ANCEDULTRAFILTRATI

Application of Electric Fields

and Vortex Mixing
for Enhanced Ultrafiltration
By J. Jurado and B.J. Bellhouse
Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, 43 Banbury Road,
Oxford 0X1, UK

The application of electric fields to crossflow filtration can improve

permeate flux, but reports on this filtration have shown that pH-
buffering agents must often be added or electrode isolation incorpo-
rated if the filtration rates are to be maintained. Sensitive solutions
such as blood require laminar flow conditions to prevent cell lysis by
shear, and maintenance within a specific pH band. Optimised
conditions are presented which provide improved rates of bovine
serum albumin ultrafiltration to minimise addition times of buffer.
Pulsed electric fields and novel sweeping electric fields can be
utilised. Combining electric fields with vortex mixing provided by
oscillatory flow over ladder-like flow deflectors produces the highest
filtration rates. Protein degradation is avoided, as are problems of
electrodeposition. The effects of electric field and vortex mixing are
additive, and are studied both in combination and independently. An
analysis of a design problem is presented to find the membrane area
and electrical power required for scale-up by comparing conventional,
conventional-with-deflectors, electrified and electrified-and-vortex-
mixing designs.

embrane fouling is a fact with which we must live. laxative; the ultrafiltered product is healthy animal feed.
M Irreversible fouling by adsorption and pore-blocking is
also an unpleasant reality of membrane ultraliltration. The
Unfortunately, BSA is not without its own difficulties. Aimar
has shown how it aggregates with time when in aqueous
optimisation of two applied fields (mechanical and electrical) solution (Figure 1). Agglomeration is a result of loss of stability
to minimise fouling are specifically addressed in this paper, as of the protein. In the laboratory, a pH 7 solution (1 wt%) allows
are other key parameters which influence the filtration rate on an operational life of 15,000 s, although after being diafdtered
Dow fluoropolymer FSGIPP membranes (NMWCO 20,000 for 12,000 s the permeate flux realised on a fresh membrane
daltons). As we are concerned with gentle treatment of shear- filter is less than that of a fresh aqueous solution.
sensitive fluids, laminar flow rates through the filter cell are
studied. A new design for enhancing permeate flux will be Permeate flux enhancement
explored, and corn ared with two alternatives. The development of vortex mixing to enhance mass transfer
Nabetani et al.lf anal 7 sed three conventional ultrafiltration
models. Aimar and Field ‘1 proposed a new model which takes
into account the variation in viscosity in the fluid near the
membrane. Their model overcomes the need for a hypothesised
gel layer on the membrane, which is required for the traditional
film model. Specific models are well described in the literature,
and are not explored further here. In this paper, note that the
retentate (that portion of the feed which does not pass through
the membrane) is returned to the feed reservoir.
Protein solutions of bovine serum albumin (BSA) are used
in the filtration model studies in an ultrafiltration system. The
protein undergoes diafiltration for mineral salt removal. There
are several reasons for this, most notably the provision of
Is 1.8

constant solute concentration in the feed which diafiltration

provides. BSA (molecular weight: 69,000 daltons) is one of the
most common model systems used in ultrafiltration research.
Rautenbach and Albrecht I31addressed the related problem of
whey concentration (without the addition of make-up water
is 1.8

which is required for diafiltration). They described the

production of animal feed as an example of the benefit of
utilising ultrafiltration in the process stream: conventional
evaporation removes only water, leaving a product of 73%
lactose, 12% protein and 12% minerals. By using ultrafiltration, Rgun 1. Turbtdity versus time for 5 g/i B2A at 2S”C.
protein concentrations of 50% or greater can be realised. It is to From Aimar, P. et al.: ‘Fouling and concentration polarization in
ultrafiltration and microfiltration’. NATO ASI, Curia, Portugal, 1993.
be noted that the first product with 73% lactose acts as a

Flltration& Separation May 1994 0015-I 882/94/US$7.00 0 1994 Elsevler Science Ltd 273
 ANCEDULTRAFILTRATION
Figure 2. Cross-seotlon of the
vortex mixing rectangular ultrafil-
tration cell developed at the Unl-
verslty of Oxford.
95an2DowUFmem~ t
flowwmponent
Pul9ntile &tent&e

!Z
TraruMnembraneFre~~1~1Bar%

2
Feed5oZZZZZ
* I

95cn-f DowUFJmembrane
J
Permeete

and permeate flux was developed by Bellhouse and Lewis14’and
numerically ana ed by Sobey. 16]A modification of the vortex
mixing geometryYs 41was analysed numerically by DeBlois,[‘] and
experimentally analysed by Alani.17] By introducing an
oscillatory flow across a rectangular membrane cell which has
internal deflectors in the form of ladder-rungs, the permeate
flux is significantly increased. Figure 2 presents details of the
vortex mixing ultrafiltration cell.
Augmentation of permeate flux with a turbulence promoter
has been described by Shen and Probstein,l’] although the flows
which were studied remained in the laminar flow regime. Poyen
et aLlgl reported on significant flux increases by use of a
promoter in a rectangular ultrafilter cell under laminar and
turbulent conditions, as did Miyashita et aLuol
Different phenomena are involved in electrc@ration, which
serves to electrically polarise a membrane in order to provide
an electrophoretic force component on charged particles. If the
surface charge of the particles is of the same polarity as the
filter, a force which helps repel the particles from the
membrane and re-enter the bulk stream is realised. Electro-
filtration was modelled by Henry et a~.[“] in a microfiltration
application. Wakeman and Tarletonp21 extensively explored the
use of uniform continuous and pulsed electric fields applied
across tubular and rectangular filter cell geometries. Bowen
and Sabunip3] expanded on the idea of electrically pulsed
membranes to evaluate electrokinetic cleaning of fouled
membranes.
Electrofiltration of BSA solutions has been described by
Radovich and Benham,li4] Muller et a1.1161and Brunner and
Okorol”] to yield considerably higher permeate fluxes than
ultraliltration without the applied steady electric field. An
alternative method of realising electrofiltration will be
presented here, which exploits the geometry of the vortex
mixing cell in order to additionally increase the permeate flux
to levels above vortex mixing alone. The metal deflectors which
are in the form of ladder-rungs will be used an electrode.
Another grid electrode will be at the back of the membrane
(also acting as the membrane support). The electric field which
results is non-uniform; the local field will depend on position in
the cell.
Preliminary studies were performed by Head12i1 with
continuous and intermittent application of the field before
investigations were commenced by these authors. A review of
key parameters will prepare the groundwork for this new
development in electrofiltration.
The i@uence of pressure
A common observation in ultrafiltration is that the permeate
flux is independent of the constant transmembrane pressure at
some limiting pressure. Varyin the pressure, however, yields
interesting results. Gupta et al. k 7l demonstrated that pressure
and flow pulsations superimposed on the inlet flow can
increase permeate flux. Rogers and Sparksl’sl have shown
that intermittent relief of backpressure in a membrane module
can significantly increase flux. And Kennedy et CCZ.[‘~~ have
shown that the flux of a reverse osmosis system experienced a
70% increase by pulsing the feed flow. However, use of
oscillatory flow across the filter (vortex mixing) provides a
greater flux increase than these methods. On the bench rig
used, 1 bar transmembrane pressure was found to be in the
region where increased pressure yielded little or no increased
flux with 10 g/l BSA solution.
The ir&ence of cros@ow velocity
Increasing the crossflow velocity generally increases the
permeate flux in laminar ultrafiltration, but the addition of
the pulsatile (vortex mixing) component decouples the
dependence as the pulsing frequency increases. To understand
this, the use of the peak Reynolds Number is convenient:
TA kR &in
Re, = L+-
2wv 2wv
where Ap is the face area of the oscillating piston (m2), k is
the piston stroke (m), 0 is the frequency (Hz), w is the width
of the membrane cell (m) , v is the kinematic viscosity (m2/kg),
and Qin is the inlet flow rate (m3/s).
The first term on the right-hand side of equation (1) is the
pulsatile contribution, and the second term is the (much
smaller) steady flow contribution. In the steady flow runs, with
no oscillatory flow, the first term to the right is zero. Figure 3
compares the permeate flux increase as a function of crossflow
velocity. For the non-oscillatory flow case, an increase is
observed. To a lesser extent, an increase is seen at 2 Hz
pulsing, and less at 4.5 Hz. As the pulsing increases, the slope of
the line decreases.
45Hzpalsing
i I 1 I
0 I I I 8
0 2 4 6 6 10
cm6aflow vdocity, cmkc
Flgure 2. The effect of Increating oroutlow veloolty on the
rectangular uitraflltratlon oell (BSA 1 wt%, pH 7).

274 May 1994 Flltratlon & Separatlon


As a typical point, the arrows show the influence of 2 Hz
oscillatory (vortex mixing) flow across the membrane cell
when compared to non-oscillatory flow at the crossflow velocity
of 4.2 cm/s. The Reynolds Numbers of the two points are
considerably different: equation (1) yields Re = 42 for the
steady, non-oscillatory case, and Re = 308 for the 2 Hz ulsed
case. Investigators into vortex mixing such as Sobey[sp have
ignored the second term to the right of equation (1) because
the steady flow term is negligible compared to the oscillatory
term.
The velocity of 4.2 cm/s was used in most experiments
because it seemed to be adequate. The peak Reynolds Number
at 8.4 Hz (maximum pulsing possible) and with a piston stroke
of 10 mm (maximum displacement possible) which resulted
was Re, = 1270. Shear-sensitive fluids such as blood require
low Reynolds Numbers during processing. At lower pulsing (i.e.
2 or 4.5 Hz) the vortex mixing provides relatively gentle
stresses on the fluid passing through the filter. With the
positive displacement pump and filter cell used, it was found
that transmembrane pressure was easy to maintain, and
diafiltration volumes easy to maintain at the selected
flowrate. Doubling the flowrate had very little influence on
the permeate flux.
The i@luence of the channel gap between membranes
An increase in channel gap will reduce the frictional pressure
drop for the system, resulting in decreased pumping costs.
However, the electrical power consumption of electrofiltration
is proportional to the gap between the membranes, and since
the cost component is much greater for electrical power than
for pumping power, a smaller gap is favoured.
The iqfluence of the spacing between ladder rungs
Two ladder spacings have been studied in the context of these
studies: 3 mm and 4 mm. No differences were found between
them, except for steady flow (no oscillations or electric field
applied), when the 3 mm ladder spacing yielded permeate
fluxes approximately 10 - 20% greater than the 4 mm spacing.
Electrical considerations
In order to electrically polarlse a filter membrane, a counter-
electrode needs to be immersed in the filtration cell. When the
electric field is applied, an electrolytic cell is created.
Electrodeposition occurs when charged particles deposit on
the charged surface of the ladder-rung electrode. The charged
particles are completely charge-neutralised on contact. Elec-
trolysis of the solvent fluid occurs with electrodeposition, and
continuously increases the local electrolyte concentration at the
ladder-rung surface. Del Plco [‘01 described a critical time for a
fixed deposit to form, as well as the accumulation mechanisms.
,005
titlal d&tiled : : .:
Note that the electrified BSA
flti exceeds the bitid
waterflux’ ..
Figure 4 (above). Permeete flux wtth time: electrtfied + contrd.
Figure 5 (right). pH drop in continuous electroftlter
Filtration & Separation May 1994
ANCEDULTRAFILTRATI
Electrode reactions occur at the metal ladder-rung anode ( + )
which release iron ions in the form of Fe3 at a rate
proportional to the current-carrying ability of the solvent. An
iron hydroxide floe forms due to dissolution at the anode of
iron and the chemical reaction with OH- ions migrating in the
opposite direction.
Insulating the ladder anode is one method of protecting the
metal surface, but the insulation can flake off at pinholes by
electrolytic reaction, and more importantly, the electrical field
will be reduced. For example, an anode ladder with no
insulation yielded a flux 33% higher than a well insulated
ladder at 2000 s into electrofiltration. Unfortunately, as the
metal is dissolved (easily measured by comparing the mass of
the ladder before and after electrofiltering), there is a
deposition of charged species on the ladder-rung surfaces. By
ordinary UV spectrophotometry, the absorbance spectrum of
the retentate can be seen to increase, indicating generation of
additional species in the retentate stream. The creation of an
ionic contaminant during protein ultrafiltration is not a good
thing; without the spectrophotometer, the naked eye can see
that the retentate solution becomes darker with time. A well
insulated ladder yields lower permeate fluxes, but spectro-
photometric analysis showed no changes in retentate absor-
bance (indicating unmeasurable quantities of the generated
hydroxide product). The fluxes realised are much more stable
than those of the uninsulated ladder (which decrease at a
much faster rate). A difficulty with the use of insulation on the
ladder electrode is that the overall ladder size increases, as
does the area of the membrane which is blinded by the rungs.
The concept of creating a sweeping electric field, which
electrically activates a portion of the filter cell for a brief period,
then moves to an adjacent section for a brief period, and so on
before returning the first section again, and which provides
grounding of the sections after electrical activation, was
explored. The pulsatile flow system for creation of vortex
mixing to reduce concentration polarisation at the membrane
surface also helps to sweep away proteins which are on the
verge of electrodeposition on the ladder-rungs during the brief
electrically active cycle.
With aqueous or non-aqueous systems, the maximum
electric field which can be applied is limited by Joule heating
(electroheating)
Additional electrical considerations arise from the increase
in the rate of desalting. A drop in conductivity of the retentate
and of pH can be seen. The latter quantity is of interest in
protein filtration, because pH 7 protein solutions undergoing
ordinary diafiltration require infrequent addition of buffer to
maintain the pH. Use of an applied electric field greatly
increases the required addition of buffer. Without addition of
buffer, the solution pH quickly drops. At the isoelectric point,
.’
0 COnsbttt electric field
+ pulsed.
 ANCEDULTRAFILTRATION
Figure 6. Diagram ot membrane
filtration system on the left (illu-
strated: Farnell E40 electric
Dower supply, pulsatlle flow
wmp ba6r at UF cell ends), and
#n the right a close-up of the
nternal ladder deflector Inside
the UF cell.
Distance between ladder rungs = 4
mm (36 rungs/filter cell). height of
ladder rungs = 1 mm, all-stainless-
steel construction. When in place in
the cell, the ladder is pressed
between two rectangular mem-
branes (as shown in cross-section
in Figure 2) to create the vortex
mixing ultrafiltration channel during
pulsatile flow.

the pH where there is no net surface charge on the particle (i.e.
pH 4.8 for BSA solutions), the electrical field has no effect on
the particles, and can no longer assist in repelling them from
the membrane. The continued use of the electric field will drop
the pH below the isoelectric point, resulting in a net surface
charge on the particles opposite to the membrane. At this
point, the membrane quickly fouls because it now attracts the
oppositely charged solute. Figure 4 shows the effect of an
unbuffered pH 7 BSA solution which was subjected to a
continuous DC field. It is seen that the permeate flux is much
greater than that of identical controls (non-electrified) for an
initial period, but then it drops as the pH drops and becomes
much worse than the control.
Figure 5 shows the time required for an unbuffered pH 7
solution of BSA to drop from pH 7 to pH 6.6 when a constant
electric field is applied, as well as a uniform, pulsed electric
field (on for 1 s in every 15 s). Although it appears that the
pulsed field overcomes the need for constant buffer addition, it
will be shown later than the increased permeate flux realised
with this pulsing is minimal (see Figure 12, bottom curve).
Addition of buffer to maintain pH prolongs the highest
permeate flux. With BSA solutions, the long-term flux at
alkaline pH (i.e. pH 9) is greater than at neutral pH. When
combined with vortex mixing, the constant DC field offers an
additional increase in permeate flux. The benchtop rig is
illustrated in Figure 6, with an enlarged view of the internal
ladder deflector. The photograph in Figure 7 shows the
experimental system, and Figure 8 provides a close-up of the
filter cell using the continuous DC ladder.
By maintaining a constant pH with addition of buffer, long-
term permeate fluxes can be maintained. Figure 9 presents the
permeate flux as a function of protein concentration for the
operating ultrafiltration regimes of flat-channel (no ladder
deflector) flow,;steady flow over a 4 mm ladder deflector;
oscillatory (vortex mixing) flow over the ladder at 2 Hz pulsing;
steady flow across a continuous DC electrified device; and
combined electrofiltration with vortex mixing.
The problems associated with the application of the

Figure 7 (above left). Electrofll-

tratlonivortex mlxlng laboratory
rig.
(A) Reservoirs, with distilled water
on left and BSA solution with
Citenco mixer unit on right; (B)
Variable positive-displacement
feed pump; (C) Ultrafiltration cell;
(D) Permeate collection container
on Sartorius scale (output to PC-
compatible computer, not shown).
(top left)

Figure 8 (left). Ultrafilter cell

mounted on vortex mlxlng plat-
form.
(A) Feed inlet connection; (B)
Permeate outlet connections, with
one per membrane side; (C)
Retentate outlet; (D) Back-pres-
sure control valve (left)

276 May 1994 Filtration & Separatlcn


continuous electric field result from electrodeposition of the
protein on the ladder-rungs and generation of unwanted
electrolytic compounds in the retentate stream. The use of
alternating electric fields overcame the pa-drop problem
during several trials, but no increases in flux were realised,
possibly because during the intervals when the membrane was
Flltratlon& Separation May 1994
ANCEDULTRAFILTRATI
Plgure 9. Permeate flux versus protein concentration from 0.1
to 2.0 wt% WA solutions malntalned at pll 9, and subjected to
Rve different filtration reglmes.
Electric field improvement is similar to that of vortex mixing at 2 Hz,
and when both are applied simultaneously, further performance
improvement is realised. The potential difference maintained across
the cell was IO V (DC), which yields a varying electric field from 50 to
200 V/cm depending on location within the cell (an ‘average field’ of
125 V/cm can be used), and the stroke of IO mm refers to pistons
which provide an internal displacement of IO mm (at two sides of
the cell) in opposing directions in a sinusoidal manner. When
subjected to identical tests, pH 7 solutions of BSA yield permeate
flux levels which are approximately 70% of those attained at pH 7.
Data taken from Alani, Head’“] and Jurado.
polarised with a positive charge, the negatively charged
proteins fouled the surface.
It was decided that the ladder geometry could be adopted to
produce a sweeping electrical field, by electrically isolating nine
adjacent sets of four rungs which would allow an electrical
switching circuit to send an electric field down the cell. The
cathodes behind the membranes would remain stainless-steel
grids, but the ladder anode became nine individual anode
sections, which would be electrically activated for a specified
time, and then grounded-out while the adjacent anode section
was electrically activated. Geometrically, the ladder for the
sweeping electric field is identical to that for the continuous
field. Instead of all-stainless-steel construction, it is flexible
(the ladder rungs are separated by insulating materials).
Flgure 10. Sweeping electric
fleld ultraflkratlon cell (opened).
(A) Each electric lead is connected
to four ladder-deflector rungs; (B)
The sections of four electrically
connected rungs are isolated from
other sections by rubber support/
sealing gasket at top, and Perspex
spacer at bottom; (C) 1 mm-high
rungs constructed of stainless-
steel: (D) Stainless-steel grid cath-
odes also act as membrane sup-
port, through which permeate
flows into channels.
Plgure 11. Sweeping Reid-vortex
mlxlng ultrafllter cell.
(A) Feed inlet; (B) Permeate outlet
(one per membrane); (C) Electric
(anode) lead; (D) Retentate outlet
and cathode lead; (E) Perspex cell
body; (F) Back-pressure control
valve (on the retentate return-to-
feed-reservoir line). Not shown is
the custom-built electrode-switch-
ing unit, Farnell power supply,
permeate collection scale (Sartor-
ius) and data acquisition PC.
277
 ANCEDULTRAFILTRATION
0.001,
IO g/L BSA solution at pH 7

0.0017

]. 0.00‘0

0.001*

0.00,
0 2 10 16 20 22

@pu8dlbhthl-*vde

Figure 12. Permeate flux comparison for 1 wt% BSA solution

ultrafiltration (pi4 7) under non-oscillatory flow conditions.
.oolO
Internal ladder serves as both flow deflector and counter-electrode. 0 5 10 15 20

Applied sweeping potential. Vdc

Figure 13. The effect of vortex mixing and eiectrofiitration in

Figure 10 is a photograph of the ladder anode and the grid
cathodes (which also serve as the membrane support), and
Figure 11 is a photograph of the cell when in use.
It was found that 0.5 s was required to charge each anode
section to the desired voltage, and 0.5 s was required for
grounding-down. All data which will be presented next utilise a
2 s dwell at the desired voltage before the next section of ladder
anode is activated.
Figure 12 shows the effect of the moving field on permeate
flux at varying applied potential differences of pH 7 BSA
solutions (no vortex mixing). As the field is cycled off (i.e. 30 s
active sweep across all anode sections followed by 30 s pause
sweeping again), the performance decreases. It can be seen
from the Figure that the sweeping field can surpass continuous
DC field application, even when switched off for 30 s between
sweeps. The increase is due to the great reduction of
electrodeposited protein on the ladder anode when the
sweeping field is utilised.
The application of vortex mixing when combined with
electrofiltration is seen in Figure 13. It is interesting to note
combination for 1 wt?4 BSA solution ultrafiltration (pH 7).
Note that the bottom curve of this plot is the top curve of the plot in
Figure 12. and that the effect of vortex mixmg alone can be seen by
studymg the data points at 0 V (DC).
that increasing the oscillatory pulse frequency above 4.5 Hz
makes ,no real difference in permeate flux, and to observe that
the benefit of increasing the voltage differential across the cell
from 10 to 20 V (DC) is much less than that from changing
from 0 to 10 V (DC).
Sufficient data are now available to compare the economics
of conventional ultrafiltration, electrofiltration, and combined
electrofiltration/vortex mixing in a design problem. The two
important design and cost parameters are filter area and
electrical power consumption.
Rautenbach and Albrecht P21 described a continuous unit
which could concentrate protein solutions from 1 to 10 wt% at
4 bar operating pressure (Figure 14). We will look at an

c whey

I stage 1

stage 2
lOwt%

gure 14. Continuous protein concentration ultrafiitration 2Owt%

system. /

LTI
The ultrafilter modules can be considered as one stage of
processmg; product leaving this stage could be further concen-
trated in subsequent stages. (above) stage 3
25wt%
Figure 15. Cascade multistage ultrafiltration system to be
used in the design exampie. (right)

278 May 1994 Filtration h Separation


Table 1. Required membrane area and power for
membrane filtration in the example.
Filtration regime Area, cm* Electrification power
(all stages), W
Flat channel 32,688 - Power consumption for pumps will be approximately the
(steady flow)
_ system are presented in Appendix B. Table 1 summarises the
Deflectors 14,948
(steady flow)
Electrofiltration 8706 13,925
(steady flow)
Electrofiltration 5639 23.745
(vortex mixing)
example which requires a higher concentration, and which will
require a multistage system (Figure 15).
Before proceeding with the design example, an empirical
relationship based on laboratory data is required in order to
calculate the permeate flux (J cm/s) for stages 1,2 and 3. The
simple derivation starts with the film model, which yields:
J = Jo + GLEE
where JO is the solute flux without electrofiltration, PE is the
electrophoretic mobility of the solute (cm/s x cm/V), and E is
the applied electric field (V/cm).
Unfortunately, this theoretical approach can predict greater
flux than is actually realised, so a data-baaed empirical
relationship is derived which results in (see Appendix A):
Jo= 1 - 0.173 In 5
J(G) 0 Cl
where J(Ci) is the permeate flux from stage i, Ci is the
concentration of solute in permeate at stage i, and Cl is the
concentration of solute in permeate at stage 1.
The permeate flow at each stage of Figure 15 is found via a
material balance:
Qp = Qi(l -g) I (4)
where QH is the permeate volumetric flow at stage i, Qi is the
feed volumetric flow at stage i, and Ci is the concentration of
solute in permeate at stage i.
Equations (2)) (3) and (4) are now utilised in the following
design example.
Design problem
A 1 w-t% (10 g/l) mainly albumin protein solution at pH 9 at a
conductivity of 80 @/cm (equivalent to 3600 ppm NaCl
solution) is the feed at 10,000 l/day. We want a first-
approximation design for a system which will concentrate the
protein to 25 wt% (250 g/l). Specifically, membrane areas for
the three stages of Figure 15 are required for four systems:
traditional ultrafiltration without internal deflectors; ultratil-
tration with internal deflectors; continuous electrified ultra-
filtration (no pulsatile flow); and (pulsatile flow) vortex
mixing-with-continuous electrified ultrafiltration. We make the
assumption that the laboratory data on pure BSA solutions are
sufficient for the design (when no better data are available).
The membrane material will be Dow FSGlPP (20,000 NMWCO),
or an alternative made of polysulfone such as Dow GR60
(NMWCO 26,000), both of which have very similar flux
performance. The reason for the latter membrane would be
Flltratton 8 Separatlon May 1994
ANCEDULTRAFILTRATI
that because it has a greater resistance to alkaline detergent
solutions which could be more readily used for periodic
cleaning.
The electric field available will be the same as from the
benchtop unit, varying from 50 to 200 V/cm (with an average of
125 V/cmh. The electrophoretic mobility is available in the
literature1 31as approximately 4 x 10K5 cm/s cm/V for BSA at
pH 8 in ionic strength of 0.05 M buffer.
same in all cases. All calculations for the continuous electrified
areas and electrical power consumption estimates for the four
systems. As can be seen, reducing the filter area saves costs in
materials, but will raise costs in energy.
Power consumption estimation
Power consumption (in watts) is baaed on electrification and
pumping under laminar flow conditions. For the latter power
which must be calculated for each stage, the length of the
membrane filter channel is required (calculated by dividing QH
by the area A of each stage).
Pumping power is given by
Pp = 2 x 10-7
(” :tL)
where Qp is the permeate flow (cm3/s), Re is the average
Reynolds Number, p is the viscosity (g/cm s) , L is the length of
the flow channel, w is the (spacing) width of the membrane
(2) gap (cm), and p is the density (g/ml).
Note that the pumping power decreases with the cube of the
membrane spacing. The power used for electrification is much
greater than that used for pumping. The electrical power
consumed can be estimated (over-estimated, in fact) by using
Bier’s equation (22), where electrical power is given by
where Qp is the permeate flow (cm3/s), K is the conductivity of
solvent (mho/cm), pe is the electrophoretic mobility of solute
([cm/s]/p/cm]), A is the membrane area (cm2), and w is the
(spacing) width of the membrane gap (cm).
Conclusions
Laboratory experiments with electrofiltration of Dow FSGlPP
UF membranes have demonstrated that permeate flux can be
increased by use of electrification, pulsatile flow across the
membrane (to reahse vortex mixing), and by a combination of
both fields. The vortex mixing is real&d by oscillatory flow
over ladder rung-like deflectors in the ultraiiltration channel,
which creates standing vortex waves which serve to clean the
membrane. Optimal performance is realised with oscillatory
flow across the rectangular membrane cell between 2 and 4.5
Hz, and with a sweeping electrical field varying from 40 to 200
V/cm imposed across the cell. Under these conditions, the
benefits offered by each applied field are additive to a great
degree. The sweeping field in combination with the oscillatory
flow prevents problems of electrodeposition from occurring.
A partial design on an example ultrafiltration problem has
been detailed in order to compare the effects in terms of
required membrane areas, by using the applied electrical field
and vortex mixing on a large-scale process design (compared
with traditional ultratiltration). Equations have been pre-
sented to estimate the power which will be used during
electrofiltration, and it is seen that the penalty of using
electrofiltration is the use of additional power. This additional
operational expense must be costed against the savings in
membrane area which are real&d in electrofiltration.
Acknowledgments
Dow Separation Systems Ltd has kindly provided membrane
materials to the Medical Engineering Unit, and its assistance is
279
 CEDULTRAFILTRATION
appreciated. Biwater Treatment Ltd has also kindly purchased Appendix A: Derivation of empirical expression to
BSA for use in experiments, and the authors wish to thank the calculate the permeate flux for stases 1 - 8
company and Dr S. Alani, research manager at Biwater The familiar film model is:
Treatment, for his encouragement. Dr L. Terrasenko, Dr I. J.
Sobey, Dr H. Millward and Mr S. Najarian are also acknowl-
edged for their advice and suggestions.
J,=kln
(>
g

where Jo is the solute flux without electrofiltration, C, is the

References
concentration of solute at the membrane surface, and CB is the
1 Nabetani, H. et al.: ‘Effects of osmotic pressure and adsorption concentration of solute in the bulk flow.
;;7~lt9rl$&ratmn of ovalbumin’, AXhE J., 1990, 36(6) pp. When applied to electrofiltration, the increased permeate
flux can be included in an additional term:
2 Aimar, P. and Field, R.: ‘Limiting flux in membrane separations:
A model based on the viscosity dependency of the mass transfer
coefficient’, Chem. Eng. Sci., 1992,47(3), pp. 579- 586. J=kln 2 +peE
( >
3 Rautenbach, R. and Albrecht, R.: ‘Membrane processes’ (Verlag,
1989), p. 255. which is equivalent to
4 Bellhouse, B.J. and Lewis, R.W.H.:‘A high efficiency membrane
separator for donor plasmapheresis’, Am. Sot. Art@ Znt. Organs J = Jo + pe E &?a)
Zkans., 1988,34(3) pp. 747- 754.
where JO is the solute flux without electrofiltration (cm/s), pe
5 Sobey, I.J.: ‘Observation of waves during oscillatory channel is the electrophoretic mobility of the solute (cm/s x cm/V),
flow, J. Fluid Mech., 1985, 151, p. 397.
and E is the applied electric field (V/cm).
6 DeBlois, B.: ‘The vortex wave with application to cross-flow This can be expanded to
filtration’. DPhil thesis, Universityof Oxford, UK, 1991.
7 Alani, S.: Unpublished data, Medical Engineering Unit, J=a+/3lnCs c-43)
Universityof Oxford, UK, 1992.
wherecu=p,E+klnC,andP=-k.
8 Shen, J.J. and Probstein, R.F.: ‘Turbulence promotion and
hydrodynamic optimization in an ultrafiltration process’, Znd. Letting J(Ci) and .Z(Cs) represent the permeate flux at
Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 1979, 18 (3)) pp. 647 - 654. different protein concentrations, we rearrange equation (A3)
as follows:
9 Poyen, S. et al.: ‘Improvement of the flux of permeate in
ultrafiltration by turbulence promotors’, Znt. Chem. Eng., 1987,
27(3), pp. 441-447. J(Cl) - J(Cz) = /3 In 2
10 Mlyashita, H. et al.: ‘Flow behavlour and augmentation of the 0
mass transfer rate in a rectangular duct with a turbulence which can be rearranged again:
promoter’, Znt. Chem. Eng., 1981, 21(4), pp. 646-657.
11 Henry, J.D., Lawler, L.F. and Kuo, C.H.A.: ‘A solid/liquid Jo
separation process based on cross flow and electrofiltration’, =l+yln 2
AXhE J., 1977, 6, p. 851. J(G) 0
12 Wakeman,R.J.and Tarleton, E.S.: ‘Membrane fouling prevention where y = p/J(Cl).
in crossflow microfiltration by the use of electric fields’, Chem. Eng. Applying laboratory data for the BSA solutions which have
Sci., 1987,42, p. 829; see also Tarleton, E.S.: PhD thesis, University been studied into equation (A@, using the third curve (from
of Exeter, UK 1986. top or bottom) in Figure 9 at pH 9 BSA solution at 1 g/l (JO =
13 Bowen, W.R. and Sabuni, HAM.: ‘Pulsed electrokinetic cleaning 0.0036 from the curve) and extrapolating JO at 26 g/l (=
of cellulose acetate microfiltration membranes’, Znd. Eng. Chem. 0.0016) yields:
Res., 1992, 31, pp. 615-523.
14 Radovich, J.M. and Benham, B.: ‘Concentration ultraliltration
and diafiltration of albumin with an electric field’, Sep. Sci. 62 =l+yln y (A6)
0
Technol., 1983, 18(3), pp. 215-222.
15 Mullon, C., Radovich, J.M. and Benham, B.: ‘A semiempirical so that y = -0.173. Substitution into equation (AS) yields:
model for electrofiltration-diaiiltration’, Sep. Sci. & Technol., 1986,
20, p. 63. Jo= 1 - 0.173 In 2 (A71
16 Brunner, G. and Okoro, E.: ‘Reduction of membrane fouling by J(G) 0
means of an electric field during ultrafiltration of protein
solutions’, Ber. Busenges. Phys. Chevn., 1989, 93, pp. 1026- 1032. which provides the permeate flux for stages l-3. Equation
17 Gupta, B.B., Blanpain, P. and JafYrin, M.Y.: ‘Permeate flux (A2) provides a starting flux for stage 1 by using measured
enhancement by pressure and flow pulsations in microfiltration values of JO, pe and E. The result of equation (AZ) is used in
with mineral membranes’, J. Membrane Sci., 1987, 70, pp. equation (A7) for stage 1. Equation (A2) is equivalent to
267 - 266. equation (2) and equation (A7) is equivalent to equation (3).
18 Rogers, V.GJ. and Sparks, R.E.: ‘Effect of transmembrane
pressure pulsing on concentration polarization’, J. Membrane
sci., 1992,78, pp. 149- 168.
Appendix B: Sample calculation - Solutlon to design
19 Kennedy, TJ. et al.: ‘Improving permeation flux by pulsed problem for continuous dectrofiltration
reverse osmosis’, Chem. Eng. Sci., 1974, 29, pp. 1927- 1931.
Steps 1- 3 are membrane area calculations, while step 4 is a
20 Del Plco, J.: ‘Mechanism of electrodeposition through a low sample power calculation:
polarity liquid’. PhD dissertation, Tufts University, Medford, MA,
USA 1971. (1) The permeate flow at each stage of Figure 16 is found via a
21 Head, R.J.M.: ‘High performance ultrafiltration using vortex material balance:
standing waves and an electric field’. Departmental report,
Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, UK, 1992.
22 Rautenbach, R. and Albrecht, R.: ‘Membrane processes’ (Verlag,
Qpi = Qi (1- g)
1989), p. 258.
23 Mullon, C., Radovich, J.M. and Benham, B.: ‘A semiempirical where Qp is the permeate volumetric flow at stage i, Qi is the
model for electrofiltration-diafdtration’,Sep. Sci. 62Technol., 1986, feed volumetric flow at stage i, and Ci is the concentration of
20, p. 66. solute in the permeate at stage i.
280 May 1994 FlItratIon & Separation
 NCEDULTRAFILTRATI
Note that the permeate flow at each stage is subtracted from flux (Je) through stages 1- 3:
the feed flow at that stage to yield the feed jlow into the next Stage 1: &(lOOg/l) = Je(lOg/l) x (1 - 0.1731n %) = 0.0013 cm3/s
stage, so that:
Stage 2: &(2OOg/l) = Je(lOg/l) x (1 - 0.1731n b) = 0.0010 cm3/s
Stage 1: Qpl = Qr(1 - $,) = lo4 x 0.9 = 9000 l/day = 10.42 cm3/s
Stage 3: 5,(25Og/l) = Je(lOg/l) x (1 - 0.1731n 9) = 0.0009 cm3/s
Stage 2: QPz= Qz(l - i) = 1000 x 0.5 -+ 0.58 cm3/s
(3) The membrane area required at each stage is QP/Je:
Stage 3: Qps = Q3(1 - 2) = 500 x 0.2 - 0.10 cm3/s.
Stage 1: Qpl/J,(lO%) = (a) = 8015 cm*
(2) Calculation of permeate flux at each stage: By applying the Stage 2: Qp2/Je(20%) = (E) = 580 cm*
laboratory equation (2) we can calculate a predicted electro-
filter permeate flux at stage 1: Stage 3: Q,s/J,(25%) = (a) = 111 cm2
The total membrane area required is the sum of the areas of the
J = Jo + PEE (2) three stages: 8706 cm’.
where Jo = 1 wt% (10 g/l) BSA flux without electrofiltration (4) The pumping power is the same for all four cases, and is
( = 0.0016)) pE is the electrophoretic mobility ( = 4 x lop5 less than the electrical power consumed. For constant
cm/s cm/V), and E is the applied electric field ( = 125 V/cm), electrofiltration, the electrical power of each stage is
resulting in predicted J( 1 wt%) = 0.0066 cm/s; the actual flux calculated from equation (6), and overall consumption is the
with feed at 1 wt% concentration with electrofiltration was only sum of all the stages’ consumptions. For stage 1:
0.0021 cm/s. As we want to know the permeate flux at the end
of the concentration cycle of each stage, calculations based on (10.42)* (80 x 10m4) (0.2) = 13550 watts
empirical equation (3) are required. {P,h = (4 x 10-5)2 (8015)
Equation (3) provides a predicted electrofilter permeate

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Filtration & Separatlon May 1994 281

 RACTSOFREFEREEDPAPERS
Electrocoagulation and flotation: Applications in crossflow microfiltration

lzl@
269
Der Emsatz van Ouersfrom-Mrkrofflfration
Elektrokoagulation und Flotation: Einsatz bei der Querstrom-Mikrofiltration
~012M.-l? Pouet und A. Grasmick
ber der Abwasserbehandlung 1st durch Durchdrmgungsstrdmung steigt bei emer 0.1 pm fempongen Membran van 0.02 ms/“?h
Membranverschmutzung aufgrund van Kolfordfrakbon erngeschr8nkt. Ein GroBterl dieser be, unbehandeltem Wasser auf ernen Weft van anntihernd 0.35 m3/m2h be! vorbehan-
Kollordhakbon kann durch Vorbehandlung in absetzbare Part!kelfraktion umgewandelt de/tern Wasser an. (4 s”., 5 abb.. 4 tab, 17 ref J
werden, wober ma” Elektrokoagulatron und Luftflotatlon m!temander verbmdet. D!e

Electrocoagulation et flottation: Application en la microfiltration tangentielle

par M.-l? Pouet et A. Gmsmick
L’ubfrsatron d’une mrcrohltrabon tangent&? an traftement d’eaux us&s est km& par le tractIon collordale an fraction particularre d6cantable. L.? flux de perm&tron sur une
colmatage de la membrane dfie d la fractmn colloidale Un pr&ra!tement assocfant une membrane mrcroporeuse de 0.1 pm passe alors de 0.02 m31&h sur une eau brute B une
Bfectrocoagulatron et une a&oflottatron, permet de transformer une grande partre de cette valeur proche de 0.35 msltih sur une eau pr&ra&e (4 pdgs.. 5 hgs., 4 tabs, 17 r6fs.J

Elictrocoagulacion y flotaclon: apllcaciones en mlcrofiltracion a flujo cruzado

par M.-F. Pouet y A. Grasmick
El empfeo de muofrltracrbn a flujo cruzado en el tratamrento de aguas resrduales se llmlta cons& de el&rocoagulacidn con aeroflotaodn. Se aumerlta el flu/o penetrante co” una
a causa de la obturao6n de membranas por colofdes. Se puede convertir ““a gran parte membrana mrcroporosa 0.1 pm). desde 002 ms/“?h co” agua no tratada, hasta v” valor
de estos colordes en materm particula. la cual se depos!tar& por pretratamwto que que se acerca 0.35 “I s”$
i h co” agua pretratada. (4 pigs, 5
figs, 4 tabs., 17 refs.)

Application of electric fields and vortex mixing for enhanced ultrafiltration

Einsatx von elektrischen Feldern und Wirbelmischung zur verbesserten Ultrafiltration
273
van J. Jurado und B.J. Bellhouse
Durch Anfegen van elektrrschen Feldern her der Ouerstromhltratmn kann .?!“a Verbesserung des bfeche ergeben ach dre hochsten F&atronsraten Proteinabbau sowe dre Probleme
Permeatffusses bewrkt werden Berrchte Ober dvase Filtrabonsart haben fedoch erwesen, daf3 oft elektrofytwher Fallung werden daber vermreden De Auswrrkungen der efektnschen Fefder und
pH-Pufferungsmrttel hmzugefugt werden mlissen oder Elektrodenrsolrerung m dre Behandlung Wfrbelmrschung smd addltw und werden sowohl unabhangig vonemander aIs such kombrnatrv
ernzubwehen 1st.
urn die Ffltrabonsraten bewbehalten. Be, emphndlrchen Losungen we Blut unterwcht. One Analyse eines der Konstruktmnsprobfeme wrd vorgelegt. das srch auf dre
smd

6trea/out&
ou hftration fes plus BfeJs On Bnte arns! la d8gradabon des prot&nes aux! que /es problbmes
une lsolatlon des Electrodes dolt 6tre mcorpor&e SI t’on d&Ire mamtemr /es debIts de hltration. Les d’8lectrod6posftron Les effets des champs Blectrrques et du mOlange par vortex sent addlbfs et
solutrons senwbles comme te sang requrt+rent des condltmns de flux lammaue pour Bvrter la lyse Sent Btudi6s en combmawx? et de facon md6pendante. On presente /‘&de d’un probleme de
celfulaire par cmaillement et le maintlen du pH dans une fourchette Btro,te On pr&ente /es calcul d’mstatlatron pour trouver /a surface membrana~re et /a pussance Bleclrrque requrse en
conditions optrmales qu, fourmssent les d.4brts amt?kor& r_Yuftraf&atron de BSA pour rmrwmser comparant des unit& conventionnelles, conventmnnelles avec d6ffecteurs. avec champ Blectrrque
les temps d’addlbon du tampon On peut ublrser des champs Blertrrques pul&s et de noweax et avec champ Blectnque accompagn6 de mklange par vortex. (9 pigs., 15 hgs.. 1 tab., 23 rGfs J
champs Blectrrques de balayage La combmaison de champs Blectrrques avec le m6lange par

Aplicacion de campos elictricos y agltacion v&lice para aumentar ultrafiltracibn

par J. JUT&O y B.J. Bellhouse
Se puede ame,orar flu/o de/ hftrado a” frltraod” a flu/o cruzado por la apbcacr6” de campos “uevos campos el.&tncos que reg6?ran Una combmacdn de campos e0ctncos con aguao6n
eMctrrcos, pero relates han mdlcado la neces!dad de adrodn de age&s de control de pH o el tlpo vbrtrce, dada por flu/o oscllante sobre deflectores de flu/o de d!seho escalera. produce la
empleo de a6’famIemto de electrode para mantener la vefoodad de tfufo. Solucrones dekcadas tal me/or velocrdad de flujo. Poe eso se ewtan desgradaci6n protema y electrodeposrcrdn. LOS
coma sangre. necesltan condfoones de fluto l8mma para ewtar destrucodn de c6lulas por aco0n efectos so” adltivos, se 10s han estudmdo en combmacdn y separadamente Se presenta un
cortante y .?I mantenamlento dentro una gama especiflca de pH Se presentan condroones analrsis de un drserio para calcutar la superfrcre de la membrana y fuerza et6ctrrca en ef aumento
dptrmas de proveer mefores velocrdades de ultrahltraci6n de albumrna suero bovma para de escala par hater comparacrbn de todos /OS metodos drsponlbles. (9 pigs., 15 hgs.. 1 tab., 23
mmm~sar bempos de ad&n de agentes de pH. Sepueden empiear campos el&ctncos pulsados y refs.J

Crypfosporidium in water: Treatment and monitoring methods

Crypfosporidium im Wasser: Behandlungs- und Uberwachungsmethoden
Izl@ 283 won J. 6Vegor-g
Der Problemberelch van Cryptosporrdwm rm Wasser wrrd kurz zusammengefaBt, wobe! dre ungeergnet Es werden alternatrve, mchtspezihsche ijberwachungsmethoden m Betracht
Wuksamkelt der verfugbaren Behandlungsmethoden erwahnt wrrd. Da herkommlwzhe Desmfek- gezogen, ernschlie8hch Trubung und Parlrkeluberwachung. Es mrd dargelegt. da0 Pamkel ,”
tlon m dlesem Fall oft we/ gerrngere Wirksamkejt a/s be! anderen Krankhertserregern entfaltet, 1st der GrdBenordnung vo” Oozysten srch durch herkdmmkche TriibungsDberwachung mcht genau
es mchtrg. auf physrkahschem Wege hohe Bese!trgungsgrade zu erz~elen. Cryptosporrdrum genug ermitteln lassen, ond dafl sehr geonge Trubung vo” behandeltem Wasser “rcht unbedmgt
Oozysten smd be! elnem Durchmesser van ca. 5 pm fast kugelformrg und dtirften wgentlich mcht bedeuten mui3, da8 kern Cryptospondrum vorhanden 1st Ahnliches g//t fur Gwdrazysten.
schwerrger LU beseftrgen sem a6 andere Partrkel mrt ahnlrchen Efgenschaften Nchtsdestow Partrkelzahlungsgerhte oder em emfacherer Partrkelmomtor. der auf Trubungsschwankungen
nrger kann es ber einer herkomml!chen Behandiung we Flockung - gefolgt van Schnellf!Rration basiert. konnen zuv.?rt&s~ger.? Hmwse auf das Vorhandensern van nur eimge pm umfessenden
durch ein +wlarmedrum - vorkommen. da8 eimge Oozysten mcht abgefangen werden Partrkeln. emschl. Cryptospondrum und Gmrdia, geben. Es werden dre Grundpnnzrpren dleser
Spezifrsche Uberwachungsmethoden firr Cryptosporidwm smd war verfugbar, aber zeitraubend Methoden dargelegt und ermge Ergebmsse van Labortests und Versuchen m Wasserklaranlagen
und daruberhmaus emrgen Unge”au!gkerten ausgesetzt FDr Online-Uberwachung srnd s!e aufgefirhrt. (7 s”., 6 abb., 23 ref.)

Cryptosporldlum dans I’eau: methodes de traitement et de controle

par J. Gregory
Le problbme de Cryptosporrdrum dans l’eau est brr&ement pass6 a” revue en mentmnnant “on sp&rf!ques comme le contrBle de turb!d!t@ et de parbcules On montre que des partwfes
l’effrcacrt6 des methodes de trartement disponrbles. Etant dorm6 qua la d&mtectron dans le domarne granulom6trique des oocystes ne sent pas d&e&es avec sensfb~kt.4 par le
conventionnefle peut Btre bre” mo,“s efflcace que pour les autres pathogenes, I/ est essentlel contre convenbonnel de turbrd#& et qu’une turbidit trb basse de I’eao trartee n’rmplrque pas
de r8alrser de hautes valeurs d%lrmmat!on par mgthodes physiques. Les oocystes de /‘absence de Cryptosporrdum. Des remarques srmilarres s’applrquent aux cystes de Gfardm Les
Cryptosporidium sent presque sph&rques, avec UR d/am&e proche de 5 pm et ne devraient instruments de comptage particulaire ou un contr6le de particules plus srmple base sur /es
pas 6tre plus drffrcrfes a Blrmrner que d’autres partwles de proprr&s simrlarres. NBanmorns, un fluct”atlo”s de la t”rbrdrt6 peuvent fournrr ““e t”d!c.?bon plus habfe de /a prrisence de p&w/es
tra@xwnt clawque comme la floculatlon swe par une h/trabon rap/de sur media granulwe de quefques microns, parm! lesquelles Cryptospondum et Gmrdra. Les pnncrpes de base de ces
peut taciser passer quefques oocystes Des merhodes de contrbfe sp@cifique pour Cryptospor- technrques sent pa&es en revue et /‘on donne quelques r&u/tats d’essa~s de labor&we et sur
rdwm sent drspombles ma& elles demandent du temps et sent sutettes B !rr8gularrt&. El/es ne sent unft6s de traftement d’eau (7 pigs, 6hgs 23 r8fs.J
pas valables pour le contrcile en Bgne. On consid6re des techmques de contr6le alternatwes et

Criptosporidium en agua: tratamiento y mitodos monitorzar

par J. Gregory
Se ha evaluado en resume” et problema de Crrptosporrdwm en agua. co” la efrcacra de 10s mdtodos
cornentes de tratamento Desde que desmfecodn convencmnat puede ser mucho menus ehcaz que co”
otros patdgenos, es rmprescrndrble real~zar un alto nwef de elfminacidn por medlos fisrcos Ooqurstes
Crtptospondrum son cas! esf&cos, con u” dram&m de cerca 5 pm, y deberran no mas drhcrles quitarlos
que otras particulas de caracteristicas parecrdas. Sm embargo, tratamiento convencronal, tatcoma
ftocculaodn, con hltracldn rBprda por medlos granulares permIte el paso de unos ooqurstes. Hay m&dos
especifrcos de momtwzar Cr,plosporrdum. pero estos urge” mucho tlempo y son mcrertos y no rndrcados
para observacl6” contmua a llnea Se consideran t&nrcas no especifrcas de control, que mcluyen
turbrdldad y el monltorlzar de particulas. Se demuestra que no se puede percrbrr la gama de tamafios de
ooqulstes con preusidn suficrente por metados convencronales de medrr turbrdrdab ““a turbfdfdad muy
bafa en agua tratada no da a entender la ausenc~a de Crrptosporrdmm. El case de qurstes de Giardra es
pareudo lnstrumentos de contar pa&u/as o u” m&do mas senotlo de observar las fluctuacrones de
turbrdrdad provean rndrcacrones mas de confianza de /a presanoa de particu/as de pocos mrcronos.
mcluyendo las de Crrplospondmm y Grardra. Se evaluan los prrncrpros b&cos de estas tOc”lcas y se
presentan 10s resultados de pruebas a escala laboratorio y en plantas para el tratamiento de agua (7
pBgs.. 6 frgs, 23 refs J

May 1994