ARRANGED BY : ANA MARYANA

(PHYSICS TEACHER OF MARGIE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

ANA MARYANA ASTRONOMY

 PLANETORY ORBITS

An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one object in space takes around
another one. An object in an orbit is called a satellite. A satellite can be natural, like
Earth or the moon. Many planets have moons that orbit them. A satellite can also be
man-made, like the International Space Station. Planets, comets, asteroids and other
objects in the solar system orbit the sun. Most of the objects orbiting the sun move
along or close to an imaginary flat surface. This imaginary surface is called the
ecliptic plane.

Picture 1.1
The orbits of the planets

Orbits come in different shapes. All orbits are elliptical, which means they are
an ellipse, similar to an oval. For the planets, the orbits are almost circular. The orbits
of comets have a different shape. They are highly eccentric or "squashed." They look
more like thin ellipses than circles.

Satellites that orbit Earth, including the moon, do not always stay the same
distance from Earth. Sometimes they are closer, and at other times they are farther
away. The closest point a satellite comes to Earth is called its perigee. The farthest
point is the apogee. For planets, the point in their orbit closest to the sun is
perihelion. The farthest point is called aphelion. Earth reaches its aphelion during
summer in the Northern Hemisphere. The time it takes a satellite to make one full
orbit is called its period. For example, Earth has an orbital period of one year. The
inclination is the angle the orbital plane makes when compared with Earth's equator.

In these lesson we will discuss circular satelites orbits, elipses orbits, and also
Kepler’s law.
 A. Circular Satelite Orbits
An 8-kilometer-per-second cannonball fired horizontally
from newtons mountain would follow the Earths curvature and
glide in a circular path arround the Earth again and again
(provided the cannoneer and the canno got out of the way). Fired at
a slower speed, the cannonball would strike Earth’s surface; fired at
a faster speed, it wold overshoot a circular orbits, as we will discuss
shortly. Newton calculated the speed for circular orbit, and because
such a cannon-muzzled veocity was clearly imposible, he didn’t
foresee the posibility of humans launching satelites (and likely Picture 2.1
Source: fundamental physics
didn’t consider multistage rockets). paul G Hewitt

Note that, in circular orbit, the speed of a satelite is not Fired fast enough,
changed by gravity; only the direction changed. We can understand the cannon ball will
this by comparing a satelte in circular orbits with a bowling ball go into orbit.
rolling along bowling lane. Why doesn’t the gravity that acts on the
bowling ball change its speed? The answer is that gravity pulls
straight downward with no component of force acting forward or
backward.

Picture 2.3
(a) The force of gravity on the bowling ball is at 900 to its direction of motion, so it has no
component of force to pull up it forward or backward, and the ball rolls at constant speed
(b) The same is true even if the bowling alley is larger and remains “level” with the Physis Place
curvature of the earth.

Consider a bowling lane that completely surrounds the

Earth, elevated high enough to be above the athmosphere and air
drag. The bowling ball will roll at constatnt speed along the lane. If
a part of the lane were cut away, the ball would roll off its edge and
would hit the ground bellow. A faster ball encountering the gap Picture 2.2
Source: fundamental physics
would roll off its edge and would hit the ground farther away the paul G Hewitt
gap. Is there a speed at which the ball will clear the gap (like a
motorcyclist who drives off a ramp and clear a gap to meet a ramp
on the other side)? The answer is yes: 8 kilometers per second will be
enough to clear that gap and any gap eve a 3600 gap. The ball would
be in circular or bit.

Note that a satelite in circular orbits always moving in a

directio perpendicular to the forces of gravity that acts upon its. The Physics Places
satellies does not move in the direction of the force, which would
increase its speed, nor does it move in a directionn against the forces,
which would decrease its speed. Instead, the satelites moves at right
angles to the gravitational forces that acts upon its. No change its https://www.youtube.com/
occur only a change in direction. So, we see why a satelite in circular watch?v=AReKBoiph6g

orbits sails parallel to the surface of the Earth at constant speed a very Lets Check this video
special form of free fall. to learn more about
circular orbit
For satelite close to the eart, the period (the time for a complete
orbit about the Earth) is about 90 minutes. For higher altitudes, the
orbital speed is less. Distance is more, and the period is longer. For
examples, communication satellites located in orbits 5.5 Earths radii
above the surface of the Earth have a period of 24 hours. This period
matches the period of daily Earth rotation. For an orbit arround the
equator, these satellites remain always above the same point on the
ground. The moon is even farther away and has a period 27.3 days.

The initial vertical

climbgets a rocket
quickly through the
denser part of the
athmosphere.
Eventually, the
rocket mut acquire
enough tangential
picture 2.4 speed to remain in
The initial thrust of the rocket it up above the athmosphere.Another thrust to a tangential orbit without thrust,
speed of at least 8km/s is required if the rocket is to fall arround rather than into the eart so it must tilt until its
path is parallel to the
earth surface.
The higher the orbit of a satelite, the less its speed, the longer
its path, and the longer its period.
Putting a payload into Earth orbit requires control over the
speed and direction of the rocket that carries it above the
 [Type sidebar content. A
sidebar is a standalone
supplement to the main
athmosphere. A rocket initially fired vertically is intentionally tipped document. It is often
aligned on the left or right
from the vertical course. Then, once above the drag of the
of the page, or located at
athmophere, its aimed horizontally, where upon the playload is given the top or bottom. Use the
a final thrust to orbital speed. We see this in figure 10.24, where, for Text Box Tools tab to
change the formatting of
the sake of simplicity, the playload is entire single-stage rocket. With
the sidebar text box.
the proper tangential velocity, it falls arround the Earth, rather than
Type sidebar content. A
into it, and becomes an Earth satellite.
sidebar is a standalone
supplement to the main
document. It is often
aligned on the left or right
B. Elliptical orbits of the page, or located at
the top or bottom. Use the
If projectile just above the drag of the athmospher is given a Text Box Tools tab to
change the formatting of
horizontal speed somewhat greater than 8 kilometers persecond, it the sidebar text box.]
will overshoot a circular path and trace an oval path called an eclipse.

An eclipse is specific curve, the closed path taken by a point

that moves in asuch way that the sum of its distance from two fixed
point (called foci) is constant. For a satelite orbitting a planet, one
focus is at the center of the planet; the other focus could be internal or
external to the planet. An ellips can be easily contructed by using a
pair of tacks (one at each focus) , a loop of string, and pencil (figure
10.25). The closer the foci are to each other, the closer the ellipse is to a
circle. When both foci are together, the ellipse is a circle. So we can
see that a circle is a special case of an ellipse.

Picture 3.1
Sourse : Conceptual physics, paul G hewitt
A simple method for constructing an ellipse
 Whereas the speed of a satelite is constant in circular orbit,
speed varies in an elliptical orbit. For an initial speed greater than 8
kilometers per second, the satellite is overshoots a circular path and
moves away from the earth, against the force of gravity. It therefore
losses speed. The speed it losses in receding is regained as it falls back
toward the earth, and its finally rejoins its original path with the same
speed it had initially (figure 3.3). The procedure repeats over and
over, and an ecllipse is traced each cycle.
Picture 3.2
The shadows
cast by the ball are all
ellipses one for each
lamp in the room. The
point at which the ball
makes contact with the
table is the common
focus of all three
ellipses
(conceptual
physics – paul G
hewiit)
Interestingly enough, the parabolic path of a projectile, such as
a tossed baseball or a cannonball, is actually a tiny segment of a
skinny ellipse, that extends within and just beyond the center of the
earth (figure 10.28). In figure 10.28b we see several paths of a
cannonballs fired from newton’s mountain. All these eclipse have the
center of the earth as one focus. As muzzle velocity is increased, the
ellipse are less eccentric (mmore nearly circular); and when muzzle
velocity reaches 8 kilometeers per second, the ellipse rounds into a
circle and doesn’t intercept the Earth’s surface. The cannonball coasts
in circular orbit. At greater muzzle velocities, orbiting cannonballs Picture 3.3
trace the familiar externa ellipses. Elliptical orbit. An
earth satelllite that has
a speed somewhat
greater than 8 km/s
overshoots a circular
orbit
(a) And travel away
from the earth.
Gravitation slows
it to a point. Where
is no longer move
farther from the
earth
(b) It falls toward the
earth, gaining the
Source : Conceptual Physics , Paul H Hewitt
speed it lost in
receding
(c) And follows the
same path as before
in a repeatious
cycle
C. The Orbital Periods
The orbital period is the time it takes for an object to make one
full orbit around the other objects. If it is mentioned without studying
astronomy, then the reference is the sidereal period of an astronomical
object, which is calculated on the star. There are several kinds of orbital
periods for objects mengitariMatahari (or other heavenly bodies):
1) The sidereal period is the cycle while it takes an object to perform a
full orbit relative to the star. It is regarded as a true orbital period of
the object.
2) Period sinodis is required intervals while an object to reappear at the
same point relative to the two other objects (nodes linear), for
example, when the Moon relative to the Sun as seen from Earth back
to the same illumination phase. Sinodis period is elapsed time
between two successive conjunctions with the Sun-Earth line in the
same linear order. Sinodis period differs from the sidereal period
because the Earth orbiting the sun.
3) Period drakonitik or draconic period is the time that goes between
the two crossings through node menaiknya objects, where the object
point of its orbit crosses the ecliptic from the southern hemisphere to
the north. This period differs from the sidereal period because both
the orbital plane and the ecliptic plane berpresesi objects against the
fixed stars, so crossing them, namely line node, also berpresesi
against the fixed stars. Although the plane of the ecliptic is often
fixed at a position which he occupied in a particular epoch, the
orbital plane of the object is still berpresesi and resulted drakonitik
period differs from the sidereal period.
4) The anomalistic period is the time that lasts between two crossings
diperiapsis its objects (the planets in the solar system, called
perihelion), the point of closest approach to the object pulled. This
period differs from the sidereal period because the object semimajor
axis runs very slowly.
5) Period of Earth's tropical (also called the "year") is the elapsed time
between the two rotational axis alignment with the Sun, is also seen
as two objects crossing at right ascension zero. One year Earth has
an interval slightly shorter than the orbit of the Sun (sidereal period)
because the axis of inclination and areas of equatorial slowly
berpresesi (rotates in terms sidereal), re-aligned before orbit finished
with the same interval with a return cycle of precession (about 25
770 years) ,
D. KEPPLER LAWS OF PLANETORY MOTION
Newtons law of gravitation was proceed by three important
discoveries about planetory motion by german astronomers Johannes
Kepler, who started as a junnior assisstant to the famed danish
astronomers Tycho Brahe. Brahe directed the world’s first great
observatory, in Denmark, just before the advent of the telescope.
Using a huge, brass, protractor like instrument called quadrants,
Brahe measured the position of planet over twenty years so
accurately that his measurements are still valid today. Brahe
endtrusted his data to keppler. After Brahe’s Death, keppler
converted Brahe’s measurement to values that would be obtained by
stationary observer outside the solar system. Kepler’s expectation Picture 4.1
that the planets would move in perfect circles arround the sun Tycho Brahe (1536 – 1601)
shattered after years of efforts. He discovered the paths to be ellipses.
This Kepler’s first law of planetory motion.

“The path of each planet arround the sun is an

ellipse with the sun at one focus”

Keppler also found that the planets do not revolve arround

the sun at a uniform speed but move faster when they are nearer the
sun and slower when they are farther from the sun. They do this in
such a way that imaginarry line or spoke joining the sun and the
planet sweep out equal areas of space in equal times. The triangular
sharped are swept ourt during a month when a planet is orbiting far
from the sun (traingle ASB in figure 10.29) is equal to the triangle are
swept out during a month when the planet is orbiting closer to the
sun ( triangle CSD in figure 10.29) . This is Kepler’s second law.

“The line from the sun to any planet sweeps out equal
to areas of space in equal time intervals”

Keppler was the first to coin the world satellite. He had no Picture 4.2
Johannes Kepler
clear idea as to why the planets moved as he discovered. He laced a
(1571-1630)
conceptual model. Keppler didn’t see that a satelite it simply a
projectile under the influence of gravitational forces directed toward
the body that the satellite orbits. You know that, if you toss a rock
upward, it goes slower the higher it rises because its moving against
gravity. And you know that, when it return, its moving with gravity
and its speed increases. Kepler’s didn’t see that a satellite behaves in
the same way. Going away from the sun, it slows. Going toward the
sun, its speeds up. A satellite, whether a planet orbiting the sun
or one of today’s satellite orbiting the Earth. Moves slower
against the gravitational field and faster with the field. Kepler
didn’t see this simplicity and instead fabricated complex system
of geometrical figures to find sense in is discoveries. These
systems proved to of geometrical figures to find sense in his
discoveries. These systems proved to be futile.

After ten years of searching by trial and error for a

connection between the time it takes a planet to orbit the sun and
its distance from the sun, Kepler discovered a third Law. From
Brahe’s dta , Kepler found that the square of any planet’s period
(T) is directly proportional to the cube of its average orbital
radius (r) . Law three is:

“The square of the orbital period of the planet is

Picture 4.3
directly proportional to the cube of the average Equal areas are swept out in
distance of the planet from the Sun (T2 ≈ r3 for all equal intervals of time
planets). “

This mean that the ratio T2/r3 is the same for all planets. So, if a
planet’s period is known, it’s average orbital radial distance is
easily calculated (or vice versa). It is interesting to note that
kepler was familiar with Galileo’s idea about inertia and
accelerated motion, but he failed to apply them to his own work.
Like Aristotle, he thought that the force on a moving body would
be in the same direction as the body’s motion. Kepler never
apprecated the concept of inertia. Galileo, on the other hand,
never appreciated kepler’s work and held to his conviction that
the planets move in circles. Futher understanding of planetory
motion require someone who could integrate the finding of these
two greats scientist.

According to Kepler’s first law, the planets move in

elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. The planet’s closest
point to the Sun, when the planet moves most rapidly, is called
the perihelion; and its most distant point is the aphelion, where
the planet moves most slowly. The distance between the
perihelion and aphelion is the major axis of the orbital ellipse.
Half that distance is called the semi-major axis, designated by the symbol a.

The semi-major axis of the Earth’s elliptical orbit about the Sun is called the
astronomical unit, abbreviated AU. It sets the scale of the solar system, and when
combined with the Earth’s year-long orbital period permitted the determination of
the Sun’s mass and the Earth’s orbital velocity, but only after astronomers had found
out how large an AU is.

The shape of an ellipse is determined by its eccentricity, e. If e = 0 its shape is

a circle. The ellipse becomes more elongated and squashed as its eccentricity
increases toward e = 1.0. The eccentricity of the planetary ellipse has been greatly
exaggerated in Fig. 1.11, with an eccentricity of about e = 0.5.

At perihelion the distance between the planet and the Sun is a(1 − e) and at
aphelion that distance is a(1 + e). With the exception of Mercury, all of the major
planets have orbits that are nearly circular, with eccentricities of less than e = 0.1.
This means that the Sun is very near the center of each orbital ellipse. For Mercury, a
= 0.387AU and e = 0.206, so its distance from the Sun is just 0.307AU at perihelion
and quite a lot greater at aphelion, located at 0.467 AU.

One of the great laws of physics, known as the conservation of angular

momentum, explains why a planet keeps on whirling around the Sun, and why its
speed is fastest at perihelion. For a planet of mass M, orbiting the Sun with speed or
velocity V at a distance D:

Angular momentum = M × V × D

By the way, in physics velocity has both a magnitude and a direction, and
speed is the magnitude of the velocity. In astronomy the velocity is often just given
by its magnitude, the speed, so the orbital velocity is its speed along the orbit.

The conservation law says that as long as no outside force is acting on the
planet, its angular momentum cannot change. So the planet just keeps on moving
along without anything pushing or pulling it. The mass does not change, so when
the distance from the Sun decreases, at perihelion, the velocity increases to
compensate and keep the angular momentum unchanged; at aphelion the distance
increases so the speed has to decrease.