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ScienceDirect
Applications of high pressure for healthier foods
Laurence Pottier1, Gina Villamonte2 and Marie de Lamballerie1
High pressure processing is an innovative food preservation
technique alternative to thermal treatment, which currently
experiences widespread industrial development. Although high
pressure effects on microorganisms have been studied for
years, current research focuses on its potential use to develop
healthier food products. This review presents the effects of high
pressure on food constituents and highlights both the use of
high pressure to reduce food additives and salt as well as its
potential to improve digestibility and reduce allergenicity,
particularly because of the high pressure effects on protein
structure. The lack of in vivo studies needed to assess the
improvement of digestibility and reduction of allergenicity on
humans is highlighted.
Addresses
1
UMR CNRS 6144 GEPEA, CS 82225, ONIRIS, Food Process
Engineering, 44322 Nantes Cedex 3, France
2
CELABOR, Research and Testing Centre in Food, Packaging and
Environmental Technologies, avenue du Parc, 38, 4650 Chaineux,
Belgium
Corresponding author: de Lamballerie, Marie (marie.de-
lamballerie@oniris-nantes.fr)
Current Opinion in Food Science 2017, 16:21–27
This review comes from a themed issue on Innovation in food
science
Edited by Nuria Acevedo
For a complete overview see the Issue and the Editorial
Available online 8th July 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2017.06.009
2214-7993/ã 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
The effect of high pressure on microorganisms and food
constituents has been known since the end of the 19th
century [1].
However, the industrial development of high pressure in
the food industry dates back to the 1980s and in 1990 in
Japan it led to the first product marketed by high pressure
(fruit jelly).
At the same time, in the United States and Canada, the
high pressure process has been authorized in the produc-
tion of ready-to-eat meat products to control the risk
associated with Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria-free). Dur-
ing the same time period in Europe, the Novel Food
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Regulation of 1997 [2] tended to slow down the develop-
ment of this process. The new European regulation,
which came out at the end of 2015 [3] will facilitate
the development of this technology, simplifying proce-
dures and reducing the delay required to authorize the
commercialization of products.
Faced with the growing consumer demand for healthier
and less processed products, manufacturers adjust their
production while maintaining the sanitary quality and
shelf life of their products. In this context, thermal
preservation of food is limited by the changes in texture,
color, flavor and nutritional value; thus, high pressure
processing may be a solution for manufacturers.
In the food industry, the high pressure process operates
discontinuously on a packaged product (usually under
vacuum) to avoid the risks of contamination after treat-
ment. Packaging must be flexible to support up to
600 MPa. The product is introduced into the cylindrical
treatment vessel, which is typically horizontal with an
internal volume ranging from 50 to 525 L for industrial
devices currently available commercially. Subsequently,
the vessel is filled with water and then pressurized using a
high pressure pump that can inject water up to 600 MPa.
The pressure is maintained for a holding time (usually 1–
5 min) and then the opening of a valve causes quasi-
instantaneous depressurization of the vessel. The entire
process is conducted at a temperature between 4 C and
20 C. The horizontal design respects the go-forward
principle and increases productivity (Figure 1).
Since the early 1990s, the number of industrial machines
in production has continuously increased, reaching
385 machines by 2016, mainly located in North America
(including Mexico) and Europe.
The productivity of the process depends on the filling rate
of the vessel and therefore on the shape of the product.
During the treatment, the pressure is distributed uni-
formly and instantaneously throughout the volume,
allowing a homogeneous treatment of the product and
facilitating its industrial development.
Because the high pressure was first developed as an
alternative to thermal treatment for food preservation,
the effects of high pressure on microorganisms have been
mainly studied. The results show that molds and yeasts
are more pressure-sensitive than vegetative cells and that
bacterial spores are pressure-resistant. The sensitivity of
microorganisms to high pressure is dependent on pH,
Current Opinion in Food Science 2017, 16:21–27
22 Innovation in food science
Figure 1
Vessel plug
Loading Basket
Closing Vessel
Water injection
through high
pressure pump
Pressurization
Treatment
Depressurization
Vessel Opening
Unloading Basket
High pressure industrial vessel: loading/unloading.
water activity, salt content and food substrates [4,5]. In
most cases, inactivation of microorganisms by high pres-
sure can be characterized by a chemical kinetics approach
[6]. Briefly, microorganisms are more pressure-sensitive
in buffers than in food matrices, at low pH and high water
activity. In almost all cases, products have to be stored at
refrigerated temperatures before consumption [7].
The aim of this study is to present the current research to
develop healthier food products by means of high pres-
sure processing. First, the effects of high pressure on food
constituents, proteins in particular, are presented. Then,
the potential of high pressure to develop healthier food
products is highlighted. Three aspects are discussed: the
reduction of additives and salt, the improvement of
digestibility and bioavailability and the potential decrease
of allergenicity.
Overview of the effects of high pressure on
food constituents
Le Châtelier’s principle, which applies to an equilibrium
system, explains in part the effect of pressure on food
constituents: mainly, a shift of the equilibrium toward
decreasing the system volume upon applying pressure.
The total effect of pressure involves the irreversibility of
the reactions caused by pressure that remains in actual
food constituents upon decreasing pressure. In this con-
text, because the volumes of food constituents, consisting
mainly of macromolecules and water, depend mainly on
the low-energy bonds (ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds) that
Current Opinion in Food Science 2017, 16:21–27
Vessel
Vessel plug
Basket
Vessel
Current Opinion in Food Science
fluctuate greatly, but not on the high-energy bonds (cova-
lent bonds) that are stable under pressure, we can under-
stand why vitamins are not significantly affected by
pressure, whereas proteins, lipids and water are strongly
affected.
High pressure effects on water
Water intervenes in two ways during high pressure treat-
ment. On one hand, water is the major constituent of most
food products. On the other hand, it serves as a pressure
transmitting fluid during the process. As the compress-
ibility of water decreases under pressure, the volume
reduction at 20 C is 4% at 100 MPa, 7% at 200 MPa
and 15% at 600 MPa [8]. At the same time, this adiabatic
compression is accompanied by a moderate temperature
increase, varying according to the rate of pressurization.
At 25 C, the order of magnitude of this increase is 3 C per
100 MPa, but can be limited by thermal exchanges
between the water and the vessel [9].
Additionally, under pressure, the ionic product of the
water increases, leading to a pH decrease reversible upon
depressurization [10]. However, this transient phenome-
non can have important consequences on the treated
product (gelation, emulsification, texture, etc.).
The application of high pressures up to 210 MPa results
in the lowering of the melting point of the water, enabling
negative temperatures without the formation of crystals
[11].
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 High pressure processing: an innovative tool in food science Pottier, Villamonte and de Lamballerie 23
High pressure effects on lipids
Two characteristics of lipids are affected by high pres-
sure treatment: the melting temperature and the level of
oxidation. The melting temperature increases reversibly
with applied pressure level at a rate of 20 C per 100 MPa
[12]. This may result in the crystallization of lipids under
pressure and therefore changes in their biomembranes,
leading to potential increase in permeability, leakage of
cell contents, and inactivation of microorganisms. A
number of studies have concluded that oxidation accel-
erates after high pressure treatment, but this remains
controversial and is very dependent on the matrix stud-
ied [13].
High pressure effects on proteins
Proteins are macromolecules that generally exist in aque-
ous environments in equilibria among different confor-
mations, namely, oligomers, monomers, partially dena-
tured monomers and denatured monomers, whose
effective volume (partial volume) decreases in this order
with increasing hydration [14]. Therefore, upon applying
pressure, Le Châtelier’s principle shifts the equilibrium
to a lower volume of the system, thereby promoting
dissociation of oligomers, denaturation of monomers,
etc., the extent of which depends on the protein and
the level of pressure applied [15]. Because proteins are
found in high concentrations in food substances, the
above pressure-induced reactions are not fully reversible,
but tend to cause irreversible aggregation and gelation of
proteins [16,17]. Furthermore, high pressure treatment
can trigger the formation of disulfide bonds. For instance,
treatment of milk at 200 MPa caused b-lactoglobulin to
form disulfide-bonded dimers [18]. These effects of pres-
sure on food proteins can induce texture and color mod-
ifications, especially in meat and meat products (exam-
ples shown in Figure 2). Moreover, reactions that depend
on protein structure can be modified by pressure, thereby
changing its function (modification of the active site of
enzymes, masking or better access of epitopes, etc.)
[19,20,21].
High pressure effects on carbohydrates
The high pressure process has few effects on the simple
sugars that are formed with high-energy covalent bonds.
However, high pressure can modify carbohydrates con-
sisting of chains of sugars connected by low-energy
bonds. Thus, high pressure treatment causes a swelling
of starch, which can result in a gelatinization approaching
that obtained thermally [22,23]. Pectin and alginate also
exhibit different thickening and gelling properties after
pressurization [23].
How high pressure can contribute to
production of healthier food
Recent studies on high pressure processing applied to
food (Figure 3) focus on developing products with health
benefits. These benefits can be obtained either indirectly
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Figure 2
0.1 100 200 300 400 500 600 MPa
Salmon
Cod
Beef
Chicken
PROK
Current Opinion in Food Science
Color of raw fish fillets (cod salmon) and meat pieces (beef, chicken,
pork) after high pressure treatments (from 0.1 to 600 MPa, 5 min,
20 C).
by reducing the need for additives (e.g. salt, antimicro-
bials or antioxidants) or using natural ones or directly by
reducing allergenicity and improving digestibility and
bioavailability.
High pressure and clean label products
High pressure processing is a technology for preserving
foods without the use of additives. New approaches for
clean label products consider high pressure as a texturing
technology and as an additional hurdle. For example, the
effect of high pressure in meat proteins enables the
reduction of salt and polyphosphates content in meat
products. The functional properties (texture, water reten-
tion capacity and cooking loss) could be maintained by
the denaturation and the solubility of pressure-treated
myofibrillar proteins. For instance, several studies have
focused on the use of an NaCl replacer, such as KCl,
combined with high pressure to reduce sodium in meat
products, which is a major factor in increasing blood
pressure [24]. Others studies focused on the effect of
NaCl reduction without any replacer associated with high
pressure. In the case of low-phosphate sausages prepared
with pressure-treated raw minced meat (150 MPa, 5 min),
the NaCl reduction from 2.5 to 1% does not affect
emulsion stability, water retention capacity, or texture
attributes, such as juiciness, hardness and adhesiveness;
however, an increase of cooking loss was observed [25].
The use of high pressure to reduce phosphate content in
meat products was also studied with promising results
suggesting a synergistic effect between high pressure and
phosphates on texture and water retention capacity,
allowing for the reduction of phosphate content in meat
Current Opinion in Food Science 2017, 16:21–27
24 Innovation in food science
Figure 3
High Pressure Processing: Food Preservation
Digestibility and
Bioavailability Allergenicity reduction
Improvement
Healthier Food Products
High pressure processing historical (food safety) and future (innovative food products) trends and applications.
products [26,27]. Moreover, the development of clean
label products has also been studied by means of natural
antimicrobials and antioxidants, such as plant extracts or
bacteriocins [28,29].
High pressure effects on the digestibility
High pressure treatment induces changes in constituent
conformation but the consequences in terms of digest-
ibility are still under study. Most studies employ in vitro
digestibility simulation by use of enzymes. These studies
give information on the nutrient bioaccessible fraction.
Nevertheless, bioavailability studies require in vivo tests
to evaluate the effect of pressurized food consumption on
criteria such as oxidative status or nutrient plasmatic
concentration. In the case of high pressure treated pro-
ducts, very few studies on nutrient bioavailability in
humans [30,31] have been conducted.
Linsberger-Martin et al. [32] observed that a 600 MPa
pressure treatment at 60 C significantly increased the
proteins digestibility of peas and beans compared to
thermal treatment (100 C). Moreover, after pressure
treatment, a lower decrease in antinutritional factor activ-
ity was observed compared to thermal treatment.
In the case of meat products, a study on raw bovine meat
treated by high pressure (600 MPa, 10 min, room tem-
perature) concludes that this product presents appearance
and texture similar to cooked meat. Moreover, this prod-
uct reveals better in vitro digestibility than untreated
meat. The treated product presents fewer peptides of
high molecular weight and higher free amino acid release
at all digestion times [33]. These results could lead to
important consequences, especially for the diet of specific
populations, such as elderly or sarcopenic people for
whom easily digestible proteins are recommended [34].
Current Opinion in Food Science 2017, 16:21–27
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First study
1990
First
industrial
products
Salt and Additives
Reduction 2017
Current
& research
Clean Label
Trends & Future
applications
Current Opinion in Food Science
Indeed, to improve muscle protein synthesis, a rapid
increase in plasmatic amino acid concentration is
required. The effect of high pressure on amino acid
release is matrix-dependent. For example, in the case
of seedlings of Brussels sprouts [35], high pressures
(between 200 and 800 MPa, 3 min, 5 C) and subsequent
storage (up to 4 days at 4 C) do not modify the release of
amino acids, whereas they increase significantly in ger-
minated brown rice [36] after treatment between 100 and
500 MPa, 10 min, and ambient temperature.
Several recent papers on digestibility after high pressure
treatment focus on starches from different origins (buck-
wheat, wheat, tapioca, potato, corn) and conclude that
high pressure treatment produces slowly digestible
starch, followed by potentially lower rates of glucose
release in comparison with thermally treated samples
[37,38]. In the case of buckwheat starch, the higher the
pressure, the lower the degree of hydrolysis of high
pressure modified starch (between 120 and 600 MPa,
20 min, room temperature). Moreover, after high pressure
treatment, the rapid digestible starch content decreased,
whereas slowly digestible and resistant starch levels
increased [37]. Papathanasiou et al. [38] came to similar
conclusions: high pressure treated starch suspensions,
compared to thermally treated samples, presented the
same degree of gelatinization, release less glucose after
120 min of enzymatic digestion, and can lead to the
development of starch-based, low-glucose foods. Accord-
ing to recent studies, high pressure processing should be a
technique used for obtaining food with a low glycemic
index.
High pressure effects on protein allergenicity
The allergenic potential of food mainly results from the
secondary and tertiary structures of allergens. Studies on
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 High pressure processing: an innovative tool in food science Pottier, Villamonte and de Lamballerie 25

Table 1

Recent results on the effect of high pressure on food allergenicity/antigenicity

Reference Food matrix Allergen Process conditions Test Main results


Meng et al. [44] Milk b-Lactoglobulin 100–500 MPa/30 min/25 C ELISA Increase of IgG binding/
fluctuations of IgE binding
with pressure
Hu et al. [46] Milk a-Casein 600 MPa/5 min ELISA Decrease of IgE binding
reactivity
Lavilla et al. [45] Peach Pru p 3 600 MPa/5 min Immunoblotting/ Enhancement of IgE binding/
ELISA/ prick tests response depending
prick tests on patient sensitization
Long et al. [47] Peanut Ara h 2 600 MPa/10 min/55 C ELISA/mouse Reduction in IgE binding/
model reduction of histamine level
in mouse serum
Zhou et al. [48] Gingko seeds 300–700 MPa ELISA Significant reduction of the
allergenicity
Liang et al. [49] Pineapple 500 MPa/20 C ELISA Reduction of 20% of
allergenicity
400 MPa/50 C ELISA Reduction of 50% of
allergenicity
Long et al. [50] Shrimp Tropomyosin 500 MPa/10 min/55 C ELISA Decrease of IgE binding
Jin et al. [51] Squid Tropomyosin Tod p 1 400–600 MPa ELISA Reduction of allergenicity

the use of high pressure treatment to reduce the allerge- Conclusion

nicity are thus based on the fact that high pressure causes
changes in the protein structure and thus alters the
structure of food allergens [21]. Since the early 2000s,
different allergen sources were tested, such as rice [39],
apple [40,41] and milk [42,43]. Table 1 shows that more
recent results are very different depending to the allergen
tested, the pressure applied and the method used to
assess the allergenicity. For instance, Meng et al. [44]
observed that in the case of bovine b-lactoglobulin, IgG
binding (which reflects antigenicity) increased with pres-
sure (between 100 and 500 MPa), whereas IgE binding
(which reflects allergenicity) is minimal after 200 MPa
treatment and maximal after 400 MPa treatment. These
conclusions were obtained using an enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay, ELISA, the results of which are
difficult to transpose to humans in the same manner as
that for digestibility studies. In the case of Pru p 3, the
major allergen in peaches, in vivo experiments by means
of prick tests on 17 peach allergic patients concluded that
high pressure (600 MPa; 10 min): increased the allerge-
nicity for 6 patients, had no effect on 3 patients and
decreased the allergenicity for 8 patients. This study
confirmed that the results depend on patient sensitization
[45]. Moreover, the results showed that the allergenicity
modifications were also highly dependent on the food
matrix [45]. Table 1 summarizes some recent studies
conducted on antigenicity and/or allergenicity of food
products and details the food matrix, the protein involved
in the allergic reaction, the process conditions, the tests
used and the main results. The obtained results are highly
variable depending on the pressure level and the products
tested (extract or raw product). None of these studies
determined the total inhibition of the potential allerge-
nicity in the food products treated.
High pressure treatment can be considered as a tool for
the development of minimally processed food products
with reduced amounts of additives. Moreover, current
studies focus on the effect of high pressure on allergenic-
ity and digestibility. Indeed, high pressure is a promising
method for increasing digestibility and bioavailability as
well as reducing allergenicity. Nevertheless, the results
obtained to date are essentially based on in vitro tests;
thus, in vivo assays are necessary to prove these effects in
humans. These studies should have important implica-
tions in the development of food products for the nutri-
tion of specific populations, such as the elderly.
Conflict of interest
None.
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www.sciencedirect.com
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Current Opinion in Food Science 2017, 16:21–27