damage.
The earthquake was felt mainly
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE
RESISTANT DESIGN
1.0 EARTHQUAKES AND URBANIZATION
Earthquakes occur as a result of
sudden displacements across a fault within
the earth. The earthquake releases part of
its stored strain energy as seismic waves.
These waves propagate outward and along
the earth’s surface. It is the motion of the
ground as these waves move past that is
perceived as an earthquake. With most
earthquakes, ground shaking is the direct
and principal cause of damage to buildings
and infrastructure. Considerable damage
can be caused by fault rupture at the
surface, but this is generally limited to
places near the fault. Sometimes indirect
shaking effects such as tsunamis,
landslides, fire caused by gas-line breaks,
and flooding caused by water-line breaks
also play a significant role. Earthquakes
are defined as natural disturbances,
different types of earthquake exist: fault
rupture-induced, volcanic, mining-induced
and large reservoir-induced.
1.1 HISTORY OF MAJOR INTERNATIONAL
AND PHILIPPINE EARTHQUAKES
MAJOR INTERNATIONAL
EARTHQUAKES
1. Valdivia, Chile, 22 May 1960 (9.5)
This earthquake killed 1655 people,
injured 3000 and displaced two million. It
caused US$550 million damage in Chile,
while the tsunami that it spawned caused
deaths and damage as far away as Hawaii,
Japan and the Philippines. The ‘rupture
zone’ of the quake was more than 1000 km
long. Two days after the initial quake, the
nearby volcano Puyehue erupted, sending
ash and steam up to 6 km into the
atmosphere over a period of several weeks.
2. Prince William Sound, Alaska, 28
March 1964 (9.2)
Compared to the Chilean
earthquake, this earthquake was less
damaging: the resulting tsunami took 128
lives and caused overall US$311 million in
Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito
over Alaska, as well as some places in
Canada, while the tsunami created by it
caused damage as far away as Hawaii. The
most damage was sustained by the city of
Anchorage, 120 km north-west of the
epicenter. Shaking from the quake itself is
reported to have lasted for three minutes.
3. Sumatra, Indonesia, 26 December
2004 (9.1)
In terms of damage and loss of life,
the scale of the disaster caused by the
resulting Boxing Day Tsunami was
enormous. In total, 227,900 people were
killed or presumed dead, with around 1.7
million displaced over 14 countries in
South Asia and East Africa. The epicenter
was 250 km south-east of Band Aceh,
Indonesia, at a depth of 30 km. Several
days later on 28 December, a mud volcano
began erupting near Baratang, Andamar
Islands, which is thought to have been
associated with the earthquake.
4. Sendai, Japan, 11 March 2011 (9.0)
So far the official death toll stands at
several thousand from the combined effect
of the powerful earthquake, aftershocks
and the tsunami. However, the total is
expected to rise, with some estimates of a
final toll of over 10,000. Economic impacts
are expected to be huge, with the shutting
down of nuclear reactors which many
industries rely on for power.
5. Kamchatka, Russia, 4 November
1952 (9.0)
This earthquake generated a
tsunami that caused widespread damage in
the Hawaiian Islands. Property damage was
estimated at around US$1,000,000. Some
reports describe waves of over 9 m high at
Kaena Point, Oahu. A farmer on Oahu
reported the loss of six cows to the tsunami,
but no people were reported killed.
6. Bio-bio, Chile, 27 February 2010
(8.8)
This earthquake and subsequent
tsunami killed at least 521 people, with 56
missing and 12,000 injured. More than
800,000 people were displaced with a total
of 1.8m people affected across Chile, where
damage was estimated at US$30 billion.
The epicenter was 335 km south-west of
Santiago, at a depth of 35 km. A minor
tsunami travelled across the Pacific
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causing damage to boats as far away as San
Diego, California.
7. Ecuador coast, 31 January 1906 (8.8)
This earthquake caused a tsunami
that is reported to have killed between 500
and 1,500 in Ecuador and Colombia. The
tsunami travelled as far north as San
Francisco, on the west coast of the US, and
west to Hawaii and Japan. The tsunami
took roughly 12 hours to cross the Pacific
to Hilo, Hawaii.
8. Rat Islands, Alaska, 2 April 1965
(8.7)
The worst of the damage attributed to
this earthquake was caused by a tsunami,
reported to be about 10 m high on Shemya
Island. The wave caused flooding on
Amchitka Island, causing US$10,000 in
property damage. No deaths or injuries
were reported.
9. Sumatra, Indonesia, 28 March 2005
(8.6)
This earthquake killed 1313, with
over 400 people injured by the tsunami as
far away as Sri Lanka. The epicenter was
205 km north-west of Sibolga, Sumatra, at
a depth of 30 km. This region, also the site
of the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami, is
particularly geologically active, with three
of the 15 biggest known earthquakes
having happened here.
10. Assam, Tibet, 15 August 1950 (8.6)
This inland earthquake caused
widespread damages to buildings as well as
large landslides. 780 people were killed in
eastern Tibet, with many villages and towns
affected across Assam, China, Tibet and
India. Oscillations to lake levels occurred
as far away as Norway. The total death toll
is likely to be higher, as no definitive total
was ever estimated. While the earthquake
itself is known as the Assam Earthquake, it
is believed the epicenter may have been in
Tibet.
MAJOR PHILIPPINE EARTHQUAKES
1. Magnitude 8.0 earthquake in
Mindanao (August 17, 1976)
A magnitude 8.0 earthquake took
place near Mindanao and Sulu a little past
Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito
midnight of August 17, 1976 that was felt
as far as Visayas. It was then followed by a
massive 4 to 5 meters high tsunami
covering 700 kilometers of coastline
bordering the island. Because it was dark,
the people were caught by the raging water
which claimed 8,000 lives, injuring 10,000,
and leaving 90,000 more, homeless
.
2. Magnitude 7.8 earthquake in
Northern and Central Luzon
(July 16, 1990)
A total of 2,412 people died and at least
₱10-billion worth of damages to public and
private properties was reported after a
magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck Northern
and Central Luzon at around 4:00 p.m. of
July 16, 1990. Hyatt Terraces Plaza,
Nevada Hotel, Baguio Hilltop Hotel, Baguio
Park Hotel, and FRB Hotel, all in Baguio
collapsed trapping and burying people
alive. Although the epicenter was recorded
in Nueva Ecija, it caused more damage in
the City of Pines. And the quake that just
lasted for about a minute was one of the
tragedies in the country that would never
be forgotten.
3. Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Luzon
(November 30, 1645)
The magnitude 7.5 earthquake that
crushed Luzon on November 30, 1645 at
about 8:00 pm was called the “most terrible
earthquake” in Philippines history. The
Epicenter of the said quake was in Nueva
Ecija caused by the San Manuel and
Gabaldon Faults. The extent of the tremor
was felt as far as Cagayan Valley. It has
caused many landslides which buried
many people alive and destroyed many
buildings and churches including Manila
Cathedral. That time, only Spanish are
counted so the recorded number of
casualties was only 600 while the injured
was 3,000.
4. Magnitude 7.3 earthquake in
Casiguran (August 2, 1968)
Most of the people in Casiguran,
Aurora was still fast asleep when a
magnitude 7.3 earthquake struck at 4:19
a.m. of August 2, 1968. It was another
deadly and shocking seismic activity in the
country. And the City of Manila got the
most severe damage. Many buildings were
either damaged or destroyed totally. The
said event was also called the Ruby Tower
earthquake after the said six-story building
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located in Binondo collapsed, and caused
the death of 260 people. A total of 268
people died that day and 261 more were
injured.
5. Magnitude 7.2 earthquake in Bohol
(October 15, 2013)
The quake affected most of Central
Visayas, particularly Bohol and Cebu. It
was felt in the whole area of Visayas and
reached as far as Masbate Island in the
north and Cotabato in Southern Mindanao.
According to the National Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Council
(NDRRMC), a total of 222 people died, 8
went missing and 976 others were injured.
An estimated 73,000 structures were
damaged wherein more than 14,500 of
which were destroyed totally.
6. Magnitude 7.1 earthquake in
Mindoro (November 15, 1994)
November 15, 1994, at around 3:15
a.m., a magnitude 7.1 earthquake rocked
Mindoro. A gigantic 8.5 meters (28 ft)
tsunami then followed which devastated
the islands of Baco and Calapan, Mindoro.
A total of 7,566 houses were washed out
and some 78 people died because of that
tragedy.
7. Magnitude 6.9 earthquake in
Central Visayas (February 6, 2012)
A total of 51 people died, 62 still
missing and 112 were injured when a 6.9
earthquake Central Visayas, particularly
Negros and parts of Mindanao on February
6, 2012. It caused a landslide which buried
a barangay, damaged 15,483 houses, and
a total damage of ₱383-million on
infrastructures and buildings was
recorded.
8. Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in
Central and Southern Mindanao
(March 5, 2002)
A magnitude 7.5 earthquake resulted
to the death of 15 people and injuring
around a hundred more in Central and
Southern Mindanao on March 5, 2002. The
said quake originated near the Cotabato
Trench that was followed by a tsunami. But
it was the flood that was generated by
landslides and falling debris that caused
damage to an estimated 800 buildings.
Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito
9. Magnitude 6.5 quake in Ilocos Norte
(August 17, 1983)
The magnitude 6.5 quake in Ilocos
Norte on August 17, 1983 happened
around 8:18 p.m. and resulted to 16
casualties and 47 people got injured. It
caused damages on various establishments
such as schools, buildings, malls,
residences, and etc. There were also
landslides and sand boils that followed the
event.
10. Magnitude 7.6 earthquake near
Guiuan, Eastern Samar
(August 31, 2012)
A very strong earthquake with a
magnitude of 7.6 happened near Guiuan,
Eastern Samar on August 31, 2012 that
was felt as far as Mindanao. The Philippine
Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS) issued a tsunami warning
Level 3, but it was lifted 5 hours later. The
quake caused damage on homes, bridges,
and other infrastructures. There were also
power interruptions in the affected areas.
But despite the intensity only one person
was reported dead and one injured because
of the landslide in Cagayan de Oro City.
1.3 THE RING OF FIRE
Ring of Fire, also called Circum-
Pacific Belt or Pacific Ring of Fire, long
horseshoe-shaped seismically active belt
of earthquake epicenters, volcanoes, and
tectonic plate boundaries that fringes
the Pacific basin.
For much of its 40,000-km (24,900-
mile) length, the belt follows chains
of island arcs such as Tonga and New
Hebrides, the Indonesian archipelago,
the Philippines, Japan, the Kuril Islands,
and the Aleutians, as well as other arc-
shaped geomorphic features, such as the
western coast of North America and
the Andes Mountains. Volcanoes are
associated with the belt throughout its
length; for this reason, it is called the “Ring
of Fire.” A series of deep ocean
troughs frame the belt on the oceanic side,
and continental landmasses lie behind.
Most of the world’s earthquakes, the
overwhelming majority of the world’s
strongest earthquakes, and approximately
75 percent of the world’s volcanoes occur
within the Ring of Fire.
The abundance of volcanoes and
earthquakes along the Ring of Fire is
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caused by the amount of movement of
tectonic plates in the area. Along much of
the Ring of Fire, plates overlap at
convergent boundaries called subduction
zones. That is, the plate that is underneath
is pushed down, or subducted, by the plate
above. As rock is subducted, it melts and
becomes magma. The abundance of
magma so near to Earth’s surface gives rise
to conditions ripe for volcanic activity. A
significant exception is the border between
the Pacific and North American Plates. This
stretch of the Ring of Fire is a transform
boundary, where plates move sideways
past one another. This type of boundary
generates a large number of earthquakes as
tension in Earth’s crust builds up and is
released.
ELEMENTS OF SEISMOLOGY
1.4 EARTHQUAKE FAULTS
When two groundmasses move with
respect to one another, elastic strain energy
due to tectonic processes is stored and then
released through the rupture of the
interface zone. The distorted blocks snap
back towards equilibrium and an
earthquake ground motion is produced.
This process is referred to as ‘elastic
rebound’. The resulting fracture in the
Earth’s crust is termed a ‘fault’. During the
sudden rupture of the brittle crustal rock,
seismic waves are generated. These waves
travel away from the source of the
earthquake along the Earth’s outer layers.
Their velocity depends on the
characteristics of the material through
which they travel.
1.4.1 FUNDAMENTAL FAULT
MECHANISMS
Dip-slip faults: One block moves vertically
with respect to the other. If the block
underlying the fault plane or ‘footwall’
moves up the dip and away from the block
overhanging the fault plane, or ‘hanging
wall’, normal faults are obtained. The 1971
San Fernando earthquake in California was
caused by rupture of a reverse fault.
Earthquakes along the Circum-Pacific
seismic belt are caused by thrust faults.
Strike-slip faults: The adjacent blocks
move horizontally past one another. Strike-
slip can be right-lateral or left-lateral,
depending on the sense of the relative
motion of the blocks for an observer located
Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito
on one side of the fault line. The slip takes
plca along an essentially vertical fault plane
and can be caused by either compression
or tension stresses. An example of strike-
slip occurred in the 1906 San Francisco
earthquake on the San Andreas Fault.
Oblique slip faults: exhibit combinations
of strike-slip and dip-slip movements. Can
be either normal or reverse and right or left-
lateral.
Fundamental Fault Mechanisms
1.5 THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS
Earthquake occurrence may be
explained by the theory of large-scale
tectonic processes, referred to as ‘plate
tectonics’. The theory of plate tectonics
derives from the theory of continental drift
and sea-floor spreading. Understanding the
relationship between geophysics, the
geology of a particular region and seismic
activity began only at the end of the
nineteenth century. Earthquakes are now
recognized to be the symptoms of the active
tectonic movements. This is confirmed by
the observation that intense seismic
activity occurs predominantly on known
plate boundaries. Plate are large and stable
rigid rock slabs with a thickness of about
100 km, forming the crust or lithosphere
and part of the upper mantle of the Earth.
The crust is the outer rock layer with an
internal complex geological structure and
non-uniform thickness 0f 25-60 km under
continents and 4-6 km under oceans. The
mantle is the portion of the Earth’s interior
below the crust, extending from a depth of
about 30 km to about 2900 km; it consists
of dense silicate rocks. The lithosphere
moves differentially on the underlying
asthenosphere, which is a softer warmer
layer around 400 km thick at a depth of
about 50 km in the upper mantle. It is
characterized by plastic or viscous flow.
The horizontal movement of the lithosphere
is caused by convection currents in the
mantle; the velocity of the movement is
about 1 to 10 cm/year.
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 Large tectonic forces take place at the
plate edges due to the relative movement of
the lithosphere-asthenosphere complex.
These forces physical and chemical
changes and affect the geology of the
adjoining plates. However, only the
lithosphere has the strength and the brittle
behavior to fracture, thus causing an
earthquake.
1.5.1 PRINCIPAL TYPES OF PLATE
BOUNDARIES
Divergent or rift zones: Plates separate
themselves from one another and either an
effusion of magma occurs or the
lithosphere diverges from the interior of the
Earth. Rifts are distinct from mid-ocean
ridges, where new oceanic crust and
lithosphere is created by sea-floor
spreading. Conversely, in rifts no crust or
lithosphere is produced. If rifting
continues, eventually a mid-ocean ridge
may form, marking a divergent boundary
between two tectonic plates. However, the
Earth’s surface area does not change with
time and hence the creation of new
lithosphere is balanced by the destruction
at another location of an equivalent amount
of rock crust.
continental or oceanic lithosphere. They
can offset mid-ocean ridges, subduction
zones or both. Boundaries of transcurrent
horizontal slip can connect either divergent
and convergent zones or two convergent
zones.
ASSIGNMENT NO. 1 (Handwritten)
Define and explain the following:
1. Plate Tectonics Theory
2. Faulting
3. Seismic Waves
4. Intensity
5. Magnitude
6. Intensity – Magnitude Relationships
7. Directional Effects
8. Site Effects
9. Dispersion and Incoherence
10. Damage to Buildings and Lifelines
11. Effects on the Ground
12. Human and Financial Losses

Convergent or subduction zones:

Adjacent plates converge and collide. A
subduction process carries the slab-like
plate, known as the ‘under-thrusting plate’,
into a dipping zone, also referred to as the
‘Wadati-Benioff zone’, as far downward as
650-700 km into the Earth’s interior. Two
types of convergent zones exist: Oceanic
and Continental lithosphere convergent
boundaries. The first type occurs when two
plates consisting of oceanic lithosphere
collide. Oceanic rock is mafic, and heavy
compared to continental rock; therefore, it
sinks easily and is destroyed in a
subduction zone. The second type of
convergent boundary occurs when both
grinding plates consist of continental
lithosphere. Continents are composed of
lightweight rock and hence do not subduct.
However, in this case the seismicity is
extended over a wider area. The Circum-
Pacific and Eurasian belts are examples of
oceanic and continental lithosphere
convergent boundaries, respectively.

Transform zones or transcurrent

horizontal slip: Two plates glide past one
another but without creating new
lithosphere or subducting old lithosphere.
Transform faults can be found either in

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Earthquake Engineering P a g e | 5