The History of Building Materials Summarized:

Stone Age

During this time, primitive people live thru the principle of hunter-
gatherers, they moved from a place to another in search for food.
The earliest documented materials used for a “house” was
excavated in Europe which dated around 12,000 BCE used wooden
poles that are assumed to be frames for animal skins used as walls
for a tent.

Bronze Age and early Urban Cultures

This can be recalled as the time when Middle eastern civilizations

existed along great river valleys like the Nile, the Tigris and
Euphrates, the Indus, and the Huang Ho. Given this geographical
advantage, people during this time (around 3000 BCE) people were
able to develop a building material made from mud and formed
using straw with four sides, this materials is what we call “bricks”,
these bricks were made from sun-drying the mud found along the
aforementioned bodies of water. “ceramic” where also developed research nowadays are being done to upgrade the building
during this time wherein more intricate decors were added, thus technology with the common aim which is to make construction
giving Architecture more vibrance. faster and economical.

Egyptian Civilization-

Everybody knows the building material used during this era-stones.

Massive blocks of stones such as limestone, sandstone, and granite
that are strong and durable were mined and cut by early Egyptians
to construct monumental structures like Pyramids, mortuaries, and
mastabas.

Greek and Hellenestic cultures

Similar to Egyptian Civilization, Greek and Hellenestic people also

used stones for their buildings, they used more from local marble
and limestones, since stones available in their place are not as
massive as those in Egypt, they pursued new stone technology like
corbelling and construction of arches staggering pieces of stones
precisely to form radial segments.

Roman Civilization

Romans contributed the use of concrete as building material which

was derived from the basic mortar mixture made by sand, lime and
water until 2nd century B.C.E. when pozzolana was discovered and
the new material called “pulvis puteoli”, natural cement was then
formed with this material.

Romanesque and Gothic Era

 During around the 5th century, the Iron Age started wherein new
building technology was applied in construction, this is thru using
log construction, packed clay walls, mud brick and wattle and
daub- which is the method of constructing walls in which vertical
wooden stakes, or wattles, are woven with horizontal twigs and
branches, and then daubed with clay or mud.

Renaissance Period

Construction of domes is a significant contribution of builders in

this era, moreover, the use of timber trusses with king posts is a
major Roman building technique revived in this period. The use of
clear glass was also manifested in many Romanesque buildings
which is also called as the “crown glass method” which is a
process handmaking glass out of soda-lime composition.

The First Industrial Age

at around 18th century, the Industrial Revolution emerged wherein

mass production of Iron was done to contribute to the development
of machinery which then lead to the “puddling process” or the
process of production wrought iron in 1769. Because of this
advancement, machines were created, and the simple sun-dried
bricks were upgraded into “pressed” bricks which were mass
produced by a mechanical extrusion process.

The Second Industrial Age

This was the time when steel and electricity were first used for
advancement. Steel were mass produced to build railroads and
soon building frames which lead to construction of early
skyscrapers. Concrete was then also reformulated adding powdered
brick and pebbles (which soon evolved into the aggregates we use
today) to the original mixture of lime, sand and water. After that,
the use of reinforced concrete was evident all over the houses in
Paris which started when a French gardener named Joseph Monier
uses the concrete mixture for his pots with cage iron wires as
reinforcement.  More technologies emerged during this time such
as lighting, heating and cooling systems, more use of glass, and use
of other metals as building material.

Modern Era

The modern era implies more change in building technology, most

of them aims to reduce the building construction’s cost. More
1.3 Different Types of Specification
Purpose and Importance of Specifications

1. Specification is defined as a written document describing

in detail the scope of work, materials to be used, methods of
installation, and quality of workmanship for a parcel of work
to be placed under contract.
2. It provides information for proper construction or
material and equipment which cannot be placed in drawings.
3. It segregates the information shown on the drawings into
various sections.
4. It instructs the different material suppliers of the extent
of their work
5. It constitutes one of the contract documents together with
the drawings and the agreement of contract between the
owner and the contractor. In court it is more important than
the drawings.
6. The contractor can then get his subcontracts on the basis
of the specification breakdown of sections.

QUALIFICATION OF SPECIFICATION WRITER

1. A professional specification writer maintains a good

library of technical documents, an extensive collection of
manufacturer literature and catalogs and is knowledgeable in
various codes used in his area.
2. The following qualifications are necessary for an
effective specification writer:
 1. A degree in the required discipline and
eventual professional registration
2. A good basic skill in drafting and detailing
3. A thorough knowledge of construction gained
by extensive field inspection
4. The ability to write in a proper and concise
manner
5. An orderly mind
6. The ability to get along with fellow workers
TYPES OF SPECIFICATIONS
1. Performance Specifications
 the result of the product, rather than the product itself are
specified
2. Descriptive Specifications
 gives a description of the product
3. Brand Name Specification
 the desired product is specified by the name given and
model number “or an equal approved by the architect”
4. Closed Specification
-there are two types of closed specifications, the single product and
the multi product. Closed specifications are usually brand name
specifications. The multi product is the same as a single product
except that more than one product is used. “no other brand will be
accepted”
5. Open Specifications
 open because all manufacturers whose product meet
performance or description specified may bid. All
performance and descriptive specifications are open. Brand
name specifications are open if the phrase “or equal”
6. Reference Specification
 the item desired is referred to by a number corresponding
to a number published in a specification.
7. Combination Specification
-it is possible to have combinations of performance, description
and reference specification.
Materials Specification Writing
Specification Writing Generalized
Specifications, as one of the Contract Documents, deserves as
much care and attention as working drawings. They should be
clear, concise, and accurate in their wording. Specifications should
not duplicate the information given on the drawings, (information
that can be most clearly shown by drawings) but should deal with
all other needed information with a few well-chosen words as
necessary for complete understanding.
The words “or equal” should never be used, since doing so
postpones the time of decision and encourages the expression of
differing opinions of comparative qualities. The resulting
uncertainty causes bidders to protect themselves by bidding high
enough to pay for the most expensive item they might be required
to furnish, and then seek approval of a cheaper one.
Procedure
The specifications should be started in the form of a construction
outline and equipment outline (or outline specifications) to
accompany the schematic drawings and be further developed as
preliminary specifications to accompany later design drawings.
Thus, decisions, made tentatively at first, become firm if not
changed; the client is given time to consider before approving
important decisions; and data for preliminary estimates are made
available.
Since the preliminary specifications may not have been prepared
by the specification write, and he may not have followed later
developments, a review of the working drawings and notations is
in order. This may uncover the need for additional decisions
regarding selection of materials or methods of construction or the
choice of equipment. The following are pointers of how to prepare
a specification:
1.
1. Prepare a list of all section.
2. Write scope of the work for each section.
3. Coordinate “Scopes” to make sure that
everything is included.
4. Prepare specification brief (dummy).
The following shall be covered in the scope of the work when
applicable:
1.
1. The material and labor included under this
section.
2. Material required to be furnished under this
section to be installed by others. (Indicate who will
furnish the work)
3. Material furnished by others (Indicate who) to
be installed under a particular section.
4. Work shown on the drawings not included
under this section.
5. Work shown on the drawings not included
under the contract.
Conflicts between specifications and drawings
The General Provision of the contract states that “Anything
mentioned in the specifications, and not shown in the drawings, or
shown on the drawings and not mentioned in the specifications,
shall be of like effect as if shown or mentioned in both. In case
difference between drawings and specifications or in the
specifications, the matter shall be promptly submitted to the
contracting officer, who shall promptly decide in writing.
Form, Sentence, Grammar
If, in the wording of specifications, complete sentences are used,
many repetitions of the word “Architect”,” Contractor”, “Owner”,
“shall be” and “will be” are necessary. The accepted rule is to use
“shall” and “will” with proper discrimination, as an example:
“Certain things shall be done by the contractors, other things will
be done by the owner.” The use of the words “to be” or “are be”
lack definiteness and clarity. Use “shall be” or “must be” to secure
the mandatory form essential to specifications.
1.
1. Styles to Avoid
Since the specifications are one part of the contract documents, that
the contract is between the owner and a prime contractor and that
the prime contractor is the only party responsible for completing
the work the accord with the specifications, therefore, it is never
proper to refer to a sub-contractor in the specifications, example:
      Incorrect: “The Tile Contractor shall examine surfaces for
defects.”
This style is incorrect because it violates the intent of the contract,
undermines the proper chain of command, and invites disputes
over authority and responsibility for compliance with the
specifications.
 
      Acceptable: “The Contractor shall install all accessories”.
      Better: “All accessories shall be installed”.
      Best: “Install all accessories.”
Another Structure to avoid is the verb phrase “is to be”, for
example:
      Avoid: “Adhesive is to be spread with a notched trowel”
      Better: “Spread adhesive with a notched trowel.”
      Better: “Use a notched Trowel.”
2. Correct Grammar
The tense of the subject and that of the verb must always agree
plural verbs and should not be used with singular subjects nor vice
versa.
Correct: One of the elongated Central Fasteners is to be placed
around the eye of the panel and bolted.
Incorrect: One of the elongated fasteners are to be places around
the eye of the panel and bolted.
Better: Bolt one of the elongated fasteners to the eye of the panel.
The rules of a good grammar require parallel construction. The use
of identical style in both parts of a compound subject or predicate,
or the use of identical style in a string of prepositional phrases
modifying the same noun.
Incorrect: Heating, ventilation, and Air-Conditioning
Correct: Heating, ventilation, and Air Conditioning
Incorrect: Tests shall be performed to determine strength and to
established quality.
Correct:  Tests shall be performed to determine strength and to
establish quality.
Better: Perform tests to determine strength and to establish
quality.
3. Avoid words having varied or indefinite meanings.
Do not say: “The equipment shall be removed and replaced as
indicated.”
Say: “Remove equipment during the alteration thereof and
reinstall after completion.”
Do not say: “The existing culverts shall be replaced as indicated
on the drawings.”
Say: “Remove existing culverts and reinstall in the new location.”
4. “Provide” is defined in the general provisions as
“Furnish and install”, When materials and/or equipment are
only to be furnished by the contractor, the term “furnish”
should be used, and when material and /or equipment are only
to be installed by the contractor may be required to use the
term “provide”. If the word “install” is used alone, the bidder
or contractor has a right to assume, on the basis of the
definition cited, that the government (if public) or the owner
(if private) will “furnish” the material will be questioned.
Therefore, define what is to be provided by the contractor to
complete such an installation.
 
5. Internal Numbering
The basic scheme of alternating numbers and letters is
recommended in lieu of an all number scheme (2.2.1.2.11…). the
contrast between number and letter contributes to visual acuity and
comprehension. The contrast further contributes to the mental
establishments and retention of levels of emphasis or rank of the
paragraph.
 
The recommended method of numbering the internal elements of
the section paragraph is:
1.1 Paragraph Title
(a) Subparagraph
(1)Subparagraph
(a))Subparagraph
Numbering systems within the section alternate numbers and
letters and various paragraphs and subparagraph should be
indented accordingly.
1.4 Material Specification Writing
The 3 Part Section Format
            Each of the 16 divisions of the Uniform Construction Index
is further divided into sections in the specifications, 3 Part Section
Format.
            The specifier must discipline himself to ask three
fundamental questions about the product:
1.
1.
1. What is the product?
2. How it is incorporated into the work
3. What interrelationships have existed,
do exist, or will exist for thr product with the
remainder of the product or with any portion of the
project.
            The 3 basic parts of the section format are:
            Part 1- General
            This part covers general areas concerned which precede and
follow the work, and which define the scope of work.

            Part 2- Products

            This part defines in detail the materials, equipment,

systems, fixtures, etc which will be incorporated into the work.

            Part 3- Execution

            It describes in detail the way items covered by part 2 are to

be incorporated into the work.

Elements of Specifications Composition

Drawing in general shall show:

1.
1. Architectural and engineering design
2. Plans, elevations, details and all essential
dimensions
3. Designation of each portion by the title or
symbol, to allow reference to it
4. The extent of the various material by symbols
and otherwise
5. Notes giving the basic design data, assumed
loads, allowable stresses, design references and
requirements
6. Limit of work

Specification shall give all necessary information governing:

1.
1. Materials and workmanship
2. Inspection and tests
3. Supplementary contractual requirements

Necessary information which is not supplied by the drawings