UNIT-1

HEATING AND WELDING

I. ELECTRICAL HEATING
INTRODUCTION:
When a current is passed through a conductor, due to 𝐼2𝑅 loss the conductor gets
heated up. This heating characteristic of electric current is extensively utilized for both
domestic and industrial applications. Domestic applications include (i) room heaters, (ii)
immersion heaters for water heating, (iii) hot plates for cooking, (iv) electric kettles, (v)
electric irons, (vi) electric ovens for bakeries and (viii) electric toasters etc. Industrial
applications of electric heating include (i) melting of metals (ii) heat treatment of metals like
annealing, tempering, soldering and brazing etc. (iii) moulding of glass (iv) baking of
insulators and (v) enameling of copper wires etc.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL HEATING OVER THE OTHER

SYSTEM OF HEATING:
As compared to other methods of heating such as gas, coal and fire etc., Electric
heating is far more superior to other heating methods, for the following reasons:

(1). Economical: Electric heating is economical, as electric furnaces are cheaper in their
initial cost as well as in maintenance cost. There is considerable saving in the labor cost, as it
does not require any attention and also electrical energy is cheap, as it is being produced in a
large scale.
(2) Cleanliness: the complete elimination of dust and ash, keeps the cleaning cost down to a
minimum
(3) Absence of Flue Gases: Since no flue gases are produced during electric heating, there is
no risk to the atmosphere or to the objects, which are being heated and used in the operation.
(4) Ease of Control: simple and accurate control of temperature can be provided either by
manual or by fully automatic devices, so that temperature can be maintained constant or
made to vary as per the requirement.
(5) Special Heating Requirement: Special heating requirements such as uniform heating of a
material or heating one particular portion of the material without affecting its other parts or
heating with no oxidation can be met only by electric heating.
(6) Automatic Protection: in electrical heating systems, using suitable switchgears, automatic
protection against over-current and over-heating can be provided.
(7) Higher Efficiency: the overall efficiency of electric heating is comparatively higher,
since the source is brought directly to the point where heat is required, thereby reducing the
losses.
(8) Better Working Conditions: electric heating system produces no irritating noises and also
the radiation losses. Hence, working with electric furnaces is convenient and cool.
(9) Safety: Electric heating is quite safe because it responds quickly to the controlled signals.
(10) Upper Limit of Temperature: there is no upper limit to the temperature obtainable,
except the ability of the material to withstand heat.

MODES OF TRANSFER OF HEAT

The heated substance will give off heat to another substance. The different modes by which
heat is transferred are as follows:

A) CONDUCTION:
 In conduction mode of heat transfer, one molecule of substance gets heated up and
then transfers the heat to the adjacent one and so on. Thus the heat is transferred
through a substance from one part to another or between the substances which are in
contact.
 The rate of conduction of heat along the substance depends upon the temperature
gradient.
 It can be expressed in MJ/hr/𝒎𝟐/c or watts/𝒄𝒎𝟐
 Consider a plate of thickness t meters, having x sectional area of its parallel faces “A”
square meters and temperature of its two faces 𝑻𝟏 and 𝑻𝟐c, the quantity of heat
passes through it during T hours is given by,
𝑸 = 𝑲𝑨 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐) , Where K is co-efficient of thermal conductivity for a material in
𝒕
MJ/hr/𝒎𝟐/c /m.
B) CONVECTION:
Definition: the process of heat transference in which the heat is transferred from one place
to another by actual movement of particles of a medium.
 Heat is transferred by convection method in case of immersion type water heater or
low temperature heating equipment for building.
 The air which is in contact with the radiator element in room, receives heat when it
comes in contact with the heating element.
 The heated air expands and rises, cold air flowing takes its place.
 Thus there is constant flow of air upwards across the heating element. By this way the
entire room gets heated up.
 The heat dissipation is given by, H= 𝒂(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐)𝒃 watts/𝒎𝟐
Where a and b are constant whose value depends of heating element facilities and 𝑻𝟏
and 𝑻𝟐 temperature of heating element.

C) RADIATION:

State and explain Stefan’s law of heat ration.

In this mode of heat transfer, the heat reaches the substances to be heated from the
source of heat, without heating the medium in between.
Rate of heat radiation is given by Stefan’s
4 law, according to which
Heat Dissipation, 𝐻 = 5.72 𝐾𝑒 [( 1 𝑇2 4 Watts/ 𝑚2
) −( ) ]
100 100
Where K =radiating efficiency
e= emissivity of the heating element , which is 1 for black body and 0.9 for resistance
heating element.
𝑻𝟏= Temperature of the source in c
𝑻𝟐 =Temperature of the substance to be heated in c

Stefan’s law is stated as: “the total radiant heat energy emitted from a surface is
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature”

REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD HEATING ELEMENT:

Explain the properties of good heating element?

A good heating element should have the following properties:

(1) High Specific Resistance: the material to be used for heating element should be of high
specific resistance so that a small length of wire may be sufficient to produce the required
amount of heat.
(2) High Melting Temperature: the melting temperature of the heating element should be
high, so that charge can be heated at high temperature.
(3) Low Temperature Coefficient of Resistance: the material used for heating element
should have low temperature coefficient of resistance, so that the resistance will not vary with
the change in temperature, otherwise the starting current will be high.
(4) Free from Oxidation: the material used for heating element should be such that, it may
withstand the required temperature without getting oxidized, otherwise it would be replaced
frequently.
(5) Positive Temperature Coefficient of Resistance: If the temperature coefficient of the
resistance of heating element is negative, its resistance will decrease with rise in temperature
and it will draw more current which will produce more wattage and hence heat. With more
heat, the resistance will decrease further resulting in instability of operation.
(6) Ductile: Since the material of the heating elements has to have convenient shapes and
sizes, it should have high ductility and flexibility.
(7) Mechanical Strength: The material of the heating element should posses high mechanical
strength of its own.

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF HEATING ELEMENT:

The chief causes of failure of heating elements are given below:

i).Formation Of Hot Spots

ii) Oxidation And Intermittent Of Operation

iii) Embrittlement Due To Grain Growth

v) Contamination and Corrosion

Rupture of iron rod. Due to

embrittlement
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL HEATING METHODS:

Give a classification of different electrical heating methods and explain them briefly? (8 marks) (2012)

The electric heating elements can be classified as follows:

1) RESISTANCE HEATING

It is based on the 𝐼2𝑅 effect. When current is passed through a resistance element 𝐼2𝑅
loss takes place, which produces heat. There are two methods of resistance heating.

(a) Direct Resistance Heating:

In this method the material (or charge) to be heated is treated as a resistance and
current is passed through it. It is employed in resistance welding and electrode boiler for
heating water.

(b) Indirect Resistance Heating:

Electric current is made to pass through a wire or a heating element. The heat so
developed is transferred from the heating element to the body by radiation or convection. It is
employed in immersion heaters, resistance ovens, domestic and commercial cooking and heat
treatment of metals.

(c) Infra-red or Radiant Heating:

Heat energy from the incandescent lamp is focused upon the body to be heated in the
form of electro-magnetic radiations; this is employed to dry wet paints on an object.
2) ARC HEATING:
The arc drawn between two electrodes develops a high temperature say about (3,000-
3,500 c) depending on the electrode material. The electric arc may be used in following
ways:
 By striking the arc between the charge and the electrode or electrodes. In this method
the heat is directly conducted and taken by the charge. The furnace operating on this
principle is known as direct arc furnace.
 By striking the arc between the two electrodes. In this method the heat is transferred
to the charge by radiation. The furnace operating on this principle is known as
indirect arc furnace.

3) INDUCTION HEATING:
Induction heating process makes use of currents induced by electro-magnetic action in
the material to be heated.

(a) Direct Induction Heating:

In this method of heating, the currents are induced by electro-magnetic action in the
body to be heated. The induced currents when flowing through the resistance of the body,
develops heat and thus rises in temperature.

(b) Indirect Induction Heating:

In indirect induction heating, the eddy currents are induced in the heating element by
electro-magnetic action. Eddy current set up in the heating element produces the heat, which
is transferred to the body to be heated.

4) DIELECTRIC HEATING:
In this method of electric heating, dielectric losses are used to heat the non metallic
materials. The non-metallic material to be heated is placed between two metal electrodes
across which a high voltage having high frequency is applied.

RESISTANCE HEATING:

Explain clearly the resistance and arc heating?

(Above picture only for reference)

 The resistance heating is based upon the 𝐼2𝑅 effect. This method of heating has wide
applications such as heat treatment of metals (annealing, hardening etc.,),drying and baking
of potteries, stoving of enameled ware, commercial and domestic cooking.

DIRECT RESISTANCE HEATING:

Fig. I.4.1
 In Direct Resistance Heating method, the material or charge to be heated is treated as
a resistance and current is passed through it.
 The charge may be in the form of powder, pieces or liquid.
 The two electrodes are immersed in the charge and connected to supply in the case of
availability d.c. current or single phase ac supply (Fig. I.4.1) and 3 electrodes are
immersed in charge, when 3-phase supply is used.
 When the charge is in the form of small pieces, a powder of high resistivity material is
sprinkled over the surface of the charge to avoid short circuit.
 The current flows through charge and heat is produced. This method has high
efficiency, since heat is produced in charge itself.

ADVANTAGES: uniform heating and high temperature can be obtained.

APPLICATIONS: 1. Salt bath furnace, 2. electrode boiler for heating water.

 INDIRECT RESISTANCE HEATING:

With a neat sketch, explain the working of Indirect Resistance Heating?

Fig showing INDIRECT RESISTANCE HEATING

 In Indirect Resistance heating, electric current is passed through a wire or other high
resistance material forming a heating element.
 Heat proportional to 𝐼2R loss is produced in
 The heating element. The heat so produced is delivered to the charge either by
conduction, radiation or convection or by a combination of one or two modes of heat
transfer.
 An enclosure, known as heating chamber is required for heat transfer by radiation and
convection. For industrial purposes, where a large amount of charge is to be heated,
the heating element is kept in a cylinder surrounded by a jacket containing the charge.

ADVANTAGES: This arrangement provides uniform temperature and automatic temperature

control can also be provided.
APPLICATIONS: room heaters, immersion water heaters and various type of resistance ovens
employed in domestic and commercial cooking.
RESISTANCE OVENS AND FURNACE:

 Resistance furnaces may be classified according to their operating temperature.

 Low temperature heating chamber with provision for ventilation are termed as oven.
 The heating chamber that operates at temperature above 300˚c is called furnace.
 The resistance ovens are used for drying and baking of potteries, drying varnish,
vulcanizing and hardening of synthetic materials and for commercial and domestic
heating.
 Medium temperature furnaces having operating temperature between 300°C and
1,050°C are employed in annealing, normalizing of steel and non-ferrous metals,
melting of non-ferrous metals and stove enameling.
 High temperature furnaces having operating temperature between 1,050°C and
1,350°C are employed for hardening applications.
 The ovens are usually made of a metal framework having an internal lining of fire
bricks. The heating element may be located on the top, bottom or sides of the oven.
The nature of the insulating material is determined by the maximum temperature
required in the oven.
 An enclosure for charge to be heated by radiation or convection or by both is known a
heating chamber.
ARC FURNACES:

 When a high voltage is applied across an air-gap, the air becomes ionized under the
influence of electrostatic forces and becomes a conducting medium.
 The current flows in the form of a continuous spark called the arc, it is to be noted
that very high voltage is required to establish an arc across an air gap but to maintain
an arc, small voltage is sufficient.
 Alternatively an arc can also be produced by short circuiting two electrodes
momentarily and then withdrawing them back, this method does not require high
voltage too.
 Arc drawn between two electrodes produces heat and has a temperature between
1,000°C and 3,500°C depending on the material of the electrode used,
 The use of this principle is made in electrical arc furnace.
 The electrode used in arc furnaces is of three types namely carbon electrodes, graphite
electrodes and self-baking electrodes. Electrodes namely carbon and graphite
electrodes are usually preferred due to their electrical conductivity, insolubility,
infusibility, mechanical strength and resistance to thermal shock. With graphite or
carbon electrodes, the temperature obtainable from the arc is between 3,000°C
and3500°C. 
 Now the trend is the use of graphite electrodes. Carbon electrodes are used with small
furnaces for manufacturing aluminum, calcium carbide, phosphorous etc. self baking
electrodes are used n Ferro-alloys, electrolytic production of aluminum.
I.4.2.1 TYPES OF ARC FURNACES:

DIRECT ARC FURNACE:

 In direct arc furnace charge arc as one of the electrodes and the charge is heated by
the arc produced between the electrode and charge.
 Since the arc is in direct contact with the charge and heat is also produced by flow of
current through the charge itself, and charge can be heated to its highest temperature.
 In case of single phase, 2 electrodes are taken vertically downwards to the surface of
charge, and in three phase, 3 electrodes are used.
 The current passing through charge produces an electromagnetic field and necessary
stirring action is automatically obtained.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Purer production and composition can be controlled during refining process.
2. 100% scrap steel can be used in arc furnace, which is cheaper in cost.

APPLICATION:
1. Production of steel
I.4.2.1.2. INDIRECT ARC FURNACE:

Fig. I.4.2.1.2 shows a single-phase indirect arc furnace which is cylindrical in shape.

 The arc is struck by short circuiting the electrodes manually or automatically for a
moment and then, withdrawing them apart.
 The heat from the arc and the hot refractory lining is transferred to the top layer of
the charge by radiation.
 The heat from the hot top layer of the charge is further transferred to other parts of
the charge by conduction.
 Since no current passes through the body of the charge, there is no inherent stirring
action due to electro-magnetic forces set up by the current. Hence, such furnaces have
to be rocked continuously in order to distribute heat uniformly by exposing different
layers of the charge to the heat of the arc.
 The life of refractory lining also increases, since the molten metal comes in contact
with the lining and takes away some of its heat, thus preventing it from attaining
excessive temperature.
 Due to the rocking action the efficiency is increased as the charge is not only heated
by radiation but also using conduction. Its construction is limited to two electrodes, so
single phase supply is required.
 An electric motor is used to operate suitable grinders and rollers to impart rocking
motion to the furnace. Such furnaces has got following advantages:
1. Low metal loss
2. Economical
3. Sound casting
4. Flexible.
 INDUCTION HEATING:

The principle of induction heating is, when a conductive cable carrying current is wound
around a conductor metal rod, it produces magnetic field, by alternating the current, magnetic
field direction reverses as a result current is induced in the conductor rod through
electromagnetic action, this induced current comes in contact with the resistance of the
conductor, produces heat.

it is a non contact method, it does not require the heating element to be heated up or cause
arcing, essentially the part of the conductor to be heated becomes a heating element, thus
induction heating is a more efficient and extremely accurate process of heating.
DIRECT CORE TYPE INDUCTION FURNACE:

 Direct core type induction furnace is shown in fig I.4.4.1 which consists of an iron
core, crucible of some insulting material and primary winding connected to an ac
supply.
 The charge is kept in crucible, which forms in single turn short-circuited secondary
circuit. The current in the charge is very high; of the order of several thousand
amperes.
 For functioning of the furnace the closing of the secondary circuit is essential which
necessitates the formation of complete ring of the charge around the core.
 For starting the furnace, either molten metal is poured into the crucible or sufficient
molten metal is allowed to remain in the crucible from the previous operation. This is
required otherwise, the secondary will remain open-circuited and no current will
circulate and no heating furnace tapped periodically.
 Also in order to close the secondary circuit, an iron ring may be placed in the crucible
or the lining may be of graphite.

This furnace suffers from the following drawbacks:

1. It has to be run on low-frequency supply which entails extra expenditure on motor-
generator set or frequency convertor.
2. It suffers from pinching effect.
3. The crucible for charge is of odd shape and is very inconvenient for tapping the molten
charge.
4. It does not function if there is no molten metal in the hearth i.e. when the secondary is
open. Every time molten metal has to be poured to start the furnace.
5. It is not suitable for intermittent service. However, in this furnace, melting is rapid and
clean and temperature can be controlled easily.

Moreover, inherent stirring action of the charge by electro-magnetic forces ensures greater
uniformity of the end product.
1.4.3.2 INDIRECT CORE TYPE INDUCTION FURNACE:

A B

Fig 1.4.4.2 indirect arc furnace

o In this furnace, a suitable element is heated by induction which, in turn, transfers the
heat to the charge by radiation. So far as the charge is concerned, the conditions are
similar to those in a resistance oven.
o As shown in Fig. 1.4.4.2, the secondary consists of a metal container which forms the
walls of the furnace. The primary winding is magnetically coupled to this secondary
by an iron core. When primary winding is connected to a.c. supply, secondary
current is induced in the metal container by transformer action which heats up the
container.
o The metal container transfers this heat to the charge. A special advantage of this
furnace is that its temperature can be automatically controlled without the use of
external equipment. The part AB of the magnetic circuit situated inside the oven
chamber consists of a special alloy which loses its magnetic properties at a particular
temperature but regains them when cooled back to the same temperature.
o As soon as the chamber attains the critical temperature, reluctance of the magnetic
circuit increases manifold thereby cutting off the heat supply. The bar AB is
detachable and can be replaced by other bars having different critical temperatures.

ADVANTAGES: accurate temperature control

VERTICAL CORE TYPE INDUCTION FURNACE:

With a neat diagram explain ajay wyatt method of electrical heating?

Fig 1.4.4.3 showing vertical core type induction furnace

o It is a direct core type or also called improved version of direct and indirect core
type low frequency furnace.
o It is also known as Ajax-Wyatt furnace and represents an improvement over the
core-type furnace discussed above. As shown in Fig.,1.4.4.3 it has vertical channel
(instead of a horizontal one) for the charge, so that the crucible used is also vertical
which is convenient from metallurgical point of view.
o The shell of this furnace is made of heavy steel. The top of the furnace is covered
with an insulated cover, which is removed for charging. the primary winding is
connected to ac supply. This causes an intense electromagnetic field to fluctuate in
the iron core.
o In this furnace, magnetic coupling is comparatively better and power factor is high.
Hence, it can be operated from normal frequency supply.
o The metal acts as short circuited secondary and carries the induced currents.
The resistance in the V portion is very high. Higher amount of heat is generated in
this portion, which is rapidly distributed to other parts of charge through
convectional currents. The convection currents keep the circulation of the molten
metal round the V portion Fig.1.4.4.3.
 o Due to the pinch effect, the adjoining molecules carrying current in the same
direction will try to repel each other, but due to weight of the charge in the crucible
they will remain in contact and chances of interruption will be reduced.
o
o As V channel is narrow, even a small quantity of charge is sufficient to keep the
secondary circuit closed. However, V channel must be kept full of charge in order
to maintain continuity of secondary circuit. This fact makes this furnace suitable for
continuous operation.
o The choice of material for inner lining of the furnace depends on the type of charge
used. Clay lining is used for yellow brass. For red brass and bronze, an alloy of
magnesia and alumina or corundum is used.
o The furnace can be tilted by the suitable hydraulic arrangement for taking out the
molten metal.
Advantages:
1. Highly efficient heat, low operating costs and improved production.
2. Accurate temperature control, uniform castings, reduced metal losses
and reduction of rejects.
3. Absence of crucibles
4. Consistent performance and simple control.
5. Ideal working condition in a cool atmosphere with no dirt, noise or
fuel.
6. Absence of combustion gases resulting in elimination of the most
common source of metal contamination.
7. Comparatively high power factor (the average power factor between
0.8 and 0.85).
Application:

o These furnaces are widely used for melting and refining of brass and other non-
ferrous metals.
CORE LESS TYPE INDUCTION FURNACE

o The general design of this furnace is shown in Fig. 1.17. it essentially consists of the
three main parts (i) primary coil (ii) a ceramic crucible containing charge which forms
the secondary and (iii) the frame which includes supports and tilting mechanism.
o The distinctive feature of this furnace is that it contains no heavy iron core with the
result that there is no continuous path for the magnetic flux.
o The crucible and the coil are relatively light in construction and can be conveniently
tilted for pouring.
o The charge is put into the crucible and primary winding is connected to a high-
frequency a.c. supply.
o The flux produce by the primary sets up eddy-currents in the charge and heats it up to
the melting point.
o The charge need not be in the molten state at the start as was required by core-type
furnaces. The eddy- currents also set up electromotive forces which produce stirring
action which is essential for obtaining uniforms quality of metal. Since flux density is
 low (due to the absence of the magnetic core) high frequency supply has to be used
because eddy-current loss We.
o However, this high frequency increases the resistance of the primary winding due to
skin effect, thereby increasing primary Cu losses. Hence, the primary winding is not
made of Cu wire but consists of hollow Cu tubes which are cooled by water
circulating through them.
o Since magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary windings is low, the
furnace p.f. lies between 0.1 and 0.3. Hence, static capacitors are invariably used in
parallel with the furnace to improve its p.f.

The choice of frequency of operation plays a vital role. It is governed by the factors such as
material to be heated and thickness of cylinder layer at the outside edge of the crucible. The
frequency of the primary current can be ascertained by using penetration formula.

1 𝜌∗107
Accordingly, t= √ m
2𝜋 𝜇𝑓
Where 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 Ω − 𝑚
f is frequency of supply in Hz
µ is relative permeability.

The exact theory also shows that for efficient operation the ratio of radius of piece of material
in the charge to the thickness should be greater than 3. If it is taken as 4, then the expression
for the frequency, for efficient operation, becomes

1 𝜌∗107 ∗16
F= ∗
4𝜋 2 𝜇 ∗𝑟 2
ADVANTAGES:
1. Low operating cost.
2. Low erection cost
3. Automatic stirring action produced by eddy currents.
4. Absence of dirt, smoke, noise etc.
5. Simple charging and pouring.
6. Precise control of power.
7. Less melting time.
8. Possibility of employing vacuum heating necessary for precious metal melting.
9. No contamination of charge and very accurate control of composition so most
suitable for production of high grade alloy steels.

APPLICATION:
1. Used in metal melting unit.
2. Production of carbon free ferrous alloys.
3. Vacuum heating
4. Duplexing steel
5. Heating charges of non conducting material.
DIELECTRIC HEATING

Charge between Parallel Metal Plates

FIG.1.4.4.2 showing equivalent circuit in (b) and phasor diagram in (c)

 o When non-metallic parts such as wood, plastics, bones are subjected to an alternating
electrostatic field dielectric loss occurs.
o In dielectric heating use of these losses is made. The material to be heated is placed
as a slab between plates and electrodes connected to high frequency ac supply.
o The current drawn by the capacitor, when an ac supply voltage is applied across its
two plates, does not lead the supply voltage by exactly 90 degree and there is always
an in-phase component of the current. Due to this in-phase (or active) component of
current, heat is always produced in the dielectric material placed in between the two
plates of the capacitor.
o The electric energy dissipated in the form of heat energy in the dielectric material is
known as dielectric loss. The dielectric loss is directly proportional to the frequency
of ac supply given to the two plates of the capacitor. The physical conception of the
dielectric loss is just as molecular friction material when an ac electrostatic field is
applied to it.
o Insulators being poor conductors cannot be heated up quickly from outside. In
dielectric heating the heat is produced within the material itself. Because heat
generation is uniform, the dielectric material is heated uniformly. This is the
important property of dielectric heating.
o In insulators or non-conducting materials, the amount of heat produced 0.by
dielectric heating can be calculated as follows:
o The material to be heated may be considered as the imperfect dielectric of a
condenser and may be, therefore, represented as a capacitance placed in parallel with
a resistance, as shown in fig. 1.4.5.1 (b). The phasor diagram of the circuit is shown
in fig. 1.4.5.2 (c). If V is supply voltage in volts, f is supply frequency in Hz, C is
the capacitance of the condenser if farads and cos is power factor of the load or
charge

𝑉 𝑉
The current through the capacitor, 𝐼𝐶 =
𝑋𝐶
= 1 = 2πfCV amperes
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Where C is in farads and V is in Volts.

The current drawn from the supply, ≅ 𝐼𝐶= 2πfCV amperes

Power drawn from the supply, P= V*I*cos𝜑 = V*2πfCV* cos𝜑 watts

= 2πfCV2 cos𝜑 watts.

The value of power factor for a particular non conducting material is constant, and the
capacity is determined from the dimensions of plates, the charge which serves as the
dielectric medium and the dielectric constant. Therefore, the dielectric heating depends upon
the value of frequency and voltage.

By varying one of these two quantities, the rate of dielectric can be varied.
The insulation problem limits the voltage to be used; hence to achieve more heat, high
frequency is used. Hence to achieve more heat, high frequency is used. However, there is a
limit also, on the high frequency, which is the cost involved in getting a circuit to operate at
high frequencies and other difficulties.

The capacity of the condenser can be calculated from the following relations.
𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐴
C=
𝑡
𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠

Where 𝜀𝑟 is the relative permittivity of dielectric

𝜀0 is absolute permittivity of the vacuum = 8.854*10-12 F/m

T is the thickness of dielectric in meters.

A is the surface area of plates in m2

ADVANTAGES:
1. If the material to be heated is homogeneous, and the alternating electric field is
uniform, heat is developed uniformly and simultaneously throught the entire mass of
the charge.
2. As the materials heated in this process are non-conducting, so other heating methods
cannot be conducted inside so easily.
APPLICATIONS OF DIELECTRIC HEATING
• Drying of wood , paper, rayon , tobacco.
• Gluing and bonding of woods.
• Welding of PVC, preheating plastic performs and plastic products.
• Diathermy i.e., heating of bones and tissues, sterilisation of cereals.
• Processing of rubber synthetic materials and chemicals during manufacture.
• Dehydration of food.
• Electronic Sewing.