TABLE OF CONTENT

1.0 DEFINITION..................................................................................................................................2

1.1 Behaviorism............................................................................................................................2

1.2 Cognitivism..............................................................................................................................2

1.3 Constructivism.......................................................................................................................2

2.0 EXAMPLE AND APPLICATION OF EACH LEARNING THEORY......................................3

2.1 Behaviorism............................................................................................................................3

2.2 Cognitivism..............................................................................................................................4

2.3 Constructivism.......................................................................................................................5

3.0 THE PRACTICE OF EACH LEARNING THEORY APPROACH IN TEACHING AND

LEARNING..........................................................................................................................................6

3.1 Behaviorism............................................................................................................................6

3.2 Cognitivism..............................................................................................................................6

3.3 Constructivism.......................................................................................................................7

4.0 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF EACH LEARNING THEORY...............................8

5.0 REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................10

6.0 APPENDIX A: PRESENTATION SLIDES............................................................................11

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1.0 DEFINITION
1.1 Behaviorism
Educational Psychology by Janet Lim, behaviorism is focuses on teaching behaviors on the
basis of the situation in which they will be performed and the consequences that follow.
Students learn, for example, to raise their hands in class and be recognized before
speaking, because this behavior results in satisfactorily gaining the teachers attention. Most
students have learned this behavior to a sufficient degree that they do not have to picture it
from memory or reason it out every time they want to speak in class. Behavioral learning
principal have been shown to be relevant for schooling learning (Dempster & Corkill, 1999).

A Reflection on the Dominant Learning Theories by Leckraj Nagowah, behaviourism is a

theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours
and disregards mental activities (On Purpose Associates, 2001).

1.2 Cognitivism
Educational Psychology by Janet Lim, cognitivism is focuses on teaching students the
thinking, remembering and self-monitoring skills that enable them to reason and solve
problems. They have to think about what kind of problem it is, and how one goes about
solving that kind of problem. Student learn to solve mathematics problems by learning
different problem – solving procedures and learning how to determine which one to use to
solve a particular problem (Bransford et al., 1996)

A Reflection on the Dominant Learning Theories by Leckraj Nagowah, cognitivism

psychologists use observable behviours as an indication for deducing what is going on in a
person’s mind (Gage & Berliner, 1988)

1.3 Constructivism
Educational Psychology by Janet Lim, constructivism is learners actively construct their own
knowledge rather than receive preformed information transmitted by others (Green &
Gredler, 2002). What this means is that information transmitted by others (Green & Gredler,
2002) what is mean isthat information cannot merely be deposited into learners’ heads.
According to constructivism, information must be discovered through some activities on the
learners part, in order to have meaning for him or her. It is also believe by constructivist that
current curricular emphases and classroom interaction and dynamics do not lend
themselves to the process of knowledge construction, and would need to be changed in
order for meaningful learning to occur.

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A Reflection on the Dominant Learning Theories by Leckraj Nagowah, constructivism is a
learning theory that is actively constructed in the mind of the learners out of their
experiences in the world. Each learner generates his own rules and mental models through
experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences (Bruning et al, 1999).

2.0 EXAMPLE AND APPLICATION OF EACH LEARNING THEORY

2.1 Behaviorism
Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is
reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to
die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which
he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.

Figure 1: Skinner Box

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.

• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.

• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior
being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior
being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and
punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their
consequences. 

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 For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief
consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you
would have been positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the
behavior.

If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from
school and your parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished,
and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.

2.2 Cognitivism
Piaget thought cognitive development as a process or construction of a mental model of the
world. Development is biological and as the child matures, changes occur in cognitive
understanding. According to Piaget, there are four universal stages of cognitive
development:

 Sensorimotor stage – The core idea for the sensorimotor stage is object
permanence. This requires the formation of a schema of the object and the knowledge the
object continues to exist even after it is out of view. According to Piaget, the stage allows
people to learn objects are distinct entities, with an existence out of the individual’s
perception. The ball will still be a ball even when it rolls under the sofa.

 Pre-operational stage – Thinking begins moving towards symbolical stages during

the pre-operational period. You learn that words and objects can be something other than
themselves. Children start to develop imagination and things can start having more meaning.
You might remember having a ball as a best friend or you made a toy plane out of
cardboard. Nonetheless, the pre-operational stage is still controlled by egocentric thoughts.
This means you would find it difficult to see another person’s viewpoint and illogical thinking
can still occur. For example, if you split water into two jugs, one wider and the other taller,
the child might think the taller one has more water inside it.

 Concrete operational stage – Things start heating up during the concrete

operational stage. According to Piaget’s theory, this is when the child starts showcasing
logical or operational thought. Instead of having to physically try things (such as pouring the
water back him- or herself), the child begins to think things through internally. While the
developmental stage sees more logic in thinking, the thought patterns continue to be rigid.
Another important aspect is the diminishing of egocentric thinking. Children begin to
understand their thoughts, feelings and ideas are unique and other’s might think and feel
differently.

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 Formal operational stage – The final stage for Piaget was about the ability to
increase logical thinking, using deductive reasoning and understanding abstract ideas. You
don’t just think there’s one solution to problems, but you start using abstract ideas and
different hypotheses to go about your life. The operational stage doesn’t really end, as we
continue to gain new knowledge and experience long into adulthood.

2.3 Constructivism
 Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative.

 Try to use raw data and primary sources, in addition to manipulative, interactive, and
physical materials.

 When assigning tasks to the students, use cognitive terminology such as "classify,"
"analyze," "predict," and "create."

 Build off and use student responses when making "on-the-spot" decisions about
teacher behaviors, instructional strategies, activities, and content to be taught.

 Search out students' understanding and prior experiences about a concept before
teaching it to them.

 Encourage communication between the teacher and the students and also between
the students.

 Encourage student critical thinking and inquiry by asking them thoughtful, open-
ended questions, and encourage them to ask questions to each other.

 Ask follow up questions and seek elaboration after a student's initial response.

 Put students in situations that might challenge their previous conceptions and that
will create contradictions that will encourage discussion.

 Make sure to wait long enough after posing a question so that the students have time
to think about their answers and be able to respond thoughtfully.

 Provide enough time for students to construct their own meaning when learning
something new.

(Ref: Brooks, J. and Brooks, M. (1993). In Search of Understanding: The Case for
Constructivist Classrooms, ASCD)

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3.0 THE PRACTICE OF EACH LEARNING THEORY APPROACH IN
TEACHING AND LEARNING
3.1 Behaviorism
Behaviorism assumes a learner is essentially passive, and will be shaped through positive
or negative reinforcement. Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior. Skinner
(1974) believed that behavior is a function of its consequences, i.e. learners will repeat the
desired behavior if positive reinforcement is given. The behavior should not be repeated if
negative feedback is given. Giving immediate feedback, whether positive or negative,
should enable your learners to behave in a certain way. Positive reinforcement or rewards
can include verbal feedback such as That’s great, you’ve produced that document without
any errors or You’re certainly getting on well with that task, through to more tangible
rewards such as a certificate at the end of the programme, or a promotion or pay rise at
work.

The implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the development of programmed

instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968)

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer (response) frames
which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps

2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate
feedback

3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and
hence a positive reinforcement

4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers
such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.

3.2 Cognitivism
Cognitivism focuses on what happens in the mind such as thinking and problem-solving.
New knowledge is built upon prior knowledge and learners need active participation in
order to learn. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is
taking place in the learner’s mind. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as a
computer: information comes in, is processed, and learning takes place.

Piaget’s theory is one of the most influential cognitive development theories out there.

Despite being conducted and challenged (as I’ll explain in the next section), the findings
have been used in a number of different contexts. Based on Piaget’s observations, the ideas

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have been applied in classrooms, dealing with young children. But the ideas and concept at
play can also tell a lot about training and development in more general.

Application from Piaget’s theory, they could be the following:

 Use props and other aids to support learning. Since development is an active
experience, you want to engage the person learning. You should provide the
opportunity to test things, feel things, and experiment with things in order to boost to
engagement and ensure the child gets to test assimilation and possibly
accommodating to the new information.

 Combining actions with words. In the earlier stages, it is especially important

to keep things simple and short. You want to give a presentation and an
explanation at the same time. For example, if you are teaching how to build a paper
plane, you should explain the building process while simultaneously showing how it’s
done.

 Understanding the different experiences people have. As well as teaching

children about the importance of understanding other people’s experiences or
feelings, you need to be conscious of this. People ascribe different meanings to
words and the schemas might be different to everyone. When you encounter such a
situation, you need to understand it rather than fight against it. Both you, as a
teacher, and the person, as the student, might occasionally need to assimilate and
accommodate your schemas.

3.3 Constructivism
Constructivism is about learning being an active, contextualized process of constructing
knowledge rather than acquiring it. The learner brings past experiences and cultural
factors to a current situation and each person has a different interpretation and
construction of the knowledge process.

Learning for Bruner is an active process. The learning process includes according to Bruner:

 selection and transformation of information,

 decision-making,

 generating hypotheses,

 and making meaning from information and experiences.

Learners are able to construct new knowledge based on their current or past knowledge.

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Bruner focuses on the importance of categorization in every aspect of learning. This is done
through the interpretation of information and experiences by similarities and differences.

The focus is on the significance of categorization in learning. “To perceive is to categorize, to

conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to
categorize.” Interpreting information and experiences by similarities and differences is a key
concept.

4.0 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF EACH LEARNING

THEORY

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

Behaviourism There are specific goals to Behaviour theory-based

be met, the learner is instructional design is
focused clearly upon heavily instructor
achieving those goals dependent with high
whenever there are cues to demands on resources in
prompt the learner’s order to adapt to changes
behaviour and needs, which can be
Learning
costly and time-consuming
Theory and
Instructional
Design by Cognitivism Cognitive is focused Schemas help to make
Gregory instruction that has the learning more meaningful,
McLeod potential to provide more but a learner is markedly at
meaningful learning to the a disadvantage whenever
learner with a longer impact relevant schemas or
required knowledge do not
exist

Since constructivism
Constructivism Content can be presented
promotes individual learner
from multiple perspectives
interpretations and
using case studies, learners
interests, this can pose an
can develop and individual

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 instructional problem.
representations of
There may want to
information, and active
potentially be problems in
knowledge construction is
accurately comparing
promoted over passive
learning. Learners may
transmission of information.
each have different
experiences within the
learning process but each
have valid and sufficient
learning take place.

Behaviourism The learner is focused on a The learner may find

clear goal and responds himself in a conditions
automatically to the signs of where he needs to
that goal. respond, but the mental
A Reflection cues he receives do not
on the match what he has
dominant previously learnt
learning
theories:
Cognitivism Learners are to be trained The learner learns a way to
Behaviourism
such that they accomplish a accomplish a specific task
, cognitivism
task the same way on a but it may not necessarily
and
number of occasions be the best way or suited to
constructivis
that particular situation or
m by Leckraj
learner
Nagowah

Constructivism The learner is better able to This learning theory is not

adapt to real life situations suited for conditions where
since he/she will be able to it required in thinking and
tackle new problems by actions is matched.
relating them to similar
difficulties solved in the past

Table 1: Strengths and Weaknesses of Each Learning Theory

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5.0 REFERENCES

Book:
Oon-Seng Tan, Y.-L. S.-L. (2016). Educational Psychology An Asia Edition. Singapore:
Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

Journal:
Dr. Mary Anne Weegar, D. D. (2012). A Comparison of Two Theories of Learning.
Behaviorism and Constructivism as applied to Face-to-Face and Online Learning, 10.

Newby, P. A. (1993). Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective.

Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism , 14.

Website:
Teaching with the Constructivist Learning Theory. Retrieved Dec. 2, 2019
from NDT Resource Center We bsite:
https://www.ndeed.org/TeachingResources/ClassroomTips/Constructivist%20_Learning.htm
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner). Retrieved Dec. 2, 2019 from InstructionalDesign.org
Web site: https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/operant-conditioning/

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. Retrieved Dec. 5, 2019 from

Cleverism Web site: https://www.cleverism.com/piagets-theory/

Jerom Bruner’s Constructivism. Retrieved Dec. 5, 2019 from My English Pages Web site:
https://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/jerome-bruners-constructivist-theory/

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 6.0 APPENDIX A:
PRESENTATION SLIDES

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