Satellite Orbits

Orbital Mechanics
Let us start by asking the question, “What keeps a satellite in an orbit around earth?”.
Why doesn’t a satellite go directly towards Earth, and why doesn’t it escape Earth? The
answer is that there are two main forces that act on a satellite or any object that is in orbit
around Earth (or any other planet or star). These forces are called

1. Centrifugal force: This force acts on the satellite along the line between the
satellite and the center of mass of Earth in the outwards direction. This results
from the fact that the object moves and objects in motion tend to travel in straight
lines.
2. Centripetal force: This force acts on the satellite along the line between the
satellite and the center of mass of Earth in the inward direction. This results from
the gravitational force exerted on the satellite by Earth.

In addition to the above two forces, there is less important forces that may alter the path
of motion of a satellite including:

3. Atmospheric drag: This force may be significant for satellites that are at LEO
orbits, especially at altitudes less than 200 km or so. The effect of this force
results in slowing the satellite motion and hence altering its orbital altitude.
4. Moon and Solar gravitations: Although satellites are usually placed in orbits that
are much closer to Earth than to Earth’s moon and knowing that the gravitational
pull of the Moon is itself much lower than the gravitational pull of Earth, satellites
motion nevertheless is affected by the Moon’s (and sun’s) gravities just like sea
water is affected by Moon’s gravity resulting in tides. The effect of these gravities
results in the satellite wobbling (moving up and down slowly) while in orbit.
5. Solar winds and cosmic radiation: these forces have small effect on the motion of
satellites.

Circular Satellite Orbits

Considering the first two forces only for the time being, the following figure illustrates
how these forces act on an object in orbit around Earth:
 Direction of Motion

Centrifugal
Force

R Stellite

Centripetal
Force

Earth

The Centripetal Force due to gravity of Earth ( FG ) is equal to

G ⋅ M E ⋅ mS
FG =
rS2

where G is called the Universal Gravitational Constant, M E is the mass of Earth, m S

is the mass of satellite, rS is the radius of rotation of the satellite around the center of
Earth.

The Universal Gravitational Constant is equal to

G = 6.672*10−11
(N ) ⋅ m 2 ,
kg 2

m
but a Newton N = kg ⋅ . This makes G become
s2

⎛ m⎞ 2
⎜ kg ⋅ 2 ⎟ ⋅ m m3
G = 6.672*10−11 ⎝ s ⎠
= 6.672*10−11
kg 2 kg .s 2

The above constant uses the unit of (m), but since distances between a planet and a
satellite are usually measured in (km), so the G we will use is

km 3
G = 6.672*10−20
kg .s 2

The mass of Earth is equal to

 M E = 5.9742*1024 kg

Often, the radius of Satellite rotation is given in terms of satellite altitude (height above
Earth’s surface) instead of radius. In this situation, the Satellite radius becomes equal to
the addition of Satellite altitude with Earth radius (rE):

rS = aS + rE

where Earth’s radius

rE = 6738.137 km Note that this is the average radius of Earth.

The other main force affecting the satellite (centrifugal force) is given by

v S2
FC = m S .(certrifegal acceleration) = m S
rS

where v S is the speed of motion of the satellite in orbit, m S is the mass of the satellite, and rS
is the radius of satellite rotation.

Now, using the formulas for the above two forces, we see that a satellite will remain in a
fixed circular orbit if the two forces are equal to each other, otherwise, the satellite will
not travel in a circular orbit and may possibly hit Earth’s surface or escape Earth gravity.
Using this, we get the following:

v S2 G ⋅ M E ⋅ m S
mS =
rS rS2

This gives a formula for evaluating the needed speed of a satellite to maintain a circular
orbit around Earth in terms of the radius of satellite orbit or the opposite:

G ⋅M E G ⋅M E
vS = OR rS =
rS v S2

The quantity µ = G ⋅ M E is called Keppler’s Constant. This quantity is an important quantity

that is found when discussing objects orbit Earth (or planets in general).

Important Note 1: When using the above equation or any other equation to evaluate
some quantity, it is very important to be consistent with units (i.e., use the proper units of
the different quantities such that the similar units in different quantities are the same (km
vs. km, or kg vs. kg, and so on)). So, if one of the quantities is given in (km) while the
other quantity is given in units of (m), one of them has to be converted to the other.
Important Note 2: Because the direction of the Centripetal and Centrigal forces are
opposite to each other and both of the them act in a perpendecual direction to the
direction of motion of the satellite, they do not result in changing the speed of motion of
the satellite (i.e., the speed of satellite remains constant at all times).

Since a satellite in a circular orbit around Earth with radius rS travels over a circle, the
total distance travelled in a complete orbit is ( 2π ⋅ rS ). So, the period of rotation is

2π ⋅ rS rS3
T = = 2π Seconds
vS G ⋅M E

Example 1:

NASA’s Hubble space telescope is placed in a circular orbit around Earth at an altitude
(height above Earth’s surface) of 595 km. Determine:

a) The speed of the satellite in orbit,

b) The satellite orbital period.

Example 2:

Determine:

a) The radius of a geo-synchronous or geo-stationary satellite orbit

b) The speed of a satellite in a geo-synchronous orbit.

Elliptical Satellite Orbits

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion

The above discussion considers circular satellite orbits, which are only a subclass of
satellite orbits. The general form of a satellite orbit is an elliptical orbit, which means that
the distance from the satellite to the center of Earth (or to the surface of Earth) changes
continuously as the satellite moves in orbit. An elliptical orbit has two focal points (as
compared to a single “focal point” in the case of circular orbit which the center of the
circle). Earth is located in one of the focal points of an elliptical orbit.
 b r0
φ0

a
a ⋅e P = a ⋅ (1 − e )
a ⋅ (1 + e )

Where  

The first person to depict the elliptical motion of planets around the sun was Kepler who came 
up with his laws of planetary motion in the 1960’s. These laws apply to any object of negligible 
mass that orbits a much larger mass as it is the case for satellites orbiting Earth. Newton then 
confirmed that Kepler’s laws are compatible with his gravitational law. Kepler’s 3 laws state the 
following: 

1.  The orbit of any small body about a larger body is always an ellipse with the center of 
mass of the larger body as one of the two focal points of the elliptical orbit.
2. The orbit of the smaller body sweeps equal areas of the ellipse in equal time intervals.
3. The square of the period of revolution is given by

4π 2a 3
T2=
µ

km3
where µ = G ⋅ M E = 3.986*105 . 
s2

These  laws  allowed  the derivation  of  the  location  of  the  satellite  at  different points  during  its 
orbit using the following set of equations 

Distance between satellite and Earth 

a (1 − e 2 )
  r0 =  
1 + e ⋅ cos (φ0 )

Relation between the semi-major axis, semi-minor axis, and eccentricity

 2
⎛b ⎞
b = a 1−e 2     Π   e = 1− ⎜ ⎟
⎝a ⎠

The velocity of the satellite

⎛ µ ⎞ ⎛ 2a ⎞
v 2 = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ − 1⎟
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ r0 ⎠

The orbital period

4π 2a 3
T2=
µ

Example 3:

A satellite orbits Earth in an elliptical orbit a = 12522 km and e = 0.32. The plain of
satellite orbit is the same plane of Earth’s equator and the direction of satellite orbit is in
the same direction of Earth’s orbit (i.e., the satellite orbits from W to E). Find the
following:

a) If the satellite was on longitude 26 E when it was in its perigee point, over which
longitude will it be when it reaches the next apogee?
b) The speed at which the satellite will be traveling at the apogee and perigee points
c) The speed of the satellite when its height is height above Earth’s surface is 4000
km.
d) The height of the satellite above Earth’s surface when its speed is 4.5 km/s.