Stamps, A. E., (2014). Prospect and refuge theory: the first 214 references.
https://www/Researchgate.net
Literature Review of Prospect and Refuge
Theory:
the first 214 references
Jay Appleton's (1975) seminal book The
Experience of Landscape delineated the theory of
prospect and refuge. That theory has since become
one of the most widely-cited models of
environmental preference. A previous informal
review of the literature suggested that a wide
diversity of methods has been used in those
references, making it difficult for researchers to
identify which sources would best suit their own
needs. Accordingly, this article provides a
structured review of the sources citing The
Experience of Landscape. The structure consists of
classifying each source according to its methods. I
begin with the basic concepts of prospect and refuge
theory.
Basic Concepts
The seminal introduction to this theory is the
following passage from Konrad Lorenz:
"It is early one Sunday morning at the beginning of March,
when Easter is already in the air, and we are taking a walk in
the forest whose wooded slopes of tall beeches can be equaled
in beauty by few and surpassed by none…Before we break
through the last bushes and out of cover to the free expanse of
the meadow, we do what all wild animals and all good
naturalists, wild boars, leopards, hunters and zoologists would
do under similar circumstances: we reconnoiter, seeking,
before we leave our cover, to gain from it the advantage which
it can offer alike to hunter and hunted — namely to see
without being seen." (Lorenz, 1952, p. 181)
This scenario can be explained by the need
to avoid enemies at all times (Hediger, 1950). The
greater the range over which one can identify
possible enemies, the greater the amount of time
available to make appropriate responses and the
safer one will be. Also, the more protected one is
from those possible threats, the safer one will be.
Identification of threats requires attention. Attention
is a scarce resource. One cannot pay attention to all
parts of an environment at all times. If one wishes
to be as safe as possible, then one will need a way
to allocate one's attention so that it focuses on parts
of environments that influence safety or danger.
Appleton's basic insight was to suggest that
preference — pure aesthetic preference — was a
mechanism for directing attention based on the
perceived safety/danger potential in landscapes.
Thus, we are captivated by vast expansive
panoramas (the Grand Canyon) because we can see
so very much; the eye is "drawn towards" edges of
natural landforms (Japanese borrowed scenery)
because, just behind those edges may (or may not)
lurk a (currently) hidden threat.
Appleton went on to list many
environmental properties that might influence safety
or danger and thus should predict aesthetic
responses. One such property is light. Bright front
lighting makes one more visible than back-lighting
or dim lighting (Appleton, 1975, pp. 68 - 72).
Prospect can be a function of many environmental
properties, including wide views (panoramas) that
can be uninterrupted or interrupted and can be
visible from one's current location or inferred from
some other location, or vistas, which are views not
as wide as panoramas and can be simple, horizontal,
or peep holes. Both panoramas and vistas can be
open or closed, depending on the length of the
fetch. Other prospects can be indirect and can be
deflected or offset, and so on (Appleton, 1975, p.
79). Things that may indicate refuge include
function (hiding, sheltering), origin (natural,
artificial, buildings, ships, others), substance (earth
refuges such as caves, rocks, or hollows; vegetation
refuges such as arboreal, reeds, grasses), nebulous
(mist, smoke), or accessibility (penetrability of
margins) (Appleton, 1975, p .91).
The combination of such a wide range of
possibilities and the very accessible presentation
appealed to a correspondingly wide diversity of
people who subsequently adopted prospect and
refuge theory. For example, the theory was cited in
an essay on how a 1940's novel changed a whole
culture from fishing to tourism on Canada's east
coast, centered around Peggy's Cove (McKay,

1988). At another extreme was a review of work
done on the value of views, as measured by
property value, that was done with sufficient
precision such that the differences in value among
wide, medium, and narrow views of water could be
calculated (Bourassa, Hoesli, & Sun, 2004). The
resulting wealth of work generated a new issue for
researchers: deciding which reference would be
most rewarding for there own needs. Hence this
article. A system for coding methodology was
developed and applied to a sample of works that
cited The Experience of Landscape.
Classification Scheme
There were five classes: (A)
Humanistic/experiential, (B) Applications to other
topics, (C) Diffuse empirical studies, (D) Focused
empirical studies, and (X) Not available. Works
were classified as being humanist or experiential if
the support consisted of commentary based on
personal judgment. Since the original work was
done as art history, many of the works that cited
prospect and refuge were also done as art history,
and so were humanistic. Other works were done as
recollections of personal experiences; these were
also classified as type A. Many other works
proposed alternate theoretical schemes for thinking
about the environment. Without supporting
empirical work, these too were classified as type A.
Works that cited The Experience of Landscape as a
general background to other applications were
classified as type B. Some of these works contained
empirical data, but it was data on another topic, not
on the validation of prospect and refuge concepts.
These decisions reflect my own interest in the
theory: finding out how well it works.
Works were classified as type C or D if they
contained empirical data on point, which is to say,
they contained results on the topic of how well the
concepts of prospect and refuge actually caused
their intended effects. The distinction between type
C and type D was whether the experimental
protocols were diffuse (type C) or focused (type D).
Diffuse protocols typically have large numbers of
participants, responses, and statistical tests, use
judgment to select environments both before and
after inspecting the data, have no experimental
design, and generate variables and hypotheses via
2
extensive post-hoc analyses and selection of results
based on the researchers' interests or whether "p
<.05". Focused protocols, on another hand, begin
with a priori variables and hypotheses, use random
sampling or experimental designs, calculate how
many respondents would be required using power
analysis, and/or report findings in terms of effect
sizes. The pro's and con's of each method have been
published elsewhere for researchers interested in the
differences (American Psychological Association,
2001; Chochrane Collaboration, 2005; Ioannidis,
2005; Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991). In some cases,
diffuse studies contained sufficient information to
extract effect sizes, in which case the effect size was
calculated and the work was coded as type D.
Since it is likely that some readers will take
exception to some coding choices, the review lists,
for each work, the key phrase at which I made my
decision. For readers with different backgrounds or
needs, the very same phrase where I stopped paying
attention may indicate that, in their worldview,
things were just starting to get interesting. Either
way, the key phrase can be used to selecting
material most relevant to one's own work.
Sampling
In order to prevent the possibility of my own
interests biasing the sample, a rigid sampling
protocol was used. The protocol was a search in the
expanded Science Citation Index on 20 August
2006 for works citing the Experience of Landscape
in either the 1975 or the 1996 edition. There were
214 such works. Titles and abstracts were inspected
for indications of empirical data. Articles that
seemed likely to have such data were obtained from
the web or the local libraries and the results sections
were inspected to determine (a) if the article
actually tested concepts of prospect or refuge, and
(b) if effect sizes could be found or calculated.
Please note that this is a sample, not a
census. No attempt was made to track down all
references to prospect and refuge theory, and no
such claim to completeness is made. The claims that
are being made is that this is a sample unbiased by
any possible personal interests and that the
confidence intervals are valid over the domain of
works using prospect and refuge theory.
 3

Chochrane Collaboration. (2005). Cochrane

Findings
Table 1 boils down two months' reading into
7 lines. Table 2 lists each work, the classification,
and the key phrase at which the classification was
made.
Implications
The clear implication is that most of the
literature citing The Experience of Landscape book
is either discursive, rather than scientific, or
assumes the theory to be sufficiently valid to justify
application to other topics, rather than actually
testing that validity. Actual empirical validation of
the concepts of prospect and refuge theory seems to
be an issue vcry much ripe for future research.
handbook for systematic reviews of
interventions. 4.2.5. Retrieved August 21,
2006, from http://www.cochrane.org
Hediger, H. (1950). Wild animals in captivity: an
outline of the biology of zoological gardens
(G. Sircom, Trans. 1964 ed.). New York:
Dover.
Ioannidis, J. P. (2005). Why most published
research findings are false. PlosMed, 2(8),
e:124.
Lorenz, K. (1952). King Solomon's Ring (M. K.
Wilson, Trans.). New York: Crowell.
McKay, I. (1988). Among the fisher folk: Livesay
and the invention of Peggys Cove. Journal
of Canadian Studies, 23(1-2), 23-45.
Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1991). Essentials
of behavioral research: methods and data
analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill.

References

American Psychological Association. (2001).

Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (Fifth ed.).
Washington, D.C.: American Psychological
Association.
Appleton, J. (1975). The experience of landscape
(1996 ed.). New York: Wiley.
Bourassa, S. C., Hoesli, M., & Sun, J. (2004).
What's in a view? Environment and
Planning A, 36(8), 1427-1450.

Table 1. Summary of sources citing The Experience of Landscape in

Science Citation Index in August, 2006
Type n Proportion .05 ci
A. Humanistic/experiential 113 .528 [.462, .594]
B. Background for other topics 71 .332 [.267, .395]
C. Diffuse empirical study (no 13 .061 [.027, .095]
effect size)
D. Focused empirical study 11 .051 [.022, .080]
(effect size)
E. Unavailable 6 .028
Total: 214
 4

Table 2. Science Citation Search August 2006

on ti = Experience Landscape, author = Appleton J, and year = 1975 to 1996

Source Type Key Phrases

Adams (1985) A Perception and the 18th century traveler.

Appleton (1975) A Landscape evaluation - theoretical
vacuum.
Appleton (1986) A Some thoughts on the geology of the
picturesque.
Appleton (1998) A The idea of "narrative" is used to explore
the philosophers' apparent difficulty in
applying the methodology of art criticism.
Bellis (1987) A Vision and power in Jane Eyre.
Bergman (1978) A Experience of landscape.
Binder & Burnett (1994) A Ngugi-Wa-Thiongo and the search for a
populist landscape aesthetic.
Bird (1981) A The target of space and the arrow of time.
Bourassa (1988) A Discursive description of landscape
theories.
Bourassa (1989) A Postmodernism is Architecture and
Planning - what kind of style.
Bourassa (1990) A Discursive discussion of landscape
theories.
Bourassa (1992) A An exploration of the relevance of welfare
and public economics of landscape
aesthetics.
Brehm (1990) A Island fortress - the landscape of the
imagination in the Great-Lakes fiction of
Woolson, Constance, Fenimore…
Brookes (1976) A Experience of landscape.
Bunkse (1977) A Experience of landscape.
Butler & Wall (1985) A Review of themes in research on the
evolution of tourism.
C. A. Lewis (1979) A Healing in the urban environment -
comment.
C. Campbell (2003) A Essay on story about Georgian Bay in
Canada.
Capasso (1986) A Dali, Salvador and the barren plain - a
phenomenological analysis of a surrealist
landscape environment.
Cowie (2002) A Perception of a scene is invested with
something beyond it…It may be God, or
 5

immensity in time or space, or the essence

of a nation.
Crawford (1976) A Experience of landscape.
D. Cosgrove (1978) A Experience of landscape.
D. Cosgrove (1985) A The history of the landscape idea suggests
that its origins lie in the humanists' search
for certainty rather than a vehicle of
individual subjectivity.
D. E. Cosgrove (1979) A Ruskin, John and the geographical
imagination.
Dawson (1999) A Focus on description of two Polish cities
as symbols of socialism and their
significance for changing the perception
of Poland in the post-socialist period.
Dearden (1980b) A Essay on main reasons behind legal
interest in landscape aesthetics.
Diffey (2000) A Arguing about the environment.
Domosh (1987) A Imagining New York 1st skyscrapers,
1875 - 1910.
Duffus & Dearden (1990) A Nonconsumptive wildlife-oriented
recreation - a conceptual framework.
Elkins (1993) A On the conceptual analysis of gardens.
Etlin (1998) A Aesthetics and the spatial sense of self.
Farina & Belgrano (2006) A An eco-field hypothesis is presented as a
new possibility to describe landscape
processes according to an organismic-
centered-view.
Farina, Santolini, Pagliaro, A Eco-semiotics.
Scozzafava, & Schipani (2005)
Flannery (2002) A Building biology.
Fricker (1975) A Historic gardens and landscapes -
conservation of a national asset.
Fry & SarlovHerlin (1997) A Paper discusses the major biological and
amenity functions of woodland edges in
the context of multiple-use management
and design.
G. M. Lewis (1976) A Experience of landscape.
Goodey & Gold (1985) A Essay on three crucial issues which will
influence the future of behavioral and
perceptual geography.
Goodey (1975) A Experience of landscape.
Goodey (1977) A Letter to the editor.

Gulinck, Mugica, de Lucio, & A Paper presents a diagnostic framework for

 6

Atauri (2001) evaluating landscapes.

Haber (2004) A Landscape can be interpreted as a holistic
entity of aesthetic perception derived from
landscape paintings and parks of the 18th
and 19th century.
Hamilton (1982) A Landscape assessment - the last decade - a
comment.
Heathcote (1997) A The cartographic eye: how explorers saw
Australia.
Helphand (1997) A Defiant gardens + environmental
landscape adaptation.
Heyligers (1981) A Mapping of relevant variables (screening,
views, horizon, lakes) but no empirical
data.
Hudson (1992) A Paper describes how prospect-refuge
theory might gain in credibility if its
foundations are shown to be less
dependent on atavistic responses relating
to hunting and more on the survival value
of shelter from inanimate as well as
animate hazards.
Hudson (1993) A Bennett 5 towns, a prospect-refuge
analysis.
Hudson (2006) A Function of Caribbean veranda as
revealed in Jamaican literature.
Hunt (1979) A Turner and landscape painting.
Irmscher (1995) A Muscles of clay.
Jakle (1992) A History and precedent in environmental
design.
Johnston (1996) A Biography of a French geographer.
Joye (2005) A Fractal art can tap into cognitive modules
specialized in processing information
about natural things.
K. Olwig (2003) A An essay seeking to recover the
substantive meaning of landscape through
an historical and geographical analysis of
meaning undergone by the concepts of
landscape and nature.
K. R. Olwig (1996) A The contemporary analytical power of
landscape derives in important measure
from the timely ability of David
Lowenthal to turn the critique of
landscape on end.
Kizos & Koulouri (2006) A Descriptive model of changes in economic
and landscape history.
Korte (1994) A Ways of viewing literary landscapes.
 7

Lange (1990) A Descriptive summary of ten possible vista

properties: observer position (above,
level, below), nuisance (yes, no, possible),
dominating element (coast, lake,
mountain, other).
Lantrip (1997) A A framework is proposed for selection
and organizing environmental
performance criteria according to levels of
human need, organizational hierarchy, and
scale of environmental system.
Lavezzari (1996) A Picturesque + artistic literature and
painting in England during the 2ND 1/2 of
the 18th. century.
Lawton (1983) A Space, place and time.
Leer (1991) A Imagined counterpart, outlining a
conceptual literary geography of
Australia.
Leer (1991) A Imagined counterpart, outlining a
conceptual literary geography of
Australia.
Leviseur (1997) A The experience of landscape.
Liu (2003) A Lays out a theoretical foundation and dual
process-research methodology for
engineering aesthetics.
Lothian (1999) A Conclusion, based on philosophical
commentary, that research on landscape
quality should be based on the subjectivist
premise that quality is a product of the
mind rather than inherent in the physical
landscape.
Marten (1995) A Tomlinson, Charles, and the experience of
place.
Martin-Jordache (2001) A Postcolonialism and the experience of
place: Derek Walcott's 'Another Life".
Matthews (2001) A Aesthetic appreciation of art and nature.
McCormick (1976) A Poema pictura - literary pictorialism and
the psychology of landscape.
McKay (1988) A Among the fisher folk + Nova-Scotia...the
invention of Peggys Cove.
Millward (1985) A Article considers four methods for
assessing visual impacts of coal mines. No
empirical data.
Mitchell (2006) A Christo's Gates and Gilo's wall.
Muir (1998) A The neglect of landscape history is not in
the best interests of geography, and its
reintegration would allow a more
 8

balanced perspective on landscape to be

developed.
Newby (1978) A Towards an understanding of landscape
quality.
Ogee (1996) A Adeline and her dreams - remarks on
gothic landscape in Radcliffe.
Parsons & Daniel (2002) A A review suggesting that calls for a new
normative environmental aesthetic based
on a cognitive model of ecological
sustainability are premature.
Paterson (1976) A Experience of landscape.
Paulson (1977) A Toward Constable bicentenary - thoughts
on landscape theory.
Pollio & Heaps (2004) A From a phenomenological perspective, the
relationship between disciplinary
understandings of nature and that of
everyday life was expressed by Merleau-
Pointy…
Pollio, Anderson, Levasseur, & A Variables were created with hermeneutic
Thweatt (2003) interpretative procedures.
Porteous (1986) A Bodyscape - the body-landscape
metaphor.
R. Kaplan (1985) A Review article.

Richards (1996) A The relationship between henges and

rivers provides a metaphorical
conjunction between the natural flowing
of water and human movement into the
monuments.
Ross (2005) A Working out details of religious,
imaginative and ambient responses will
chart a way for landscape appreciation to
become politically correct.
S. Kaplan (1987) A Review article.

S. Williams (1985) A Review article of landscape evaluation

indicators different from prospect or
refuge.
Seger (1996) A The experience of landscape.
Selman & Doar (1992) A An investigation of the potential for
landscape ecology for act as a basis for
rural land-use plans.
Selman (1993) A A set of strategic landscape planning
principles is proposed, based on
population dynamics, habitat patches,
 9

movements between patches, visual

cohesion, and hydrological structures.
Sondrup (1982) A The intertextual landscape of Zola
Germinal.
Spitzer (2005) A Aesthetics of Petrarca to Titan, on Darwin
and the Tsunami.
Squire (1990) A Wordsworth and Lake District Tourism.
Stewart (2000) A Objects in space and time: metonymy in
Durrell's island books.
Stuart-Murray (1998) A The experience of landscape in
Environmental Values.
Sundararajan (1998) A Two ultimate realities in the landscape
poetry of Hsieh Ling-Yun.
Swartz (1987) A Discursive summary of prospect and
refuge concepts.
Tandy (1976) A Experience of landscape.
Terkenli (2001) A An attempt to to apply concerns about
landscape theory and methodology by
delineating a framework of analysis for
the Aegean landscape of Greece.
Terkenli (2005) A Current local-scale changes in the
landscape interweave with globalization,
time-space compression and media
proliferation.
Thweatt & Pollio (2000) A Experiencing the landscape in landscape
painting: some phenomenological
considerations.
Tijerino (1998) A Norbert Ellias's "The Civilizing Process"
can be used to develop a theoretical
framework for examining manifestations
of defensible space.
Towner (1988) A Approaches to tourism history.
Tress & Tress (2001) A An overview of the historical
development of landscape concepts
originating from different cultural and
scientific trends that presents a new
complex concept of landscape which is
designed to enable transdisciplinary
landscape research.
Tuan (1976) A Experience of landscape.
Tuan (1993) A The symbolism of habitat - an
interpretation of landscape in the arts.
Ulrich (1986) A Review article.

Valenti (1979) A Ordering of God providence - law and


Vanburen (1988)
Wainwright (2004)
Warren & Harrison (1984)
Whittow (1988)
Abello, Bernaldez, & Galiano
(1986)
Amith (2005)
Balling & Falk (1982)
Bishop & Hulse (1994)
Bixler & Floyd (1997)
Brown, Keane, & Kaplan (1986)
Bunting & Cousins (1985)
Clay & Smidt (2004)
Coss & Moore (2002)
Dakin (2003)
De Nooij et al. (2004)
Dearden (1980a)
Delucio & Mugica (1994)
10
landscape in pioneers.
A Landscape Architecture and gardens in the
Cornish-Colony.
A Representations of ageing in Romantic
painting.
A People and the ecosystem - biography as a
study of ecology and culture.
A The making of the English village - a
study in historical geography.
B Variables were factor labels of fertility,
wintery, barren soil, recurrent patterns.
B Place making involves place breaking and
this adds a diachronic dimension to the
understanding of indigenous societies.
B Variables were biomes of savanna,
deciduous forest, coniferous forest,
tropical rain forest, and desert.
B Better visual assessment methods might
be possible with GIS and video
panoramas.
B How disgust, wild land fear, and comfort
range predict 9 behaviors. 15 scenes,
hundreds of post hoc tests.
B Variables were manicured landscapes,
predominantly vegetation, pastoral, and
residential.
B Variables of pastoralism, urbanism,
environmental adaptation, stimulus
seeking, environmental trust,
antiquarianism, need privacy, and
mechanical orientation.
B Variables were naturalness, vividness,
variety, and unity.
B Sexual dinichism in choice of refuge,
aesthetic preferences for tree silhouettes,
choice of refuge in tree canopies.
B An experiential approach to landscape
assessment; participants revealed
overlapping and dynamic experiences.
B Description of a transnational model of
species and ectopes for river channels and
floodplains.
B Review article.
B Preferences of causal visitors to Spanish
parks did not conform to features

DeWit (2001)
F. Herzog (1998)
Fitzgibbon, Pomeroy, & Green
(1985)
Germino, Reiners, Blasko,
McLeod, & Bastian (2001)
Hadrian, Bishop, & Mitcheltree
(1988)
Hagerhall (2001)
Hagerhall, Purcell, & Taylor
(2004)
Hartig (1993)
Hudson (1986)
Hull & Michael (1995)
Hull & Revell (1989)
Irvine & Warber (2002)
Johnston (1997)
K. J. H. Williams & Cary (2002)
Kent & Elliot (1995)
Koole & Van den Berg (2005)
11
generally thought of a beautiful such as
mountains, water, or vegetation.
B Women's sense of place on the American
High Plains.
B How a traditional agroforestry system for
Streuobst could be a model for
agroforestry development.
B Variables of MDS labels for modern v
historical and open and functional v
natural and historical.
B How to use GIS to measure landscape
properties known to influence preferences.
B Computer model for assessing visual
impact of power lines.
B Variability in preferences for landscapes
might be due to level of preference, group
differences, or mental representation of
the landscape type in the visual stimuli.
B Fractal dimension of landscape is related
to preference.
B A review of transactional character of
nature experiences.
B Landscape as resource for national
development - a Caribbean view.
B Recreating in nature produced no more
restoration than did recreating indoors.
B Variable was demographic distinction
between tourists and inhabitants of Bali.
B Literature review on the hypothesis that
interaction with the natural world is a vital
part of biopsychological-spiritual well-
being.
B Paper examines spatial analysis and
geographic information systems.
B Variables were ecological quality,
biodiversity protection behavior, five post
hoc verbal categories of landscapes.
B Eight landscape criteria unrelated to
prospect and refuge, 36 scenes, 17
dependent variables, judgment selection,
post hoc data inspection.
B Article investigates relationships between
death/freedom by wilderness/cultivated
nature, or influence of death reminders vs.
wild/cultivated nature.

Kytta, Kaaja, & Horelli (2004)
L. M. Campbell & Smith (2006)
Lamb & Purcell (1990)
Larsen (2004)
Levi & Kocher (1999)
Luymes & Tamminga (1995)
Macnaghten, Brown, & Reicher
(1992)
Milligan, Gatrell, & Bingley
(2004)
Nasar (1983)
Nasar (1983)
Newell (1997)
Parsons (1995)
Parsons, Tassinary, Ulrich, Hebl,
& Grossman-Alexander (1998)
Prentice & Guerin (1998)
Purcell (1987)
Raman & Naderi (2006)
Schauman & Salisbury (1998)
12
B Exploratory study of how an Internet-
assisted game brings forth children's own
visions for the environment where they
live and their definitions of a good
environment.
B Qualitative study of people who
volunteered to save sea turtles.
B Variable was naturalness.
B Landscape, identity, and war.
B Virtual landscapes may look so good they
make real landscapes seem bad in
comparison.
B Application to designing a greenway.
B Items were deemed more acceptable if
labeled natural than if they were labeled
as non-natural.
B Communal gardening activity might
contribute to the maintenance of health
amongst older people.
B Variables were factor labels of diversity,
nuisance, enclosure, and clarity.
B 18 variables not related to prospect or
refuge.
B Reasons given for selecting favorite
places fell into place-centered, person-
centered, and interactive perspectives.
B Review article. No variables for prospect
or refuge.
B Driving through natural environments
decreased stress faster than driving
through built environments.
B Recreational users of Ben Lomond
emphasize attributes of physical
environments supplemented by elements
of romanticism, rather than by symbolic
consumption.
B Variables were goodness of example,
interest, attractiveness, and preference.
B Description of a driving simulator and
analysis package for route choice.
B Two case studies of urban stream
restoration with conclusion that the
majority of observed behaviors toward
 13

urban streams were negative.

Schauman (1988) B Variables of character, uniqueness,
fragility, fitness, structure, information,
preference, and meaning.
Schneider (2005) B Introduction to a collection of articles.
Shechter, Enis, Reiser, & Tzamir B Relationship was suitability for activities
(1981) as predicted by landform, slope, exposure,
vegetation coverage, agricultural land use,
man-made land use, accessibility, and
buildings.
Stamps & Smith (2002) B Dependent variable was enclosure.
Stamps (2001) B Dependent variable of enclosure.
Stamps (2005a) B Dependent variables were enclosure and
safety.
Stamps (2005b) B Dependent variables were enclosure and
safety.
Steyvers, Dekker, Brookhuis, & B Factors labeled "hedonic value",
Jackson (1994) "activational value", and "perceptual
variation" were influenced by daylight and
traffic on roads.
Stoddart (1997) B Reproductive success is enhanced by
symmetry (fans for peacocks, tail feathers
for swallows, legs for dung flies,
moustache whiskers for lions).
Strumse (1996) B Variables were demographics, nature/built
environments, human domination and
modern farming.
Sullivan (1994) B Settings were preferred if they showed
both farm and forest, mature trees, and
single family residences.
T. Herzog & Smith (1988) B Variables did not include prospect or
refuge.
T. M. Nelson (1997) B Eighteen items on a fatigue advisory
questionnaire were rated as being "very"
or "extremely" important.
T. Nelson, Johnson, Strong, & B Perception of fecundity and attractiveness
Rudakewich (2001) of a tree reflects the completeness of its
canopy.
T. R. Herzog & Chernick (2000) B Variables were tranquility, danger,
openness, setting care, and nature.
T. R. Herzog & Miller (1998) B Variables were mystery, danger,
openness, pathway curvature, and setting
category.
Thibault & Gresham-Lancaster B Experiences in digital terrain: using digital
(1997) elevation models for music and interactive

Thiel, Harrison, & Alden (1986)
Tunstall & Penning-Rowsell
(1998)
Ulrich et al. (1991)
van den Berg, Koole, & van der
Wulp (2003)
Westmacott (1976)
Whitehouse et al. (2001)
Wong & Domroes (2005)
Zube, Sell, & Taylor (1982)
Barnhart, Perkins, & Fitzsimonds
(1998)
Bernaldez, Abello, & Gallardo
(1989)
Brunson (1996)
Franco, Franco, Mannino, &
Zanetto (2003)
Galindo & Hidalgo (2005)
Hagerhall (2000)
Hammitt, Patterson, & Noe (1994)
Lange & Schaeffer (2001)
Pollio, Fagan, Graves, &
Levasseur (2005)
R. Kaplan (2001)
14
multimedia.
B Variable was enclosure.
B Dominant meanings for English beaches
are linked to naturalness, childhood
experiences, associations the beaches
have, and to games and activities carried
out at the beach.
B Focus was on different in stress recovery
in natural and built environments.
B Variables of restoration, preference,
natural vs. built environments.
B Conservation strategy.
B Focus on reducing stress and restoring
hope and energy via children's hospital
gardens.
B Dependent variables were affective
component, management status, and
naturalness.
B Review article.
C 9 hand-picked stimuli, 29 variables, post-
hoc data inspection.
C Reported findings for 34 variables and
five factors on 60 scenes.
C Six scenes, 20 variables, insufficient
information to calculate effect sizes.
C 12 sites, 13 variables, scores of tests.
C 17 variables, post hoc categories, scores
of tests.
C Post hoc cluster analysis.
C 65 stimuli, 22 variables, post hoc data
inspection.
C Two hotels charge more for rooms with
views.
C A posteriori inspection of 17 verbal terms
used to describe space.
C Variables unrelated to prospect or refuge,
40 scenes, 17 dependent variables, many
independent variables, scores of post hoc
tests.

Ruddell & Hammitt (1987)
T. M. Nelson & Loewen (1993)
van den Berg & ter Heijne (2005)
Bourassa, Hoesli, & Sun (2004)
Chhetri, Arrowsmith, & Jackson
(2004)
Fischer & Shrout (2006)
Jorgensen, Hitchmough, & Calvert
(2002)
Loewen, Steel, & Suedfeld (1993)
Mealey & Theis (1995)
Steinitz (1990)
T. R. Herzog & Kutzli (2002)
T. R. Herzog & Leverich (2003)
T. R. Herzog (1989)
T. R. Herzog (1992)
15
C Variables were refuge symbolic
(immediate), refuge symbolic (distant),
refuge dominant, rough, ill-defined, and
prospect dominant. Insufficient
information to calculate effect sizes.
C 4 scenes, 10 dependent variables, scores
of post hoc tests.
C A posteriori inspection of 35 descriptions
of how respondents recalled how they
were affected by threatening encounters
with nature; stimulus classifications
unrelated to prospect or refuge.
D Wide views of water add 59% to value of
water from property; regression weights
for narrow, medium, wide views.
D Sufficient data reported to calculate d on
"pleasing" for 11 verbally described sites:
d(view - open space) = .58
d(view - forest) =.46
d (forest - open space) = .11 (p 40)
D r (liking, rated prospect) = .29, n = 28
r (liking, rated refuge) = .13, n = 28
D Sufficient data reported to calculate effect
size for boundary permeability on safety
(r = .79 on 15 stimuli).
D Sufficient data reported to calculate effect
sizes of safety and light (r = .70), open
space (r = .61), access to help (r = .46) on
16 verbally specified scenes.
D Mean correlation between 20 scales and
rated prospect = .008 on n = 14 nature
scenes.
D Multiple R (Ratings of prospect and
refuge by author and colleagues, user
preferences) = .55 on n = 48 scenes.
D r(danger, rated refuge ) = .66
r(danger, rated visual access) = -.77 for 70
nature scenes.
D Correlation reported between rated
preference and rated openness of r = .37
for 40 nature scenes.
D r (rated refuge, rated preference) = -.33 on
n = 70 scenes.
D r(preference, rated refuge) = .01 for 70
urban scenes.
 16

Gold (1982) X Not available.

Gonzalezbernaldez & X Not available.

Gallardomartin (1989)
Klopp & Mealey (1998) X Not available.
McPherson (1988) X Not available.

Obrien (1985) X Not available.

Purcell & Lamb (1984) X Not available.

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