﻟ
improve his life, or simply
_________ buy an electric washing ﻏ ﺎﻟﺔ ﻤﻼ ﻋ ﻪ أو ﻟ ﻟ
machine. Here I am awaiting the اﻟ ت ﻵﺨ ﻟ ﻲ أﻨ... ﻛﻬ ﺎﺌ ﺔ
death of someone _________ the
person whom I most love may live, ﻓﻲ أن ّ دون أن أﻓ أﺤ ﻤ ﻌ
without my considering whether this .ّﻪ ﻟﻶﺨ ﻤ
other person has someone to love
him. (pp. 193-4)
ﻋ ﻗﻠ ﻗ ﺔ ”اﻟ،اﻟ ﻤﻠﻲ )ﻤ
(“ﺤﻲ
ّ
Conjunction 257
I pressed myself into the earth, and ﻬ أدﻓﻌﻬﺎ ﺎﻷرض ورﺤ ﻘ اﻟ
began pushing hard with my back ﻟﻌّﻠﻬﺎ ﺘﻔ ﺢ ﻟﻲ ﻤ ًﺎﻨﺎ وأﻨﺎ أﺘ ّﻠﻊ،ﻌ ﻒ
_________ somewhere would open ّ
for me, all the time looking at the واﺘﻘﻲ ﻠ ﺎ،إﻟﻰ ﺸ ﻗ ﻪ اﻟ ﻔ ﺤ ﻓ ﻗﻲ
open mouth above me, as my hands
protected my face and bare shoulder ﻋﻠﻰ وﺠﻬﻲ و ﻔﻲ اﻟ ﻘﺎ اﻟ ﯿ
from the dripping froth. (pp.104-5) . اﻟﻌﺎر
Night descended across the desert. ﺨّ اﻟﻠ ﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺔ ّﻠﻬﺎ وأﺼ ﺢ داﺨﻞ
The space inside the hollow became ﻟ، ﻟ أﻋ أر ﺸ ًﺎ.اﻟ ﻔ ة ﺸ ًﺎ رﻫ ًﺎ
even more horrific. I was no longer
able to see anything at all, nor was I أن ﺘﻔ ﺔ ﺨ ًﻓﺎ ﻤ أﻋ أﺴ ﻊ اﻟ
able to make any movement
.إﻟﻲ اﻟ ّﺔ
_________ the snake might notice ّ
my presence. (pp. 108-9)
(“ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﺤ ﺎ ﺔ ﻗ ﺔ، د ﺠ ار )ﻤ
6 Result clauses
Finite clauses of result are commonly introduced by ‘so’, ‘therefore’,
‘thus’, and the like. However, non-finite clauses are introduced by ‘hence’
or ‘and hence’.
و ﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ،ﺔ ﻟﻬ ا ﻨ، ﺔ ﻟﻟ ﻨ، وﻫ ا، وﻤ ﻫ ﺎ، وﻋﻠ ﻪ، و ﻟ، ﻟ ا، ﻟ ﻟ،ﻓـ
... أد إﻟﻰ اﻷﻤ اﻟ، ﻤ ﺎ أد إﻟﻰ،ﻘﺎ ﻟ ك ، ذﻟ
To illustrate, let us consider the following text taken from a novella titled
‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮةThe Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated
by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 36-7):
ِ ِ ِ
ُ ))ﺨ ﺠ:ازداد أﻟ ُﺠ وح اﻟ َﻠ ْ ﻔﺎة ﻓ ﱠﻗﻔ ْ ﻋ اﻟ ﻼم ﻟ ﺎت ﺜُ ﱠ اﺴ دت ﻗﺎﺌﻠﺔ
َردت اﻟ ﺼ َل إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻬ ِ ﻟ ِ ﻲ ﻓﻘ ُت وﻋ ﻲ ُﻫ ﺎ
ُ ات ُ ُ َﻋ ﻰ أ اﻟ ِﻤ ﺘ
.((َﺼﺢ ِإﻻ ﻓﻲ اﻟ َ ﺎح
ُ وﻟ أ
The pain increased, so she stopped talking for a few moments and
added: “I got out from under the bushes. I was thirsty and wanted to
get to the river but I fainted here. I did not wake up until morning”.
In the original text, the finite clause ﺗﻮﻗﻔﺖ ﻋﻦ اﻟﻜﻼم ﻟﺤﻈﺎتis an expected
result of the finite clause ازداد أﻟﻢ ﺟﺮوح اﻟﺴﻠﺤﻠﻔﺎة. Having analysed the text
and figured out the relationship between the two clauses, the translator has
opted for ‘so’, thus maintaining the relationship intact. Further, the act of
getting out of the bushes is an expected result of the state of being thirsty.
Conjunction 259
EX: The following texts are extracted from a collection of short stories
titled ‘ أﻣﻮت ﻛ ّﻞ ﯾﻮمI Die Every Day’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī
(translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017). Re-translate
them, paying extra attention to the clauses of result in both texts.
… sounds expressing the اء ﺘ ﺎﻗ ﺎت اﻟ اﻷﺼ ات اﻟ ﻌ ة ﻋ
contradictions of the locked desert, رﻫﺎ أﺼ ات ﻻ ﺘﻌ ف ﻤ... اﻟ ﻘﻔﻠﺔ
sounds, their source unknown,
come from afar and shoot within ... ﻌ ﺼﺎرﺨﺔ ﻓ ﻤ ﺘﺄﺘ
you.
They come from behind the gates of ﺘ رﻫﺎ اﻷود ﺔ، ﺘﺄﺘﻲ ﻤ وراء ﺒ ا ﺎت اﻟ ﻤ
time, sounds that are repeated by ﺔ ﺨ ذاﻛ ﺘ ﻓﻲ ﻓ ﺴ ،اﻟﻌ ﻘﺔ
the deep valleys. Thus the map of
your homeland is drawn in your ... اﻟ
memory. (p. 34)
You should prepare what we have left. I ﻤﺎ ﺘ ﻘﻰ أن ﺘﻌ
ﻋﻠ.ﺸ ً ﺎ ﻨﺄﻛﻠﻪ
have received the order and we cannot
stay any more in this low-lying area. ﻟﻘ ﺘﻠﻘ اﻷﻤ وﻟ ﻌ ﻤ ﺎل... ﻟ ﺎ
(p.48)
.ﻟﻠ ﻘﺎء ﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻔﺢ اﻟ ا ﺊ
7 Time clauses
In English, time clauses are introduced by conjunctions of time, such as
‘when’, ‘while’, ‘after’, ‘before’, ‘during’, etc. While some of these
conjunctions of time introduce finite clauses, others introduce non-finite
clauses, as shown below:
،( )ذﻟ ُﻌ، ﻌ ﻤﺎ،( ﻌ )ذﻟ،( ﻌ )أن، ﺤﺎﻟ ﺎ، ﻓﻲ ﺤ، ﺤ ﺎ، ﺒ ﺎ،ﻋ ﻤﺎ
، ﻋﻘ،( ُﻗ ﻞ )ذﻟ،( ﻗ ﻞ )ذﻟ،( ﻗ ﻞ )أن،( ﻋ ﺔ )ذﻟ،( ﻏ اة )ذﻟ،( ﺼ ﺔ )ذﻟ
... آﻨ اك، ﺤ، وﻗ، ﻋ ﺌ،ﻓﻲ أﻋﻘﺎب
... ﺤ ﻰ... ﻟ ﯿﻠ،... ﺤ ﻰ... ﻤﺎ ﻟ
... ﺤ ﻰ... ﻟ،... ﺤ ﻰ... ﻤﺎ ﺎد
... ﺤ ﻰ... ِ ﻟ
... ﺤ ﻰ... أن/ﻤﺎ إن
262 Chapter Eight
In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮAli
the Red’ by Lu’aī Hamza ‘Abbas, a number of linking words, such as ﻗﺒﻞ,
ﺣﯿﻨﻤﺎ, and ﻓـ, are employed by the writer to show time sequencing:
وﻗ ﺘ ﺎﻋ ﺨ ﻓﻲ ﺤ ﺎ رددت،ﺘ ددت ﻗ ﻞ أن أرد وأﻨﺎ أر اﻟ ﻗ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻬﺎﺘﻒ
... رﺠﻞ ﻟ ﺄﻛ ﻤ ِاﺴ ﻲ اﻟ ﻼﺜﻲ
ٌ ﻓ ﺄﻟ ﻲ
I hesitate before answering while I see the number on the phone. My fear
rose when I answered and a man asked me to confirm my full name.
By the effect of ﻗﺒﻞand the grammatical form وأﻧﺎ, the state of hesitation
occurred before the act of answering, and at the moment of seeing the
number on the phone. In contrast, by the effect of ﺣﯿﻨﻤﺎthe state of fear and
its rising occurred at the moment of answering. However, the act of asking
occurred after the state of fear. All the processes employed by the writer
are in the past and the emphasis is put on their completion. It is worth
noting that there is no time lapse between the state of hesitation and the act
of seeing the number on the phone on the one hand, and the state of fear
and the act of answering on the other. Had the translators given full
consideration to these issues, they would have suggested a translation,
such as:
I hesitated, seeing the number on the phone before answering. My fear
rose when I answered and a man asked me to confirm my full name.
! In the above complex sentence, there are two clauses with two
tenses ‘past perfect’ after ‘after’, and simple past in the second
clause. It can be rewritten by using ‘before’ as follows:
He had retired before he decided to work in the private sector.
Or by changing it into a simple sentence as follows:
After having retired, he decided to work in the private sector.
Immediately after having retired, he decided to work in the private
sector.
Having retired, he decided to work in the private sector.
! The verb ‘to retire’ can be rendered as ﯾﺘﻘﺎﻋﺪ/ﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ.
! The word ‘sector’ can be translated as ﻗﻄﺎع.
~ It was only a few months since her divorce when she got married
again.
~ Scarcely had two weeks passed since his wife’s resignation when
he also decided to resign from his job.
264 Chapter Eight
~ No sooner had the lecture begun than the professor left the class
due to the bad behaviour of one of the students.
! The phrasal verb ‘to take off’ lends itself to ﺗﻘﻠﻊ/ أﻗﻠﻌﺖas it collocates
well with ‘ طﺎﺋﺮةplane’ in Arabic.
! ّ طﻨﯿﻦ )ﻓﻲ أُذﻧ.
The word ‘tinnitus’ lends itself to (ﻲ
~ While I was watching the football match, three thieves broke into
the house and stole all my money.
EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course
into English, paying extra attention to the connectors used:
Text 1
A black cat leapt in the middle of the ﻤﺎ.اﻟ ﺎﺤﺔ ﻨ ْ ﻗ ٌﺔ ﺴ داء وﺴ
courtyard. _________ had it shaken ﻋ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ إن ﻨﻔ ْ ﻗ ات اﻟ
off the drops of rain _________ it
jumped to take refuge under a tree. أﻨﻬﺎ ﻏ،ة ﻲ ﺘ ﺤ ﻰ وﺜ
_________, very soon, it came out
again towards the courtyard ،ﺴ ﻋﺎن ﻤﺎ ﺨ ﺠ ْ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎﺤﺔ
_________ curled itself up under a . ﺴّﻠ ﻗ وﻛّ رت ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ ﺘ
nearby staircase. (pp. 18-9)
Text 2
EX: Re-translate the following texts extracted from different sources as required:
I ran to the kitchen to get her some ﺦ ﻷﻨﺎوﻟﻬﺎ ﺸ ﺔ ﻤﺎء إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺠ
water, as she complained her mouth وﻤﺎ إن ﻓﻌﻠ،ﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻷن رﻘﻬﺎ ﺠﺎف
was dry. Soon after, I ran to the
telephone and called a doctor from ًﺎ ﻟﻬﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻬﺎﺘﻒ ﻷ ﻠ ﺤﻰ ﺠ
the nearest hospital.
ﻔﻰ ﻤ أﻗ ب ﻤ
Conjunction 267
I ran to the kitchen to get her some water, as she complained her mouth
was dry. Scarcely_____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
The general manager’s house was not far from the plant; it was only
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
You had hardly settled in when he started ﻤ ﺤ ﻰ ِاﻨ ﻔ ِت ﺘ ﻘ ﻤﺎ
and awoke from his deep sleep, as though .ﻨ ﻤﻪ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ ﺎﻟ ﻠ وغ
he’d been stung.
(Husni and Newman 2008: 256-7)
Barely______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Hardly______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
No sooner___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
The problem is that the moment you ﻓﻲ ﻤﺎ إن ﺘ أ اﻟ ﻔ ﻠﺔ أﻨ اﻟ
start thinking about arranging a room,
pieces of furniture appear from under ﻗ ﻊ ﺤ ﻰ ﺘ ﻌ،ﻏ ﻓﺔ ﺘ
the ground and every one yells at you
ّﻞ واﺤ ة،اﻷرض اﻷﺜﺎث ﻤ ﺘ
saying I am here! Do you want to forget
me? أن أﺘ،ﻫﺎ أﻨﺎ ﻫ ﺎ ﺘ ﺢ
(Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 154-5) !ﺘ ﺎﻨﻲ
8 Conditional clauses
Finite and non-finite clauses of condition are commonly introduced by the
subordinators ‘if’ (in affirmative clauses) and ‘unless’ (in negative
clauses), as in:
Finite clause: If you are ready, let me know.
Non-finite clause: If ready, let me know.
There are four main conditional structures in English:
Type Use Example Translation
Zero It is used when the If you click on this إن،إذا
action in the main icon, your document is ...
clause is always true saved automatically.
when if-clause is true.
(real world, general
truths, etc.)
First It is used when we If I meet him tomorrow, إن،إذا
think that the condition I’ll invite him. ...
is very likely to be
fulfilled. (future +
likely)
Second It is used when we If I had enough money, ﻟﻮ
think that the condition I would buy your car.
is possible but very
unlikely to be fulfilled.
(future + unlikely)
Third It is used when we feel If I had met him, I ﻟﻮ
that the condition is would have invited
impossible to be him.
fulfilled as it refers to
the past. (imaginary
events + events in the
past)
In addition to these subordinators, that is, ‘if’ and ‘unless’, there are
several conjunctions that can be used to signal a condition in a finite
clause, such as ‘provided that’, ‘providing that’, ‘as long as’, ‘so long as’,
‘on condition that’, and the like.
270 Chapter Eight
With non-finite clauses in the event of, in case of, but for
In Arabic, conditional clauses begin with إذا, إن, ﻟﻮ, and so on, as in:
ﺔ ﺸ، إن ﻟ، إذا ﻟ، ﻤﺎ ﻟ، إﻻ إذا، ﻓﻲ ﺤﺎل، ّﻠ ﺎ، ﺎﻟ ﺎ، ﻋﻠﻰ أن، ﻟ،إن
ْ ،إذا
.... ﻟـ... ( ﻟ )ﻻ،... أم... ﺴ اء، ﻋﻠﻰ ﺸ، ،أن
To illustrate, let us consider the following text taken from a novella titled
‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮةThe Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated
by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 4-5):
~ Unless you study hard, you will not pass the exam.
! Here, the connector ‘unless’ means ‘if not’, thus lending itself to
ﻣﺎﻟﻢ, إذا ﻟﻢ, and the like.
! As for ‘will not’, it lends itself to ﻟﻦwithout ﺳـor ﺳﻮف.
ْ , or ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل.
إن
! The word ‘either’ lends itself here to ﻛ ّﻞor أي.
! The modal verb ‘shall’ in this type of legal prescriptive usage has
nothing to do with futurity, thereby lending itself to a simple
ّ .
present tense ﯾﺤﻖ
! In legal English, the verb ‘to rescind’ collocates well with the
noun ‘contract’, and thus it can be translated as ﯾﻔﺴﺦ/ ﻓﺴﺦin
Arabic.
! The word ‘providing’ can be replaced with expressions, such as
‘provided that’, ‘on condition that’, and the like; they all lend
themselves to ﺷﺮﯾﻄﺔ أن, ﺑﺸﺮط, ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮط, etc.
~ In the event that the buyer fails to pay any due instalments, the
remaining unpaid instalments shall all become due together.
! As stated above, the expression ‘in the event that’ can be replaced
with ‘if’, thus lending itself to إذاor ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل.
! The verb ‘to fail’ in legal Arabic lends itself to ﯾﺘﻘﺎﻋﺲ ﻋﻦ/ﺗﻘﺎﻋﺲ.
Similarly, the verb ‘to pay’ can be translated as ﺗﺴﺪﯾﺪ/ﺳﺪاد/ﯾﺴﺪد/ﺳﺪد.
! The adjective ‘due’ meaning ‘having to be paid’ lends itself to
ُﻣﺴﺘﺤﻖ, واﺟﺐ اﻟﺪﻓﻊ, and the like.
! The word ‘instalment’ (also spelt ‘installment’) can be translated
as ﻗﺴﻂ.
ﺎﻛﻞ ﺠ ّ ﺔ ِ
َ ﺴ اﺠﻪ ﻤ، ﻓ ّ ﻗ ﻲ، َ ﺎﻟ ﺎ إﻨ َ ﺘ ﻬ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠ ﻞ وﻻ ﺘﻬ ّ ﺒ راﺴ ~
.ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺔ
! The structure ‘the –er …, the more …’ can be translated into ﻛﻠﻤﺎ.
It can be changed to a simple sentence as follows:
Working harder, you will earn more money.
It is worth mentioning when we delete ‘the more’, we need to
insert the modal verb ‘shall’ or ‘will’, if there is none after the
subject of the second clause.
7. Had you visited the dentist earlier, you would not have suffered
from such a severe toothache.
8. But for my dad, we would not have completed our studies.
9. The more you walk, the more you get hooked by the habit of
taking regular exercise.
EX: The following texts are extracted from a collection of short stories
titled ‘ ﻗﺼﺺ ﻋﺮاﻗﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮةModern Iraqi Short Stories’ (translated
by Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009). Complete the translation, paying
special attention to the clauses of condition introduced by the words
highlighted for you.
“… and I have the right to أن ﺘ ﺠﻊ ﺸ،اﻋ اﻓ ﻫ ا وﻤ ﺤﻘﻲ رﻓ
exclude your confession only “ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ ”إﻟ ﻬ
_________ you’re prepared to go
back to ‘them!’” said the judge. ﻟ ”ﺜﻼث ﻗ، )ﻋ اﻟ ﺎر ﻨﺎﺼ
(pp. 24-5)
(“ ﻟﻠ
_________I recall it and think ﺎﺤ ﻲ ﺨ ف وﻓ ّ ت ﺒ ﻟ،ﻛّﻠ ﺎ ﺘ ّ ت
about it, I feel that I’m
overwhelmed by a sudden fear ﺒ ﻤﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ق ﻋ ﺎﻤﻲ و ﻤ ﺎﻏ
running through my bones and
.اﻟ ﺎر
spreading like fire through my
blood.
He screams, “What should I do, ﺢ( ﻤﺎ اﻟﻌ ﻞ إ ًذا؟؟ ﻓﺎﻟ ﻗ )
then?? Time is running out and ﻛّﻠ ﺎ... داﺌ ً ﺎ وﻫ ا ﻌ ﻲ أن اﻟ ت ﻘ ب
death is approaching.
_________time passes, واﻟ ت..اﻗ ب اﻟ ت ﻀﺎق اﻟ ﻗ
_________death gets. Death is
final, worms eat away and the ﺘﻔ ﺦ ﻟﻠ ود ﻓﻲ... دود ﺄﻛﻞ... ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ
cheeks waste away in a dark coffin اﻟ اب ﺘﺎﺒ ت ﻤ ﻠ ﺘ
under the soil”. (pp. 42-3)
(“ﺤﻲ ﻋ ﻗﻠ ”اﻟ،اﻟ ﻤﻠﻲ )ﻤ
ّ
_________I recall this memory, I ﺘ ر اﻟ ف ﺤ ﻰ، ﻛّﻠ ﺎ ﺘ رت اﻟ
have had that same fear until the
white hair has come to cover . ﺎﺘ ﻏ اﻨﻲ اﻟ
everywhere, as you can see. (pp.
(“ ”ﺤ ﺎ ﺔ ﻗ ﺔ، د ﺠ ار )ﻤ
92-3)
Conjunction 277
! As for
! With respect to
! With reference to
phrase , subject verb tense, aspect, etc. …
! In respect of
! With regard to
! As regards
! Regarding
! Concerning
As can be noticed, special attention needs to be paid to their use. They are
followed by a phrase and then a clause preceded by a comma, as in:
As for the advantages of using the Internet, it can be used by people to
search for information.
However, there is one exception, that is, ‘as far as … concerned’. It is
used in this way:
As far as the advantages of using the Internet are concerned, it can be
used by people to search for information.
__________ﻓـ/ﻓﺈﻨﻪ
ّ ،___________________________ أﻤﺎ ﻓ ﺎ ﯿ ﻌّﻠ ﺒـ
__________ﻓـ/ﻓﺈﻨﻪ
ّ ،____________________________ ﱡ أﻤﺎ ﻓ ﺎ
__________ﻓـ/ﻓﺈﻨﻪ
ّ ،_____________________________ ﺔ ﻟـ أﻤﺎ ﺎﻟ
_________ ﻓـ/ﻓﺈﻨﻪ
ّ ،____________________________ وﻓ ﺎ ﯿ ﻌّﻠ ﺒـ
__________ ﻓـ/ﻓﺈﻨﻪ
ّ ،_____________________________ ﱡ وﻓ ﺎ
__________ﻓـ/ﻓﺈﻨﻪ
ّ ،______________________________ ﺔ ﻟـ و ﺎﻟ
It is worth noting that in English one can use ‘for one’s part’ or ‘in one’s
turn’ for the purpose of marking transition or contrasting. By way of
278 Chapter Eight
To reinforce this point, the following example extracted from a short story
titled ‘ ﺻﻔﺤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺎب اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰExcerpt from The Book of The Dead’ by
Ibrāhīm al-Faqīh (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 90-
1) may be considered:
داﺨﻞ اﻟﻔ ﻞ ﻫﺎدﺌﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻤﻘﻌ ﻫﺎ وﺘ ﺘ ﻠ،اعًﻓﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ وﻫﻲ ﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﻟ
... ّﻠﻪ ﻻ ﻌ ﻬﺎ ﺎﻤﺎ ﻏ ًﺎ ﺒ رﺴﻬﺎ ﺄن اﻷﻤ
ً وﺘﻬ اﻫ،ﻋ ﻫﺎ اﻟ اﻓﺊ
As for her, it was as though she was not party to the fight; she sat
calmly in her chair, while her warm fragrance spread throughout the
classroom. She took a strange interest in her lessons, as if the entire
thing did not concern her.
In the above example, there is implicit ‘ أﻣﺎas for’ replaced by the
connector ‘ وand’. By the effect of ‘ وھﻲand she’, the writer invites his
readers to place their perspective point somewhere inside the depicted
classroom looking at the girl by adopting a proximal perspective where
other participants are backgrounded in attention. Having given this full
consideration, the translators have opted for ‘as for’, thus inducing the
target-language readers to adopt a similar perspective point.
~ With regard to handling the complaints that you may receive, you
need to bear in mind that your customers are always right.
~ As far as kids are concerned, they might give you a chance to get
up early so that you can get some exercise.
~ Needless to say, helping the poor and the needy during the whole
year, not only in during Ramadan, will be rewarded.
3. It is well known that there are Seven Wonders of the World, two
of which are in the Arab World: they are the Pyramids in Egypt
and the Hanging Gardens of Babylonian Iraq.
However, when there are two different subjects referring to two different
referents, sometimes we cannot delete the subject as the meaning will be
different, as in:
While I was watching TV, my friend came to visit me.
While watching TV, my friend came to visit me.
286 Chapter Eight
In addition to these two steps, that is, deleting the subject and stripping the
verb of its tense, aspect, etc. at times the connector itself needs to be
changed. Let us consider the following example:
I did not understand why he left his country.
In this example, two processes, namely a mental process ‘I did not
understand’ and a material process ‘he left his country’ are conjoined by
‘why’, thus creating a complex sentence. It is worth noting that the act of
leaving occurred before the state of not understating. Further, there is an
implicit mental process indicating that the Senser heard or knew that the
Actor left his country. This implicit mental process is backgrounded in
attention. By utilizing this grammatical form and content specification, the
language user establishes a perspective point positioned first at the state of
not understanding, from which a line of viewing moves in a prospective
direction forward to the act of leaving. In the material process, that is, ‘he
left his country’, an open path with gapping over the Goal (i.e. the ending
point), is employed by the speaker.
To change the finite clause ‘he left his country’ to a non-finite clause, one
may suggest these:
I did not understand the reason behind him leaving his country.
I did not understand the reason for him leaving his country.
Following are more examples:
After he had retired, he decided to work in the private sector.
Here, there are two finite clauses, namely ‘he had retired’ and ‘he
decided’, and one non-finite clause ‘to work in the private sector’. It is
worth noting that in the non-finite clause ‘to work in the private sector’,
the scope of intention is greater than the extent of causation. By contrast, it
is asserted that he retired and decided; therefore, the extent of causation is
greater than the scope of intention. The finite clause ‘he had retired’ can
be changed to a non-finite clause by deleting the subject ‘he’ after ‘after’
and changing the helping verb ‘had’ into ‘having’, as in:
~ He withdrew from the election for fear that he might not win
votes in his constituency.
~ Whether you apply for the job electronically or not, you will not
be short listed.
~ In the lecture, she often writes down the teacher’s notes lest she
should forget them.
In the lecture, she often writes down the teacher’s notes for fear
that she may forget them.
~ She will tell us about the accident when she arrives home.
She will tell us about the accident as soon as she arrives home.
EX: Change the following sentences as required. Then, translate them into
Arabic:
1. After I had done my homework, I decided to visit my neighbour.
Having______________________________________________________
2. If you attend all lectures, you will not fail such an easy exam.
290 Chapter Eight
By_________________________________________________________
3. It is probable that most of the students will pass the final exam.
Most of the students ___________________________________________
5. No sooner had she arrived home than she called her mother.
When _______________________________________________________
6. Though she has a lot of relatives and friends in the town, she feels
unhappy.
Despite _____________________________________________________
9. I could not visit you last night because I was very tired.
I could not visit you last night because of __________________________
10. He has changed his address many times recently for fear that the
police may arrest him.
Conjunction 291
11. His application has not been accepted by the company, since he
does not have enough experience to perform such a role.
His application has not been accepted by the company owing to
___________________________________________________________
12. My neighbour withdrew from the election two days ago for fear
that he might not win votes in his constituency.
My neighbour withdrew from the election two days ago for fear of
____________________________________________________________
13. The weather in Germany last week was so cold that I could not
leave the hotel.
The weather in Germany last week was too
____________________________________________________________
6. He woke up early for fear that he might miss the first lecture. (use
‘in order to’)
7. As soon as he graduated from the university, he got a job in one
of the biggest companies. (use ‘no sooner’)
8. All flights into Kuwait airport have been delayed due to the bad
weather. (use ‘because’)
9. He took out a loan with a view to enrolling at the university, but
he could not pay the university fees. (use ‘in spite of’)
10. The enemy forces intended to use nuclear weapons against us.
Thus, the United Nations intervened to put an end to these threats.
(use ‘since’)
11. If the contract is for an unspecified period, either party shall
have the right to rescind the contract, on condition that there is
reasonable justification. (use ‘in the event that’ + ‘providing’)
12. As soon as the lecture began, the professor left the class due to
the bad behaviour of one of the students. (use ‘no sooner’)
13. He decided to take out a loan to buy a new house in the centre of
the city. However, the bank refused his application on the
grounds that he had no job. (use ‘though’)
14. Our neighbours never parked their truck in front of their house in
order not to bother us. (use ‘for fear that’).
15. Barely had the company launched its new product when it went
bankrupt. (use ‘as soon as’)
16. Despite searching everywhere, my brother couldn’t find his
wallet. (use ‘although’)
17. She has travelled to the UK recently in search of a good job. (use
‘in order to’)
12 Revision
Ex 1: Translate the following sentences into Arabic.
1. Having explained the topic to my students, I asked them a
question, but, unfortunately, no one answered it.
Conjunction 293
2. Your failure in the exam was due to your laziness throughout the
year.
3. No sooner had the teacher left the class than he heard one of his
students shout out to him: “You’re excellent”.
4. It was not long after his wife’s death when he too died.
5. Had he given full consideration to his studies in the past, he
would not have put himself and his family in such an
embarrassing situation.
6. With or without preparing yourself for the final exam, you won’t
pass the exam because of the teacher’s negative attitude.
.. ٌ ﻗﻠ
Once the king had restored the half ﺤ ﻰ،ﻨ ﻒ أﻤ اﻟﻪ وﻤﺎ أن أرﺠﻊ اﻟ ﻠ
of the treasury’s revenues, he
announced a mysterious and great ﻤﺎت ﻓ ﻪ، ﻏﺎﻤ ( أﻋﻠ ﻋ )ﻨ
Conjunction 295
Despite that, all the townsfolk were ﻗ ﻏ ت أﻫﻞ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ اﻟ ﻌﺎدة ﺎﻨ ﻟ
filled with happiness …
... ﻛﻠﻬ
In this way the people carried on, ... ﻋﺎش اﻟ ﺎس ﻓﻲ ﻤ ة واﺒ ﻬﺎج ﻟﻟ
happy and contented. No one ever
mentioned the treasurer, the guard اﻟ ز أو اﻟ ﺎرس وﻟ ﺄت أﺤ ﻋﻠﻰ ذ
or even the queen, who once had
been the mistress of all. ... ﻊ ﺴ ة اﻟ أو اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺎﻨ
Text 1
Text 2
She pushed the tea tray to one side, .ا ﻌ ْت ﻫﻲ ﺠﺎﻨ ﺎ ﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ وﻗﺎﻤﺎ
and they stood up.
296 Chapter Eight
DISCOURSE MARKERS
،()إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘ ل ﻨ ﻠ، ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌ م، ﻋ ًﻤﺎ، ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﺠ ﺎل، ﺎﻹﺠ ﺎل،ًإﺠ ﺎﻻ
... وﻓﻲ اﻷﺨ، وﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬﺎ ﺔ، وﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎم، ﺈ ﺎز، ﺎﺨ ﺎر،ﺨﻼﺼﺔ اﻟﻘ ل
~ To sum up, some people like to work from home while others do
not.
298 Chapter Nine
3 Reformulation
! إﻧﮭﺎ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻧﮭﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢcan be rendered literally into ‘it is not the end of
the world’ as it might be a calque from the English expression ‘it is
not the end of the world’. One could say instead: ‘look, things
302 Chapter Nine
5 Comparison: similarity
similarly, and by the same token, but by the same token, in the same
way, comparably, likewise, equally, etc.
! ﯾﻤﻠﻚ أذﻧًﺎ ﻣﻮﺳﯿﻘﯿﺔcan be rendered into ‘to have a good ear for music’.
! The cognate accusative ﯾﻨﻄﻖ ﻧﻄﻘًﺎalong with the adjective ﺻﺤﯿ ًﺤﺎ
can be translated into ‘to pronounce (foreign words) properly or
correctly’, ‘to pronounce well’, and ‘somebody has good
pronunciation (of foreign/English sounds/words)’.
6 Comparison: dissimilarity
وﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ، ذﻟ/ﻫ ا ﻤ وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻘ، ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ أﺨ وﻤ، ﺠﻬﺔ أﺨ وﻤ
... أن/إن ﻏ،أن/ إﻻ إن، ذﻟ/ وﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف ﻫ ا، ذﻟ/ﻫ ا
304 Chapter Nine
، ﺑﻞ.ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ أﻧﮫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻀﺎﯾﻖ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻠﻤﺎت اﻟﻠﻮم واﻟﺘﻮﺑﯿﺦ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺻﺪرتْ ﻣﻨﮭﺎ ~
. ﻛﺎن ﯾﺸﻌﺮ ﺑﺘﺄﻧﯿﺐ اﻟﻀﻤﯿﺮ،ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ
something
! unscrupulous; ﺿﻤﯿﺮه ﻣﯿّﺖ !
having no/few scruples
~ To tell you the truth, the teacher did not seem offended by his
colleagues’ criticisms. In contrast he seemed to enjoy them.
! ‘To tell you the truth’ as an attitude marker can be translated into
ﺑﺼﺮاﺣﺔ, ﺑﺄﻣﺎﻧﺔ, ﻻ أﺧﻔﯿﻚ, etc. It is worth noting that this discourse
marker can be replaced with ‘frankly’, ‘to be frank’, ‘to be honest
(with you)’, and the like. The expression ‘if I’m honest (with you)’
is becoming increasingly common in spoken informal English. The
even more informal (and somewhat vulgar) expression ‘straight
up…’ could also be a suitable translation if the context were right.
! The lexical item ‘offended’ can lend itself here to ﻣﻨﺰﻋﺞor ﻣﺘﻀﺎﯾﻖ.
~ In the south of Iraq all the land is flat. In contrast, in the north of
Iraq there are hills and mountains.
In contrast to the south of Iraq, the north of Iraq is full of hills and
mountains.
By contrast with the south of Iraq, the north of Iraq is full of hills and
mountains.
306 Chapter Nine
! The verb ‘to manufacture’ lends itself to ﺗﺼ ّﻨﻊ/ﯾﺼ ّﻨﻊ. Related
words include ‘manufacturer’ اﻟ ُﻤﺼﻨّﻊ/ اﻟ ُﻤﻨﺘﺞor اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ
اﻟ ُﻤﺼﻨّﻌﺔ/اﻟ ُﻤﻨﺘﺠﺔ.
! The word ‘automobile’ simply means ‘car’. It is worth noting
that the lexical item ‘automobile’ is really American usage, but it
is much less common than ‘car’, even for the states. In UK
English, it can be used in formal written contexts as a high-
register term for ‘car’.
8 Elaborating
10 Emphasizing
! The discourse marker ‘in fact’ can be translated into ﻓﻲ اﻟﺣﻘﯾﻘﺔ.
However, in this context, it can be rendered into واﻷﻓﺿل, ﺑل
اﻷﻓﺿل, ﺑل ﻣن اﻷﻓﺿل, etc.
! The phrase ‘face to face’ lends itself to وﺟ ًﮭﺎ ﻟوﺟﮫ.
11 Order of importance
12 Particularizing
... دﻗﺔ أﻛ وﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ، وﻻ ﺴّ ﺎ، و ﺎﺼﺔ، و ﺎﻷﺨ،ص ﻓﻌﻠﻰ وﺠﻪ اﻟ
اﻟﻘﻀﺎﯾﺎ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ.
! The discourse marker ‘more specifically’ can be translated into
ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪًا, وﺑﺨﺎﺻﺔ, وﺑﺎﻷﺧﺺ, etc.
13 Generalizing
generally, in general, generally speaking, broadly speaking, on the
whole, by and large, etc.
~ On the one hand he’s looking for a job with a higher salary, but
on the other hand, he enjoys his current job.
~ My sister is a bad teacher. For one thing, she once fell asleep in
class. For another, she usually arrives late to class.
15 Attitude markers
Finally, there are a number of discourse markers that can be used by
speakers or writers to mark their attitudes. Following are the commonly
used ones:
! unfortunately ! ﻟ ء اﻟ
! hopefully ﻤ اﻟ ّﻤﻞ، ﻋﻠﻰ أﻤﻞ،! ﻨﺄﻤﻞ
! basically ﻞ أﺴﺎس ،أﺴﺎﺴﺎ
ً !
! surprisingly ﻞ ،اﻟ ﻫ ﺔ وﻤﺎ ﯿ، ﻐ ﺔ، ﺎﻨ ﻫﺎش،! ﻓ ﺄة
ُﻤ ﻫ
! not surprisingly ﻌً ﺎ !
! sadly ﻤ اﻟ ُ ﺴﻒ،ن ُ ! ﻤ اﻟ
! admittedly/undeniably ﻻ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ، ﻻ أﻨ، ّ أﻗ ،! أﻋ ف
ﺎرﻩ اﻨ
! confidently ﻞ ﺜﻘﺔ !
! undoubtedly ﻻ ﺨﻼف ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ، ﺤ ً ﺎ، ّ ﻻ ﺸ، ّ ! ﺒﻼ ﺸ
! in fact ! ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ
! preferably ﻤ اﻟ ُ ﻔ ّ ﻞ،! ُﻔ ّ ﻞ
! regrettably ، ﻤ اﻟ ُ ن، ِ ُ ﻤ اﻟ، ﻟﻸﺴﻒ،! ﻤ اﻟ ﺴﻒ
ﻤ اﻟ ُ ّ ﻟﻶﻤﺎل
Undoubtedly, these students had the right to complain about the teacher.
However, the Iraqi News Agency ﻤﺎ ﺠﺎء إن و ﺎﻟﺔ اﻷﻨ ﺎء اﻟﻌ اﻗ ﺔ ﻗ ﻨﻔّ إﻻ
contradicted the news as reported ر اﻟ ﻘّ ب ﻤ اﻟ أوردﻩ اﻟ ﻓﻲ اﻟ
by the source close to the
Pentagon. .اﻟ ﺎﻏ ن
16 Revision
EX 1: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying extra attention
to the discourse markers used.
1. Try not to be unsociable. In other words, try to do your best to go
out and make some friends.
2. I do agree with you that the new employee is the best-dressed
person in the company. Indeed, she has a really good taste in
fashion.
3. You might need to change a few things. To be more precise, I think
you should travel somewhere.
4. I’ve told you many times not to invite the boss to the party.
Actually, I know him very well; he is a trouble maker.
5. All in all, you have to make sure before signing the contract that
you and your colleagues are happy with the job description.
6. If you need to get something off your chest, albeit in a professional
manner, you can do so in a private conversation with your
manager. However, there is no need to add lengthy explanations to
your resignation letter when deciding to quit a job.
7. By and large, there is much to be said for the new programme.
8. The weather was bad this week, particularly on Friday.
9. I have met many famous people. For example: one time I met Adel
Imam.
10. I like sleeping while listening to slow music. As a matter of fact, I
can’t fall asleep without it.
ك أﻤ ؟ ﻫﻞ ﺎﻨ أﺠ ُ َ ﺠّ ة؟ ِ
َ ﻛ ﻒ ﺎن اﺨ ُﺎر -
إﻻ إﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﺘ ّ ﻤ،اﻻﻤ ﺎن ﺎن ﺴﻬﻼً ﺠ ً اِ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أن. ﻻ أُﺨﻔ -
َ
ِ
. وذﻟ ﻷﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﻗ أ ﺠّ ً ا ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن.اﻹﺠﺎ ﺔ ﻋ ﺠ ﻊ اﻷﺴ ﻠﺔ
Discourse Markers 319
EX 3: The following two texts are extracted from a short story titled طﺒﻠﯿﺔ
‘ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻤﺎءA Tray from Heaven’ by Yūsuf Idrīs (translated by and
cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 272-6). Identify any discourse
marker used in the original text and then comment on its translation:
ability modality 3, 10, 22, 39, 67, 213, advising pragmatics 155
215-6, 224, 225, 247 affected participant as a semantic role 30,
absolute accusative see cognate 125, 127, 136
accusative affirmative grammar 30, 33, 34, 152,
absolute object see cognate 269
accusative affixation morphology 140, 141
accepter as a semantic role 14 agonist cognitive linguistics 136, 137, 140
accompaniment circumstance analytic causative semantics: causation
transitivity process
121 131, 136, 138
accurate translation 9, 10, 64, 67, 74, angle circumstance transitivity process
264, 271 122
active grammar 4, 6, 15, 42, 125-135, antagonist cognitive linguistics 136, 137,
169, 186, 229, 247 140
activization see active argument semantics 135
actor as a semantic role 17, 18, 30, 70, 76, articles grammar 3, 20, 185-197, 202,
96, 100, 108, 126, 127, 150, 209, 211, 284
151, 272, 286, 287 asker as a semantic role 13, 54
addition conjunction 235-40 aspect grammar 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 15, 21,
addressee as a semantic role 13, 67, 221, 37, 41, 55, 62-107, 173, 238,
222 242, 243, 265, 277, 285, 286,
adjective (Adj.) 4, 11, 15, 20, 22, 310
24, 26, 27, 28, 33, 42, 43, 47, asymmetrical action schema cognitive
linguistics
49, 60, 61, 114, 140, 141, 144, 127, 287
172, 178, 186, 189, 191, 193, atelicity grammar: tense 8, 70
197, 210, 255, 274, 281, 283, attention cognitive linguistics 125, 189,
284, 284, 303, 313, 316 278, 279
adjective phrase (AdjP) 114 attitude marker discourse 305, 314-17
adverb (Adv.) 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, authority 136, 137, 139, 221, 222
15, 22, 26, 28, 47, 76, 82, 83, auxiliary grammar 30, 53, 54, 55
118, 152, 167, 234, 253 background cognitive linguistics 125, 189,
adverb of degree 26, 47 278, 279, 286
adverb of manner 26, 47-52 balancing contrasting points discourse
adverb of place 13, 14, 47, 76, 313
152 bald on-record strategy pragmatics 67
adverb of time 12, 13, 14, 47, base form grammar 20, 31, 32, 66, 82,
152 83, 85, 93, 97, 152
adverbial 47, 234, 235 behalf as a cause circumstance 120, 121
advisability modality 213, 214-5 behaver transitivity process 8, 111
advisability reading see advisability
325 The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation
optimal equivalent see full perspective cognitive linguistics 18, 19, 64,
equivalent 65, 70, 82, 86, 89, 91, 94, 96,
order of importance discourse 311 97, 99, 136, 219, 272, 278, 279,
ordering points discourse 298 286, 287
partially bounded cognitive linguistics 80, phrasal verb idiomaticity 26, 165, 254,
99 265, 284, 302
participant transitivity process 30, 47, 67, player as a semantic role 14
96, 97, 118, 125, 127, 136, 137, polite request modality 154, 213, 217
145, 188, 220, 279, 303 portion excerpting cognitive linguistics
particularizing discourse 312 186, 187, 195, 200, 208
partitive grammar 3, 11, 15, 185, 186, positive pragmatics: politeness 67
203-9 possessed transitivity process 115, 116
passive grammar 6, 10, 15, 22, 24, 42, possessor transitivity process 115, 116
125-35, 145, 165, 169, 186, 229, possibility see likelihood
231, 247, 248, 287 power differential cognitive linguistics; force
dynamics
passive causative semantics 131 136, 140
passivization see passive powerful cognitive linguistics; force dynamics
past grammar 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 17, 18, 19, 136, 137, 140
20, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, powerless cognitive linguistics; force dynamics
38, 39, 43, 44, 53, 55, 62, 63, 136, 136, 137, 140
64-80, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 97, powerlessness cognitive linguistics; force
dynamics
98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 112, 128, 136, 137, 139, 222
129, 132, 133, 137, 139, 143, pragmatics 5, 322
144, 150, 151, 152, 154, 158, predicate grammar: syntax 30, 174
164, 165, 166, 171, 172, 215, prediction grammar: syntax 30
219, 221, 223, 225, 226, 233, preference modality 213, 217
234, 238, 243, 244, 245, 248, prepositional phrase (PP) grammar:
syntax
252, 259, 262, 263, 264, 265, 29, 47, 98, 114, 115, 118,
269, 278, 281, 294 168, 220, 224
past continuous tense 64, 68-72 present grammar: tense 81-93
past participle 9, 17, 128, 129, present continuous 26, 81, 84-88
132, 133, 215, 281 present in the past 96, 98, 151,
past perfect continuous tense 64, 152
78-80 present perfect 9, 21, 75, 81, 88-
past perfect tense 64, 72-78, 295 90
path cognitive linguistics 18, 27, 64, 65, present perfect continuous 21,
69, 76, 140, 286 81, 90-2
perfect grammar: aspect 6, 9, 15, 21, 62, present active participle Arabic 79, 87,
64, 72, 75, 78, 79, 81, 88, 90, 98
99, 100, 101, 102, 132, 158, pre-transferring adjustment translation:
technique
166, 243, 244, 247, 263, 264, 21, 23, 27
294, 307, 310 procedure translation: procedure 3, 5
perfect progressive grammar: aspect 62, process transitivity 108-18
64 process of behaving 8, 83, 108,
permission modality 213, 215, 216, 222 110-12
process of being 108, 114-5
Index 330