Equation of State of a Complex Fluid
Column and Prediction of Contacts in
Orocual Field, Venezuela
Richard W. Smith, SPE, and Wade A. Bard, SPE, Integrated Reservoir Management Inc., and
Agostino Guerini, SPE, Claudia Lugo, SPE, and Ivan Yemez, PDVSA
Summary
The Orocual field is located in the northern Monagas state of
Venezuela and is owned and operated by Petroleos de Venezuela
S.A. (PDVSA), the national oil company of Venezuela.
Reservoir compartmentalization adds complexity to the field,
and structurally equivalent, noncommunicating fluid regions exist.
An equation of state (EOS) is needed for reservoir modeling, re-
quiring a review of available data and area fluid distributions.
A seven-pseudocomponent EOS with a single characterization
defining the compositional gradient of the hydrocarbon column
from gas to black oil is defined. The method demonstrates that
composition relative to depth can be predicted in those parts of the
reservoir in which samples do not exist but in which production
and test data must be matched, and thus where a gas-to-oil tran-
sition occurs.
This paper demonstrates a technique to identify representative
samples for use in developing an EOS and for initializing fluids in
place. A method is presented to adjust the component composition
vs. depth, providing consistent vertical composition distribution
and compositional-model stability. This method meets the objec-
tives of matching field production observations. A method is pre-
sented to quickly initialize a full-field model using a 1D compo-
sitional simulator to give full-field-model stability using the local
high-temperature gradient.
Results of compositional simulation show a single EOS, and
vertical compositional and thermal variation reproduce the com-
plex character of the field hydrocarbon column, matching field-
measured observations of saturation pressure (ps), gas/oil ratio
(GOR), and fluid densities.
Introduction
The field is characterized as a complex structure having more than
3,000 ft of vertical hydrocarbon column. Fluids change from light
gas in the top of the structure to condensate gas, to a near-critical
transition fluid and volatile oil, and to undersaturated oil at the
bottom of the column. The Orocual field is located approximately
20 km northwest of the Maturin and Piar districts of Monagas
state, Venezuela (Fig. 1). Reservoir compartmentalization is criti-
cal to modeling efforts because the fluid systems in each compart-
ment are different.1 The structural complexity of the relatively
homogeneous stratigraphic system is seen as a reason for the con-
trast in fluid accumulations in the field complex.
This paper will focus on the San Juan formation retrograde
condensate fluids. The San Juan formation is subdivided into three
major sedimentological units: the Upper, Middle, and Lower San
Juan. Average total formation thickness is 700 ft.
Reservoir-Management Goals
Production data suggest that the pressure in the field has dropped
below the dewpoint in the condensate section. Some wells in the
field, which are lower in the section, have shown decreased GOR,
a result of condensate gravity migration, and wells higher in the
Copyright © 2004 Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper (SPE 88869) was revised for publication from paper SPE 63088, first presented
at the 2000 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, 1–4 October. Original
manuscript received for review 2 May 2001. Revised manuscript received 24 June 2003.
Paper peer approved 11 May 2004.
August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
section have shown increasing GOR caused by reservoir pressure
passing below the dewpoint.
An integrated study was initiated in 1998, of which basic en-
gineering and pressure/volume/temperature (PVT) characteriza-
tion was an integral part; it continued through the end of 1999,
with completion of various simulation models.1 A second inte-
grated study, continuing previous work, was designed to include
two major objectives. The first was to characterize the reservoir,
focusing on precise petrophysics, fracture characterization, and
facies control of reservoir properties. A major change in analysis
of the field occurred in 1999 with the integration of fractured-
reservoir characterization into the study.
The second objective was to use the reservoir characterization
to build a simulation model for evaluation of reserves and use in
day-to-day reservoir management, study of the production mecha-
nism, and planning of future development. Specifically, the second
objective included initial evaluation of new well-development po-
tential for wells drilled in 2000.
The field has been divided into four recognized accumulations,
defined herein as the San Juan complex and shown in Fig. 2. The
San Juan 3 (SJ3) is the area in which the most wells have been
drilled. San Juan 6 (SJ6) is where the discovery well was drilled.
The San Juan 7 (SJ7) area now has two wells; the San Juan 9 (SJ9)
area has one. Both SJ7 and SJ9 have been designated for future
development.
The San Juan formation produces fluids ranging from 28 to
46°API, with GOR from 3,000 to more than 10,000 scf/STB. Pro-
duction from the San Juan formation was established in 1958 with
drilling and completion of the ORC-015 well located in the SJ6 area.
This well is still an active producer, although production has dropped
from a maximum rate of nearly 1,500 BOPD to approximately 500
BOPD, with a high GOR of approximately 10,000 scf/STB.
The area was tested again downstructure in 1978 with the
ORC-017. This well produced less than 300 BOPD of 28°API oil
and was abandoned after a short period. The SJ3 area was discov-
ered in December 1985 with the ORC-052 well, which penetrated
the three San Juan units. The well produced from 1,100 to 1,600
BOPD on a 3/8-in. choke. The production rate was not considered
sufficient for economic reasons, so the San Juan reservoir was
abandoned. A development plan for the SJ3 was started in 1989 to
produce the discovered condensate and light oil, eventually result-
ing in 15 production and injection wells. A gas-injection program
was initiated in January 1997 to increase condensate recovery.
The SJ7 structure was discovered with the ORC-025 well in
1986. The structure is isolated from the main SJ3 area by a major
thrust fault, and the hydrocarbon column is significantly different.
The lower San Juan was tested separately at 200 BOPD with a
GOR of more than 10,000 scf/STB. This interval was commingled
with the Upper and Middle San Juan and tested approximately
1,100 B/D of 43°API oil with an average GOR of more than
10,000 scf/STB.
The ORS-066 well identified the SJ9 structure in August 1997
and was completed producing approximately 1,700 B/D of 27°API
oil with a GOR of 1,150 scf/STB. The well was completed in a
deeper part of the reservoir, which explains the lower producing
GOR. The GOR has increased to approximately 9,000 scf/STB,
with average production at a stable rate of 2,000 BOPD. The SJ3
area of the field has been under pressure support from gas injection
since January 1997.
297
Fig. 1—The Orocual field is located in the northeast part of
Venezuela, near the town of Maturin. Shown here is the global
perspective of the location in South America.
Objectives. PDVSA identified the need to update the analysis
of the geological and simulation models to evaluate the risk of
additional development in the proven areas of the field and, more
importantly, to assess potential reserves in the prospective but
untested SJ6 area. Equally important was the desire to deter-
mine the original oil in place in each area, requiring composition-
vs.-depth description of the fluid (consistent with field obser-
vations), requiring the clear definition of in-situ representa-
tive samples.
The foremost objective of the fluid study is to have an EOS that
is used to reproduce the observed fluid behavior and production
characteristics seen in field operations and to predict fluid columns
in new development areas.
All available PVT sample laboratory data were used in the
analysis and development of the EOS. PVT laboratory data in-
cluded both constant-volume-depletion (CVD) and differential-
liberation (DL) experiments, depending on the saturation pressure,
and one sample had both. Constant-composition-expansion (CCE)
and separator tests were commonly reported. The resulting seven-
pseudocomponent EOS was designed for use in full-field compo-
sitional simulation.
EOS Characterization and Initialization
The method’s philosophy is to simultaneously use as many of the
samples as possible in the characterization of the fluids and de-
velopment of the EOS. Previous experience has shown that a con-
sistent EOS, defined from consistent reservoir samples regardless
of individual character, can reproduce individual observations by
simply defining the composition. Thus, one EOS can be used to
model all observations for all compositions in a field.
Six steps are identified as sequential objectives in the analysis
and application of the EOS:
• Selecting samples used in the development of the EOS.
• Entering the data into the PVT software.
• Tuning the EOS by regression to match selected observations.
• Identifying in-situ compositions at initial reservoir conditions
for model initialization.
• 1D modeling for compositional stability.
• Full-field modeling and history matching.
The Database
Lessons learned in other projects in the north Monagas area iden-
tified the need to review the deviation surveys to accurately cal-
culate the subsea depths of test sample intervals. This was done
before any review of the PVT data.
Samples ORC-026, ORS-058, ORS-062, and ORS-065 have
PVT-measured API gravity from 25 to 34°, with GORs from 1,300
to 2,900 scf/STB, identifying the samples as oil and light oil.
298
Fig. 2—The San Juan complex of the Orocual field is shown
here as interpreted with 3D seismic data. Note that the lower
parallel structures of SJ7 and SJ9 are separated by a 2,000-ft
fault. This view represents approximately 30 km.
Bubblepoint pressures range approximately from 6,400 to 7,000 psia.
Samples ORS-052, ORS-053, ORS-054, ORS-055, ORS-056,
ORC-025, and ORS-066 have PVT-measured API gravity ranging
from 38 to 45°, with GORs ranging from 4,120 to 13,300 scf/STB,
classifying them as volatile oil, condensate, and gas condensate.
Dewpoint pressures vary from approximately 6,800 to 8,400
psia. Three samples, from wells ORS-052 and ORS-054, have
measured saturation pressures above the original reservoir pressure,
determined to be approximately 7,650 psia at 13,175 ft subsea.
The initial review of the data focused on the distribution of
laboratory-measured saturation pressure vs. true vertical depth
subsea (TVDSS). Fig. 3 shows the distribution of all Orocual
complex sample data, showing the saturation pressure vs. the
bracketed producing-interval depth. The vertical data scatter
makes it difficult to identify a definitive trend.
A point of interest is the two groups of samples; the upper
group, which comprises samples from the SJ3 and SJ6 area, and
the lower group, consisting of samples from ORC-025 and ORS-
066 (which define the downdip accumulations of SJ7 and SJ9).
The original PVT evaluation placed these two samples in the same
fluid system and connected structure. On the basis of the results of
the review and from simulation, it appears that even though the SJ7
and SJ9 areas are similar, they have different gas/oil contacts
(GOCs) and are in different reservoir compartments.
Fig. 3—The perforated intervals providing PVT samples show
the saturation pressure plotted against true vertical depth. A
general tendency is clear; two groups are defined, but a clear
relationship is not.
August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
Data Entering. The following experimental data were entered for
all samples:
• Fluid-recombination composition, typically entering all data
to the C20+ composition.
• CCE-experiment data.
The following experimental data were entered for black-oil samples:
• DL experiment.
• Separator-test experiment (SEP).
• Viscosity data from mixed experiments such as the CCE and
DL experiments.
The following experimental data were entered for condensate samples:
• CVD.
• Other data derived from the experiments were also entered,
including ps and condensate saturation.
Unfortunately, no gas-injection data for condensate samples
(swelling, vaporization, etc.) were available for developing the
EOS model.
Data-Quality Evaluation. The following preliminary consistency
checks are performed on all condensate samples:
• Is the saturation pressure above or below the reservoir pressure?
• Is the composition of the recombined sample similar to the
theoretical results based on the reported GOR and initial sample-bottle
compositions, and is the recombination material balance correct?
• Does the Hoffman-Crump-Hocott test2 indicate that the K-
values are consistent for the sampled phases?
• Can errors in the CVD experiment be identified? The Whit-
son and Torp3 method is used to verify test results; are results
consistent for material balance of C7+ M and density?
• Calculate the reverse CVD material balance to determine if
error exists in the reported initial composition.
• Does evaluation of the Y-function show errors in the CCE?
The results of the preliminary analysis are not reported because the
relative importance is qualitative. The fact that each sample is
produced from the reservoir and is, by definition, representative of
the reservoir at those conditions of reservoir temperature and pres-
sure at that time defines that each sample is important. The main
interest in consistency checks is not to separate one report from
another for analysis but to identify those experiments in each re-
port that could potentially introduce major errors if used.
We assume that all laboratory reports have experimental errors
as a result of normal laboratory practice. Generally, the more com-
mon sources of error are seen in the molecular weight and specific
gravity of the C7+ fraction, and in the recombination GOR.
The preceding tests are important in understanding the details
of each analysis and may be used to remove a sample from re-
gression analysis. Review of the CVD data shows that laboratory
technique typically can be improved, ensuring that sufficient
equilibration time is used between depletion steps. It is our expe-
rience that 24 hours or more between depletion steps provides
the most consistent results for highly volatile samples. It is our
recommendation that the measurement of the liquid properties
from the last step of a DL experiment be made carefully because
errors in molecular weight are common, and this property is very
important. Also, obtaining at least one true boiling-point distilla-
tion for stock-tank oil from the field is important to characterize
the heavy components.
Sample Representativity
As discussed by Fevang and Whitson,4 two clear classifications of
reservoir-fluid samples and their definitions must be made:
• A sample can be called “in-situ representative” when the
composition can be identified to define an original reservoir state,
before any compositional change that could result as an effect of a
drop in pressure being below the ps. This type of sample will be
used in initialization for compositional modeling and will be used
to predict reservoir compositional gradients.
• A sample will be called “representative” if the sample is
considered to describe a state of a true producing condition in the
reservoir, independent of the state of the fluid system in the pro-
ducing interval of the well. These data are equally important be-
August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
cause they provide important information about changed states in
the reservoir that are typically seen only by inference from the
surface. It is necessary to explicitly express that a representative
sample is always reservoir representative but is not necessarily
in-situ representative.
The EOS, by necessity, must be able to reproduce the behavior of
the fluids of both classifications of samples.
Analysis. Throughout this paper, reference will be made to com-
ponents and component groups that are based on nomenclature
accepted by the oil and gas industry.
Plots of each component by mass, by percentage, by ratios of
different components or component fractions, vs. ps, etc. typically
should be made to understand as much as possible about the fluid
system and the samples. Natural tendencies are noted that identify
the best samples to use for model initialization. The following data
relationships were studied in detail for fluid initialization:
• GOR vs. TVDSS.
• API gravity of the separator liquid vs. TVDSS.
• mol%C7+ / (mol% C1-to-mol%C6) vs. TVDSS.
• C7+ density vs. TVDSS.
• ps vs. TVDSS.
Many samples appeared to have problems with reported compo-
sitions. Only approximately half of the samples appear to correlate
consistently. Potential errors in C7+ molecular weight and density,
recombination GOR, and even gas chromatography may exist.
Caution is needed to recognize compartmentalization in struc-
turally complex fields like the Orocual field because geological
characteristics can mask the representative relationship that is de-
sired in an analysis, rendering the observations confusing and pos-
sibly useless, as could be assumed from Fig. 3. Other data rela-
tionships, which remove the effect of the geological component,
are necessary.
Correlation of samples in the same fluid system can be made
using the following:
• C7+ mol% vs. ps.
• C7+ molar mass vs. ps.
• C1 vs. ps.
• C1 vs. C7+.
• Mass ratio of C7+/ C1 vs. ps.
The priority in the analysis is to use as many data as possible.
Some general industry perceptions suggest that any sample that
fails any one of various consistency checks, as listed in the Data-
Quality Evaluation section, should be discarded from the total
analysis. The method followed and prescribed in this paper allows
the benefit of the doubt to be applied to all data.
Fluid behavior is heavily dependent on the relative percentage
of heavy fraction (for this discussion, C7+) of the total molar
composition.5 Characterization of the C7+ component is essential
in the development of the EOS, so much of the effort is focused on
this process. Our analysis effectively starts in Fig. 4, showing the
distribution of C1 and C7+ vs. ps, identifying the natural trend of
the data. This figure demonstrates that a clear trend exists, but it is
not clear which trend would be best for identifying the composi-
tional-variation-with-depth relationship. The distribution can indi-
cate whether the samples are part of a common fluid system.
The Watson characterization factor is shown in Fig. 5 and
evaluated with data (found in Table 1) of molecular weight and
specific gravity according to the equation6
Kw = 4.5579 M0.15178 ␥−0.84573. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
The Kw value of 11.67 correlates molecular weight with spe-
cific gravity. Using this value for the range of molecular weight
from the data set allows a comparison to be made of the measured
and ideal values. Also shown are error limits arbitrarily selected
at 5%, created with Kw equal to 11.67 and 11.72. It is immedi-
ately clear that a number of samples are off trend. The Kw corre-
lation fundamentally identifies a natural trend, and it is apparent
that if samples fall outside the accepted range, it is likely that an
error exists.
299
Fig. 4—The percentage of the C7+ fraction is plotted on the left,
and the C1 fraction is plotted on the right against the subsea
depth. A clear trend seems to exist, but note the vertical grid
scale of 500 ft.
Fig. 6 shows molar mass percent of the C1 component vs. ps,
providing another look at the natural tendency of the data. Fig. 7
shows the corresponding plot of the C7+ molar mass vs. ps. In both
figures, a general linear trend is noted, and some data points are
clearly off trend. The fact that the same samples in both Figs. 6 and
7 are off trend is the first evidence that “representative” samples
can be identified or, conversely, possible erroneous samples can be
removed from further analysis.
The methods proposed in Ref. 5 (see Chapter 5 and Appendix
C) are used to describe the C7+ distribution and properties using
five fractions.
Of the 18 PVT samples, eight were selected for use in devel-
oping the EOS on the basis of consistent tendencies of the samples
as shown in Figs. 5 through 7. The gamma distribution defined
300
Fig. 5—A plot of the sample measurements of the C7+ compo-
nent molecular weight and specific gravity against the Watson
correlation shows those samples that are most likely to have
correct values.
from the extended-analysis data was applied to each of the selected
samples.7 Five pseudocomponents were split from the original C7+
group and identified as C7+(1) .… C7+(5).
Each laboratory experiment of the selected samples was simu-
lated with the cubic Peng-Robinson EOS, with shift factors to
adjust for fluid density, and compared to the laboratory observa-
tions. The results are good (with differences between predictions
and observations from 1 to 2%), demonstrating that the behavior of
the fluids was being reproduced with a basic EOS.
The second column of Table 1 shows those samples used in
the initial development of the EOS. Error analysis showed
that the ORS-054 sample was predicting values different from
the observations, so this sample was discarded, leaving se-
ven samples.
August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
Fig. 6—The molar mass for the C1 component is plotted against
the saturation pressure. A transition zone separates oil and
condensate/gas regions. Wells selected for analyses are high-
lighted. Anomalous wells are circled.
Regression was performed after all the comparisons were com-
pleted to improve the predictions. It is known that the heavy com-
ponents (C7+) and the C1 fraction have the highest relative mole
percentage. Because the properties of C1 are well-known and char-
acterized, it remains that regression is most appropriate against the
heaviest component whose properties are assumed the most, the
C7+(5) component.
The first regression was performed on all the experiments
against the critical pressure of the heaviest fraction, C7+(5). The
results provided very good predictions when compared against the
observations. Graphs of the results will not be presented to con-
serve space, but as demonstrated in the following paragraphs, the
grouped-component EOS (the objective of the study) predicts the
observations with little error.
The next step was to group the 15-component EOS into a reduced
pseudocomponent EOS acceptable for full-field compositional simu-
lation. Methods for stepwise regression presented by Fevang et al.8
were used for the pseudoization process from 15 to 7 components.
The criterion for grouping was selected to have as few com-
ponents as necessary to match condensation behavior. Various
August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
Fig. 7—The molar mass for the C7+ component is plotted
against the saturation pressure. A transition zone separates oil
and condensate/gas regions. Wells selected for analyses are
highlighted. The same anomalous wells are noted in Fig. 6.
combinations of grouped components are possible. A series of
grouping exercises were performed, and finally a seven-pseudo-
component EOS was accepted for use in simulation. Tables 2 and
3 show the 15- and 7-pseudocomponent EOS, respectively. Figs. 8
through 15 present the comparison of results of selected experi-
ments and samples.
As a final step, regression was performed against both gas and
oil viscosity to guarantee correct estimation of reservoir-fluid vis-
cosity. It is important to mention that many PVT reports report
calculated gas viscosity from correlation. Because gas viscosity for
single components is generally accepted from the literature, and
mixing rules apply, some interpreters insist that entering these data
for regression is not justified. Because most oil viscosity is mea-
sured during laboratory-experiment procedures, these data usually
are considered valid and consistent. However, during regression
against viscosity, if only oil values are included, a risk exists of
incorrectly predicting gas viscosity using only gas compositions.
Including reported gas viscosity with oil viscosity ensures that the
regression against the critical-volume (Zc) variable will predict
realistic values of viscosity.
301
Prediction of GOCs and Definition of the Hydrocarbon Col-
umn. Undersaturated black oil exists in the Orocual field. ORS-
062 tested oil with 29°API gravity, 1,925 scf/STB GOR, and ps of
6,297 psia from an average producing depth of 13,965 ft subsea.
This well is located in the SJ3 area and is in one of the upper-
structure blocks of the complex. Complicating this is the high-
GOR condensate gas found in the upper part of the same structure
at 12,035 ft subsea, resulting in a hydrocarbon column of more
than 3,000 ft. This observation leads to two processes for the next
part of the study.
The first process is straightforward: the prediction of compo-
sition vs. depth for each EOS sample using capabilities available in
most PVT programs. The results provide a compositional gradient
based on defined top and bottom depths and a step increment at
formation temperature and pressure. Unfortunately, samples from
different depths will never give the same prediction at a common
depth. For example, predictions for samples ORC-052 from 12,900
ft subsea and ORC-055 from 13,500 ft subsea will not predict the
same composition at 13,750 ft subsea.
The second process is to define a single continuous column
using parts of the predicted column from each sample. This col-
umn is used to determine original fluids in place and match his-
torical field observations. The Orocual field produces from depths
of approximately 12,400 ft to 15,600 ft subsea. Fig. 16 shows
the trend for the maximum recorded temperature of data recorded
on openhole logs in the field. Previous experience in this area
of Venezuela showed that temperature is an important variable
in compositional modeling.9 The temperature gradient is included
in all modeling work because isothermal modeling does not re-
Fig. 8—This figure shows the comparison of the predicted and
observed values from the last regression process for the liquid
relative volume for a condensate sample.
302
produce field observations. Formation temperature can be pre-
dicted using
T° = TVDSS*.013125 + 100.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Composition-vs.-depth tables were made for seven samples,
predicting each of the seven pseudocomponents. Table 4 is an
example of the predicted composition versus depth.
1D Simulation and Composition vs.
Depth Calibration
The predicted composition of each sample used to define the EOS
is put into the 1D simulator, with the thermal gradient of the field
specified as a modeling parameter. The single-column model has
200 25-ft-thick layers, with porosity equal to 100% and horizontal
and vertical permeability set at 1,000 md. The model is initialized
at reservoir conditions.
Model instability is initially apparent because the isothermally
predicted compositional gradient is destabilized by the reservoir
temperature gradient. The 1D model redistributes the vertical com-
position and is then allowed to equilibrate for a simulated time of
50 to 75 years (which takes 2 to 3 minutes of computer time) or
until compositional stability is achieved.
Wells are placed in each cell and are set to produce 1 bbl in the
last 1-day timestep. This provides simulated predictions of GOR
and ps for use as history-match variables. Fig. 17 shows the graph
of a simplified table of the compositional gradient vs. depth with
calculated GOR; the sum of the F3, F4, and F5 pseudocomponents
(Table 4); and ps.
Fig. 9—This figure shows the comparison of the predicted and
observed values from the last regression process for oil density
from a CCE experiment.
August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
 Fig. 11—This figure shows the comparison of the predicted and
Fig. 10—This figure shows the comparison of the predicted and
observed values from the last regression process for oil relative
observed values from the last regression process for the gas Z
volume for an oil sample.
factor, as determined from a CVD experiment.

Fig. 12—This figure shows the comparison of the predicted and Fig. 13—This figure shows the comparison of the predicted and
observed values from the last regression process for the cu- observed values from the last regression process for gas C7+
mulative produced gas for a condensate sample. molecular weight for a condensate sample.

Fig. 14—This figure shows the comparison of the predicted and

observed values from the last regression process for gas vis- Fig. 15—This figure shows the comparison of the predicted and
cosity of a condensate sample. observed values from the last regression for oil viscosity.

August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering 303


Fig. 16—The temperature gradient of the field is derived from
the openhole log data maximum recorded temperature. The
San Juan reservoir is found between the interval from 12,000
to 16,000 ft.
After each sample table of composition vs. depth is tested, the
results from all samples are combined, and the predicted ps and
GOR are used to identify the respective depths at which field-
observed values are best matched.
Fig. 18 shows the plots of ps and GOR for some of the selected
samples, comparing the predicted values against the observed val-
ues for the SJ3 fluid column. Each curve represents the prediction
for the column, matching the depth of the sample and its properties
and leading to the following observations:
• More than one sample is required to define a single column
that will match observations.
• The differences between the samples and the predicted ps and
GOR seem consistent.
The last step is to select samples that predict the observed
points and to combine in a smooth and monotonic manner the
compositions of individual samples to produce one new table of
composition vs. depth.
In an iterative process, a weighting factor is chosen at a given
depth, and the composition at that depth is calculated by using two
or more selected tables of samples and applying a simple summa-
tion to each component. The iterative process results from the
selection of the weighting factors with depth, which is rarely cor-
304
rect the first time. Fig. 19 illustrates the process of applying
weighting factors to define a smooth transition. For a simple two-
sample calculation using linear interpolation between two samples
at two fixed depths, there is the following equation:
Crd = Fxd*Cxd + Fyd*Cyd, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
where
Fxd = Pxt − 关共Pxt − Pxd兲*共D − Dt兲 Ⲑ 共Dd − Dt兲兴, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
and
Fyd = Pyt − 关共Pyt − Pyd兲*共D − Dt兲 Ⲑ 共Dd − Dt兲兴, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
where
Fxd + Fyd = 1.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
At each depth, the sum of all pseudocomponents at a specified
depth must be equal to 1.0, as in
n
兺Cr i = 1.0000000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7)
i=1
d
The method is applied easily to any number of samples. All
tables maintain the gradient depth increment, starting and stopping
at the same depths. After a new composite table of composition vs.
depth is created, it must be processed with the 1D simulator again
and then analyzed.
At the end of the simulation, the resulting values of ps and GOR
are compared with the expected result, and if different, the weight-
ing factors of Eq. 5 are adjusted. This process is repeated until a
smooth trend in ps and GOR is defined. At this point, the table of
composition vs. depth, the result of the equilibrated 1D model, can
be used as input to the full-field-model simulator.
A note of interest lies in the experience. The models associated
with this work tend to be from 35,000 to 120,000 cells, with dual
porosity and permeability and juxtaposed surfaces caused by fault-
ing. Previous experience in other projects in the area showed that
initialization of untested tables of composition vs. depth would not
converge. Analyzing intermediate convergence reports indicated
that the model was unstable. Building the 1D model provided very
fast results that were used to understand the convergence issues.
This process showed that the simulator adjusted the amount of
each component by very small amounts because of inherent insta-
bility provided by the introduction of the thermal gradient, where
the vertical variation is as much as 50°F. The discovery that a
single unmodified column had convergence problems because of
the temperature gradient indicated that thermodynamic stability is
August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
Fig. 17—The behavior of the fluid column can be seen in this representation. The state of the fluid is essentially determined by the
concentration of the heavy component, shown in the middle graph. GOR always increases upward, and ps shows the predicted
behavior close to the transition zone, or GOC. This column is for the SJ3 and SJ6 areas.

an important consideration. Using a stabilized column for initial-
ization of the full-field model saves a substantial amount of time
and provides a compositionally stable system.
Testing and subsequent validation of the EOS showed that it
easily reproduced the appropriate fluid-dynamic behavior on the
basis of the composition of the producing fluid, regardless of the
reservoir compartment. One EOS was proved to be consistent and
appropriate for all areas (SJ3, SJ6, SJ7, and SJ9), although each
compartment has a unique fluid column.
Fig. 18 also shows that the transition from gas to oil for both ps
and GOR is slightly below 13,500 ft subsea for one of the San Juan
complex compartments. A true GOC in any of the Orocual San
Juan complex compartments most likely does not exist. Instead, a
transition zone in which rich condensate changes to volatile oil
and, eventually, undersaturated oil is likely. Every sample has
similar behavior in the distribution of components, predicting tran-
sition zones. Modifying the predictions to smoothly monotonic
compositions reduces their uncertainty.
Models were constructed for each compartment. The table of
composition vs. depth was introduced into each sector model. It
was immediately obvious that adjustments to the reference depth
of the composition-vs.-depth table were necessary to match field
GOR history. The shifts were relatively small (+/– 200 ft), but as
a result, the initialization depth of the GOC was changed to main-
tain model stability.
Comparison of the predicted ps and GOR in the 1D model with
the historical observations in the undersaturated oil section of the
column (or, conversely, in the upper gas section) showed the depth
of the transition zone, indicating the depth of the GOC. The SJ9
and SJ7 areas are clearly similar, but on the basis of the results of
the history-matching process, there is a difference of 150 ft in the
predicted GOC. Neither of the wells in these sectors drilled into the
oil zone, so prediction of a GOC with the hydrocarbon column
allows a reasonable estimate of the beginning of an oil zone.
The transition from oil to gas is predicted in SJ7 at 16,025 ft
subsea and in SJ9 at 16,175 ft subsea. In April 2000, the ORC-030
was drilled. The results of the well showed that the prediction of the
GOC of 16,025 ft subsea was close to the determined 16,040-ft level.
All the answers regarding the details or geometry of compart-
mentalization are not available at this time. Additional drilling,

Fig. 18—The modeling criterion is the field-production match of GOR. Composition gradients are simulated, and the resulting GOR
and ps tendencies are analyzed. The curves are shifted to the appropriate depth to match known production characteristics, and
the curves are averaged using the technique shown in Fig. 19. The ps graph is simplified. The GOR graph has an additional curve
to demonstrate the sensitivity. Matched observations are shown, and the GOC can be inferred.

August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering 305


Fig. 19—To calculate a smooth transition in the composition
and to maintain the same smooth transition in the ps and GOR
behavior, weighting of two samples is necessary. This graph
shows the relationship between the samples and Cr,d, which is
the resultant composition.
data acquisition, analysis, and long-term history will contribute to
better understanding of the field. The evaluation of the fluid dis-
tribution has helped enormously to understand the complexity of
the field, concluding that structural complexity is the reason for the
compartmentalization.
Field-Development Prediction of the GOC. The test of the pre-
dictive capability of the method arises when a well is drilled into
a new compartment with original reservoir pressures and new re-
serves. Experience shows that the fluid systems in each compart-
ment are similar, but the segregation of fluids is different. An
estimate of the GOC for a new well is always based on the nearest
area. Experience also shows that each estimate is usually wrong,
with differences between the estimated and the determined GOC
being as much as 600 to 1,000 ft.
The first drillstem test or production test provides a GOR that
can be compared to the single-column stabilized model. Tempera-
tures are adjusted, and a new estimate of the GOC is made by
shifting the depth of the column to match the tested GOR. The
depth of the GOC is inferred from the modified column in which
the predicted transition zone occurs. The variation of the new
estimate to subsequent discoveries has been within +/– 50 ft.
Conclusions and Recommendations
1. A method for evaluating multiple PVT fluid samples and de-
veloping an EOS has been used for the Orocual field, which
contains a complex system of near-critical gas condensate grad-
ing into volatile and undersaturated oil.
2. A single EOS was created that accurately describes the behavior
of a wide range of fluids from a single complex hydrocarbon
column.
3. Most of the fluids available from the Orocual San Juan complex
belong to the same “family of fluids,” the major difference being
masses of methane and the heavy C7+ fractions.
4. Predicting a GOC is possible after the total fluid column has
been characterized. Shifting the column by depth to match a
new-well production test in an undeveloped area and making the
appropriate changes in formation temperature reduce the uncer-
tainty of predicting the depth of the GOC.
5. Compartmentalization in the Orocual field caused by structural
deformation is most likely the reason for fluid-system separation
and differences in hydrocarbon accumulations.
6. The GOC predicted in the analysis of the SJ7 reservoir com-
partment was 16,025 ft subsea, and subsequent drilling showed
it to be 16,040 ft, indicating that the methods used for predicting
the hydrocarbon gradient and the effects of segregation of fluid
components are reasonable.
306
Nomenclature
Crd ⳱ molar composition of one pseudocomponent at
depth D as a result of adding the weighted
compositions, x and y, at the same depth
Cxd ⳱ mole fraction of the same pseudocomponent of
composition x at depth D
Cyd ⳱ mole fraction of the same pseudocomponent of
composition y at depth D
D, Dt, Db ⳱ depth values related to the analysis (top and
bottom of the increment of interest)
Fad ⳱ weighting factor applied to the first table for
sample x for each component
Fbd ⳱ weighting factor applied to the second table for
sample y for each component
Kw ⳱ Watson characterization factor
M ⳱ molecular weight
ps ⳱ saturation pressure
Pxa,b,c,d ⳱ weighting proportion
T ⳱ temperature (FE)
Zc ⳱ critical compressibility factor (Z)
␥ ⳱ specific gravity
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank to PDVSA E&P for permission to
publish this paper.
References
1. Porjesz, R. et al.: “Geostatistical Modeling of Facies and Fractures of
the San Juan Formation and Reservoir Modeling for Delineation of
Orocual Field, Venezuela,” paper SPE 63206 presented at the 2000
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, 1–4 October.
2. Schlumberger PVTi Reference Manual 2003, Schlumberger Informa-
tion Systems (2003) 96.
3. Whitson, C.H. and Torp, S.B.: “Evaluating Constant-Volume Deple-
tion Data,” JPT (March 1983) 610.
4. Fevang, Ø. and Whitson, C.H.: “Accurate Insitu Compositions in Pe-
troleum Reservoirs,” paper SPE 28829 presented at the 1994 SPE
European Petroleum Conference, London, 25–27 October.
5. Whitson, C.H. and Brule, M.R.: Phase Behavior, Monograph Series,
SPE, Richardson, Texas (2000) 20, Chap. 5; Appendices B and C.
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SPE, Richardson, Texas (2000) 20, 77.
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SPE, Richardson, Texas (2000) 20, 73.
8. Fevang, Ø., Singh, K., and Whitson, C.H.: “Guidelines for Choosing
Compositional and Black-Oil Models for Volatile Oil and Gas-
Condensate Reservoirs,” paper SPE 63087 presented at the 2000 SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, 1–4 October.
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Column in the Santa Barbara and Bosque Fields, North Monagas State,
Venezuela,” SPE 56749 presented at the 1999 SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Houston, 3–6 October.
General References
1. Pedersen, K.S. and Lindeloff, N.: “Simulations of Compositional Gra-
dients in Hydrocarbon Reservoirs Under the Influence of a Tempera-
ture Gradient,” paper SPE 84364 presented at the 2003 SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, 5–8 October.
2. Montel, F. and Gouel, P.L.: “Prediction of Compositional Grading in a
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Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Nevada, 22–
25 September.
3. Ghorayeb, K. and Firoozabadi, A.: “Modeling Multicomponent Diffu-
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August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
 a consultant to PDVSA, working with field-development groups
SI Metric Conversion Factors in the deep and high-temperature multibillion-barrel fields
of the El Furrial thrust belt. He is currently assigned to ZADCO,
°API 141.5/(131.5+°API) ⳱ g/cm3
one of the ADNOC companies in Abu Dhabi, UAE. His specialty
bbl × 1.589 874 E−01 ⳱ m3 is reservoir management, development, and integrated stud-
cp × 1.0* E−03 ⳱ Pa·s ies specifically applied to the design and construction of rep-
ft × 3.048* E−01 ⳱ m resentative and efficient black-oil and compositional simu-
ft3 × 2.831 685 E–02 ⳱ m3 lation models. Wade A. Bard is currently a reservoir engineering
specialist with CNOOC in Jakarta. He has 16 years of ex-
°F (°F-32)/1.8 ⳱ °C perience in various locations around the world, specializing in
°F (°F + 459.67)/1.8 ⳱ K field-development planning, field operations, and reservoir
gal × 3.785 412 E−03 ⳱ m3 modeling. He also specializes in risk assessment and un-
in. × 2.54* E+00 ⳱ cm certainty analysis for development prospects, resulting in
a better understanding of the role of risked economics in field
lbf × 4.448 222 E+00 ⳱ N development. Agostino Guerini was the reservoir develop-
lbm × 4.535 924 E−01 ⳱ kg ment supervisor for the Orocual field and has been with PDVSA
mile × 1.609 344* E+00 ⳱ km for more than 22 years. Until 2003, he was responsible for
psi × 6.894 757 E+00 ⳱ kPa all technical activities regarding reservoir evaluation for delin-
eation projects in the PDVSA Exploration Business Unit. His
*Conversion factor is exact. specialties are large field management and development,
reservoir management, and integrated studies. Guerini is the
SPE Eastern Venezuela Section Membership Chairman. Clau-
Richard W. Smith is a petroleum engineer with Integrated Res- dia Lugo and Ivan Yemez were reservoir engineering members
ervoir Management Inc. He worked for nearly 13 years as of his team.

August 2004 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering 307