Meat Processors Journal v3 PDF

VOLUME
3
THE MEAT
PROCESSOR’S
JOURNAL
Science, Methods and Trends
FRESH
SAUSAGE
PRODUCTION
An industry education ebook series jointly developed
by Handtmann and Meatingplace
Volume 3
FRESH SAUSAGE
PRODUCTION
An industry education ebook series jointly
developed by Handtmann and Meatingplace
Published by MTG Media Group

1415 N. Dayton St., Chicago, IL 60642
www.meatingplace.com www.handtmann.us
Table of Contents
Preface
Chapter 1
Introduction and product
overview of fresh sausage
Chapter 2
Global markets for fresh sausage
Chapter 3
Raw materials
Chapter 4
Fresh sausage production
Chapter 5
New processing technologies
Chapter 6
Acknowledgements
Preface
Meatingplace and Handtmann Inc. – for the third

year in a row – have collaborated to develop The
Meat Processor’s Journal, a digital, non-commer-
cial resource for the meat processing industry.
The Meat Processor’s Journal brings thought
leaders together for detailed examinations of the
science, methods and trends in narrow subject
areas of interests to the industry.
It is designed as a subject matter tool for pro-
cessing executives, plant managers, and R&D
personnel to distribute and use within their organi-
zations as it is helpful.
Volume 1:
Whole Muscle Processing
Volume 2:
Dry and Semi-Dry Sausage Production
Volume 3:
Fresh Sausage Production
The current volume focuses on the production
of fresh sausage from the selection of raw materi-
als to non-meat ingredients to grinding to clipping.
We hope you find the information helpful and
interesting.
MEMO
Dear Readers,
Thank you for joining us for this third incarna-
tion of The Meat Processor’s Journal: Fresh Sau-
sage Production. We have again gathered industry
experts to guide our readers through the process
of fresh sausage production and the steps needed
to prepare and manufacture the wide variety of
fresh sausage types, flavors and styles.
We hope that you find this look at fresh sau-
sage production useful in your own businesses
and feel free to download the other books in our
series if you haven’t already done so. We also wel-
come your feedback as you either learn about the
intricacies of fresh sausage production or enhance
your current knowledge in this area.
Tom Kittle Bill Kinross

President Vice President/
Handtmann Inc. and Group Publisher
Handtmann Canada Limited Marketing and
Technology Group
1
Introduction and
product overview
Dr. Jay Wenther, director of meat technology

at Handtmann Inc.
On the surface, the concept of fresh sausage

appears simpler than other types of sausage, like
the dry and semi-dry products covered in the last
edition of this series. The usual ingredients are fairly
straightforward – both natural and manmade – and
the final output formats, whether chub, patties or
links, are relatively easy to work with whether they
are eventually cooked or originally sold raw.
However, the fresh sausage category actually is
similar to its dry and semi-dry cousins in terms of
complexity of flavor, global availability and the reg-
ulatory rules that processors need to understand
in order to successfully manufacture a product that
meets industry and regulatory standards.
U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Food
Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) provides some
guidance for the manufacturing of fresh sausage
in its Food Standards and Labeling Policy Book. In
most cases, FSIS has decided to keep the stan-
dards somewhat generalized in the fresh sausage
category, so there may or may not be a specific
standard, depending on the product produced.
In today’s challenging maze of marketing
lingo, use of the term “fresh” in packaging or
marketing is somewhat restricted by FSIS rules.
In general, the term “fresh” doesn’t automati-
cally mean that the product wasn’t made with
previously frozen raw materials and/or that the
product itself wasn’t previously frozen prior to
the consumer purchase. On the other hand,
processed poultry products that have ever been
below 26°F (-3.3°C), by regulation can’t legally be
labeled as fresh.
In most cases, the meat processing industry uses
the term “fresh” to establish that the product doesn’t
contain such curing agents as sodium nitrite, sodium
nitrate, etc. On the other hand, even though a pre-
cooked breakfast sausage doesn’t contain a curing
agent, the term “fresh” can’t be used on the prod-
uct’s label simply because it has been cooked. (The
same same restriction applies to products for prod-
ucts that have been cured or smoked.)
The category of fresh sausage encompasses
a wide variety of products, all with three things in
common: have a few things in common: They are
not cured, cooked and/or smoked. The category
can be further broken down into link products,
patty products, chub products and/or formed
products (e.g., meatball products). The focus
of Volume 3 Fresh Sausage does not include
uncured, pre-cooked sausage products, such as
frozen or ready-to-eat sausages, which are gener-
ally considered a cooked product. For a detailed
discussion of dry and semi-dry sausage process-
ing, see Vol. 2 of The Meat Processors Journal:
Dry and Semi-Dry Sausages.
It is advisable that processors review the Food
Standards and Labeling Policy Book prior to
production and labeling of their products. Even
though there may not be a specific reference to
the product being manufactured, the product may
fall under a general standard. Processors should
also closely review 9 CFR §319 (Definitions and
Standards of Identity or Composition), specifically,
Subpart E (Sausages Generally: Fresh Sausage). In
some instances, products may be identified in the
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) but not clearly
identified in the Food Standards and Labeling
Policy Book. The following are some general stan-
dards provided by USDA/FSIS:
• Fresh Sausage: Made of fresh, uncured
meat, generally cuts of fresh pork and some-
times beef. Its taste, texture, tenderness and
color are related to the ratio of fat to lean.
Trimmings from primal cuts (e.g., pork, loin,
ham and shoulders) are often used. When
ice or water is used to facilitate chopping and
mixing, it is limited to a maximum of 3% of the
total formula. It must be kept under refriger-
ation and thoroughly cooked before serving.
Bratwurst is in this class. Binders and extend-
ers are permitted in fresh sausages, except
where regulations do not permit the use of
such ingredients (i.e. 9 CFR §319.140 – Pork
Sausage; 9 CFR §319.142 – Beef Sausage; 9
CFR §319.144 – Whole Hog Sausage; and 9
CFR §319.145 – Italian Sausage). All of these
are referred to in Subpart E.
• Bratwurst: This is a fresh sausage product
that may contain offal like hearts, liver and
lungs when properly declared in the ingredi-
ents statement. Vegetables, cheese and fruit
are also acceptable when properly declared
as part of the product name (i.e. “Cheddar
bratwurst”). Reference: 9 CFR §319.140.
• Breakfast Links or Patties: The names
“Breakfast Links” and “Breakfast Patties”
can be considered marketing names on
the labels – such as the Johnsonville Sau-
sage “Fresh Links” brand – but they must
be followed by a descriptive product name.
(In this example, “Original Pork Sausage
Links.”) Such products are acceptable
without compliance with the fresh pork
sausage or breakfast sausage standard. If
the names “Breakfast Links” or “Breakfast
Patties” are used without further qualifi-
cation, the products must meet either the
fresh pork sausage standard or the break-
fast sausage standard.
• Breakfast Sausage: “Breakfast sausage”
is prepared with fresh and/or frozen meat
or fresh and/or frozen meat and the afore-
mentioned offal, may contain mechanically
separated byproducts in accordance with
§319.6, and may be seasoned with condi-
mental substances as permitted in part 318
of that subchapter. The finished product shall
not contain more than 50% fat. To facilitate
chopping or mixing, water or ice may be
used in an amount not to exceed 3% of the
total ingredients used. Binders or extenders
may be added as provided in §319.140.
Reference: 9 CFR §319.143. For cooked
breakfast sausage, antioxidants are permit-
ted when the finished product is formulated
on a raw basis (no more than 3% water).
• Chorizo: The product name “chorizo” can
be used for any type of chorizo sausage
seasoned with Spanish pimento and red
pepper regardless of whether it is cooked,
dry, semi-dry, cured and fresh without fur-
ther product name qualification. Other
requirements for various types of chorizo
apply, including the sausage standard. It is
seasoned with Spanish pimento and red
pepper. Partially defatted pork fatty tissue
is acceptable in chorizo. Wine is consid-
ered a flavoring and need only appear in the
ingredients statement. However, the liquid is
usually credited as added water.
• Chorizo, Fresh: These products also have
their own category and may contain vinegar
that must have a strength of no less than 4
grams of acetic acid per 100 cm3 at 68°F
(20°C). The FSIS rationale allows for both
cured and uncured formats. The standard
regulations for uncooked sausage are quite
specific in terms of limiting the added water
or ice to 3%. The fresh sausage standards
do not, however, restrict the content of
liquids other than water, except for added
condiments, which may be liquid. The policy
(i.e. Policy Memo 034) specifies a minimum
strength for vinegar added to chorizos in
order to control dilution with additional water.
• Country Style (Farm Style) Sausage:
When sausage products are labeled “farm
style” or “country style,” they must be pre-
pared with natural spices with the exclusion
of oleoresins, essential oils or other spice
extractives. Sugar is the sweetening agent
for “farm style” or “country style.” HVP, MSG
and antioxidants are permitted ingredients.
Products so labeled are not necessarily pre-
pared in the country (on a farm, for example)
but are expected to have these characteris-
tics. Reference: 9 CFR §317.8(b)(2).
• Fresh Beef Sausage: “Fresh Beef Sau-
sage” is prepared with fresh beef or frozen
beef, or both, but not including beef offal.
It also may contain mechanically sepa-
rated protein from other species used
in accordance with §319.6, and may be
seasoned with condimental substances
as permitted under part 318 of that sub-
chapter. The finished product should not
contain more than 30% fat. To facilitate
chopping or mixing, water or ice may be
used in an amount not to exceed 3% of
the total ingredients used. Reference: 9
CFR §319.142.
• Fresh Pork Sausage: “Fresh Pork Sau-
sage” is prepared with fresh pork or frozen
pork or both, but not including pork offal.
They also may contain mechanically sep-
arated protein from other species used in
accordance with §319.6, and may be sea-
soned with condiments as permitted under
part 318 of this subchapter. The finished
product should not contain more than 30%
fat. To facilitate chopping or mixing, water
or ice may be used in an amount not to
exceed 3% of the total ingredients used.
Reference: 9 CFR §319.141.
• Pork Sausage: Products identified as pork
sausage do not include the use of pork
cheeks. When such an item is offered as
“Whole Hog,” tongues, hearts and cheeks
may be used in the natural proportion as
found in the hog carcass. “Fresh” can be
used in the name when the product is not
cured, cooked and/or smoked.
• Whole Hog Sausage: Must contain all
primal parts of a hog. Hearts and tongues, in
natural proportions, are permitted ingredients
in whole hog sausage when declared in the
ingredients statement. Other meat offal is not
permitted in whole hog sausage. Reference:
9 CFR §319.144.
Fresh sausage – specifically, pork sausage –

comprises the vast majority of fresh sausage pro-
duced throughout the world, whether it is made
available in bulk, link or patty form. Fresh pork
sausage usually is considered to be the third most
popular processed meat product, outranked only
by wieners and bologna.
Ultimately, fresh sausage should be juicy, but
not greasy, when consumed. Since processors
are limited to a small volume of water added to
this category of product, they must have a slightly
higher fat content in order to achieve this eating
characteristic. If the sausage is too lean, it will
have a tendency to be tough, and if it is too fat,
it will have a tendency to taste greasy and shrink
excessively when cooked. Any combination of
skeletal meats can be used to produce an excel-
lent sausage as long as the fat content is main-
tained within the range of 30% to 35%.
Even though the production of fresh sausage
has existed for centuries, today’s production
techniques have been honed, equipment has
been revolutionized, ingredients have been refined
and made commercially available, and the meat
industry’s overall knowledge of the fresh sausage
category has continued to improve to produce
safe, wholesome and sought-after products. A
variety of processing procedures will be presented
throughout this e-book to assist meat processors
in determining the most appropriate methodolo-
gies for producing fresh sausage products.
2
The Global MarkeT
for Fresh Sausage
By Chris Scott, Contributing editor,

Meatingplace
While fresh sausage spans a variety of regional

specialties and local variations within countries
around the world, the market share of any partic-
ular product is significantly smaller than those for
other sausage segments, including dry and semi-
dry sausage as covered in Volume 2 of this series.
This chapter offers a general overview of the
products and popularity of fresh sausage in sev-
eral global markets. It is not intended to represent
the full picture of fresh sausage in all of its local-
ized variations.
Limited statistics are available for a few fresh
sausage markets, including specific products within
the category. U.S. sales of breakfast sausage, for
example, exceeded $587 million for calendar 2015,
according to the National Hot Dog and Sausage
Council (See Figure 2.1). The figure is nearly 4%
higher than breakfast sausage sales in 2014, and
is concentrated in large U.S. cities like Detroit,
Chicago, Atlanta, Dallas/Fort Worth and Los Ange-
les. Meanwhile, the global market for all hot dogs
and sausages was estimated at $64.8 billion in
2014 and projected to reach $80.5 billion by 2021,
according to a report by Transparency Market
Research.
figure2.1
BREAKFAST SAUSAGE
ANNUAL U.S. STATISTICS 2015
Description Calendar Year 2015 W/E 12/26/15
Breakfast Sausage $ $ % Chg YA EQ EQ % Chg YA
Total US xAOC 587,204,610 3.6 150,871,002 6.5

Total US Food 429,624,280 3.5 108,026,318 6
Detriot Food 15,951,629 -1.6 3,781,614 1.1
Chicago Food 13,111,105 -1.6 3,213,035 -1.6
Atlanta Food 12,304,463 -1.3 3,366,948 -0.7
Dallas/Ft. Worth Food 12,149,894 -1.4 3,388,473 13.1
Los Angeles Food 11,622,395 2.6 2,944,733 7.4
Seattle Food 10,713,054 10.2 2,226,439 8.9
Indianapolis Food 10,181,117 -6.9 2,675,859 -5.4
Grand Rapids Food 10,143,606 2.3 2,259,760 6.1
Washington DC Food 9,892,250 6.1 2,103,032 6.9
SOURCE: NATIONAL HOT DOG AND SAUSAGE COUNCIL

The markets for fresh sausage remain strong
around the world with some manufacturers main-
taining their operations and market profile for
more than a century. From a processor’s vantage
point, producing fresh sausage can be considered
simpler than producing other types of cooked
or cured sausage. Because fresh sausages rely
on simple ingredients starting with pork or beef,
certain spices and salt, and a specific amount of
water, processors can differentiate and adjust the
characteristics of their products based on local
demand and flavor preferences.
The following examples may be produced
regionally as fresh sausages. They are sometimes
distributed more broadly in fermented, cooked or
dried form by the time they reach consumers, even
if other versions carry the same name. For exam-
ple, “chorizo” is available in fresh (raw) and ready-
to-eat (cooked) form, which may not be reflected in
the generic name.
NORTH AMERICA
The primary fresh sausage served across the United
States – whether in homes or in hotels, restaurants
and institutions (HRI) – comes in the chub or link
form of breakfast sausage that has not been previ-
ously cooked or frozen. Many domestic processors
also provide fresh bratwurst, kielbasa and Italian
sausages in retail stores for cooking at home. These
producers use recipes that originated from other
parts of the world, including Italy, Germany, and
Poland, a trend that’s familiar on a global scale.
Kayem Foods Inc. in Chelsea, Mass., for exam-
ple, has been in business for more than 100 years
and offers fresh bratwurst, sweet and hot Italian
sausage and “all-natural” sausage alongside their
artisan line of cured and uncured sausage.
In a similar vein, Chicago-based Peer Foods
Group Inc. – founded in 1925 after operating
under a different name since 1894 – today offers
patties and links among its fresh sausage lineup.
As one of the largest sausage manufacturers in
the nation, Peer Foods Group distributes its prod-
ucts throughout the Midwest and bases its current
products on traditions established, in some cases,
more than 200 years ago. (For profiles of two U.S.
fresh sausage makers, click here and here.)
In Canada, companies like Edmonton, Alber-
ta-based Capital Packers Inc. (founded in 1929),
La Fernandiere in Three Rivers, Quebec (1952),
and Toronto-based Bona Foods Ltd. (established
in 1966), provide fresh sausage to big-box retail-
ers, supermarkets, and foodservice (Capital), and
to the consumer market. Their products include
Italian sausage varieties, breakfast sausage combi-
nations, and loose fresh sausage and ground meat
ready for foodservice and home preparation.
Here are some examples of fresh sausages
popular in North America:
Breakfast sausage patties

Breakfast sausage links (cooked)
LATIN AMERICA
The prevailing influences for fresh sausage prod-
ucts in Latin America come from Spain and Portu-
gal, the original homes of immigrants to the region
hundreds of years ago. The market is dominated
by small processors that customize flavors based
on local tastes, product preferences and eventual
use of the sausages. Most of the products are pur-
chased by consumers at local markets or grocery
stores and used in traditional regional dishes.
Brazil’s linguicia de lombo relies on meat from
pork loins, while longanisa fresca is a pork sausage
from Mexico that is flavored with wine vinegar. Lon-
ganiza Chilean is a fresh pork sausage from Chile
that is flavored with wine and garlic, while Brazil
also produces linguicia pura de porco, made with
ham meat and flavored with seasoned rum.
One of the largest categories of fresh sau-
sage in Latin American countries is chorizo, which
runs the gamut from Argentina (generally no hot
peppers) to Mexico (all-beef varieties used to fill
tacos and tostadas) to Cuba (no hot peppers,
but flavored with fresh cilantro). Other variations
of chorizo include such ingredients as red wine,
hot peppers, and cumin, and a Creole version that
uses Louisiana-style hot spices.
Here are some examples of Latin American
fresh sausages:
Brazil chorizo, Mexican chorizo

EUROPE
One of the most popular fresh sausage products in
England is the banger, which has been produced
for more than a century and is the centerpiece of
the dish “bangers and mash,” which also features
mashed potatoes. English sausage manufacturers
also produce a fresh sausage known as a chipo-
lata, which is similar to an Italian sausage that is
usually grilled for breakfast. Chipolatas also can
be found as part of traditional Christmas meals,
often wrapped in bacon. Other regional specialties
include Lincolnshire sausage (based on a recipe
heavy on sage); Yorkshire (flavored with mace and
nutmeg); and Cumberland (a long rolled sausage
with plenty of pepper varieties rather than herbs
and chopped rather than minced, which gives it a
chunkier texture).
In France, specialties include Alsatian sau-
sage (featuring ginger, nutmeg, cloves, and sugar
in addition to salt and black paper); Country
sausage (which includes tarragon, parsley, chives,
and white pepper in addition to salt); and Tou-
louse sausage (featuring dry white wine, garlic,
and nutmeg).
Germany is home to more than 200 varieties
of sausage ranging from fresh to cured to smoked
products. Among fresh bratwurst, the Bramburg
style (mildly spiced with clove and cardamom), the
Swiss style (that includes red wine, onion powder,
celery seeds, and marjoram) and the Nuremberg
style (mildly spiced with flavors from the caraway
seed) are among the most popular varieties.
Italy is also a major provider of fresh sausage
recipes that have traveled around the world, and
there are as many varieties produced as there are
regions within the nation. Some prominent exam-
ples include Luganega (fresh pork with various
spices depending on the region of origin); Bandiers
(mild with sun-dried tomatoes, mozzarella, and
parsley, and designed to resemble the Italian flag);
Luganeca (mild with a strong flavor of rosemary);
Neapolitan (flavored with red hot peppers); Cavap-
cici (made with beef, lamb, and pork in the north-
ern region of Italy); Barese (made with pork, lamb,
and sheep-milk cheese from southern Italy); and
Sicilian style (with garlic and fennel seeds).
The influence of fresh sausage from Spain
has already been covered in the section on Latin
America, but these are by no means the only
European fresh sausage makers. Denmark, for
example, produces the Medisterpolse (includes
pork stock, allspice, and uncured pork belly);
Hungary offers the Gyula (flavored with caraway
and onion); and Poland created the kielbasa
(poached in water or broth, then grilled). Russia
has the Kaputy (a ring sausage that is also air-
dried); and Greece produces the Loukaniko
(wine and orange), Macedonian sausage (includes
a sweet and hot pepper sauce), and Loukan-
iko-Prasso sausage (flavored with leeks).
Chipolata (England)
Bratwurst (Germany)
Luganega (Italy)
Italian Sausage (Italy)
Cevapcici (Italy)
MIDDLE EAST AND AFRICA
Lebanon produces at least two prominent fresh
sausage products, including Kafta (a lamb-based
sausage variation of traditional kafta featuring onions
and allspice) and Makanek (pine nuts, cumin, cloves,
white wine, cognac, and white vinegar included with
pork, beef, or lamb, depending on the region). Arme-
nia produces two forms of Soujouk – “black” with
cinnamon, black and white pepper, and garlic, and
“red,” which contains paprika, cumin, and red wine.
South Africa offers the traditional Dutch sau-
sage Boerewors (usually beef or pork with ground
coriander, citric acid, thyme, red wine vinegar,
and Worcestershire sauce); Morocco produces
Moroccan beef sausage (garlic, vinegar, and all-
spice) that should be dried before consumption.
And several countries in North Africa produce
lamb-based Merguez (harissa paste, whole black
peppercorns, oregano, garlic, and paprika), a sau-
sage that also is popular in England and France.
ASIA PACIFIC
Several Asian nations produce their own versions
of fresh sausage, including a curry sausage from
Thailand and a slightly different version of the
same recipe from India; Thai Chiang Mai (from
northern Thailand with hot chili peppers); and the
sweet sausage Logganisa from the Philippines,
adapted from a government formula.
The popularity of fresh sausages around the
globe appears to be directly linked to the availabil-
ity of proteins known for creating sausages that
consumers want, the flexibility of the flavor profiles
thanks to regional spice combinations, and a wide
variety of specialized ingredients – including vege-
tables, wine, spirits and many others – that link the
final products to their respective regions of origin.
When one considers the ways in which local-
ized products spread to other nations through
population migration or, more recently, through
global tourism that opens the door for even greater
spread of international flavors, the future expan-
sion of fresh sausage across the planet seems
inevitable. As long as processors continue to
demonstrate creativity in designing and executing
established fresh sausages along with developing
new sausage varieties, the future of the fresh sau-
sage market appears quite secure.
3
Raw Materials
Dr. Jeff J. Sindelar, extension meat specialist

at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and
at Handtmann Inc.
Raw materials are critically important to the suc-

cessful production of fresh sausages, mostly
because of the limited processing steps – typically
grinding, mixing and stuffing – used to maintain
fresh sausage quality during production. As a
result, raw material quality becomes paramount
for the success of the product, process and even-
tual consumer satisfaction. With fewer controls
available during the manufacturing process, it is
critical that processors address quality variation
that may exist among raw materials used.
“Quality” for fresh sausages is defined within
the context of both the chemical and microbiolog-
ical states of the raw materials, the impact ingre-
dients and manufacturing processes have on the
product, and the finished product itself (including
changes during shelf life). Because the overall shelf
life of fresh sausages is relatively short, the chemi-
cal and microbiological quality is even more critical
than for most processed meat products.
Raw materials can be categorized in a number of

ways, including:
• Composition (fat, moisture, protein, collagen)

• Functionality (quality of protein, quality of fat)
• Freshness (microbiological and chemical
quality)
• Manufacturing performance (ability
to maintain production and performance
standards)
• Uniformity (how they all impact the finished
product)
There are two main criteria that define the ideal

raw materials (meat trimmings) for fresh sausages:
1. The desired performance of the product
(color, juiciness, texture, shelf life);
2. The contribution of the raw materials utilized
to achieve those targets.
Quality of Raw Materials

Physiochemical Meat Quality
Unlike many other processed meats, such as
emulsified or coarse-ground cooked sausages,
the demands regarding meat quality for raw
materials used in fresh sausage production are
uniquely different. It is extremely important to both
recognize and understand those qualities before
manufacturing begins. Creating significant bind
and water-holding capacity are not primary inter-
ests or requirements for fresh sausage. Instead,
texture, color and overall appearance set prece-
dence over processing attributes that tradition-
ally are considered important for other types of
sausage. The primary focus for raw material meat
quality for fresh sausages should center first on
fat content, followed by protein type, while also
recognizing and minimizing any raw material-re-
lated defects.
In general, important attributes for the fat com-
ponent of raw materials include:
• Functionality: All fats are not created equal.

Special care is needed to ensure that “soft”
fats are minimized and/or eliminated from
formulations. Raw material with fats that
can withstand smearing during manufac-
turing steps are desired because they will
provide an external and internal appearance
after packaging that will be more acceptable
by consumers, along with a more pleasant
eating experience.
• Freshness: Knowing and managing the
oxidative state of the fats is key. Utilizing fats
that are 1) closest to the slaughter date; and
2) contain an acceptable concentration of
unsaturated fatty acids for minimizing lipid
oxidation reactions are very important in
terms of optimizing the final product for con-
sistent quality and taste.
In general, important attributes for the protein

component of raw materials include:
• Functionality: Although protein extraction is
not a primary focus during the manufacturing
of fresh sausages, a limited amount is nec-
essary to provide the adequate bind charac-
teristic these products require. This process
needs to be accomplished while minimizing
fat smearing and abuse, like over-mixing. As
such, enough high-quality protein needs to
exist to allow adequate bind without exces-
sive fat smearing.
• pH: A higher pH is desired for fresh sausage
raw materials since this contributes to 1) a
darker and more desirable color; 2) a longer
color shelf life; and 3) improved consumer
sensory texture and juiciness performance.
• Color: In addition to being impacted by pH,
raw material color differences exist due to the
anatomical location and age of the animal
protein source because of myoglobin con-
centration differences that can exist.
Raw materials generated from carcasses having

a pale, soft and exudative (PSE) meat quality condi-
tion should be avoided for fresh sausage production.
PSE raw materials not only have a low pH, they also
have much lighter color and low protein quality due
to the protein damage that occurs as a result of this
condition, creating a less functional, lower-quality
raw material. Although most formulations likely can
handle the inclusion of a small percentage of PSE
raw materials, it is not advised due to the potential
for lower overall quality.
Fresh or frozen raw materials options are
available, and both can be considered for
fresh sausage manufacture; however, frozen
raw materials are typically discouraged due to
unknown factors that could impact fresh sau-
sage quality, including:
• The raw material quality at the time of freezing

• The quality-impacting conditions during
frozen storage (coldest temperature during
frozen storage or temperature fluctuations
during freezing)
• The impact the freezing and thawing pro-
cesses had on the frozen raw materials and
the impact this ultimately might have on fresh
sausage quality
Chemical changes that are not controlled early
and held in check throughout the entire product
life chain, just like microbiological changes, have
the potential to negatively impact shelf life of the
final product. The age of the chemicals in the raw
material – specifically, oxidative capabilities – is a
large factor in terms of how it affects the product.
It is also important to remember that many oxidiz-
ing substrates (i.e. unsaturated fats and protein)
and available pro-oxidants (i.e. free heme iron,
other heavy metals, oxygen) have the capability to
slowly begin negatively affecting meat quality as
early as post-slaughter, throughout processing and
during storage.
Microbiological Meat Quality

Raw materials used for fresh sausage produc-
tion must also be continuously evaluated for their
microbiological quality. Raw materials of different
ages (from slaughter), from different suppliers and
even from different parts of a carcass can result
in different types and levels of spoilage bacteria
that likely are present. As such, a stringent qual-
ity control program addressing “microbiological
freshness” is paramount to address the microbio-
logical meat quality for fresh sausages.
Since raw materials have been unavoidably
exposed to bacterial contamination during the
slaughter process that generates the raw mate-
rial, it is important to address microbiological
aspects of fresh sausages early. Having a strong
understanding of how “clean” the raw materials
are, how much that varies, how much storage
time (and temperature) impacts this and how
much improvement potential exists can pay many
dividends later in the process and ultimately
impact shelf life in significant ways. A 0.5 or 1.0
log concentration difference of spoilage bacteria
in raw materials can be the difference between
a few days less to several days more of finished
product shelf life. It’s also important to remember
that bacteria grow by doubling. Although growth
early in the life cycle provides relatively small
numbers, a few cycles of doubling can quickly
yield high numbers with tangible negative effects,
which typically are noticed only during the shelf
life of the finished product.
Available Proteins
There are a number protein types used for the
manufacture of fresh sausage. Pork is, by far, the
most common and popular raw material used to
make fresh sausage as it provides a desirable bal-
ance of “meat” and fat flavors, texture (from inter-
mediate protein and fat hardness compared with
other species), color (not too dark, not too light)
and raw material cost.
Fresh beef and lamb sausages are less
common in North and South America than in other
parts of the world, but do fill specific fresh sausage
production needs, especially in countries where
hogs are not necessarily in consistent supply, like
lamb in Greece or venison in Germany.
As with other product categories, the pro-
duction and availability of poultry sausages have
grown significantly. Turkey has become the most
commonly chosen raw material medium due to
the meat’s availability and other desirable quality
attributes such as darker color, slightly firmer lean
meat and consistent fat components.
Meat Protein and Fat Characteristics
Protein Characteristics
All three main types of proteins (myofibrillar, sarco-
plasmic and stromal) present in raw materials are
important to fresh sausage production.
• Myofibrillar proteins, the contractile pro-

teins associated with water holding capacity
and creating strong heat-set gels (a.k.a. bind)
in cooked sausages, are important for creat-
ing the structure, texture and water holding
properties found in the finished product of
fresh sausages. It is critical that the levels
of these proteins are tightly controlled. Ade-
quate amounts of “high quality” myofibrillar
protein are required in a formulation to create
the texture in the finished product (which is
impacted by manufacturing steps and pro-
cesses such as grinding, mixing, stuffing).
Closely connected to this, adequate amounts
of high-quality protein also play an import-
ant, foundational role in creating an adequate
stabilizing framework in the meat batter. In
doing so, this structural framework provides
resiliency against conditions that could nega-
tively impact various important aspects rang-
ing from manufacturing successes to finished
product attributes. For example, the ability for
a strong meat batter to withstand high levels
of fat smearing, protein smearing or structural
changes to the meat batter during the man-
ufacturing process, all affecting the finished
product, would be directly attributed to the
presence and amount of high-quality protein.
• Sarcoplasmic proteins are considered
“color proteins” since their main contribution
is to impact the color of the meat product.
However, sarcoplasmic proteins do provide a
small amount of function similar to myofibrillar
proteins that shouldn’t be ignored. The raw
materials selected and used for a fresh sau-
sage, however, can significantly impact the
color of the finished product. Depending on
species, anatomical location from a carcass
and age, concentrations of sarcoplasmic
proteins can widely vary. Since fresh sau-
sages are comminuted, uniformity of cured
color is typically less of a concern within a lot
or batch. However, uniformity from lot to lot
or batch to batch can certainly exist and be
impacted by color variation induced by the
raw material. In addition, overall product color
can also be impacted by fat and/or protein
smearing, which typically lightens the overall
color and is created from a diluting effect (like
mixing red and white paint).
• Stromal proteins are those affiliated with
muscle structure and animal support via
ligaments and tendons. They are generally
referred to as collagen or connective tissue in
meat processing and are rarely considered a
functional protein. Instead, they are viewed as
a hindrance that, if properly managed, can be
successfully included in fresh sausage for-
mulations at moderate to low levels. Most of
the stromal proteins related to fresh sausage
are associated with either thin layers of con-
nective tissue surrounding muscles, muscle
bundles or muscle fibers or thicker layers
(e.g., straps, connective tissue, tendons),
which provide support to the live animal.
Various raw materials can contribute different
amounts and type of connective tissue, and
this should be carefully considered, especially
in terms of aligning this with the product, pro-
cess and finished product specification allow-
ances. Over-inclusion of higher connective
tissue containing raw materials can result in
noticeable and significant performance differ-
ences due to the shrinking of collagen fiber/
strand during cooking. As cooking tempera-
tures increase, this phenomenon becomes
more exaggerated.
Fat Characteristics
The fat (i.e. lipid) portion of raw materials can con-
stitute a significant portion of the raw material itself
and often contribute to the greatest challenges
for fresh sausage production. With fresh sausage
products, the fat component comprises a high
percentage of a formulation, ranging from 30% to
50% fat in the finished product. Fat provides flavor,
mouthfeel during consumption and contributes
to an attractive appearance in finished products,
which is paramount to what makes these products
fresh sausages.
Fat can be classified a number of ways, with
hardness, oxidative state and stability being three
of the most common. Fat from different species
provides a different “hardness” of that fat and is
usually related to the composition of triglycerides
in the fat affecting the overall saturation of the
fat. Beef fat has the highest concentration of
saturated triglycerides – and also has the highest
melting point – which results in it being the hard-
est fat. Poultry has a much higher concentration
of unsaturated triglycerides and a much lower
melting point, making it much softer. Pork fat,
however, lands between beef and poultry in terms
of fat attributes, and the hardness and saturated/
unsaturated triglyceride ratio can widely vary
based upon the diet of the live hog. This factor
could significantly impact overall raw material
quality and functionality.
Determination of Fat Content

Since fresh sausage should be juicy, but not
greasy, when consumed, fresh sausage proces-
sors are limited to a small volume of added water
with this category of product and they must have
a slightly higher fat content in order to achieve this
eating characteristic. If the sausage is too lean it
will have a tendency to be tough, and if it is too
fat it will have a tendency to taste greasy and to
shrink excessively when cooked. Any combina-
tion of skeletal meats can be used to produce an
excellent sausage as long as the fat content is
maintained in the range of 30% to 35%.
Although the regulations allow up to 50% fat
content in some fresh sausage products, those
containing such a high fat content are generally not
produced for retail markets because retail custom-
ers often purchase sausage products based on
their eye appeal. A product with a high fat content
will be more opaque from the fat compared with
a leaner product. Additionally, with more consum-
ers reading nutritional labels more closely, a fresh
sausage product with high fat will have some very
non-attractive figures with regards to calories, total
fat, saturated fat and cholesterol per serving pre-
sented on the label. On the other hand, some fresh
sausage products produced for the foodservice
industry may have a higher fat content because the
consumer never sees the raw product.
In either case, meat processors must have
as complete an understanding of the fat content
in their fresh sausage products as possible. And
while processors often find it difficult to obtain
complete analytical information due to limited lab-
oratory facilities, they generally can obtain a rea-
sonably accurate estimate of the fat content of the
final product because of the raw materials used
and the response from consumers of the products.
Usually, the processor has a target percentage
of fat or lean for both the raw and finished prod-
uct. By having analytical data on the composition
of the raw materials, it is possible to determine
the amount of the raw materials needed to reach
the compositional goals. Meats of either known
or estimated composition may be blended to give
a fatter or a leaner blend, which may be mixed to
give the final target fat content.
If a processor has two batches of meat with
differing fat contents, it is possible to use the
dilution square (commonly referred to as the
Pearson’s square) technique to reach the amount
of each mixture that is needed to yield the final
desired fat content.
For example, assuming the target is 35%
desired fat content for making a 200 lb./90.72
kg batch of fresh pork sausage from raw pork
blended of 80% lean/20% fat pork trim (72%
chemical lean/28% chemical fat) and 50%
lean/50% fat pork trim (42% chemical lean/58%
chemical fat), the dilution square technique can be
applied as shown in Figure 3.1 below:
figure3.1
FRESH SAUSAGE
DESIRED RATIOS
Meat Meat needed Meat needed
Meat Composition Fat Fat (%) needed (%) (decimal) (lbs./kg)
Pork Trim Fat: 28 28 23% 76.67% 0.77 153.33 lbs.

(80 lean/20 fat) Lean: 72 /69.55 kg
Pork Trim Fat: 58 58 7% 23.33% 0.23 46.67 lbs.
(50 lean/50 fat) Lean: 42 /21.17 kg
30 100% 200 lbs.
Step #1 T
he 80% lean/20% fat pork trim ratio is
obtained by subtracting the desired fat
content from the fat content of the 50%
lean/50% fat pork trim (i.e. 58% - 35%),
which provides a coefficient of 23.
The 50% lean/50% fat pork trim ratio
is obtained by the same technique. That
is, subtracting the 80% lean/20% fat
content from the desired fat content (i.e.
35% - 28%) provides a coefficient of 7.
Step #2 This provides a total coefficient of 30.

To determine the percentage of 80%
lean/20% fat pork trim needed in the
formulation, divide the 80% lean/20%
fat pork trim coefficient from the total
coefficient (i.e. 23 / 30 = .7667).
formulation, divide the 50% lean/50%
fat pork trim coefficient from the total
coefficient (i.e. 7 / 30 = .2333).
Step #3 Since a total of 200 lbs./90.72 kg is

needed to make up a single batch, each
of the percentages needs to be multi-
plied by total batch pounds needed.
formulation, multiply the percentage
needed and the total batch pounds
needed (i.e. .7667 * 200 =
153.33 lbs./69.55 kg).
formulation, multiply the percentage
needed and the total batch pounds
needed (i.e. .2333 * 200 =
46.67 lbs./21.17 kg).
Step #4 If the processor has the target of 35%

for desired fat content for making a 200
lbs./90.72 kg batch of fresh pork sau-
sage, the processor would need the
following meat block:
80% lean/20% fat pork trim =
153.33 lbs./69.55 kg
50% lean/50% fat pork trim =
46.67 lbs./21.17 kg
There are a variety of dilution square techniques

that processors can develop. If a processor is
familiar with spreadsheet software, a formulation
can be developed. This is especially useful if a
processor has to continually develop new sausage
meat block formulation blends.
Fat also can be evaluated for its oxidation state
and stability. In the presence of oxygen (and other
catalysts for fat oxidation such as light, heavy metals,
etc.), unsaturated fats (lipids) can start to oxidize.
This oxidation breaks the triglycerides into smaller
pieces, some of which are responsible for creating
rancid or off flavors and aromas. For fresh sausages,
oxidation is a significant problem that again is due to:
1) a higher level of fat (~30% to 50%) that is used in
the formulation; 2) the presence and incorporation of
pro-oxidants such as salt and oxygen; and 3) fin-
ished products are typically exposed to varying tem-
peratures (during transportation and/or storage) and
harsh light conditions that encourage product oxi-
dation. Additionally, because fresh sausages do not
contain sodium nitrite, they don’t have the protection
of one of the most effective antioxidants available in
the meat and poultry industries.
Several specific systems can be utilized to
assess fat quality and allow for appropriate utiliza-
tion and other decision making needs. Fatty acid
composition tests, such as iodine value determi-
nation, can be utilized to establish “acceptable” or
“unacceptable” pork fat raw materials for certain
products. Iodine value determination measures the
number of grams of iodine that are absorbed by
100 grams of an unsaturated fat. The results can
be used to understand the impact fat quality can
or is having on sausages products and can even
be used to establish fat quality parameters for raw
materials. The higher the iodine number, the more
unsaturated fatty acids are present in the fat. An
iodine value of less than 70 to 74 is generally con-
sidered to correlate to “acceptable pork fat qual-
ity.” However, “acceptable” remains product- and
process-dependent, so the ideal minimum iodine
value is what any given product requires to achieve
product stability and acceptable sensory attri-
butes. Other fat quality measurement tools include
visual appraisals, simple fat stability cooking tests
or even more sophisticated objective texture ana-
lyzer approaches.
Pre-rigor Meats
Pork sausage can be manufactured from chilled
meat, trimmings from primal cuts or entire carcasses,
or hot processed meat. The following discussion will
relate to the manufacture of fresh pork sausage from
hot processed meat, which is commonly referred to
as pre-rigor meat.
Pre-rigor meat had been used for centuries
before refrigeration. Refrigeration and technology
moved the meat industry away from pre-rigor
meats and separated the abattoir from the sau-
sage manufacturer. The re-introduction of pre-rigor
into sausage production seems to be driven mainly
by finished product quality characteristics, but
utilizing pre-rigor meats also saves an extensive
amount of time and energy.
Processed meat products that utilize pre-rigor
meats have been widely accepted because of their
more desirable color, stability, water retention and
flavor. The retention of water is critical to texture,
mouthfeel and product juiciness, which all relate to
the consumer’s perception of a product’s quality.
Since only a minimal amount of water can be added
to fresh sausage (i.e. limited to a maximum of 3% of
the total formulation), the use of pre-rigor meats has
some tremendous advantages over post-rigor meat
for the production of fresh pork sausage.
Pre-rigor meat is exactly that: meat that has
been removed from the carcass prior to chilling
the carcass before it goes through rigor mortis. To
appreciate the difference between pre-rigor meat
and post-rigor meat, it is important to understand
the biochemical changes that occur during the
conversion of muscle to meat.
When an animal is harvested, changes in the
muscle occur that ultimately affect the quality of the
meat. In normal situations when an animal is har-
vested, the muscle undergoes a gradual decline in
pH (i.e. from approximately 7.0 to 5.5). This decline
is caused by the depletion of the animal’s glycogen
reserves held within the muscle and their conver-
sion to lactic acid, the end product of anaerobic
glycolysis. When an animal is bled, oxygen is no
longer available to the muscle cells, and anaerobic
glycolysis takes over. Lactic acid builds up and the
pH of the muscles drops. The glycogen becomes
depleted and some of the enzymes responsible for
glycolysis become inactivated by the low muscle
pH. Initially, creatine phosphate reserves are used
to convert the organic compound adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) back to the cellular energy
molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). However,
the creatine phosphate is soon gone and the ATP
concentration declines. In the absence of ATP,
myosin heads form a tight bond with actin. The
muscle filaments can no longer slide over one
another, and the muscle becomes stiff and inex-
tensible. This condition is called rigor mortis.
In general, rigor reduces the structural space
between the muscle protein filaments, which in
turn reduces the space within the muscle that is
available for retaining moisture. The rate of ATP
depletion closely coincides with the rate of decline
in muscle pH. The time for the muscle to reach
its final pH varies with species, cooling rate and
extent of struggle at death.
The same biochemical processes occur within
the muscle/carcass in the harvesting of livestock
for the production of pre-rigor meat. But instead
of chilling the carcass after rigor mortis has been
established, the carcasses are fabricated immedi-
ately after the harvesting process. To fully realize
the advantages of pre-rigor meat, it is critical to
remove the meat from the carcass as soon as
possible following slaughter.
Processors should understand that intact pre-
rigor muscles removed from the carcass will contract
and shorten excessively if allowed to go into rigor,
greatly reducing the space available within the
muscle structure for water binding. This physical
change is easily overcome by coarse-grinding or
chopping the meat immediately to break up the
muscle contractile structure.
Grinding/chopping negatively impacts the meat
because the biochemical changes in muscle that
produce lactic acid are accelerated. Therefore,
it is critical at this point to blend the pre-rigor
meat mixture with salt because salt disrupts the
acid-producing enzymes and virtually stops the
production of acid to prevent further decline in
meat pH. Adding salt as soon as possible main-
tains the meat pH at the highest possible value.
For fresh pork sausage, processors would
formulate to use 2.0% to 2.25% total salt added. If
the pre-rigor meats are to be used in the produc-
tion of fresh pork sausage, some processors have
discovered that the use of 0.75% to 1.0% regu-
lar salt during the pre-rigor meat chilling process
works well. Then during the production of pre-rigor
fresh sausage, encapsulated salt (with spice addi-
tion) is used to achieve the remaining balance of
the salt in the formulation. The encapsulated salt is
used to avoid some of the oxidative effects of the
interaction of salt with the meat proteins, which
negatively impact fresh meat color. If encapsulated
salt is not available, processors should chill the
pre-rigor meat prior to or with the addition of salt
to minimize the effects of salt on fresh meat color.
To avoid the potential problem of rapid bacterial
growth because the pre-rigor meat is warm, rapid
chilling methods should be used. Commonly, rapid
chilling can be executed with carbon dioxide snow
in a mixer/blender. Rapid chilling also helps to slow
the production of lactic acid, and when combined
with salting will virtually stop the decline in pH.
Chilling the pre-rigor meat as rapidly as possible to
28°F to 30°F (-2.2°C to -1.1°C) is recommended.
This achieves spoilage control while retaining the
advantages of pre-rigor meat.
After the pre-rigor meats have been ground/
chopped, salted and chilled, the processor has
several options for handling this raw material. The
pre-rigor raw materials can either be used right away,
sold as unfrozen raw materials (28°F to 30°F/
-2.2°C to -1.1°C) or frozen for future use. As for
using this raw material in processed meat formula-
tions, there are no further special processing consid-
erations needed with the exception of the product’s
formulation. The further processor must know how
much salt was used during the salting/chilling pro-
cess for the pre-rigor meats. If the pre-rigor meats
were salted with 0.75% salt and the product formula-
tion requires a total of 2.0% salt, then the further pro-
cessor must only add 1.25% salt to the spice blend.
Following these pre-rigor processing proce-
dures keeps the muscle pH from declining as
low as it would normally. Pre-rigor meat is char-
acterized by a pH well over 6.0 and is usually
in the range of 6.4 to 7.0. This greatly improves
water-holding capacity and assists in keeping the
meat color darker. Both of these properties are
advantageous in the production of fresh sausage.
Pre-rigor meats offer some tremendous advan-
tages over post-rigor meats in sausage and cured
meat manufacturing. While it is not necessary to
use the entire carcass, the advantages of using
the meat very quickly are quite important.
4
Fresh Sausage Production

at Handtmann Inc., with contributions from
Andrew Milkowski, adjunct professor of ani-
mal sciences at the University of Wisconsin-
Madison, Dr. Jeff J. Sindelar, extension meat
specialist at the University of Wisconsin-
Madison and Dr. Kohl Schrader, technical
applications manager at Poly-clip System Inc.
The factors that contribute to the successful pro-

duction of fresh sausage are not difficult to iden-
tify: appropriation of ingredients for the desired
flavor profile and mouthfeel; proper management
of naturally occurring production issues like oxida-
tion; and effective mixing, grinding and stuffing all
contribute to production success. This chapter will
focus on these production aspects, which are crit-
ical for processors to produce fresh sausages that
will attract consumers as well as meet regulatory
standards to ensure that a safe product lands on
store shelves or in foodservice kitchens.
Ingredients
Beyond the proteins that form the base of any
sausage, a variety of non-meat ingredients provide
many of the characteristics unique to processed
meat, such as color, juiciness, flavor, texture and
eating experience. The effectiveness of these
non-meat ingredients – including salt, spices,
flavorings, sugar and other sweeteners – is also
linked to the interaction that occurs between those
ingredients and the meat in the product during the
production process.
It is critical for processors to have a solid
understanding of the functions and effects of each
ingredient. Each ingredient is used at levels con-
sistent with a variety of governmental regulations,
ingredient functionality and consumer acceptance.
Water
As noted in the previous chapter, fresh meats
contain less than 3% of potable water or ice in
compliance with USDA regulations. However, even
this small amount of water can affect the quality
of the product. High levels of metals and minerals
such as iron and copper also may have a negative
impact on product quality by accelerating color
degradation and promoting fat oxidation, as noted
in Chapter 3.
Salt
Salt, or more accurately sodium chloride, is an
important preservative for processed meats and is
key for the shelf stability of many fresh products.
Salt’s main function is to serve as a dehydrating
agent, which alters osmotic pressure to inhibit bac-
terial growth and subsequent spoilage. It also pro-
vides the most desirable flavor, according to most
consumers. The amount of salt added may vary
from product to product, but typically it consists
of about 1% to 2% of the batch for mildly flavored
products and up to 2% to 3% for more highly sea-
soned pork sausage, bratwurst or Polish sausages.
In meat products such as ham, bacon and
emulsified sausages, salt extracts myofibrillar
proteins, strengthening the bind in between
adjacent pieces of meat. The solubilization of
the myofibrillar proteins in comminuted muscle
products also aids in the water-binding abilities
of the proteins, which in turn decreases cooking
losses. Since these properties are only partially
desired in fresh sausages, salt addition must be
timed in the process. Fresh sausage manufac-
turers need to ensure that cooking losses are
minimized through temperature control and opti-
mizing the mixing and shear in mixing in sausage
batters after salt is added.
Salt also is capable of causing undesirable
effects in a processed meat system, most of all as
a pro-oxidant due to metal contaminants in salt
that is less pure than industry standards require.
Using salt that is not food grade introduces the
risk of causing flavor and color problems because
of such impurities as trace copper, iron, nickel and
chromium, which have a marked negative effect
on the development of oxidative rancidity.
Encapsulated salt
Encapsulated salt uses a vegetable fat that has a
melting point of 130°F to 150°F (54.4°C to 65.6°C)
and is unique to fresh sausage production. It can
be added to the sausage batter instead of regular
salt to prevent protein extraction and thus maintain
a more crumbly texture in the final sausage prod-
uct. Encapsulated salt also can help with color
stability and delay oxidative rancidity because the
pro-oxidant salt is kept separated from the meat
pigments and fats, resulting in a much longer color
life. It is important to add encapsulated salt at the
very last part of mixing to minimize shearing that
can break the capsules open and result in prema-
ture release.
Curing
Most fresh sausages produced in the U.S. are
uncured. However, there are some ethnic variet-
ies, notably fresh Thuringer, Mettwurst and Polish
(kielbasa) that are cured with sodium nitrate and/
or sodium nitrite plus cure accelerators such as
sodium ascorbate or sodium erythorbate. The
USDA levels for each of the curing agents stand at
156 parts per million, while maximum levels for the
accelerators stand at 547 parts per million.
Sugar and Sweeteners
Sweeteners (i.e. sucrose, dextrose, corn syrup,
corn syrup solids) often are added to the fresh
sausage recipe to provide a specific flavor. Sucrose
(cane sugar) is the standard of comparison in
sweeteners, while dextrose (corn sugar) – approx-
imately 70% as sweet as sucrose – generally is a
reducing sugar that can influence brown surface
color development as the sausage is fried or heated
at high temperatures due to caramelization from
Maillard reactions with amino acids in proteins.
Spices and Flavorings

Spices and flavorings give a particular product a
distinctive or unique flavor profile that is appeal-
ing to consumers. These spices or flavorings may
be topical, but most commonly are incorporated
in ground meat so they are evenly dispersed
throughout the interior of the product.
The primary spices used to make fresh sau-
sage include pepper, onion and garlic. White
pepper is often used in preference to black pepper
to avoid the appearance of black specks in the
finished product that might be considered foreign
material by consumers. Sometimes these spices
are added as soluble spice extracts and oils.
Sage, thyme, ginger and nutmeg characterize
fresh pork breakfast sausages. Specialty flavoring
may include maple syrup.
Italian sausages are characterized by the use of
fennel and/or anise and often also have oregano
added for flavor. Some sausages, such as chorizo,
will have paprika added as a colorant.
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is sometimes
added as a savory flavor enhancer, even though
these days it is often objectionable to many con-
sumers. Products that do not use MSG often
highlight that fact on labels and as part of their
marketing efforts.
Antioxidants
Fresh salted meat is very sensitive to oxidation
of fat and the associated rancid flavors that can
result. Salt itself, as well as heme iron in myoglo-
bin, can promote oxidative rancidity. Fresh sau-
sages typically are stored in aerobic packaging,
so this is a problem that is commonly addressed
using an antioxidant system.
Synthetic antioxidants, butylated hydroxy-
anisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), ter-
tiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) and propyl gallate
(PG) often are found in fresh sausages. They work
as free radical scavengers to interrupt the initiation
phases of fat oxidation. Limits for these materials
in fresh sausage are 0.01% or 100 parts per mil-
lion (ppm) of the fat in the product for individual
antioxidants, and 0.02% based on fat in total for
a combination as specified in the code of federal
regulations (see §9CFR424.21).
TBHQ cannot be used in any combination with
PG and although tocopherols are not widely used
by the industry, the USDA has set a regulatory limit
of TBHQ usage at 0.03% of the fat content of the
product.
Additionally, metal chelators like citric acid (also
limited by the USDA to 0.03% of the fat content)
are commonly used to bind pro-oxidant trace
metal such as copper, nickel and free iron in order
to enhance the effectiveness of antioxidants.
Natural spice extracts also can be added for
their antioxidant properties with rosemary extracts
being the most commonly used. While maximum
limits are not regulated, there are practical limits
based on the flavor contribution. A typical spec-
ification for a rosemary extract would be enough
to deliver 50 ppm of carnosic acid, which is the
active antioxidant component for this spice.
USDA Regulations on restricted ingredients

in fresh sausages
The regulatory process has limited the use of
some non-meat ingredients to minimize the pos-
sibility that any of the substances used may be
harmful to human health. The most widely estab-
lished restricted ingredients for fresh sausages are
antioxidants (i.e. BHA, BHT, PG and tocopherols.
The permitted levels for comminuted products
used in the production of fresh sausages that have
been established by the USDA and enforced by
the agency’s Food Safety and inspection Service
(FSIS) are listed in the table below (Figure 4.1).
(Natural spice extracts with antioxidant properties
do not have regulatory limits.)
figure4.1
USDA LIMITS ON
ANTIOXIDANTS, SYNERGISTS
Calculated on the weight
Antioxidant(s) of fat in the product
Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) 0.01%

Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT) 0.01%
Tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ)* 0.01%
Propyl Gallate (PG) 0.01%
Combination 0.02%
Tocopherols 0.03%
Synergist(s) (used in combination with antioxidants)
Citric acid 0.01%

* TBHQ allowed in combinations only with BHA and/ or BHT
SOURCE: CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS 9CFR 424.21 AND FSIS DIRECTIVE 7620.3
The following are formulation examples for a

variety of fresh sausage types, specifically based
on an initial meat block of 100 lbs. for each fin-
ished product (Figures 4.2-4.6):
figure4.2
FRESH PORK
BREAKFAST SAUSAGE
Total Meat Block = 100.00 (45.5 kg.)
Meat Meat needed Meat
Meat (lbs.) Fat Fat (%) needed (%) (decimal) (lbs.) Meat
Pork Trim 20 30% 66.67% 0.67 66.67 lbs. Pork Trim

(80 lean/20 fat) /30.24 kg (80 lean/20 fat)
Pork Trim 50 30% 33.33% 0.33 33.33 lbs. Pork Trim
(50 lean/50 fat) /15.12 kg (50 lean/50 fat)
100% 100 lbs.
Formulation
Ingredients Percent Pound Gram Ounce Temperature
80/20 Pork Trim 66.67 66.67 30.24 kg (25°F/-3.9°C)

50/50 Pork Trim 33.33 33.33 15.12 kg (25°F/-3.9°C)
Ice Water (32 °F) 3.00 3.00 1360.78 48.00
Salt 1.75 1.75 793.79 28.00
Black Pepper (42 Mesh) 0.19 0.19 85.05 3.00
Ground Sage 0.13 0.13 56.70 2.00
Ground Ginger 0.06 0.06 28.35 1.00
Ground Thyme 0.06 0.06 28.35 1.00
Ground Nutmeg 0.05 0.05 21.26 0.75
Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) 0.01 0.00 1.36 0.05
Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT) 0.01 0 1.36 0.05
Total 105.19 2353.01 83
Processing Schedule
1. Grind the 80/20 pork and 50/50 pork through a 3/16" (4.8 mm) grinder plate.
2. Transfer into a mixer.
3. Start mixing the 80/20 pork. Add the salt and spices and continue mixing for one minute
4. Add the ice water and mix for an additional two to three minutes.
5. Regrind the meat through a 3/16" (4.8 mm) or 1/8" (3.2 mm) grinder plate.
6. Transfer the sausage batter to the stuffer.
Stuffing
1. Stuff the fresh breakfast sausage into collagen casings (17-19 mm).
figure4.3
FRESH ITALIAN STYLE

TURKEY SAUSAGE
Formulation
Turkey Thigh 80.00 80.00 (25°F/-3.9°C)

Turkey Skin 20.00 20.00 (25°F/-3.9°C)
Water (32 °F) 1.25 1.25 566.99 20.00
Ice 1.50 1.50 680.39 24.00
Salt 1.50 1.50 680.39 24.00
Whole Fennel Seed 0.31 0.31 141.75 5.00
Ground Fennel Seed 0.31 0.31 141.75 5.00
MSG 0.25 0.25 113.40 4.00
Sugar 0.20 0.20 90.72 3.20
Paprika 0.18 0.18 82.10 2.90
Garlic Powder 0.04 0.04 17.01 0.60
Ground Parsley 0.02 0.02 8.39 0.30
Total 106.06 2749.68 96.99
Processing Schedule
1. Grind the turkey thigh meat and the turkey skin through a 3/16" (4.8 mm) grinder plate.
2. Regrind the turkey thigh meat and the turkey skin through a 1/4" (101.6 mm) grinder plate
maintaining the temperature at 35 °F or less.
4. Start mixing the ground turkey. Add the salt and spices and continue mixing for one minute.
Stuffing
1. Stuff the fresh Italian turkey sausage into collagen casings (32-35 mm)
or natural hog casing (32-35 mm).
figure4.4
PRE-RIGOR FRESH
ITALIAN STYLE SAUSAGE
Formulation
80/20 Pork Trim 100.00 100.00 (25°F/-3.9°C)

Salt 1.25 1.25 566.99 20.00
Water (32 °F) 1.50 1.50 680.39 24.00
Ice 1.50 1.50 680.39 24.00
Whole Fennel Seed 0.31 0.31 141.75 5.00
Ground Fennel Seed 0.31 0.31 141.75 5.00
MSG 0.25 0.25 113.40 4.00
Sugar 0.20 0.20 90.72 3.20
Paprika 0.18 0.18 82.10 2.90
Garlic Powder 0.04 0.04 17.01 0.60
Ground Parsley 0.02 0.02 8.39 0.30
Total 106.06 2749.68 96.99
Processing Schedule
1. Grind the hot-boned pork through a coarse ground (kidney grinder plate).
2. Transfer into a mixer and start mixing.
3. Rapidly chill the coarse ground pre-rigor trim using carbon dioxide snow (CO2) to 30°F/-1.11C.
4. As the trim is chilling add the salt, spices, and antioxidants and continue mixing
for one to two minutes.
5. Add the ice water and mix for an additional two minutes.
Stuffing
1. Stuff the fresh Italian sausage into collagen casings (32-35 mm)
figure4.5
BRATWURST - FRESH
Formulation
80/20 Pork Trim 100.00 100.00 (25°F/-3.9°C)

Ice Water (32 °F) 3.00 3.00 1360.78 48.00
Salt 1.63 1.63 739.36 26.08
Concentrated Lemon Juice 0.15 0.15 68.04 2.40
Nutmeg 0.13 0.13 58.97 2.08
Sugar 0.13 0.13 58.97 2.08
Ground Celery Seed 0.05 0.05 22.68 0.80
Ginger 0.05 0.05 22.68 0.80
Onion Powder 0.05 0.05 22.68 0.80
White Pepper 0.05 0.05 22.68 0.80
Ground Mustard 0.05 0.05 22.68 0.80
Sage 0.03 0.03 13.61 0.48
Garlic Powder 0.03 0.03 13.61 0.48
Total 105.53 2508.37 88.48
Processing Schedule
1. Grind the 80/20 pork through a 3/16" (4.8 mm) grinder plate.
3. Start mixing the 80/20 pork. Add the salt and spices and continue mixing for one minute.
Stuffing
1. Stuff the fresh bratwurst sausage into collagen casings (32-35 mm)
figure4.6
CHORIZO SAUSAGE - FRESH

Formulation
80/20 Pork Trim 100.00 100.00 (25°F/-3.9°C)

Ice Water (32 °F) 3.00 3.00 1360.78 48.00
Salt 2.00 2.00 907.18 32.00
Apple Cider Vinegar 0.67 0.67 302.32 10.66
Paprika 0.67 0.67 302.32 10.66
Chili Powder 0.67 0.67 302.32 10.66
Red Pepper (40 HU) 0.33 0.33 151.27 5.34
Ground Cumin 0.33 0.33 151.27 5.34
Ground Oregano 0.25 0.25 113.40 4.00
Garlic Powder 0.08 0.08 37.87 1.34
White Pepper 0.05 0.05 22.68 0.80
Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) 0.01 0.00 0.91 0.03
Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT) 0.01 0.00 0.91 0.03
Total 108.10 3674.10 129.60
Processing Schedule
1. Grind the 80/20 pork through a 1/2” (12.7 mm) grinder plate.
3. Start mixing the 80/20 pork. Add the salt and spices and continue mixing for one minute.
5. Add the apple cider vinegar and mix for one to two minutes.
6. Regrind the meat through a 3/16" (4.8 mm) grinder plate.
Stuffing
1. Stuff the fresh chorizo sausage into natural hog casings (32-35 mm).
Processing Objectives
and Techniques
Fresh sausages typically are viewed as products
more prone to processing-induced defects than
many other processed meat and poultry prod-
ucts. Due to the limited number of processing
steps involved with fresh sausage manufacture
and the fact that physical appearance is one
of the most important quality factors, the man-
ufacturing process deservedly receives great
attention.
With particle reduction and ingredient incor-
poration being required for these products, pro-
cessors must be aware of technologies and
methodologies to develop a successful final prod-
uct. They also must be aware of what controls
needed to handle raw materials differences and
to manage variations that can make end-product
goals attainable.
This section will focus on three primary man-
ufacturing processes –– grinding, chopping and
mixing –– and the role each plays to ensure prod-
uct uniformity and quality.
Chopping and Grinding for Particle Reduction
Since particle definition in the finished product is
so crucial to producing “high quality” fresh sau-
sage, approaches for achieving particle reduction
should be carefully identified at this point in the
manufacturing process.
• Raw materials: Uniform and high-qual-

ity (low in connective tissue, low in “soft
fat,” etc.) raw materials are important to
ensure both lean and fat particle reduction is
achieved without allowing smearing of either.
Any level of smearing can impact not only the
texture of the finished product but also the
overall product color by lightening the sarco-
plasmic protein color.
• Processing equipment: Although the
norm for fresh sausage manufacture
involves grinders, bowl cutters still have
their place and can be readily found in the
meat and poultry industry. Sometimes used
for the entire manufacturing process, bowl
cutters are more commonly found for the
initial or pre-break step where operator
control isn’t as stringent as it would be for a
finished chopping step. A bowl cutter excels
as minimizing protein/fat smearing while
maintaining more of the meat’s structural
integrity. This, in turn, can result in a finished
product with a better/firmer bite as less
total “structural” tearing occurs compared
with a grinder-only production process. Due
to the more “gentle” reduction approach,
bowl cutters can, to a certain extent, allow
for greater raw material variation. Grinders
make up the majority of particle reduction
processes because they support the higher
productivity continuous processing and
improve the possibility of greater uniformity
of continuous processing and improve the
possibility of greater uniformity of the fin-
ished product.
• Process attributes: Often more import-
ant than the specific equipment used are a
variety of important processing attributes
that allow product quality to be established
and maintained during manufacturing. As
most processors know well, temperature is
crucial for fresh sausage manufacture as it
dictates the level and extent of both fat and
protein smearing. As for most meat process-
ing applications, the colder (including slightly
frozen for certain processes) the better, while
too much cold can negatively impact product
quality, causing mushy and sometimes crum-
bly textures. Raw materials should always
remain below 40°F, with 32°F to 34°F (0°C
to 1.11°C) being ideal targets. This tempera-
ture range will allow for a balance between
maintaining product quality and minimizing
excessive equipment wear. Monitoring prod-
uct temperature increases caused by the
process itself (i.e. frictional heat generation)
or heat variations from the equipment also
need to be taken into account.
Particle reduction, if using multiple passes

or machines, should occur at no more than
50% size reduction from pass to pass to min-
imize additional forces and pressure exerted
on the product during each subsequent
pass. Grinder plates and knives need to be
checked and replaced or re-sharpened at a
high enough frequency to minimize “beyond
normal” smearing standards as set by indi-
vidual processors. Keep in mind that these
intervals also are likely to be changed because
raw materials can vary in their concentration of
connective tissue and fat quality. Bone collec-
tion should be included at the final grind along
with hard connective tissue.
Mixing
Mixers come in many configurations, shapes and
sizes, and all are used for the same function:
mixing raw materials and a meat batter to provide
uniform distribution of raw materials and non-
meat ingredients. Several configurations can be
used successfully (i.e. paddle, ribbon, dual-ac-
tion) as long as realization of how each impacts
the process exists. In addition to the basic mixing
configurations, there are a host of secondary
configurations impacting paddle or ribbon shape,
size, angle, spacing, number, location, speed,
etc., that can fine-tune a mixer for the particular
substrate being created.
Because fresh sausage batters are typically
firm with little to no added water, paddle mixers
are generally the most effective, although some
processors prefer ribbon or dual-action mixers.
Paddle mixers provide more of a “folding” action
by moving batter in opposing lateral directions and
radially, while ribbon mixers utilize helical agitators
to move batter in opposite longitudinal directions.
A dual-action blender combines both mixing con-
cepts and accomplishes the same goals.
The particle reduction process is generally
more important than the equipment used. Con-
sistent and uniform mixing procedures should
be followed at all times. Mixers should be filled
to their manufacturer-designed recommended
capacities (normally above main shaft(s) but not
completely covering paddles/ribbons) for each
batch. Mixing times should be consistent from
batch to batch to minimize variation in protein
extraction (impacting finished product texture)
or fat smearing. Batter temperatures, ingredient
addition procedures and mixing times should be
consistent from batch to batch to generate the
most consistent and products.
Grinding/Mixing Sequence Considerations
Both “grind-grind-mix” or a “grind-mix-grind”
sequences of manufacturing steps are common in
the production of fresh sausage. Although produc-
tive benefits of a “grind-grind-mix” sequence can
be observed, the loss in lean and fat particle defi-
nition also can make a “grind-mix-grind” process
more attractive. In-line grinding combines final
grind operations with stuffers and allows for: 1)
increased productivity (grind-mix); and 2) particle
“freshening” immediately before filling in casing.
Casing Functionality and Options

Casings create the skin on the surface of a sau-
sage and directly influence the shape, consis-
tency, flavor, texture and, to some extent, shelf
life of the product being produced. Following
the development of the batter as previously
described, a sausage is not truly born until the
second phase, when a meat batter is stuffed into
a suitable casing, forming individual units of var-
ious shapes and sizes to create an independent
meat system.
Understanding casing functionality and accu-
rately selecting a casing for a given application
plays an important role in the longer-term suc-
cess of a product than the multi-step processes
before the meat batter reaches the casing stage.
More often than not, the majority of the focus for
developing a successful fresh sausage product
is centered on meat technology, and the impact
that a casing plays in the processing of sausage
is overlooked. Casings are a misunderstood,
technologically advanced, multifunctional surface
that must work with and for the protein matrix it
encases. The walls of the casing enclosing the
proteins are required to withstand all of the pres-
sures of stuffing, clipping and packaging. They
also maintain product quality, integrity and shelf
life throughout shipping and retail storage while
also providing eye appeal for consumers.
Selection criteria for casings utilized in fresh
sausage production are dependent on the meat
batter formulation, processing and merchandis-
ing conditions. It’s also important to match those
parameters to a casing made for that batter and
those processes and marketing conditions. Not
all sausages have the same requirements, so it is
difficult to develop a universal casing that meets
the needs of all sausage categories (i.e. fresh,
cooked, scalded, dry, semi-dry), or even within
categories of sausages (i.e. fresh links versus
fresh chub sausage).
Fresh sausage links that will be grilled or deep-
fat fried, for instance, require a casing that will with-
stand high cooking temperatures of 392°F (200°C).
As a result, fresh link casings must have superior
permeability (i.e. water vapor and gas) so the
casing does not split or delaminate during cook-
ing. Additionally, high expansion and shrink char-
acteristics are necessary to absorb the volumetric
changes that occur at extreme temperatures when
fat is swelling, protein is shrinking and water is
evaporating.
A casing with superior water vapor and gas
permeability is indispensable for fresh sausage
links; however, fresh sausage chubs (i.e. chorizo
or bulk sausage) require a casing wall that pos-
sesses high barrier properties to prevent mois-
ture loss, oxidation and compositional changes
triggered from water, oxygen and light transmission
throughout the retail shelf life of the product.
The casing must possess little to no elasticity to
allow for accurate weight control and a cylindri-
cally uniform package. Successful selection of
casings for fresh sausages can only be achieved
when all production and marketing goals are
clear, and the fundamentals of casing technology
are applied during the development and produc-
tion process.
In general, there are two types of casing tech-
nologies available for fresh sausage products:
natural and artificial. Natural casings are those
that are derived from the intestinal tract of ani-
mals. Artificial casings include those made of
natural biopolymers (collagen) and man-made
polymers (plastic).
Natural Casings
Natural “gut” casings are sourced from the intes-
tinal tracts of cattle, sheep and hogs and have
been used for more than 2,000 years, making
them the oldest forms of packaging for sausages.
Gut casings continue to be the primary choice
for many fresh sausage products in the U.S.,
especially bratwurst and Italian sausages. Sheep
(Figure 4.7) and hog (Figure 4.8) casings are the
most common casings used by U.S. manufactur-
ers. Both are typically sold by the “hank,” which
represents a combined total length of approxi-
mately 300ft/100yd/91m of casing. They come
in standardized sizes and in a variety of forms
including net-packs, salted, vacuum pre-flushed
(in 90% to 100% brine solution), pre-tubed and
even artificially colored.
figure4.7
NATURAL SHEEP CASINGS
SOURCE: THE INTERNATIONAL NATURAL SAUSAGE CASING ASSOCIATION

figure4.8
NATURAL PORK CASINGS
SOURCE: THE INTERNATIONAL NATURAL SAUSAGE CASING ASSOCIATION.
Natural pork casings are used for smaller diameter (30-44 mm) sausages.
Natural sheep casings are the smallest in cal-

iber of all natural casings ranging from 16 mm
to 28 mm in diameter and are by far the most
tender from an edibility standpoint. Sheep casings
are typically used for smaller diameter sausages
including fresh breakfast links or bangers as well
as smoked and cooked frankfurters. Also working
to their advantage, the thin casing wall allows for
the maximum visual clarity of lean-to-fat ratios and
ranks high in terms of consumer appeal. Common
diameters and stuffing capacities for fresh sau-
sages can be observed in Figure 4.9.
figure4.9
CAPACITY ESTIMATES FOR

NATURAL SHEEP CASINGS
Diameter (mm) Capacity (kg) – Per Hank Common Products
16-18 15-16 Fresh Pork Sausage, Frankfurters

18-20 17-18 Fresh Pork Sausage, Frankfurters
20-22 21-23 Frankfurters, Chiploata
24-26 27-29 Frankfurters, Bockwurst, Cabanosa
26-28 29-31 Frankfurters, Bockwurst, Cabanosa
28 and Up 31-34 Frankfurters, Landäger
Hog runners are standardized and sold in sizes

ranging from 28mm to 44mm in diameter, how-
ever, the most widely used calibers for fresh sau-
sage applications utilize casings 38mm and below.
Stuffing capacity estimates for commonly used
calibers can be seen in Figure 4.10.
Natural hog casings continue to be the choice
for manufacturing fresh bratwurst and Italian link
sausages because they provide the “knack” and
curved appearance that consumers typically expect
from these products. The unique compositional
makeup of the collagen (and elastin) matrix of the
casing wall provides strength and stretch character-
istics that make it one of the only casings suitable
for cooking methods that combine parboiling and
grilling, an especially common technique for prepar-
ing bratwurst-style sausages.
figure4.10
CAPACITY ESTIMATES FOR

NATURAL HOG CASINGS
Diameter (mm) Capacity (kg) – Per Hank Common Products
28-30 41 Pork Sausages

30-32 41-45 Frankfurters, Italian Sausage
32-35 48-52 Smoked Sausage, Pepperoni
38-42 57-61 Kielbasa, Pepperoni, Rope Sausage
42-44 61-64 Kielbasa, Pepperoni, Rope Sausage
While the animal source of the casing is differ-

ent, the composition and structural organization
of the intestinal tube of the animal is consistent.
Intestinal tracts are composed of (Figure 4.11)
an inner lining (mucosa), two middle layers (sub
mucosa and muscularis) and an outer layer
(serosa). A finished sausage casing is an intestine
that has been processed down to a single layer:
the sub mucosa. The sub mucosa is composed
primarily of collagen fibers and is functionally the
most significant layer of the intestinal tract. It is
important to note that the process of removing
the intestine from the gut-set can yield variations
in casing quality, which may result in undesirable
finished product characteristics for retail appeal on
fresh sausages.
figure4.11
GENERAL MICROARRANGEMENT
OF THE INTESTINAL TRACT (A)
LONGITUDINALLY AND (B) IN
CROSS-SECTION
A
B
SOURCE: SAUSAGE CASINGS. Z. SAVIC AND I. SAVIC.
Natural casings are typically marketed and sold

as “hand-pulled” and “knife-cut” casings. When
a casing is knife-cut, more collagen fibers are left
intact, which means the casing will tend to have
more residual strength and fewer holes. Knife-cut
casings are longer in strand length, which results
in less change over at the stuffing horn, and typi-
cally are marketed at a lower price point. However,
the process of separating the small intestines from
the gut using a knife results in small strands of
connective tissue or fat that remain attached to the
casing surface called “whiskers.”
These whiskers, while perfectly edible, decrease
the overall eye appeal of the finished product and
are not typically used for fresh retail product despite
the many benefits from a machinability standpoint.
Knife-cut casings are best suited for producers who
intend to smoke or cook their product, as the whis-
kers will melt during thermal processing with the
correct addition of humidity. Hand-pulled casings are
removed from the gut by hand and provide finished
casings that are naturally whisker-free. Unfortu-
nately with the hand-pulling process, more of the
sub mucosa and collagen fibers that give the casing
its strength are disconnected as the small intestine
is pulled from the gut, resulting in a more delicate
casing that may have a higher incidence of weak
spots and a shorter strand length when compared
with knife-cut casings.
Regardless of casing type, decreased machin-
ability and throughputs may occur if the casing is
not prepared correctly prior to stuffing and linking
operations.
Preparation of natural casings prior to stuffing
is required so the casing can reorient its collagen
fibers in the sub mucosa and better respond to the
stress and force placed on it during stuffing. Since
collagen-casing walls are only pliable and perme-
able in a wet state, sufficient flushing is required to
optimize their strength and permeability.
During soaking/flushing the collagen tissue in
the casing wall absorbs the water and swells, allow-
ing the wall to become stronger through increased
hydrogen bonding. The swelling diminishes the
effects of stress, allowing the casing to become
more elastic while increasing the water vapor trans-
mission rate. Insufficient soaking results in resid-
ual salt in the wall, which may increase the rate of
breakage as the casing is highly contracted in a
salted state and the recommended stuffing diame-
ter (RSD) or stuffing targets cannot be achieved.
The time on the wall of natural casings can
be observed in, which illustrates the increase of
flexibility of the casing. The time required to soak
casings is based on the caliber/thickness of the
collagen wall and the method used to pack the
casing following standardization. As a rule of
thumb, sheep casings will require a shorter soak-
ing time than hog casings, and those that are
packed in a brine solution prior to stuffing will have
a reduced soaking time when compared with nat-
ural casings that are dry salt packed. In addition,
added soaking time may be necessary for natural
casings that are pre-tubed to allow for penetra-
tion of the water and flushing of the salt from in
between the folds of the tubed casing.
General recommendations for preparing nat-
ural sheep and hog casings for stuffing include:
rinsing the casings first with fresh 85°F to 90°F
(30°C to 32°C) water prior to soaking. As pre-
viously mentioned, the brined/perfused casings
allow for a reduction in soaking time as the wall is
not as tightly contracted in solution. Generally, this
reduces the soaking time required prior to stuffing
(30 to 60 minutes is sufficient). However, the dry
salt pack must be soaked for a minimum of two
to four hours to allow the casings to rehydrate
and for the salt to be completely flushed from the
casing wall. Soaking overnight is also quite typical
to ensure that all salt has been removed for maxi-
mum machinability during linking operations.
Common non-meat ingredients like phosphates
are sometimes added as an additional pre-soak
step for 30 to 60 minutes to improve both machin-
ability at stuffing and tenderness when consumed.
The use of an edible alkaline buffering material,
such as phosphate or sodium bicarbonate, will
greatly increase the speed with which the casing
recombines with water, improving the flexibility and
filling stability. In addition, the improved moisture
absorption increases the slippage of the material
on the stuffing horn. Phosphates are commonly
added at a level of 30g/L of water (or less) per
manufacturer’s recommendations, and should
undergo a subsequent soaking step prior to use.
Sodium bicarbonate also can be added at 1.06%
of a soaking solution in accordance with FSIS
Directive 7120.1 to ease stuffing and improve
functionality of the casing.
Natural sausage casings must be labeled in
accordance with the FSIS Federal Register (9 CFR
§317 and §381), which states that the source of
natural sausage casing must be disclosed on the
product label if the casing is derived from a differ-
ent species than the meat or poultry encased in
the sausage. For example, an ingredient statement
for a fresh pork breakfast sausage link in natural
sheep casing may read “packed in sheep casing”
or list “sheep casing” in the ingredients statement.
These labeling regulations are also applicable for
edible collagen casings if the collagen is derived
from a different species than the product or if
the source of the collagen is unknown. Common
and acceptable disclaimers include the addition
of “stuffed in collagen casing” or “beef collagen
casing” at the end of the ingredient statement.
Collagen Casings
Collagen casing use has dramatically increased in
recent years because they provide consistency,
reliability and versatility for all categories of sau-
sage products, including fresh.
Demands for an alternative solution to gut casing

stemmed in the 1920s due to high prices and limitations
in supply, and Germany was the first to realize the need
to develop an edible alternative. It wasn’t until the mid-
1960s, however, that collagen casings gained popularity
and were approved for use in the United States. Sci-
entists at Johnson & Johnson developed a low-solids
wet extrusion process that was capable of producing
regenerated collagen in tubes suitable for sausage pro-
duction purposes. This casing was considered a break-
through for the fresh sausage industry allowing for the
production of uniform links at high production speeds
with no adverse consumer feedback. It’s no secret that
collagen casings have drastically improved since the
early days of Devro (an acronym for the Development
and Research Organization), yet the same basic princi-
ples and natural raw material sources remain.
While they are man-made, collagen casings are

often incorrectly described as “artificial” because their
raw material is a naturally sourced collagen product.
It originates from the thin inner layer of the hides of
beef (and hogs) known as the corium. Washing the
corium decalcifies and buffers it to create food-grade
collagen. The collagen is further reduced to a gel,
after which it is extruded through a die, aligning the
collagen fibers in a criss-cross structure to create
the desired caliber, strength and stability of the fin-
ished product. Once the tubular casing is formed
it undergoes a series of baths to further crosslink
the structure or add color, followed by drying and
shirring to form tubes that are ready to fill. Shirred
collagen casings possess many advantages over
animal casings and are the primary casing source for
fresh breakfast sausage links in the U.S. market. The
precise caliber control of collagen casings allows for
uniform net weight packages with minimal giveaway
and provides a level of machinability that is far supe-
rior to that of natural animal casings.
Collagen casings for fresh sausage applications
are ready to use, require no soaking and come
in a wide range of calibers (16 mm to 32 mm).
There are specialized collagen casings for different
applications. They can produce fresh sausages
with improved visual appeal and handle the wide
spectrum of cooking methods and temperature
changes without bursting. Options include:
• Fresh Sausage Casing/Retail Casing –

clear, colorless casing that possesses superior
transparency and sheen for high visibility of
lean to fat ratios and tender bite for consumer
appeal. Most commonly used for breakfast
sausage links in retail overwrap packages.
• Porcine Fresh Sausage Casing – casing
produced from porcine collagen splits,
allowing for the manufacture of 100% pork
sausage.
• Tinted Fresh Sausage Casing – fresh
sausage casings with color added (typically
annatto, Yellow #5, etc.) creating a blush
color and “bloom” on the product. The color
enhances the lean meat portions of the
sausage link and overall consumer appeal.
Because the casing is consumed with the
product, the colorant must be listed in the
ingredient statement.
• Foodservice or Hi-Cellulose Casing –
fresh sausage casing with improved water
vapor and gas permeability through increased
levels of cellulose in the casing wall, allowing
for a higher rate of moisture evaporation. In
combination with a higher degree of crosslink-
ing, this allows the product to withstand high
temperature cooking techniques that might be
used in restaurants, such as deep fat frying.
In addition, these casings are typically suitable
for pre-cook link applications where impinge-
ment ovens are used and fully cooked fresh
sausage links are produced.
• Curved Fresh Sausage Casing – available
in sizes ranging from 20 to 36mm, casing
that provides a similar curved appearance of
natural casing with all of the consistency and
production benefits of collagen.
Casings as packaging
Manufacturers looking to produce chub or bulk
sausage products typically select artificial casings
made of synthetic materials or plastic resins of
polyamide (PA), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene
(PP), and polyvinvlidenchloride (PVDC). Plastic cas-
ings are highly advanced thermoplastics that are
produced by heating polymer resins and extruding
them in a continuous process into tubular forms.
A single source or combination of resins can be
utilized to create tailor-made solutions with a vari-
ety of properties, including: adhesion, mechani-
cal strength, caliber control and barrier functions
(water vapor and oxygen).
Each raw material is melted in an extruder
where each layer is bonded together to make
a tube that passes through the die to the cool
bath. After the cooling water, the casing passes
through a hot bath before orientation. The casing
is filled with air and stretched to create a bi-ori-
ented casing. After orientation, the casing passes
through an annealing oven, cooled and rolled on
reels, where it is then shirred for use in manufac-
turing facilities.
Available in a variety of sizes and colors, plastic
casings are capable of being stuffed manually or
with high speed clipping technologies. In addition
to caliber consistency, both mono and multi-layer
plastic casings offer exceptional oxygen, mois-
ture and UV barrier properties for fresh sausage
chubs. The high level of protection allows finished
products to be stored for a long period of time by
preventing undesired losses in weight, aroma and
flavor protection while protecting against discolor-
ations throughout retail storage.
Printed plastic casings also can perform sales
and promotional functions at the retail level by
helping consumers with product identification
and assisting retailers by adding to the product’s
perceived value. Various printing technologies
are available including for plastic casings, includ-
ing water-based, solvent-based and UV. The
enhanced graphics obtained from UV printing
results in a more attractive retail presentation.
There are two types of printing setups avail-
able, but regardless of type used, the optimum
image size should be 1/3 of the circumference of
the product for the principle display panel (Figure
4.12). Continuous print is most common, where
the print design is repeated one after another
down the center of the casing in either a vertical
or horizontal direction. Continuous print allows
for at minimum one complete label to be visual
on the sausage chub. Casings can also be pro-
duced with placement or registered print, where
the label is centered on the front and back panels
of the sausage chub. Typically there are registra-
tion marks in a different color that allow the photo
eye of clipping equipment to recognize where a
clip should be placed on the chub for exact por-
tion control.
figure4.12
PARAMETERS FOR CONTINUOUS

OR PLACEMENT PRINT
1/3 OF THE
CIRCUMFERENCE
1/3 OF THE 1/3 OF THE

CIRCUMFERENCE CIRCUMFERENCE
SOURCE: WALSRODER CASINGS
Plastic casings can be sold ready-to-use or

may require soaking prior to stuffing and clipping.
Depending on the customer application, some will
reach better performance using a soaked casing
while others will do so by stuffing the casing dry. All
casings are designed to be filled to a certain caliber
known as the RSD, or recommended stuffing diam-
eter. Soaking the casing will increase the stretch
capacity of the casing and, in turn, stuff the product
to a slightly larger diameter. Just as with natural
animal casings, preparation of plastic casings is
critical to prevent stuffing failures during fresh sau-
sage chub production. Inadequate soaking or a
misunderstanding of the preparations to the casing
prior to stuffing may result in the inability to reach
the RSD. Failure to reach the recommended stuff-
ing diameter by either over- or under-stuffing the
sausage chub can cause the following:
• Clip slippage
• Casing breakage
• Stuffing interruptions
• Stretched caps/uneven sausage shoulders
• Peeling problems/unexpected meat adhesion
• Non-uniformity
• Under- or overweight packages
• Casing lift off
• Gel separations
• Loss of packaging performance
If soaking is required to achieve recommended

stuffing diameter, soak in lukewarm running water
for approximately 30 minutes. Printed casings
should be soaked for double the time, and shirred
casings may take longer to allow the pleats of the
shirred strand to become fully soaked. RTU casings
should be kept moist and typically have a shorter
shelf life than casings that require soaking, as the
stuffing diameter may be reduced if stored over an
extended period of time and moisture escapes.
Storage should be in a cool and dry place below
77°F and in 40% to 80% relative humidity. As with
any casing, non-meat ingredient or meat block, the
“first in first out rule” always applies.
Artificial and natural casings have helped develop
industrial production standards for fresh sausage
products. All too often processors place an extreme
level of confidence in the casing without fully under-
standing the functional properties it possesses. In
order to produce high-quality fresh sausage, proces-
sors must understand the basics of meat science
and casing technology. It is of utmost importance to
utilize the knowledge and experience of casing man-
ufacturers and technical specialists to ensure that
maximum casing performance is achieved.
Alginate-Based Casings
Sausage casings extruded from alginate-based
gels are one of the most recent innovations for
fresh sausage manufacturers, especially those
looking for an alternative to animal-based and
artificial casings. Alginate-based casings provide
a significant advantage over natural or regener-
ated collagen casings as they cater to growing
consumer markets that require a single or specific
protein source such as Halal, Kosher, poultry or
vegetarian sausages.
Alginate is a versatile, natural biopolymer
derived from marine brown algae or seaweed that
is used as a thickening and
stabilizing agent in a wide
variety of food products.
An important property of
alginates is their ability to
Continuous application of
form cold-set gels in the alginate casing around the
sausage material as it is
presence of certain divalent being extruded.
metal cations like calcium, Courtesy of Handtmann Inc.
which allows for a simplified

extrusion and coating process for casing forma-
tion. Unlike other co-extrusion processes that
require technologically advanced dies to orientate
the gel fibers, alginate-based co-extrusion
equipment is designed to evenly enrobe or coat
the sausage batter as it is being stuffed at a care-
fully controlled flow rate. Upon extrusion, a brine
solution containing calcium ions (commonly cal-
cium chloride) is applied to the encased sausage,
which forms a clear transparent skin that can then
be cut or linked into individual portions. Fresh
sausages in alginate-based casing typically range
from 17-32 mm in diameter and the thickness and
color of the casing may be adjusted to meet the
processor’s end-product quality specifications.
Alginate-based casing for fresh sausage appli-
cations is offered in both ready to use gel (paste)
and powdered forms from a variety of suppliers
and seaweed sources. It is important to note that
different seaweeds will differ in composition which
in turn, impacts the calcium reactivity and gelation
properties for casing formation. Alginate-based gels
and powders often contain additional ingredients
including hydrocolloids, proteins, fibers or other
additives for specific performance criteria. Similar to
the declaration of natural and collagen casings on
product labels, fresh sausage products produced
in alginate-based casings are required declare the
casing and it’s components at the end of the ingre-
dients statement. Common nomenclature includes:
“calcium alginate casing” or “alginate-based casing”
followed by all of the ingredients used in the casing
by common or usual name.
The adoption of alginate-based co-extrusion sys-
tems for fresh sausage is increasing due to advances
in alginate technology that has allowed for improved
texture, mouthfeel and gel stability during a variety
of cooking practices. Even so, processors must be
aware that while similar to other co-extrusion pro-
cesses, the alginate-based casing cannot withstand
the same pressures as natural or man-made cas-
ings. The resulting product will possess a slightly
different product texture and consistency and may
require additional restrictions during production and
shelf-life especially under diverse packaging condi-
tions (vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging).
Nevertheless, when the technology is introduced
under controlled conditions, manufacturers can reap
the many financial benefits of continuous sausage
production through decreases in casing cost, elim-
ination of changeover and increased production
efficiencies. The benefits of these co-extrusion
technologies will be covered in greater detail in
Chapter 5 of this Meat Processor’s Journal.
Stuffing
The development of vacuum filling machines has
made it possible to meet the technical, quality-re-
lated and production volume requirements for
manufacturing in today’s fresh marketplace. There
are many types of vacuum filling technologies com-
mercially available for the meat industry, depending
on the type of batter to be transported. Generally
speaking, vacuum fillers can be equipped with var-
ious feed systems. However, in principle, the basic
machine structure, with a hopper, vacuum system,
feeding device, machine base, lifting device, con-
trol system, etc., are somewhat similar. Vacuum
filling technologies include piston pump technology,
double screw pump technology, rotary gear pump
technology and rotary vane cell pump technology.
Depending on the application, each type of feed
system has advantages and disadvantages. These
all function on basically a volumetric feed principle,
which means that a certain weight is defined using
volume. Each technology has a specific method for
transporting batter from the holding reservoir (i.e. the
hopper) to the outlet (i.e. the nozzle of the vacuum
filler). In addition, with today’s production require-
ments, processors also may need automated linking
technology to achieve daily production volumes.
With all these systems, one common point is
that transportation is achieved via volume expulsion
under a vacuum. The terminology “vacuum stuffing”
should be qualified with some general description.
Vacuum stuffers have been available to the meat
industry for many years. To some meat processors,
the term “vacuum stuffer” is thought to mean that
air will be removed from the meat system through-
out the filling process. However, the key element of
a vacuum filler is the vacuum-filling principle. The
sausage batter is fed into the feed system mechan-
ically via a hopper with an actively driven feeding
auger and vertical vacuum suction or with the aid
of a vacuum. The pressure difference relative to the
ambient pressure (under pressure) caused by the
evacuation ensures that the feed system is filled
with product. The feed system moves continuously
to generate a continuous filling flow. Because the
filling product is drawn into the transport system via
a vacuum, it is commonly referred to as a “vacuum
stuffer” or as a “vacuum filler.” The main function
of a vacuum filler is to ensure optimum feeding of
the product into the meat pump, not to remove air
within the system (Video 4.1).
Video 4.1 (Watch online here.)

Quick, even perfectly aligned automated case loading is now possible
with adjustable first portion acceleration that virtually eliminates burst
casings and new technology that identifies exact separating points at the
highest speeds for perfect product consistency.
Video courtesy of Handtmann Inc.
An auger and counter-auger system can assist

in the feeding of the batter into the transport/con-
veying system. Due to the special geometry of
both augers and the parallel rotation movement,
the filling product is moved vertically in the direction
of the conveying system. The hopper scraper also
enhances the feeding of the sausage batter. The
counter auger works with the auger to feed the
filling product into the conveying system (i.e. vane
cell, double-screws, piston, etc.). The required feed
intensity depends on the viscosity of the batter.
Less active feed is needed with low-viscosity
product (i.e. frankfurter emulsion batter) in com-
parison with high-viscosity product (i.e. dry sau-
sage batter). Therefore, a wide variety of scrapers,
augurs and counter augers are available to match
the application (i.e. emulsion sausage, coarse sau-
sage, dry sausage, etc.).
The vane cell feed system mainly consists of a
rigid pump housing with attached side plate that
is fixed to the pivoting hopper, and a removable
rotor with pump vanes and cam. Depending on
the machine size and the application for the meat
processors, there are various sizes of vane cell feed
systems with parts with appropriate dimensions.
The driven rotor with an appropriate number of slots
is located in the pump housing, in which pump
vanes form cells with defined volumes when the
machine is closed, supported by the cam. Induced
by servo-driven technology, the rotor movement is
activated and the cells move in the direction of the
vane cell feed system outlet and therefore ensure
that a defined product flow is achieved. The prod-
uct is portioned by means of cyclic movements of
the feed system. Each cell of the feed system has a
particular volume with the portion being determined
by the rotation distance of the rotor. The portioning
volume is therefore set in the control system by mul-
tiplying the rotor’s rotation distance by the number
of the feed system cells within it. The portion weight
must be determined in the control system via the
portion volume parameter with the aid of scales.
The weight accuracy of a feed system is partially
dependent on the production precision of the parts
and their degree of wear over time.
Depending on the product being produced,
processed meat processors should determine the
correct vacuum filling technology, meat pump,
rotor and vane configuration that best matches
their specific application.
Traditionally, the fresh sausage batter is stuffed at
cold temperatures of 27°F to 30°F (-2.8°C to -1.1°C)
in an effort to maintain the particle definition. These
colder temperatures also reduce further protein
extraction of the sausage batter during the stuff-
ing process. Decreased protein extraction assists
processors in producing the product’s character-
istic crumbly/soft texture. Also, if in-line grinding
is used, processors should expect a minimal tem-
perature rise of 1°F to 2°F (0.3°F to 0.6°C) through-
out the process.
These colder temperatures also may require
a vacuum filler with increased pump pressure.
Therefore, processors should consult with capital
equipment suppliers of vacuum fillers to determine
the best technology that suits the application.
When using automated linking technology,
it is critical to ensure that all linking parts are
matched for each application. Automated linking
systems often function with collagen and natural
casings to provide processors with greater pro-
cessing flexibility. Prior to the stuffing process,
providing processors with greater operational
flexibility. Prior to stuffing, processors should
ensure that the nozzle size matches the casing
pusher, brake assembly, voider size, transport
belt gap, cutting knives, etc.
Casings used in conjunction with high-perfor-
mance linking technology should be in good
condition. Care should be taken when receiving
and storing artificial casing (e.g., collagen cas-
ings). They should be stored in a cool, dry, dark
and hygienically safe location. Also, they should
be stored in the packaging provided by the man-
ufacturer prior to use. Failure to observe the stor-
age conditions stipulated by the manufacturer
may result in decreased functional characteristics
of the casing.
During the stuffing process, the casing must
be able to withstand the forces of stuffing and
closure (i.e. clipping). Casing diameter and linear
stuffing speed are the main control variables for
the sausage batter flow during the stuffing oper-
ation. Sometimes, especially at higher stuffing
pressures, the fat can be smeared along the
stuffing nozzle and along the inside surface of
the casings. This will definitely negatively impact
the eye appeal of the exterior of the sausage
products for the consumer. This is why stuffing
speed and sausage batter temperature must be
closely controlled.
Today’s processors often operate at extremely
high speeds and must take steps to counteract
the potentially damaging effect of high production
speeds and the use of long nozzles, which can
smear the outside surface of the sausage. To coun-
teract the potentially damaging effect of high pro-
duction speeds and the use of long nozzles, which
can smear the outside surface of the sausage.
When the outside of the sausage smears, the final
product often appears as though it has more fat
than it actually has which reduces the eye-appeal-
ing particle definition that some consumers use
to judge fresh sausage products. Processors may
consider using fluted (also referred to as crown-
tipped) nozzles that disrupt the sausage batter flow
as it’s being stuffed into the casing, removing the
appearance of smear.
There are many variations of custom fluted noz-
zles used by processors, but the theory and sub-
sequent impact on the sausage batter as it is being
stuffed into the casing is generally the same. The
flute, located at the end of the nozzle, essentially
folds the nozzle’s interior sausage batter to the out-
side of the sausage batter flow immediately prior
to the sausage batter entering the casing. These
customized nozzles mask product smearing.
In a simple experiment, processors can com-
pare product made with a standard nozzle and
product made with a fluted nozzle. Even though
both sausages chemically have the same fat/
lean ratio, the product stuffed using the stan-
dard nozzle has the appearance of containing
more fat when compared with the same meat
batter stuffed using the fluted nozzle. Since
consumers have traditionally purchased prod-
ucts based on appearance, processors make
adjustments in their stuffing process to avoid
this fatter-appearing product.
Prior to production, the casing brake assem-
bly components should be inspected for poten-
tial defects (e.g., burs, cracks, wear, etc.) that
will impact production performance. Through
normal wear, defects on the adjusting screw
may occur that have the potential to cut the
casing during the stuffing process. Also, after
some period of production and the use of caus-
tic sanitation chemicals, the condition of the
rubber brake ring may deteriorate. This issue
may negatively impact the production process
and have the potential to cause an increase in
casing bursts.
The correct brake assembly must be
matched in regards to the nozzle and casing
diameter. The positioning of the adjustment
screw is critical for proper delamination of the
shir from the casing slug.
Due to the high performance of automated
linking technology, there is potential for a minor
amount of air to be introduced within the sausage
link. This can be attributed to the cold tempera-
ture and rigidity of the sausage batter in combi-
nation with the position of the nozzle within the
brake ring. The sausage batter many not directly
flow in the direction of the brake assembly, which
is why there sometimes are visible air pockets. To
prevent this from happening, the standard brake
assembly has been extended so that the nozzle
is positioned properly to the brake ring/assembly.
This ensures the air voids are minimized when
operating the automated linking technology at high
speeds (Video 4.2).
The next point for consideration is the voiding

unit used in high-performance operations. Voiders
assist in achieving exact portions during the
continuous flow of sausage batter from the vacuum
filler, eliminating the starting/stopping of the meat
pump during production. The rotation of the nozzle
and the holding of the sausage in place by the
voiders forms the sausage link twist. A variety of
different voider sizes are available to coincide with
different sausage diameter sizes. If the voiders are
too small in comparison to the link diameter, the
sausage link won’t travel through the voider and
breakage will occur. If the voiders are too large in
comparison to the link diameter, the sausage link
twist may not be formed and may be allowed to
rotate excessively, which may impact the link’s abil-
ity to enter the transport belts (Video 4.3).
The transport belts must securely hold the sau-

sage in place. Due to the optical gap-sensor’s (i.e.
photo eye) ability to detect the linking position (i.e.
sausage link twist position) between the sausage
portions within a portion strand, the automated
linking system knows the exact position of the
twist. The optical gap-sensor works in conjunction
with the cutting unit, which is controlled via signals
from the gap-sensor. The twist position can there-
fore be separated precisely by the rotating blades.
Due to the detection of the link twist positions,
the timing of the cutting can be adjusted. This
ensures that sausages are reliably cut into individ-
ual portions or groups of sausages with the same
number of links. This feature is extremely important
when producing natural casing fresh sausages.
Regarding natural casing fresh sausage: while
each sausage link will weigh the same, the varia-
tion in casing diameter means that each sausage
may have a slightly different length. However, with
gap sensor technology locates the twist position
regardless of the link length.
After the sausage links exit the automated
linking system, processors must determine the
best solution for accumulating and packaging
the sausage links efficiently. Typically, automated
linking systems can outpace automated packag-
ing systems.
In other production instances, the vacuum filler
needs to have the ability to communicate with
automated clipping systems. In most instances,
when the clipping technology is connected to the
vacuum filler, the clipper takes control over the
processing function. That means the vacuum filler
relies on the clipper to send it a start/stop signal
and the clipper operator controls the production
pace. When using clipping technology, overall
production is limited by portion size and the time it
takes for the clip cycle to be completed.
Clipping
In principle, fresh sausage can be manufactured
and marketed in three different forms: bulk (chub
or roll), link and patty. Bulk products continue
to remain an indispensable sector of the fresh
sausage market and are considered a traditional
favorite by consumers due to the eye appeal, shelf
life, convenience and flexibility of the encased
sausage. While the concept of chub packaging
has remained unchanged for over 60 years, the
clipping technologies used to manufacture these
products have evolved substantially, allowing for
large scale production with minimal effort.
In theory, “clipping” can be defined as the act of
placing small aluminum clips on one or both ends
of a tubular casing filled with a viscous material, for
instance sausage. The two metal clips that gather
and seal the ends of the sausage casing are highly
engineered and are applied by clipping equipment
with precision. The process of clip closure and bulk
sausage manufacture begins when a filled sausage
casing is pinched by two pairs of voiders.
Fundamentally, clippers are categorized as
single or double clippers and can be manual,
semi-automatic or fully automatic. In addition to
the degree of comminution or fluidity of the mate-
rial being enclosed, the type of casing, target
stuffing diameter and production needs (through-
put and flexibility) typically determine what level of
automation or clip type is required for the applica-
tion. Clip closure systems are considered an indis-
pensable tool for industrial production of bulk fresh
sausage chubs as they allow for effortless sau-
sage production by replacing the time-consuming,
labor-intensive hand-tying process.
In automatic double clippers, the voiders move
away from each other perpendicular with respect to
the sausage and form a casing tail that is free from
sausage batter. The casing tail is disposed between
a stamp (punch) and a bottom tool (die) of the
machine. An open u-shaped clip is inserted in the
bottom tool, and closure occurs when the punch
and die move toward each other, causing the punch
to fold the free legs of the clip around the casing tail.
Improvements in clipping technologies now allow for
easier monitoring and registration of closure pres-
sure, clip designation, cycle speed and adjustments
to achieve a highly reproducible product.
Manual clipping
Single-clip closure systems were the original
alternative to hand tying of sausages and are still
widespread in use but are best suited for small-
scale production. The single-clip machine is either
manually or pneumatically operated. Manual sys-
tems require no air or electricity, and the casing is
gathered by a hand lever before the clip is applied.
With air assisted single-clip bench clippers, the
closing of the gate gathers the casing before the
clip is applied automatically and the casing is
securely closed. Excess casing or bag ends can be
trimmed with an integrated cut-off knife. Two differ-
ent types of closures are available and can be inter-
changed by simply changing the W and V punch
and die for natural and artificial casings, respectively,
for both manual closure systems. The clip pressure
can be set in a repeatable manner via a click-stop
scale. In addition, product-specific closing speed
and pressure can be set with the flow control and
the optional pressure regulator assembly.
Manual clipper in action.

Source: Poly-clip System Inc.
Semi-automatic, double-clip technology can

dramatically increase production times and prod-
uct consistency, and can be coupled directly to
the stuffing horn with virtually any filling system.
When the stuffer completes the portion, the oper-
ator closes the separator and the filled casing is
centered and separated and securely clipped.
Double-clip systems place two clips next to each
other, which ensure that the individual sausage
portions remain clipped on both ends and easy
separation of the sausage portions is possible.
To separate desired portions or chain lengths,
a pneumatic knife automatically cuts the casing
in between the two clips, so that one of the two
clips keeps the already filled package closed at its
second end, while the other clip forms the inde-
pendent closure of the chub yet to be filled.
Unlike single-clip machines, both semi-au-
tomatic and automatic machines utilize shirred
casings and casing brakes to allow for slow
release of the shirred casings from the filling
horns, ensuring tight filling and recommended
stuffing diameters of the casing can easily be
achieved. Shirred casings dramatically reduce
the time consuming labor of loading of pre-cut
casings, and casing waste can be reduced to a
minimum by tight filling and leaving only as much
casing for the sausage end as needed for the
placing of the clips.
Automatic clipping
Automatic double clippers have revolutionized the
sausage industry and are connected mechanically
and electronically to the stuffer. An accurate
portion to the nearest gram is ejected from the
stuffing machine and triggers a clipping signal.
Separators void and squeeze clean the casing
within milliseconds in the closure area, and the
machine has a few further milliseconds to close
two clips where the sausage tail and the begin-
ning of the next portion are clipped simultane-
ously. Linear voiding separators allow for short
sausage shoulders, uniform pleating and clean
sausage tails, which is essential for retail fresh
sausage chubs.
In addition to the design of the voiding sep-
arator system, clip shape is essential for double
clipping technologies producing chub style
fresh sausage. R-IDTM clip technology provides
optimized geometry for tighter clip closure and
decreased oxygen transmission, and can be bac-
teria-proof depending on the type of casing, for
a potential increase in shelf life of fresh sausage
products. Known as the “talking clip,” R-IDTM
clips also communicate with the automatic clip-
per to avoid incorrect settings of the machine
by alerting the operator if the clip size and die
are mismatched. This prevents damage and
down time due to improper machine settings.
In addition to self-monitoring the required die
and punch, the R-IDTM chip provides maximum
productivity by communicating and monitoring
the clip supply per reel and how tightly the clip
should be sealed to prevent casing damage.
Other optional features to increase produc-
tion speeds for automatic clipping systems are
available and often include the addition of turret
horn systems. Twin (and triple) turret systems
can decrease the downtime during stuffing and
clipping, allowing for reload of a shirred casing
strand on the additional horns while product is
being stuffed and clipped concurrently, reducing
downtime from loading between shirrs to the few
seconds in between the rotation of the turret.
Fully automated sealing and clipping

Flat-film sealing and clipping also is possible with
a high degree of automation and is the most
widely used clip closure system for industrial fresh
sausage chub production. It also is utilized to
produce fresh sausage “slicks” or bulk logs that
are stuffed, frozen, peeled and sliced for retail
fresh sausage patties or placed on an impinge-
ment oven belt for precooked patty applications.
Depending on the application (chub or slicks), a
high barrier or monolayer plastic film will be used
to form a quasi-endless plastic tube that is then
securely closed by a clipping process.
Two types of sealing and clipping technologies
are available for fully automatic fresh sausage
chub production: horizontal and vertical. While
both systems allow for utilization of flat film, verti-
cal-fill technology feeds wire from a roll and forms
clips around the ends of the sausage, and hori-
zontal technologies contain an integral (or stand-
alone) double clipping unit allowing for tighter
closures on the sausage ends and less wear on
forming parts. Horizontal sealing and clipping
technology offers a smaller footprint and more
flexibility for the processor as calibers can be
easily changed with no waste of film and/product.
These systems also are coupled with a stuffer and
an automatic clipper to form a continuous working
production line. The basic principle of sealing and
clipping technology is as follows (Video 4.4):
Video courtesy of Poly-clip System Inc
• The flat roll stock film is slipped onto a

self-locking roll carrier, and the roller guide
system ensures a constant input tension of
the film unwinding.
• The forming shoulder forms the flat film around
the stuffing horn and the seam of the film is
sealed with minimum overlap and that forms
a tube that serves as a casing reservoir for a
steady amount of shirred film for the down-
stream clipper to allow continuous production.
One of the main advantages of fully automated
sealing and clipping systems is the ability to utilize
less expensive flat film rather than shirred casings.
On average a reduction of 30% to 50% in casing
cost can be observed in addition to the decrease
in storage space and shipment costs necessary
for flat film versus shirrs. Production runs are
increased as flat film rolls can hold up to 3,000
meters, which represents up to four hours of pro-
duction time at speeds of up to 160 cycles per
minute in continuous mode depending on product
specifications. Due to the fact that horizontal auto-
matic sealing and machines utilize double clipping
machines, features such as the linear voiding
separator and R-IDTM clip can be included to opti-
mize product quality with clean sausage tails with
bacteria-tight closures for retail and round sausage
shoulders to increase more slices per slick for
patty production.
Regardless of the level of automation or type of
product being produced, it is absolutely critical to
have the correct clip size for the caliber and type
of casing used. Clips that are too large can create
clip slippage, wrinkling on the surface and even
purge and shelf-life constraints in fresh sausage
chubs. Clips that are too small may cut the casing
and cause failures at stuffing or breakage during
transport or during storage on retail shelves if mis-
handled. The following general tips and tricks for
clipping uniformity can be applied to any product
that utilizes a single- or double-clipping system.
As lessons have been learned over many
decades to improve efficiency in the production of
fresh sausages, there remain many more oppor-
tunities to further fine-tune the processes and
techniques, many of which will be covered in the
next chapter.
5
New Processing
Technologies
Dr. Jay Wenther, director of meat technology at

Handtmann Inc., with contributions from
Dr. Jochen Weiss, professor at the University of
Hohenheim, Germany
When it comes to the modern production of fresh

sausage products, technological advances in
automated linking and hanging, casing production
and management as well as packaging advances
all have helped the meat industry achieve today’s
commercial production volumes.
Not surprisingly, processors are still constantly
searching for new technologies that will increase
production volume and/or improve product quality.
This chapter contains an overview of several
of the latest technologies currently available to the
processed meat industry, specifically covering the
production of fresh sausage.
Ground meat divider to accurately portion products for bulk pack-
age applications.
Source: Handtmann Maschinenfabrik
Minced Meat Technology in

Automated Packaging
The production of fresh sausage sold in a bulk
package (i.e. 1-lb portions) has changed through
the years. At one point, the majority of bulk
fresh sausage products were found only in the
clipped, chub form. Thanks in part to techno-
logical advances and the expectations of con-
sumers, some fresh sausage products currently
are marketed in modified atmosphere trays and
thermo-formed packages in a variety of sizes.
More efficient vacuum filling, portioning and
inline grinding – the basic functions of a modern
minced-meat production line – can provide great
value to bulk fresh sausage processors. The latest
technologies provide better control of tempera-
ture increases that can occur during fresh sau-
sage production, allowing for better compliance
with current hygiene, sanitation and food safety
requirements. Fresh sausage processors also can
benefit from combining new minced meat tech-
nology with state-of-the-art inline grinding and
vacuum filling technologies that boost efficiency
by directly integrating filling and portioning func-
tions with automated packaging solutions.
After the product is transported through the
vacuum filling and in-line grinding technology,
it travels onto a two-belt system that incorpo-
rates independent servo-drives so that inde-
pendent inlet and outlet speeds can be set. The
first belt (inlet belt) piles up the minced meat to
the desired appearance, and the traveling blade
separates the strand into individual portions.
The second belt (outlet belt) runs faster than the
first belt, which creates the desired gap between
the portions. Separating the product via the
blade edge at the inlet belt creates well-formed
products with the specific desired appearance
required on the product. Recently released tech-
nology was developed so that the separating
unit moves along with the product in a horizontal
motion to increase production volume (i.e. por-
tions per minute).
Although production volume is critical to pro-
cessors, accurate portion control should be just
as important. Integrated weighing systems help
provide accurate process control throughout the
production day.
Weighing system integration

The simple integration of weighing systems
in the minced meat production process cre-
ates additional cost reduction potential due
to a further increase in portioning accuracy.
Synchronization with scales facilitates 100%
control due to reference weighing of each indi-
vidual portion, ejection of underweight portions
before labeling and a long-term cost reduction
as a result of less overfilling.
Precise transfer of the product to downstream
systems is important for reliable deposit of product
into the packaging department. The line’s integra-
tion into downstream packaging processes and its
compatibility with commercially available packaging
machines provide a wider range of professional auto-
mation options for exacting production demands.
Depositing into trays

Connecting the minced meat line to compatible
depositors and tray dispensers maximizes the
efficiency in minced meat production. Simple
synchronization and a modular design provide
flexibility in the choice of minced meat depositor
and tray dispenser. Therefore, a more diverse
range of tray shapes, sizes and types can be
used. This process would require solutions pro-
viding fast denesting technology and fully auto-
matic depositing of the products into the trays.
Depositing into thermo-forming machines

A modern minced meat line should also have
the ability to be easily integrated into an auto-
matic overall process with portioning, collating and
depositing into thermo-forming machines or other
similar packaging machines. For example, the
GEA FlexLoader accepts minced meat portions
up to a width of 250mm and automatically loads
them into a thermo-forming packaging machine.
In-line Grinding Technology

Processors are increasingly trying to tap into the
product-related advantages of inline grinding tech-
nology with products like fresh breakfast sausage
that require quality meat particle definition.
In-line grinding systems consist of vacuum fillers
that have been enhanced with grinding components.
While freestanding grinders use an auger to convey
the product forward into the knives and grinder
plates, in-line grinding systems use the constant
pressure that is built up by means of positive dis-
placement from the meat pump so that the grinder
knives and plates can function at 100% capacity.
This results in a higher cutting quality when com-
pared with standard grinder system quality because
there is less mechanical stress on the raw material.
Regular, consistent pressure on the entire sur-
face of the grinder plate enables a clean cut by the
ring knife without product swirling. It also prevents
abrasion and product smearing. Moreover, research
has shown that the heat generated by friction during
the in-line grinding process is dissipated more effec-
tively. With in-line grinding technology, processors
should expect a minimal temperature rise (i.e. 1°F to
2°F/0.3°F to 0.6°C) throughout the process.
Having a small number of cutting set parts (i.e.
grinder knives and plates) does not necessarily
result in a reduced thermal load or higher outputs.
Rather, the in-line grinding process streamlines the
process so that adjusting the cutting revolutions or
changing the cutting tools are essentially the only
changes needed as the raw material is processed.
Here are the most critical inline grinding design
issues that must be taken into account when con-
sidering using this technology:
• The number of holes on each grinder plate
• The thickness of the grinder plate
• The geometry of the grinder knife blades
• The effect of the sharpness of the grinder
knife blades and grinder plates
• The cutting rotation speed
• The number of blade arms at each cutting level
Figure 5.1. General configuration of an inline grinding system.
Today’s in-line grinding system technology has

been developed to meet more demanding stan-
dards in raw material processing (Figure 5.1).
In-line grinding systems are being used to pro-
duce a more uniform, clear and coarse product
appearance. Incorporating in-line grinding technol-
ogy as part of the processing procedures can also
reduce a potential processing step. For example,
consider the production of a fresh sausage prod-
uct. Traditionally, the meat would be pre-ground,
mixed with non-meat ingredients, ground again to
achieve the final particle definition and then stuffed
into a casing. In the case of a processor that uti-
lizes in-line-grinding technology, meat trimmings
can be pre-ground (i.e. ½ inch, or approximately
12mm), mixed with spices and other non-meat
ingredients and then directly transported to the
stuffer hopper. The meat pump would convey the
seasoned meat product into the in-line grinding
technology. The in-line grinder, working directly with
the meat pump flow rate, would take the seasoned
meat product from a 12mm size, through a sickle
grinder plate, then through a six-arm knife, then
through a 6mm grinder plate. The next stop would
be through a a-arm separator grinder knife (i.e.
bone collection knife), then through a 3mm grinder
plate and then stuffed into the casing (Video 5.1).

In-line grinding technology can also incorpo-
rate the use of automated bone collection if the
processor chooses. Bone collection systems typ-
ically are controlled by electronic and pneumatic
functions dictated by the vacuum filler (Figure 5.2).
This enables the operator to program extraction
intervals to efficiently remove hard pieces of bone,
collagen, etc., from the sausage batter during
vacuum filling. Due to the integrated nature of
the bone collection system with the vacuum filler
technology, the specified amount/volume of mate-
rial that is removed by the bone collection system
is automatically compensated for by that same
amount/volume in the filling product.
Figure 5.2 Bone collection system of an inline grinder

For example, if 10 grams of material is removed
while stuffing a fresh breakfast sausage chub, the
vacuum filler will automatically increase the portion
size of that same breakfast sausage chub by 10
grams. Therefore, portion accuracy is maintained
while still removing undesired hard materials in the
sausage batter.
Continuous Process (ConPro) /

Alginate Co-extrusion Technology
Approximately 15 years ago, innovative ConPro
technology was released to the processed meat
industry. From a basic perspective, this system
continuously creates and applies an alginate skin
casing around a sausage batter. This technol-
ogy effectively takes the place of using traditional
casings. (See TMPJ Volume 2 for more details on
those casings.)
Continuous Process (ConPro) / Alginate Co-extrusion Technology
In a more detailed explanation, the alginate

co-extrusion system consists of two vacuum
fillers: one for the sausage batter and one for the
alginate casing that encompasses the meat batter.
Both vacuum fillers provide a regular product flow
(sausage batter and alginate) under continuous
pressure. The co-extrusion head is engineered in
such a fashion that as the alginate flows through
the co-extrusion head, a thin layer of alginate is
uniformly applied around the filling product. The
alginate thickness and color can be adjusted to
meet the processor’s quality specifications for the
end product. The product then travels through
a fixation bath that cascades a calcium chloride
solution over the alginate casing. The reaction of
the sodium alginate and the calcium ions (from the
calcium chloride solution) transforms the alginate
from a gel or paste to a solidified (fixated) alginate
casing. The calcium alginate is the sausage skin
or casing, and it is water-insoluble and heat-resis-
tant. After the product is transported through the
calcium chloride fixation trough, it continues into a
simple belt design where processors can decide
to either produce individual links via a portioning/
cutting system or allow the product to be looped
onto a hanger.
End-product sausage diameters of the alginate
co-extrusion technology can range from 8mm to
32mm. Currently, several meat processors are
utilizing this co-extrusion technology to produce
fresh breakfast sausage and fresh sausage prod-
ucts. These products are sold in various markets
including retail, as well as foodservice operations
in hotels, restaurants and other institutions.
Intelligent Filler Clipper (IFC) Interface Technology
Experienced technicians from the respective com-
panies installing the vacuum filler and automated
clipping system with Intelligent Filler Clipper (IFC)
technology work with the customer to commission
the solution so it works efficiently at the optimum
performance level for the customer’s needs. At this
point, the most efficient interaction parameters for
the system are locked in.
In production, IFC machine setup/operation
is mainly performed on the clipper control panel,
which locks the vacuum filler parameters to auto-
matically set the system for maximum speed. It
synchronizes the millisecond start and stop of the
clipper with the vacuum stuffer for optimal effi-
ciency without operator involvement.
While the new IFC software (released in May
2016) ensures even higher process reliability with
optimal system synchronization, the new level of
IFC performance may also reduce mechanical
wear because it manages maximum acceleration
and deceleration of the drives in both the vacuum
filler and the clipper by precisely controlling the
overlap of very high speed portioning and clip-
ping cycles. IFC systems have been develop in
cooperation with Handtmann and work exclu-
sively with selected clippers and Handtmann
vacuum fillers.
Artisan Patty Production

In the past, processors have settled on technol-
ogy to produce patty-type products (i.e. breakfast
patties) that would compress the product into
shapes. This ultimately would result in products
with a different texture in comparison to hand-
made patties. These products also look very
similar to each other and give the impression to
consumers that it is a highly processed or man-
ufactured product. For some applications, the
compressed product technology is needed for
large volume production (i.e. quick-service restau-
rants (QSRs) and institutions). In other cases,
processors have desired the production of a looser-
textured, artisan-type patty product.
Through the years, many processors have
sought technology that can produce these hand-
made patties with a more automated production
system. Forming systems are a solution for pro-
cessors who want to be part of the trend toward
new product diversity. The automatic production
of formed products with various raw materials and
non-meat ingredients widens the range of modern,
contemporary product ideas for today’s consum-
ers. Therefore, some processors are adding a vari-
ety of inclusions (i.e. cheese, chilies, vegetables,
etc.) to provide their customers with additional
product choices.
Forming system to produce sausage patty products or meatballs.
The vacuum filler, which loads and controls

the forming systems efficiently, is at the heart of
the process. Gentle feed of the filling product
and accurate portioning to the gram by the feed
system guarantee superior product quality. The
vacuum filler must also have the capability to
gently handle other non-meat ingredients without
disturbing the integrity of the ingredient. For exam-
ple, if a processor is adding whole fruit pieces to
their sausage batter, they have the expectation
that the same size piece of fruit will exist in the
finished sausage patty.
The filling product is fed to the filling flow
divider by a vacuum filler. The servo-driven filling
flow divider ensures precise rotor speed, gentle
handling and precise portioning. The result is a
continuous product flow without pressure fluctu-
ations and more accurate final weights. The filling
flow divider ejects the filling product in multilane
filling flows via forming components. The product
shape is shown on the screen and the process
parameters can be calculated via the vacuum filler
control system. A rotating hole-plate system forms
the products into their required three-dimensional
shape. Simply switching a few forming compo-
nents can easily change the shape. The product
then drops onto a conveyor belt and is trans-
ported to the flattening belt where patty products
that have a variable flattening height from 5mm to
55mm are produced. Some processors also use a
structuring roller to imprint various characteristics –
patterns or designs – onto the patties.
Some forming equipment utilizes iris technol-
ogy to form the product while others use insert
components with rotating hole plates to form the
product. Depending on the production volumes
needed, a variety of artisan patty technologies are
available to processors. Processors can choose
from single-lane extrusion systems or multi-lane
extrusions systems. Some production limitations
may also exist depending on the final size of the
patty product to be produced.
Artisan Meatball Production

Some of the technology outlined in the production
of artisan patties also can be used in the pro-
duction of fresh, seasoned artisan meatballs like
Italian-flavored meatballs. Processors of a wide
variety of sizes are responding to increased con-
sumer interest in meatballs based on the conve-
nience and flexibility of this bite-sized fresh product
on their dinner tables.
The seasoned meatball product is fed to the
filling flow divider by a vacuum filler. The ser-
vo-driven flow divider ensures precise rotor speed
in the filling flow divider, which ejects the product
in multi-lane filling flows via forming components
(i.e. inserts). New software also gives processors
the ability to visualize the meatball’s shape on the
vacuum filler’s monitor control system screen.
This visualization is based on the input of form-
ing parameters. When the parameters are pro-
grammed into the vacuum filler, the product shape
is shown in a graphic representation and the pro-
cess parameters are calculated. This innovation
allows processors to easily and quickly see how
the product shape will change if specific parame-
ters are changed on the control screen.
Some forming equipment utilizes iris technology
to form the product by using inserts and knives
to form the meatball. New rotating hole plate
technology also has allowed processors to make
more uniform three-dimensional shapes. And even
though the shape of the meatballs produced is
very uniform, they still provide the appearance of a
handmade meatball.
To provide customers with even more diverse
meatball products, co-extrusion technology is
available so processors can produce meatballs
with fillings such as cheese and flavored sauces.
The co-extrusion forming system can be con-
nected directly to the outlet of two vacuum filling
machines. The master vacuum-filling machine is
used for portioning the outer product, while the
other vacuum filling machine deposits the filling in
the center of the meatball product. This equipment
can be equipped with an integrated flattening belt,
which makes the machine suitable for producing
filled patty products.
IQF Technology
Many fresh sausage processors also incorporate
individually quick frozen (IQF) technology that uses
cryogenic temperatures to freeze products in just a
few minutes. With the production of fresh sausage
products, many processors incorporate the use
of flash freezing technology. (American inventor
Clarence Birdseye developed this quick-freezing
process technique to improve food preservation in
the 20th century.)
IQF freezer machines use liquid nitrogen to
allow the user to freeze small-sized meats/foods.
This allows the products to be frozen singly rather
than in a bulk package, meaning that the products
keep their own individual form, texture and, most
important, taste.
Traditional freezing methods do not allow for
indivuidual freezing because the freezing process
create ice crystals from both intra- and extracellu-
lar water. Flash freezing is used in the food indus-
try to quickly freeze perishable food items. In this
case, food items are subjected to temperatures
well below water’s melting/freezing point. The
freezing speed directly influences the nucleation
process and ice crystal size. Decreased growth of
the initially formed ice crystals is a result of a high
heat removal rate and causes an increased rate of
nucleation. Smaller, more ubiquitous ice crystals
cause less damage to cell membranes within the
product. This decreased damage to the cellular
membrane decreases the purge of the product
after it is subsequently thawed for further prepa-
ration by the consumer. Therefore, the product is
juicier than similar product that may be frozen by
the use of traditional freezing methods.
IQF foods are notable for the fact that each
individual piece of food is frozen separately from the
others. So, for example, a package of IQF meatballs
doesn’t simply contain a solid block of frozen meat-
balls, but rather, each of the individual frozen meat-
balls is loose inside the bag. Obviously, this makes
IQF meats and foods much easier to work with.
Often, processors align sausage link, sausage
patty and meatball forming technology directly
with IQF freezers. These IQF freezers are available
in a variety of sizes depending on the processor’s
available space. Some IQF freezers are horizontal
freezers, while others are a vertical spiral freezer.
The products are placed onto some sort of con-
veyor belt that transports the product into a blast-
freezer that freezes the item very quickly. Because
the food items are separate when they go in, they
stay separate after they have been frozen.
Collating Technology
Some processors of fresh sausage links are
reviewing technology that will not only produce
fresh sausage links but also collate and deposit
them directly into trays. New technology was
recently released that functions with collagen, algi-
nate and natural casing sausage products.
Full product handling system including vacuum filler, automated

linker, link transport system, tray denesting system, and automated
tray loading.
The system functions with a variety of trays (i.e.

plastic and/or Styrofoam) that have different sizes. The
trays must be denestable, which means that the trays
must easily separate from each other when they are in
a stack in an automated system.
As the denested trays are transported underneath
the collating technology, a pneumatic slider accurately
deposits the sausage links into the trays. A vacuum
system integrated in the feed belt fixes the exact posi-
tion of the tray during depositing of the sausage links.
The new collating system is an effective solution for
automatically collating and depositing fresh sausages
into trays. Medium-scale and industrial producers from
the meat or general food sector may benefit from this
automation solution.
Acknowledgements
Consumer demand for fresh sausage is a prom-

ising one for processors interested in expanding
into the niche.
Despite centuries of proven methods to produce
these sausage products, the category remains one
of the more challenging to master, as many process-
ing steps are unique to this type of manufacturing.
Although numerous products with widely vary-
ing attributes exist among the world’s fresh sau-
sage, one thing is clear: These products are in
demand now more than ever on consumers’ plates
both at home and across the foodservice sector.
Thank you for downloading this third installment
of the Meat Processor’s Journal on fresh sausage
production.
We would like to thank the following contribu-
tors to this project.
Chris Scott, editor, project coordinator. A
veteran project manager journalist and market-
ing communications consultant, he has worked
with publishers and corporations to promote their
brands. As an experienced writer and editor, his
work has appeared in trade, specialty and general
interest publications.
Jeff Hensley, project coordinator. Jeff Hensley
is the founder of Hensley Associates, a B2B
communication group that provides professional
services in the areas of strategic planning, brand
management and corporate communications. He
works with the management team at Handtmann,
Inc. to develop and implement many of their
advertising and communication initiatives.
Jay Wenther, Ph.D., author. The director of
meat technology for Handtmann Inc., Wenther
oversees field applications and management of
the Arthur Handtmann Technology Center in Lake
Forest, Ill. He is responsible for coordinating meat
related activities in the center, including testing
logistics and processes, customer support in the
design or improvement of formulations and pro-
cessing procedures.
Jeff Sindelar, Ph.D., author. Sindelar is an
associate professor/extension meat specialist at
the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The only
meat extension specialist in the state of Wiscon-
sin, Sindelar supports about 375 state-inspected
processors and locker shops as well as larger
federally inspected companies. He developed the
Wisconsin Master Meat Crafter Program, a first-of-
its-kind meat processing certication program held
at the University of Wisconsin Meat Science Lab-
oratory. He also serves as technical advisor at the
Wisconsin Association of Meat Processors.
Kohl Danielle Schrader, Ph.D., author.
Schrader is the Technical Applications Manager for
Poly-clip System USA and Canada. She is respon-
sible for a variety of technical roles which include
the management and oversight of field applica-
tions and technical support for Poly-clip System
and Walsroder; as well as directing food safety and
quality programs for their casing converting facility
located in Mundelein, IL. Dr. Schrader’s technical
service efforts include application testing, product
demonstrations and troubleshooting for casing
and clipping technologies to achieve goals related
to specific customer requirements, critical projects
or unique applications.
Dr. Jochen Weiss, author. Weiss is vice pres-
ident of research at the University of Hohenheim
near Stuttgart, Germany. He is also a professor
and conducts research in food physics and meat
science, using biophysical and nanotechnologi-
cal principals to build new food, pharmaceutical,
chemical and personal care products. He is also
involved in process and formulation optimization in
meat and meat products.
Andrew Milkowski, author. An adjunct pro-
fessor in animal sciences at the muscle biology
laboratory at the University of Wisconsin-Madison,
he has served on the executive board of the Food
Research Institute and is a member of the Amer-
ican Meat Science Association, Institute of Food
Technologists, International Association for Food
Protection and the American Chemical Society.
Special thanks to Steve Delmont, John Gal-
legos of Meatingplace; Andy Williams of A&M
Media for their contributions.
Disclaimer
Due to the constantly changing nature of meat

production techniques and the regulatory envi-
ronment, the authors and owners of this content
acknowledge that this publication is designed only
to provide reasonably accurate and authoritative
information in regard to the subject matter covered
based on the authors’ awareness of current stan-
dards and practices at the time of publication. This
e-book has been developed for meat and poultry
processors to utilize only as a general guide.
It is extremely crucial that each establishment
develops its own processing techniques and imple-
ments food safety programs that comply with appli-
cable laws and regulations and accurately outline
the unique processing activities that take place in
its establishments.
Legal Information
Copyright 2016 by MTG Media Group

Published by MTG Media Group
1415 N. Dayton St., Chicago, IL 60642
www.meatingplace.com www.handtmann.us
An industry education e-book series jointly

developed by Handtmann and Meatingplace
All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means – for
example, electronic, photocopy, recording – with-
out the prior permission of the publisher. The only
exception is brief quotations in printed reviews.
Copyright 2016 All rights reserved.

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VOLUME

Published by MTG Media Group

Meatingplace and Handtmann Inc. – for the third

Tom Kittle Bill Kinross

Dr. Jay Wenther, director of meat technology

On the surface, the concept of fresh sausage

Fresh sausage – specifically, pork sausage –

By Chris Scott, Contributing editor,

While fresh sausage spans a variety of regional

Total US xAOC 587,204,610 3.6 150,871,002 6.5

SOURCE: NATIONAL HOT DOG AND SAUSAGE COUNCIL

Breakfast sausage patties

Brazil chorizo, Mexican chorizo

Dr. Jeff J. Sindelar, extension meat specialist

Raw materials are critically important to the suc-

Raw materials can be categorized in a number of

• Composition (fat, moisture, protein, collagen)

There are two main criteria that define the ideal

Quality of Raw Materials

• Functionality: All fats are not created equal.

In general, important attributes for the protein

Raw materials generated from carcasses having

• The raw material quality at the time of freezing

Microbiological Meat Quality

• Myofibrillar proteins, the contractile pro-

Determination of Fat Content

Pork Trim Fat: 28 28 23% 76.67% 0.77 153.33 lbs.

Step #2 This provides a total coefficient of 30.

Step #3 Since a total of 200 lbs./90.72 kg is

Step #4 If the processor has the target of 35%

There are a variety of dilution square techniques

Dr. Jay Wenther, director of meat technology

The factors that contribute to the successful pro-

Spices and Flavorings

USDA Regulations on restricted ingredients

Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) 0.01%

Synergist(s) (used in combination with antioxidants)

Citric acid 0.01%

The following are formulation examples for a

Pork Trim 20 30% 66.67% 0.67 66.67 lbs. Pork Trim

80/20 Pork Trim 66.67 66.67 30.24 kg (25°F/-3.9°C)

Total 105.19 2353.01 83

FRESH ITALIAN STYLE

Turkey Thigh 80.00 80.00 (25°F/-3.9°C)

Total 106.06 2749.68 96.99

80/20 Pork Trim 100.00 100.00 (25°F/-3.9°C)

Total 106.06 2749.68 96.99

80/20 Pork Trim 100.00 100.00 (25°F/-3.9°C)

Total 105.53 2508.37 88.48

CHORIZO SAUSAGE - FRESH

80/20 Pork Trim 100.00 100.00 (25°F/-3.9°C)

Total 108.10 3674.10 129.60

• Raw materials: Uniform and high-qual-

Particle reduction, if using multiple passes

Casing Functionality and Options

NATURAL SHEEP CASINGS

SOURCE: THE INTERNATIONAL NATURAL SAUSAGE CASING ASSOCIATION

NATURAL PORK CASINGS

SOURCE: THE INTERNATIONAL NATURAL SAUSAGE CASING ASSOCIATION.

Natural sheep casings are the smallest in cal-

CAPACITY ESTIMATES FOR

16-18 15-16 Fresh Pork Sausage, Frankfurters

Hog runners are standardized and sold in sizes

• Composition (fat, moisture, protein, collagen)

• Functionality: All fats are not created equal.

• The raw material quality at the time of freezing

• Myofibrillar proteins, the contractile pro-

Step #2 This provides a total coefficient of 30.

Step #3 Since a total of 200 lbs./90.72 kg is

Step #4 If the processor has the target of 35%

• Raw materials: Uniform and high-qual-

• Fresh Sausage Casing/Retail Casing –

• The flat roll stock film is slipped onto a

Consumer demand for fresh sausage is a prom-