See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/233756298

The effect of instructional media on learner motivation

Article  in  International journal of instructional media · January 2005

CITATIONS READS
45 4,331

2 authors, including:

David L Rodgers
Penn State Health Milton S. Hershey Medical Center and Penn State College of Medicine
30 PUBLICATIONS   820 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by David L Rodgers on 22 March 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Document Page: THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIV... Page 1 of 9

THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIVATION

Rodgers, David L; Withrow-Thorton, Beverly JInternational Journal of Instructional Media
10-01-2005

ABSTRACT

With a variety of instructional media available to educators, selecting the appropriate instructional format
is a critical decision to stimulate learner motivation. This study evaluated learners' perceptions of
motivation in a comparison of three instructional formats: lecture, video, and interactive computer-based
instruction. Ninety-six participants were assigned to one of three groups. Each group received training on
the same subject by one of the three instructional methods. A modified version of the Instructional
Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) was used to determine learner attitude and motivation. Computer-
based instruction generated a higher degree of motivation than either video or lecture (p = .000). There
was no significant difference between video and lecture in the degree of motivation each of these
produced (p = .574). This study presented new information in two areas. First, it targeted adult learners
as opposed to the more commonly studied K - 12 or college student. Second, it represented an expanded
scope for the survey instrument.

INTRODUCTION

Motivation is an important element required for learning. Educators have a variety of instructional media
and teaching formats available to present information. Selecting a medium that motivates learners is an
important consideration. This study compares the effect of different media on learners' motivation to
learn. Through the use of a survey instrument - the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) -
overall motivation to learn was evaluated. This study provides new information in two areas. First, most
applications of the IMMS and other motivational scoring scales on learner motivation have been conducted
in academic arenas and included K - 12 or college students. This study shifted the focus to adult learners
in the workplace. This area has been much less explored. second, the IMMS was modified to increase its
scope to evaluate instructional media and format, not just instructional materials.

The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey was designed to evaluate how instructional materials affect
motivation to learn. Designed with the premise that certain conditions must be present to stimulate the
desire to learn, the IMMS [1] was developed around Keller's [2, 3] ARCS model of motivational design. In
the model, Keller defined four basic human characteristics that need to be influenced for people to learn:
attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. The IMMS is designed with four sub-scales, one each to
evaluate the effect of the four characteristics. The four subscales combine to create a total motivational
score.

Because the IMMS is used to evaluate motivation in conjunction with instructional materials, it only
evaluates state motivation as it relates to that instructional material. State motivation is a temporary
condition that affects the level of concentration and attention toward an assigned task. The IMMS does
not evaluate trait motivation that is the underlying tendency to achieve higher degrees of learning with
little or no influence by the situation.

http://ezproxy.marshall.edu:2091/elibweb/elib/do/document?set=pbsissue&groupid=1&requ... 3/7/2014
Document Page: THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIV... Page 2 of 9

In describing the ARCS Model, Keller [3] offers these insights into the four areas.

1. Attention - The learner's attention must be acquired and maintained. The instructional material must
have attention-getting strategies to direct the learner to the material. Once that attention is achieved
there must be attention-sustaining strategies employed to keep the learner's attention on task. Coupled
with this is the ability of the material to stimulate the curiosity of the learner to learn more.

2. Relevance - Unless the learner perceives a need for the information, motivation to learn will be
impaired. Instructional materials must be designed to show that the information is important to the
learner and relates to their work or other personal goals or motives. Through the use of relevance-
producing strategies, such as goal orientation or motive matching, learners must be able to see how the
subject matter will relate to their own experiences.

3. Confidence-A serious distracter to motivation is the inability of the learner to maintain confidence in his
or her ability to learn the material. Frustrations with the complexity of the subject may decrease
motivation. Conversely, an over abundance of confidence may also produce a detrimental effect as the
learner may skip over details after assuming to already know the material.

4. Satisfaction - The learner must be satisfied with the learning experience in order to maintain
motivation. This satisfaction can manifest itself in both extrinsic and intrinsic ways. Extrinsic rewards such
as achieving a high grade, course completion certificates, or other material awards help provide
motivation. However, intrinsic rewards are equally important. Receiving positive feedback through
interaction, improving self-esteem by learning more about a subject, and the ability to control their own
learning are examples of intrinsic rewards.

The ARCS model gains its support from expectancy-value theory. Where there is value attached to the
task and the learner believes success is probable, motivation increases as the expectation to succeed and
the value of the task increase [4, 5]. By improving confidence towards probability of success and
increasing the value of the task by creating a higher degree of relevance, expectancy-value theory would
predict higher degrees of motivation.

The IMMS tests the effectiveness of instructional material on motivation to learn by evaluating how the
material or presentation stimulates the learners response to the four areas of the ARCS Model. The IMMS
is a 36-item, selfadministered measure that uses a five-point Likert-type scale. The 36 items are broken
into four subscales based on the ARCS Model. Specifically there are 12 items for attention, 9 items for
relevance, 9 items for confidence, and 6 items for satisfaction. The total score can be used as an overall
score to judge state motivation regarding instructional media or materials.

The purpose of this study was to identify how different instructional media affected learner motivation in a
workplace training situation. Three formats were selected for evaluation: linear video that consisted of
video taped presentations with demonstrations of techniques and principals discussed, lecture
presentations by experts on the subjects that included use of overhead projector as well as demonstration
of skills, and computer-based instruction that utilized an interactive multimedia format. These three
instructional methods are representative of methods frequently used in the workplace [6].

Based on earlier research that indicated computer-based instruction promoted a more positive learning
experience and could lead to a higher degree of motivation for the user, [7-9] it was hypothesized that
computer-based instruction would provide a more positive learning experience that should be reflected
with higher degrees of motivation to learn.

http://ezproxy.marshall.edu:2091/elibweb/elib/do/document?set=pbsissue&groupid=1&requ... 3/7/2014
Document Page: THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIV... Page 3 of 9

METHODS

Subjects

This study was experimental, comparing the motivation of three groups after being assigned to receive
training by one of three methods of instruction. The dependent variable was motivation, ascertained with
the IMMS, while the independent variable was method of instruction. The IMMS was administered to 96
subjects. The group consisted of new employees of a large medical center who were undergoing safety
training. Since the training is an annual requirement of employees, new employees were used as the
sample group because they had not been previously exposed to the material. There were 76 females in
the group and 20 males. Mean age was 33.

Procedure

Using a quota sample based on gender, age, and education, subjects were randomly assigned to one of
three groups. Distribution of the quota characteristics was equal allowing for the creation of three
homogeneous groups. The groups were then randomly assigned to receive the safety education in one of
the three formats. Each format provided the same information with the only difference being the medium.

The video consisted of a series of professionally produced programs that utilized combinations of on-
camera narrators, live action, graphics, sound effects, and demonstrations. Lectures were conducted by
hospital employees considered experts on the topics with each speaker having presented the program
many times in the past with good student evaluations. Lecturers utilized supporting materials such as
overhead projector and slides as well as demonstrating some procedures with props such as a fire
extinguisher. Lecture is the usual format used by the hospital to conduct new employee safety training.
Computer-based instruction was delivered in a computer lab equipped with a computer workstation for
each employee in the group. The program was produced by the hospital and featured a multi-media
format with video, sound, and interactions such as simulations, game playing, and quizzes. The subjects
were scheduled to receive the training as part of a regular new-employee orientation program. After
receiving the training, subjects were asked to complete the IMMS.

Measure

The IMMS wording in its original form was not adequate for participants to relate to all types of materials
or media. In its unmodified form, the IMMS had a bias towards written media, using expressions such as
"the writing" and "words on the page." Since non-written media was used in this study, some minor
modifications of the questions were made to allow them to be applied to all of the instructional methods in
the study.

Alpha coefficients for the four subscales collected in this study indicated moderate to high reliability. The
total scale had an alpha coefficient of .89, showing a marked relationship. Keller [10] reported a slightly
higher reliability for the IMMS in its original form. Reported coefficients for other application of the scale
ranged between .81 and .96 [11]. The individual subscale and total scale coefficients for this study is
compared against Kellers [10] reported coefficients as shown in Table 1. Using the same sample set, a
split-half reliability test was conducted. In a split across the four subscales, a reliability of .80 for the total
scale was found.
IMAGE TABLE
TABLE 1. ALPHA COEFFICIENT SCORES FOR IMMS

RESULTS

http://ezproxy.marshall.edu:2091/elibweb/elib/do/document?set=pbsissue&groupid=1&requ... 3/7/2014
Document Page: THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIV... Page 4 of 9

A one-way analysis of variance was conducted with motivation, as reported on the IMMS, as the
dependent variable and instructional media as the independent variable that resulted in a significant
finding [F (2, 93) = 17.515, p = .000] that indicated that at least one of the media had a significant effect
on motivation. In a post hoc test, computer-based instruction was found to have significant differences
when compared with video and lecture instruction on the total scale. The LSD post hoc test revealed a
mean difference between computer-based instruction (CBI) and video of 27.3852, SE = 5.027, p = .000.
It also showed a mean difference between CBI and lecture of 24.5484, SE = 5.142, p = .000. These
findings support the hypothesis.

In each of the individual subscales - attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction - significant findings
favored CBI as the favored medium (see Table 2). For attention, relevance, and satisfaction, p = .000. For
confidence, p = .020. The LSD post hoc test indicated no significant difference between video and lecture
instruction in the degree of motivation each produced with a mean difference of 2.8368, SE = 5.142, p
= .574. Findings for the total scale and each subscale for the LSD post hoc test are shown in Table 2.
IMAGE TABLE
TABLE 2 POST HOC TEST (LSD) ON IMMS
IMAGE TABLE
TABLE 2 POST HOC TEST (LSD) ON IMMS

DISCUSSION

The results of the overall score were highly significant in rating computerbased instruction as a more
motivating medium than either video or lecture. At the subscale level, findings that attention, confidence,
and satisfaction were greater for CBI were consistent with much of the literature judging these attitudes
against other media. An interesting result was the strength of the finding on the relevance subscale.
Despite all groups receiving the same information and having the same potential opportunities to apply
the information in their workplace, the CBI group felt the knowledge and skills were more relevant than
either the video or lecture groups. The CBI program was able to involve the learners with the content and
used techniques such as simulated scenarios that required immediate learner input. These interactions
and their instant feedback provided opportunities for the learners to become more cognitively engaged
and, as Caincross and Mannion explained, "causes them to think about the material that is presented,
what it means, its relevance, how it can be applied and in what contexts" [12, p. 161). In video and
lecture groups, the instructional format provided information but did not provide practice opportunities.
Through the use of simulation and game playing, CBI provided opportunities for learners to demonstrate
new knowledge and be given immediate feedback. This explanation for improved motivation has been
forwarded in other studies [13].

When evaluating these results against the theoretical basis of the ARCS model, elements of expectancy-
value theory are evident. In a recent review of motivation literature, Eccles and Wigfield [14] summarized
modern expectancyvalue theory development. As they noted, important influences on the expectancies
and values included learners' feelings about their level of competence in performing the task and their
view of the difficulty of the task. Because of the interactive nature of the CBI program, immediate
feedback permitted learners to build individual outcome histories more readily than learners in the other
two groups. This ongoing interaction as opposed to the more limited interaction from linear video and
lecture created a history of success that generated a stronger degree of confidence in the material.
Yildirim, Ozden, and Aksu [15] suggested that learner-controlled instructional media causes increased
motivation that leads to feelings of increased confidence that then lead to even higher degrees of
motivation. Other authors have cited CBI's learner-directed capabilities as an advantage over other
methods of instruction [16].

http://ezproxy.marshall.edu:2091/elibweb/elib/do/document?set=pbsissue&groupid=1&requ... 3/7/2014
Document Page: THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIV... Page 5 of 9

There are other theoretical explanations for the success of CBI in generating a higher degree of
motivation. From the constructivist's viewpoint, CBI leads to a more student-centered, self-directed
approach that allows each learner to manage his or her own learning process. By being more engaged in
the process, a learner is able to construct a reality that has a higher degree of personal relevance [17].
This engaging process creates a more interesting learning environment that stimulates intrinsic
motivation.

As for limitations, while the quality of each instructional method was thought to be relatively equal, some
variations may have existed that could have had detrimental effects on motivation. This was managed by
using professionally produced programs for the video segments and CBI, and experienced expert
presenters for the lecture sessions. This study looked at only three instructional media. There are a
number of other instructional methods in use in business and industry including role playing, case study,
and conference [6]. Additional comparisons with other methods would be valuable.

Although the IMMS has had frequent appearances in the literature [5], other tested measures of
evaluating motivation exist such as the Student Motivation Scale [18]. However, Keller argues that while
other measures are similar in their intent, the IMMS is more specific with regard to the materials, not just
the subject matter [1O].

The original IMMS did require some modification to make it applicable to these presentation formats. The
application of the IMMS in this study was an expansion of the scope of use for this measurement. It was
felt the changes were slight and the effect on the measurement's validity was not adverse. This was
supported by the relatively strong alpha coefficients reported in Table 1. Applying a modified form of the
IMMS to this broader definition of instructional materials was effective and indicates the expanded scope
of use to include instructional formats, and not just instructional materials, to be practical.

The IMMS has been modified by other authors with success. For example, Small and Ferreira [19] revised
the scale to create a measurement aimed at gauging motivation in reference to specific information
resources. Dempsey and Johnson [5] developed the ARCS Gaming Scale that focused on motivation
related to computer games. Eom and Reiser [16] modified the IMMS in their study on the influence of
student's self-regulated learning strategies on outcomes including motivation and the level of learner-
versus program-controlled CBI. Others have used individual subscales of the IMMS with success [2O].
There are other measurement instruments based on the ARCS model [21, 22], but the IMMS remains the
most well tested and reliable ARCS instrument to evaluate the effect of instructional material on
motivation.

The ARCS model was developed primarily using K- 12 students [23]. As Bohlin and Milheim [23]
suggested, there may be different motivational factors to consider when using the model to stimulate
motivation in adults. With a greater life experience and the potential to have learned attitudes that may
reflect negatively on one instructional medium over another, there are considerations to be taken into
account with adult learners. However, the instructional media utilized in this study were specifically
designed for adults. Still, Bohlin and Milheim made a critical point in the importance of looking at adult
implications of the ARCS model, especially considering the accelerated rate of change and new knowledge
many adults in the work force face.

While this study shows a higher degree of learner motivation for computerbased instruction over video or
lecture, this must be linked to learning and recall. Without a successful link between these, curriculum
and program designers may have a difficult time justifying a change to computer-based instruction based
solely on motivation or satisfaction. While several studies have shown higher degrees of learning [7, 8,

http://ezproxy.marshall.edu:2091/elibweb/elib/do/document?set=pbsissue&groupid=1&requ... 3/7/2014
Document Page: THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIV... Page 6 of 9

15, 24], other studies have proved inconclusive [9, 25, 26]. Continued research into this area is
warranted.
REFERENCE
REFERENCES

1. Keller, J. M., Instructional Materials Motivation Survey. Unpublished manuscript, Florida State
University, 1993.

2. Keller, J. M. The systematic process of motivational design. Performance and Instruction, 26(9), p. 1-8,
1987.

3. Keller, J. M. Strategies for stimulating the motivation to learn. Performance and Instruction, 26(8), p. 1
-7, 1987.

4. Small, R. Motivation in instructional design. Teacher Librarian, 27(5), p. 29-31, 2000.

5. Dempsey, J. V. and Johnson, R. B. The development of an ARCS gaming scale. Journal of Instructional
Psychology, 25, p. 215-221, 1998.

6. Shoenfelt, E. L., The relative effectiveness of training methods for attaining training objectives: Current
opinion of training practitioners. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 329 879), 1991.

7. Yang, Y. C. The effects of media on motivation and content recall: Comparison of computer- and print-
based instruction. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 20, p. 95-105, 1992.

8. Cronin, M. W., Grice, G. L., and Olsen, R. K., Jr. The effects of interactive video instruction in coping
with speech fright. Communication Education, 43, p. 42-53, 1994.

9. Ivers, K. S. and Barron, A. E., Teaching telecommunications: A comparison between video and
computer-based instruction. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 378 963), 1994.

10. Keller, J. M., Manual for the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS). Unpublished
manuscript, Florida State University, 1990.

11. Song, S. H. and Keller, J. M. The ARCS model for developing motivationally-adaptive computer-
assisted instruction, in Proceedings of Selected Paper Presentations at the Convention of the Association
for Educational Communications and Technology. Houston, TX: (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No
ED436181),1999.

12. Caincross, S. and Mannion, M. Interactive multimedia and learning: Realizing the benefit. Innovations
in Education and Teaching International, 38(2), p. 156-164, 2001.

13. Klein, J. D., Freitag, E., and Wolf, B. Providing practice using instructional gaming: A motivating
alternative, in Proceedings of Selected Paper Presentations at the Convention of the Association for
Educational Communications and Technology. Anaheim, CA: (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No
ED323926), 1990.

14. Eccles, J. S. and Wigfield, A. Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annuals Review of Psychology,
53, p. 109-132,2002.

http://ezproxy.marshall.edu:2091/elibweb/elib/do/document?set=pbsissue&groupid=1&requ... 3/7/2014
Document Page: THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIV... Page 7 of 9

15. Yildirim, Z., Ozden, M. Y, and Aksu, M. Comparison of hypermedia learning and traditional instruction
on knowledge acquisition and retention. Journal of Educational Research, 94, p. 207-214, 2001.

16. Eom, W. and Reiser, R. The effects of self-regulation and instructional control on performance and
motivation in computer-based instruction. Journal of Instructional Media, 27(3), p. 247-260, 2000.

17. Bailey, D. H. Constructivism and multimedia: Theory and application; innovation and transformation.
International Journal of Instructional Media, 25(2), p. 161-165, 1996.

18. Beatty, M. J., Student motivation scale, in Communication Research Measures, R.B. Rubin, P.
Palmgreen, and H.E. Sypher, (Eds.). Guilford: New York. p. 343-346, 1994.

19. Small, R. V. and Ferreira, S. M. Information location and use, motivation, and learning patterns when
using print or multimedia information resources. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 3, p.
251 -271, 1994.

20. Price, C. B. Affective and cognitive influences of textual display in printed instruction, in Proceedings
of Selected Paper Presentations at the Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and
Technology. Anaheim, CA: (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No ED323941),1990.

21. Small, R., Motivation in instructional design (Report No. EDO-IR-97-06). Eric Digest: Syracuse, NY,
1997.

22. Bohlin, R. M., Milheim, W. D., and Viechnicki, K. J. Factor analysis of the instructional motivation
needs of adult reamers, in Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations at the 1994
National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology Sponsored by the
Research and Theory Division. New Orleans: LA: (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No ED 362152),
1993.

23. Bohlin, R. M. and Milheim, W. D. Applications of an adult motivational instructional design model, in
Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations at the 1994 National Convention of the
Association for Educational Communications and Technology Sponsored by the Research and Theory
Division. Nashville, TN: (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No ED373704), 1994.

24. Chang, C.Y. Does computer-assisted instruction + problem solving improved science outcomes? A
pioneer study. Journal of Educational Research, 95(3), p. 143-150, 2002.

25. Grain, L. A. Effects of instructional media on immediate and long-term recall. Interpersonal computing
and technology, 2(2), p. 19-27, 1994.

26. Maul, G. P. and Spotts, D. S. A comparison of computer-based instruction and classroom instruction.
Industrial Engineering, 25(2), p. 25-27, 1993.
AUTHOR_AFFILIATION
DAVID L. RODGERS

Marshall University Graduate College

BEVERLY J. WITHROW-THORTON

Charleston Area Medical Center Institute

http://ezproxy.marshall.edu:2091/elibweb/elib/do/document?set=pbsissue&groupid=1&requ... 3/7/2014
Document Page: THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIV... Page 8 of 9

AUTHOR_AFFILIATION
Direct Reprint Requests to:

David L. Rodgers

Charleston Area Medical Center

Health Education and Research Institute

501 Morris Street

Life Support Training Center - 5 East

Charleston, WV 25301

Email: dave.rodgers@camc.org
AUTHOR_AFFILIATION
AUTHOR NOTE

David L. Rodgers is a candidate in Curriculum and Instruction at Marshall University Graduate College
(South Charleston, W. Va.,USA).

Beverly J. Withrow-Thorton is a Health Communications Specialist with the Charleston Area Medical
Center Health Education and Research Institute (Charleston, W.Va., USA)THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIVATION

Byline: Rodgers, David L; Withrow-Thorton, Beverly J

Volume: 32
Number: 4
ISSN: 00921815
Publication Date: 10-01-2005
Page: 333
Type: Periodical
Language: English

Copyright Dr. Phillip J. Sleeman 2005

Citation for your reference:

Rodgers, David L., Withrow-Thorton, Beverly J.. "THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON

LEARNER MOTIVATION." International Journal of Instructional Media 4(2005):333. eLibrary.

Web. 07 Mar. 2014.

http://ezproxy.marshall.edu:2091/elibweb/elib/do/document?set=pbsissue&groupid=1&requ... 3/7/2014
 Document Page: THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ON LEARNER MOTIV... Page 9 of 9

Rodgers, D., Withrow-Thorton, B. (2005, October 01). THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

ON LEARNER MOTIVATION. International Journal of Instructional Media, (4), 333, Retrieved

from http://elibrary.bigchalk.com

Copyright © 2014 ProQuest LLC All rights reserved. - Terms and Conditions

http://ezproxy.marshall.edu:2091/elibweb/elib/do/document?set=pbsissue&groupid=1&requ... 3/7/2014
View publication stats