Passive cooling

techniques

Includes:

a. Through orientation

b. Site layout

c. Solar control device

d. Passive daylight concept

e. Passive cooling by wind and ventilation

PASSIVE COOLING TECHNIQUES:
Passive cooling is a building design approach
that focuses on heat gain control and heat
dissipation in a building in order to improve
the indoor thermal comfort with low or nil
energy consumption. This approach works
either by preventing heat from entering the
interior (heat gain prevention) or by
removing heat from the building (natural
cooling). Natural cooling utilizes on-site
energy, available from the natural
environment, combined with the architectural
design of building components (e.g. building
envelope), rather than mechanical systems to
dissipate heat. Therefore, natural cooling
depends not only on the architectural design of the building but how it uses the local site natural
resources as heat sinks (i.e. everything that absorbs or dissipates heat). Examples of on-site heat
sinks are the upper atmosphere (night sky), the outdoor air (wind), and the earth/soil.

Passive cooling covers all natural processes and techniques of heat dissipation and modulation
without the use of energy.[1] Some authors consider that minor and simple mechanical systems
(e.g. pumps and economizers) can be integrated in passive cooling techniques, as long they are
used to enhance the effectiveness of the natural cooling process.[4] Such applications are also
called ‘hybrid cooling systems’. [1] The techniques for passive cooling can be grouped in two
main categories:

 Preventative techniques: that aims to provide protection and/or prevention of external and
internal heat gains.

 Modulation and heat dissipation techniques: allow the building to store and dissipate heat
gain through the transfer of heat from heat sinks to the climate. This technique can be the
result of thermal mass or natural cooling.

Preventative techniques:

Protection from or prevention of heat gains encompasses all the design techniques that
minimizes the impact of solar heat gains through the building’s envelope and of internal heat
gains that is generated inside the building due occupancy and equipment. It includes the
following design techniques:
 Microclimate and site design - By taking into account the local climate and the site
context, specific cooling strategies can be selected to apply which are the most
appropriate for preventing overheating through the envelope of the building. The
microclimate can play a huge role in determining the most favorable building location by
analyzing the combined availability of sun and wind. The bioclimatic chart, the solar
diagram and the wind rose are relevant analysis tools in the application of this technique.

 Solar control - A properly designed shading system can effectively contribute to

minimizing the solar heat gains. Shading both transparent and opaque surfaces of the
building envelope will minimize the amount of solar radiation that induces overheating in
both indoor spaces and building’s structure. By shading the building structure, the heat
gain captured through the windows and envelope will be reduced.

 Building form and layout - Building orientation and an optimized distribution of interior
spaces can prevent overheating. Rooms can be zoned within the buildings in order to
reject sources of internal heat gain and/or allocating heat gains where they can be useful,
considering the different activities of the building. For example, creating a flat, horizontal
plan will increase the effectiveness of cross-ventilation across the plan. Locating the
zones vertically can take advantage of temperature stratification. Typically, building
zones in the upper levels are warmer than the lower zones due to stratification. Vertical
zoning of spaces and activities uses this temperature stratification to accommodate zone
uses according to their temperature requirements.[5] Form factor (i.e. the ratio between
volume and surface) also plays a major role in the building’s energy and thermal profile.
This ratio can be used to shape the building form to the specific local climate. For
example, more compact forms tend to preserve more heat than less compact forms
because the ratio of the internal loads to envelope area is significant.
 Thermal insulation - Insulation in the building’s envelope will decrease the amount of
heat transferred by radiation through the facades. This principle applies both to the
opaque (walls and roof) and transparent surfaces (windows) of the envelope. Since roofs
could be a larger contributor to the interior heat load, especially in lighter constructions
(e.g. building and workshops with roof made out of metal structures), providing thermal
insulation can effectively decrease heat transfer from the roof.

 Behavioral and occupancy patterns - Some building management policies such as

limiting the amount of people in a given area of the building can also contribute
effectively to the minimization of heat gains inside a building. Building occupants can
also contribute to indoor overheating prevention by: shutting off the lights and equipment
of unoccupied spaces, operating shading when necessary to reduce solar heat gains
through windows, or dress lighter in order to adapt better to the indoor environment by
increasing their thermal comfort tolerance.
  Internal gain control - More energy-efficient lighting and electronic equipment tend to
release less energy thus contributing to less internal heat loads inside the space.

Modulation and heat dissipation techniques:

 The modulation and heat dissipation techniques rely on natural heat sinks to store and
remove the internal heat gains. Examples of natural sinks are night sky, earth soil, and
building mass.[8] Therefore passive cooling techniques that use heat sinks can act to
either modulate heat gain with thermal mass or dissipate heat through natural cooling
strategies.

 Thermal mass - Heat gain modulation of an indoor space can be achieved by the proper
use of the building’s thermal mass as a heat sink. The thermal mass will absorb and store
heat during daytime hours and return it to the space at a later time.[1] Thermal mass can
be coupled with night ventilation natural cooling strategy if the stored heat that will be
delivered to the space during the evening/night is not desirable.

 Natural cooling - Natural cooling refers to the use of ventilation or natural heat sinks for
heat dissipation from indoor spaces. Natural cooling can be separated into four different
categories: cooling and ventilation, radiative cooling, evaporative cooling, and earth
coupling.
Ventilation:

Ventilation as a natural cooling strategy uses the physical properties of air to remove heat or
provide cooling to occupants. In select cases, ventilation can be used to cool the building
structure, which subsequently may serve as a heat sink.

 Cross ventilation - The strategy of cross ventilation relies on wind to pass through the
building for the purpose of cooling the occupants. Cross ventilation requires openings on
two sides of the space, called the inlet and outlet. The sizing and placement of the
ventilation inlets and outlets will determine the direction and velocity of cross ventilation
through the building. Generally, an equal (or greater) area of outlet openings must also be
provided to provide adequate cross ventilation.

 Stack ventilation - Cross ventilation is an effective cooling strategy, however, wind is an

unreliable resource. Stack ventilation is an alternative design strategy that relies on the
buoyancy of warm air to rise and exit through openings located at ceiling height. Cooler
outside area replaces the rising warm air through carefully designed inlets placed near the
floor.

 Night flush cooling – The building structure acts as a sink through the day and absorbs
internal heat gains and solar radiation. Heat can be dissipated from the structure by
convective heat loss by allowing cooler air to pass through the building at night. The flow
 of outdoor air can be induced naturally or mechanically. The next day, the building will
perform as a heat sink, maintaining indoor temperatures below the outdoor temperature.
This strategy is most effective in climates with a large diurnal swing so the typical
maximum indoor temperature is below the outdoor maximum temperature during the
hottest months. Thermal mass is a necessary component to dissipate heat at night.

Radiative cooling:

All objects constantly emit and absorb radiant energy. An object will cool by radiation if the net
flow is outward, which is the case during the night. At night, the long-wave radiation from the
clear sky is less than the long-wave infrared radiation emitted from a building, thus there is a net
flow to the sky. Since the roof provides the greatest surface visible to the night sky, designing the
roof to act as a radiator is an effective strategy. There are two types of radiative cooling
strategies that utilize the roof surface: direct and indirect.

 Direct radiant cooling - In a building designed to optimize direct radiation cooling, the
building roof acts as a heat sink to absorb the daily internal loads. The roof acts as the
best heat sink because it is the greatest surface exposed to the night sky. Radiate heat
transfer with the night sky will remove heat from the building roof, thus cooling the
building structure. Roof ponds are an example of this strategy. The roof pond design
became popular with the development of the Sky thermal system designed by Harold Hay
in 1977. There are various designs and configurations for the roof pond system but the
concept is the same for all designs. The roof uses water, either plastic bags filled with
water or an open pond, as the heat sink while a system of movable insulation panels
regulate the mode of heating or cooling. During daytime in the summer, the water on the
roof is protected from the solar radiation and ambient air temperature by movable
insulation, which allows it to serve as a heat sink and absorb, though the ceiling, the heat
generated inside. At night, the panels are retracted to allow nocturnal radiation between
the roof pond and the night sky, thus removing the stored heat from the day’s internal
loads. In winter, the process is reversed so that the roof pond is allowed to absorb solar
radiation during the day and release it during the night into the space below.

 Indirect radiant cooling - A heat transfer fluid removes heat from the building structure
through radiate heat transfer with the night sky. A common design for this strategy
involves a plenum between the building roof and the radiator surface. Air is drawn into
the building through the plenum, cooled from the radiator, and cools the mass of the
building structure. During the day, the building mass acts as a heat sink.
Evaporative cooling:

Evaporative cooling. The design relies on the evaporative process of water to cool the incoming
air while simultaneously increasing the relative humidity. A saturated filter is placed at the
supply inlet so the natural process of evaporation can cool the supply air. Apart from the energy
to drive the fans, water is the only other resource required to provide conditioning to indoor
spaces. The effectiveness of evaporative cooling is largely dependent on the humidity of the
outside air; dryer air produces more cooling. A study of field performance results in Kuwait
revealed that power requirements for an evaporative cooler are approximately 75% less than the
power requirements for a conventional packaged unit air-conditioner.[11] As for interior
comfort, a study found that evaporative cooling reduced inside air temperature by 9.6°C
compared to outdoor temperature.

Earth coupling:
Earth coupling uses the moderate and consistent temperature of the soil to act as a heat sink to
cool a building through conduction. This passive cooling strategy is most effective when earth
temperatures are cooler than ambient air temperature, such as hot climates.

 Direct coupling - Direct coupling, or earth sheltering, occurs when a building uses earth
as a buffer for the walls. The earth is an endless heat sink and can effectively mitigate
temperature extremes. Earth sheltering improves the performance of building envelope
assemblies by reducing the magnitude of conductive and convective heat loss and gains
by reducing infiltration.

 Indirect coupling. A building can be indirectly coupled with the earth by means of earth
ducts. An earth duct is a buried tube that acts as avenue for supply air to travel through
before entering the building. Supply air is cooled by way of conductive heat transfer
between the concrete tubes and soil. Therefore, earth ducts will not perform well as a
source of cooling unless the soil temperature is lower than the desired room air
temperature.[13] Earth ducts typically require long tubes to cool the supply air to an
appropriate temperature before entering the building. A fan is required to draw the cool
air from the earth duct into the building. Some of the factors that affect the performance
of an earth duct are: duct length, number of bends, thickness of duct, depth of duct,
diameter of the duct, and air velocity.

Passive Cooling:

A cooling system using a building’s design and construction to maintain a comfortable

temperature within the building.

Passive design is essentially low-energy design achieved by the building’s particular

morphological organization rather than electro-mechanical means.

Passive Cooling Techniques:

1. BUILDING CONFIGURATION, SITE LAYOUT and SITE PLANNING

Example : A building can be protected from direct sunlight by placing it on a location within the
site that utilizes existing features such as trees, terrain etc.

2. BUILDING ORIENTATION:

Example : In tropical countries such as the Philippines, it is best to place service areas in the west
and east facing sides of the building because these sides are exposed to direct sunlight.

3. FACADE DESIGN:

Use of Double-layered façade

Use Low-emissivity glass (Low-E glass)
Use of Insulation

4. CROSS VENTILATION:

The circulation of fresh air through open windows, doors or other openings on opposite sides of
a room

STACK EFFECT / CHIMNEY EFFECT:

The tendency of air or gas in a shaft or other vertical space to rise when heated, creating a draft
that draws in cooler air or gas from below

5. SUNSHADING DEVICES:

VERTICAL TYPES
Vertical Sun Shades are generally used on the East-Facing and West- Facing Sides
of a building
EGGCRATE TYPES
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Shades
WIND ANALYSIS:

Wind direction: Desirable and undesirable winds in each of the climatic zones depend largely on
local conditions. Any breeze in the lower latitude (tropical and arid climates) is beneficial for
most of the year.

Cross ventilation: Cross ventilation is far more important in the tropics than in temperate zones.
The theoretical strategy for blocking or inducing wind flow into a building is based on local
prevailing wind conditions. Generally, for the tropical zones as much ventilation as possible is
desired.
Influences on Built Form:

1. Zoning for transitional spaces - the traditional spaces used for lobbies, stairs, utility
spaces, circulation, balconies and any other areas where movement take place. These areas do
not require total climatic control and natural ventilation is sufficient. For the tropical and arid
zones, the transitional spaces are located on the north and south sides of the building where the
sun's penetration is not as great. An atrium can also be used a transitional space.

2. Use of atrium - In the tropical zone the atrium should be located so as to provide ventilation
within the built form. In the arid zone the atrium should be located at the centre of the building
for cooling and shading purposes.

Influences on Built Form:

1. Form - Optimum building form for each climatic zone. Research has shown that the preferred
length of the sides of the building, where the sides are of length x:y, are: tropical zone - 1:3.
Analysis of these ratios shows that an elongated form to minimize east and west exposure is
needed at the lower latitudes.

2. Orientation - Orientation as well as directional emphasis changes with latitude in response to

solar angle. Building's main orientation for tropical countries would have a directional emphasis
on an axis 5deg north of east

3. Vertical cores and structure - The arrangement of primary mass can be used as a factor in
climatic design as its position can help to shade or retain heat within the building form.

P.C.T. - Through orientation:

Orientation, layout and location on site will all
influence the amount of sun a building receives
and therefore its year-round temperatures and
comfort.

Other considerations include access to views

and cooling breezes. Orientation and layout
will also be influenced by topography, wind
speed and direction, the site’s relationship with
the street, the location of shade elements such
as trees and neighboring buildings, and vehicle
access and parking.
Orientation for passive heating and cooling:

For maximum solar gain, a building will be located, oriented and designed to maximize window
area facing north (or within 20 degrees of north) – for example, a shallow east-west floor plan.
However, this will depend on the site’s shape, orientation and topography. For example, an east-
west floor plan will not be possible on a narrow north-south site.

Orientation for solar gain will also depend on other factors such as proximity to neighboring
buildings and trees that shade the site.

For solar gain, as well as considering location, orientation and window size and placement, it is
also important to consider the thermal performance and solar heat gain efficiency of the glazing
unit itself (see glazing and glazing units for more information).

While solar gain for passive heating is important, other considerations include noise, day
lighting, protection from prevailing winds, access to breezes for ventilation, shade to prevent
summer overheating and glare, views, privacy, access, indoor/outdoor flow, owners’ preferences,
and covenants and planning restrictions.
Where passive cooling is more of a priority than passive heating, the building should be oriented
to take advantage of prevailing breezes.
Orientation, location and layout should be considered from the beginning of the design process –
ideally, from the time the site is being selected. Once a building has been completed, it is
impractical and expensive to reorient later.

If optimal orientation can be achieved, it will reduce some of the heating requirement, reduce
energy costs and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Effective solar orientation requires a good understanding of sun paths at the site at different
times of the year.
p.c.t. - site layout:

Choosing a site:

Selecting a site is the first and perhaps most important step in the passive design process. If a site
is not suitable for passive design, some elements of the passive design ethos may not work in
favor of efficiency and comfort.

The most important factor is the amount of sun the site receives, as a site that receives little or no
sunlight can be used for passive solar design.

A flat site will generally have good sunlight access anywhere in New Zealand, but a south-facing
slope or a site adjacent to a tall building or substantial planting on the northern side, will not
receive good solar access.

An ideal site for passive solar design will:

  be flat or north-sloping

 be free of obstructions to the north (and be unlikely to be built out in future)

 be able to accommodate a building with a relatively large north-facing wall or walls for
maximum solar gain (as well as north-facing outdoor areas if those are wanted).

A site with north-south alignment is likely to receive midday sun and with minimal
overshadowing, but may have limited morning or evening sun. A site with east-west alignment is
more likely to be overshadowed to the north. Be wary of covenants that may prevent good
orientation, shading to the north from trees or buildings, south-facing slopes or views.

Building location:

For maximum solar gain, a building should in general be located near the site’s southern
boundary. In most cases, this is likely to reduce the risk of shading from neighboring properties,
and also provide sunny outdoor space.

However, the best location for solar access will vary from site to site depending on site shape,
orientation and topography; and shading from trees and neighboring buildings (or future
buildings).

As noted above, other factors such as views, wind, topography, and the location of trees and
neighboring buildings will also influence a building’s location on the site.

In areas where cooling is more of a priority than heating, factors such as access to breezes might
be more important than solar access.

Layout:

Rooms and outdoor spaces should be located to maximize comfort during use. In general, this
means living areas and outdoor spaces facing north, and service areas such as garages, laundries
and bathrooms to the south. See Room layout for more detail on suitable uses for north, south,
west and east-facing spaces.

Overcoming obstacles:
It is often not possible to obtain the ideal building orientation on a site (particularly in urban
areas) and compromise will be necessary – for example, where the view is to the south, the site
has a south-facing slope, there is a source of noise on the north side, or the view and sun face
into strong prevailing winds.

p.c.t. - solar control devices:

There are many different reasons to want to control the
amount of sunlight that is admitted into a building. In
warm, sunny climates excess solar gain may result in
high cooling energy consumption; in cold and temperate
climates winter sun entering south-facing windows can
positively contribute to passive solar heating; and in
nearly all climates controlling and diffusing natural
illumination will improve day lighting.

Well-designed sun control and shading devices can

dramatically reduce building peak heat gain and cooling
requirements and improve the natural lighting quality of
building interiors. Depending on the amount and location of fenestration, reductions in annual
cooling energy consumption of 5% to 15% have been reported. Sun control and shading devices
can also improve user visual comfort by controlling glare and reducing contrast ratios. This often
leads to increased satisfaction and productivity. Shading devices offer the opportunity of
differentiating one building facade from another. This can provide interest and human scale to an
otherwise undistinguished design.

The use of sun control and shading devices is an important aspect of many energy-efficient
building design strategies. In particular, buildings that employ passive solar heating or day
lighting often depend on well-designed sun control and shading devices.

During cooling seasons, external window shading is an excellent way to prevent unwanted solar
heat gain from entering a conditioned space. Shading can be provided by natural landscaping or
by building elements such as awnings, overhangs, and trellises. Some shading devices can also
function as reflectors, called light shelves, which bounce natural light for day lighting deep into
building interiors.

The design of effective shading devices will depend on the solar orientation of a particular
building facade. For example, simple fixed overhangs are very effective at shading south-facing
windows in the summer when sun angles are high. However, the same horizontal device is
ineffective at blocking low afternoon sun from entering west-facing windows during peak heat
gain periods in the summer.
Exterior shading devices are particularly effective in conjunction with clear glass facades.
However, high-performance glazings are now available that have very low shading coefficients
(SC). When specified, these new glass products reduce the need for exterior shading devices.

Thus, solar control and shading can be provided by a wide range of building components
including:

 Landscape features such as mature trees or hedge rows.

 Exterior elements such as overhangs or vertical fins.

 Horizontal reflecting surfaces called light shelves Low shading coefficient (SC) glass
and, Interior glare control devices such as Venetian blinds or adjustable louvers.

Fixed exterior shading devices such as overhangs are generally most practical for small
commercial buildings. The optimal length of an overhang depends on the size of the window and
the relative importance of heating and cooling in the building.

In the summer, peak sun angles occur at the solstice on June 21, but peak temperature and
humidity are more likely to occur in August. Remember that an overhang sized to fully shade a
south-facing window in August will also shade the window in April when some solar heat may
be desirable.

To properly design shading devices it is necessary to understand the position of the sun in the
sky during the cooling season. The position of the sun is expressed in terms of altitude and
azimuth angles.

The altitude angle is the angle of the sun above the horizon, achieving its maximum on a given
day at solar noon.

The azimuth angle, also known as the bearing angle, is the angle of the sun's projection onto the
ground plane relative to south.

An easily accessed source of information on sun angles and solar path diagrams is Architectural
Graphic Standards, 11th Edition, available from John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Publishers. Shading
devices can have a dramatic impact on building appearance this impact can be for the better or
for the worse. The earlier in the design process that shading devices are considered they more
likely they are to be attractive and well-integrated in the overall architecture of a project.
Designing Shading Systems:

Given the wide variety of buildings and the range of climates in which they can be found, it is
difficult to make sweeping generalizations about the design of shading devices. However, the
following design recommendations generally hold true:

 Use fixed overhangs on south-facing glass to control direct beam solar radiation. Indirect
(diffuse) radiation should be controlled by other measures, such as low-e glazing.

 To the greatest extent possible, limit the amount of east and west glass since it is harder
to shade than south glass. Consider the use of landscaping to shade east and west
exposures.

 Do not worry about shading north-facing glass in the continental United States latitudes
since it receives very little direct solar gain. In the tropics, disregard this rule-of-thumb
since the north side of a building will receive more direct solar gain. Also, in the tropics
consider shading the roof even if there are no skylights since the roof is a major source of
transmitted solar gain into the building.

 Remember that shading effects day lighting; consider both simultaneously. For example,
a light shelf bounces natural light deeply into a room through high windows while
shading lower windows.

 Do not expect interior shading devices such as Venetian blinds or vertical louvers to
reduce cooling loads since the solar gain has already been admitted into the work space.
However, these interior devices do offer glare control and can contribute to visual acuity
and visual comfort in the work place.

 Study sun angles. An understanding of sun angles is critical to various aspects of design
including determining basic building orientation, selecting shading devices, and placing
Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) panels or solar collectors.

 Carefully consider the durability of shading devices. Over time, operable shading devices
can require a considerable amount of maintenance and repair.
 When relying on landscape elements for shading, be sure to consider the cost of
landscape maintenance and upkeep on life-cycle cost.

 Shading strategies that work well at one latitude, may be completely inappropriate for
other sites at different latitudes. Be careful when applying shading ideas from one project
to another.
 Materials and Methods of
Construction:

In recent years, there has been a dramatic

increase in the variety of shading devices
and glazing available for use in buildings.
A wide range of adjustable shading
products is commercially available from
canvas awnings to solar screens, roll-
down blinds, shutters, and vertical
louvers. While they often perform well,
their practicality is limited by the need for
manual or mechanical manipulation.
Durability and maintenance issues are also a concern.

Require A&E professionals to fully specify all glass. They should be prepared to specify glass U-
value, SC, and Tvis and net window U-value for all fenestration systems. The shading coefficient
(SC) of a glazing indicates the amount of solar heat gain that is admitted into a building relative
to a single-glazed reference glass. Thus, a lower shading coefficient means less solar heat gain.
The visible transmittance (Tvis) of a glazing material indicates the percentage of the light
available in the visible portion of the spectrum admitted into a building. See also WBDG
Windows and Glazing.

When designing shading devices, carefully evaluate all operations and maintenance (O&M) and
safety implications. In some locations, hazards such as nesting birds or earthquakes may reduce
the viability of incorporating exterior shading devices in the design.

p.c.t. - passive daylight concept:

Day lighting is the use of natural light from the sky as a supplement for electric lighting in
buildings. Traditional day lighting systems differ in one major respect from passive heating
systems: they use the sky as a source of light and avoid letting direct sunlight into a building.
Since light from the sky is used in lieu of direct sunlight, day lighting systems function quite well
on overcast, partly cloudy, or clear days.

Day lighting:

Day lighting is an instantaneous use of the light from the sky. Therefore, day lighting systems
consist of collection and distribution components and do not include a storage component like
passive heating systems. However, much like solar thermal strategies, day lighting systems are
categorized according to the type of collection system used. Thus, there are three basic types of
day lighting systems:

 Side lighting

 Top lighting

 core day lighting

Day lighting is the most effective passive solar strategy in almost all commercial building types
because it reduces two major energy uses in these buildings: electric lighting and cooling.

Day lighting - is the practice of placing windows or other openings and reflective surfaces so
that during the day natural light provides effective internal lighting.

Particular attention is given to day lighting while designing a building when the aim is to
maximize visual comfort or to reduce energy use. Energy savings can be achieved from the
reduced use of artificial (electric) lighting or from passive solar heating or cooling.

Artificial lighting energy use can be reduced by simply installing fewer electric lights because
daylight is present, or by dimming/switching electric lights automatically in response to the
presence of daylight, a process known as daylight harvesting.

Day lighting is a technical term given to a common centuries-old, geography and culture
independent design basic when "rediscovered" by 20th century architects. The amount of
daylight received in an internal space can be analyzed by undertaking a daylight factor
calculation. Today, the use of computers and proprietary industry software such as Radiance can
allow an Architect or Engineer to quickly undertake complex calculations to review the benefit
of a particular design.

There is no direct sunlight on the polar-side wall of a building from the autumnal equinox to the
spring equinox [citation needed]. Traditionally, houses were designed with minimal windows on
the polar side but more and larger windows on the equatorial-side. Equatorial-side windows
receive at least some direct sunlight on any sunny day of the year (except in tropical latitudes in
summertime) so they are effective at day lighting areas of the house adjacent to the windows.

Even so, during mid-winter, light incidence is highly directional and casts deep shadows. This
may be partially ameliorated through light diffusion, light pipes or tubes, and through somewhat
reflective internal surfaces. In fairly low latitudes in summertime, windows that face east and
west and sometimes those that face toward the pole receive more sunlight than windows facing
toward the equator.

Windows - are the most common way to admit daylight into a space. Their vertical orientation
means that they selectively admit sunlight and diffuse daylight at different times of the day and
year. Therefore windows on multiple orientations must usually be combined to produce the right
mix of light for the building, depending on the climate and latitude. There are three ways to
improve the amount of light available from a window:

 Placing the window close to a light colored wall.

 Slanting the sides of window openings so the inner

 opening is larger than the outer opening.

 Using a large light colored window-sill to project light into the room.

 Different types and grades of glass and different window treatments can also affect the
amount of light transmission through the windows.
Roof-angle glass / Skylights:

Skylights admit harsh direct overhead sunlight and glare[25] either horizontally (a flat roof) or
pitched at the same angle as the roof slope. In some cases, horizontal skylights are used with
reflectors to increase the intensity of solar radiation (and harsh glare), depending on the roof
angle of incidence. When the winter sun is low on the horizon, most solar radiation reflects off of
roof angled glass ( the angle of incidence is nearly parallel to roof-angled glass morning and
afternoon ). When the summer sun is high, it is nearly perpendicular to roof-angled glass, which
maximizes solar gain at the wrong time of year, and acts like a solar furnace. Skylights should be
covered and well-insulated to reduce natural convection ( warm air rising ) heat loss on cold
winter nights, and intense solar heat gain during hot spring/summer/fall days.

The equator-facing side of a building is south in the northern hemisphere, and north in the
southern hemisphere. Skylights on roofs that face away from the equator provide mostly indirect
illumination, except for summer days when the sun rises on the non-equator side of the building
(depending on latitude). Skylights on east-facing roofs provide maximum direct light and solar
heat gain in the summer morning. West-facing skylights provide afternoon sunlight and heat gain
during the hottest part of the day.

Some skylights have expensive glazing that partially reduces summer solar heat gain, while still
allowing some visible light transmission. However, if visible light can pass through it, so can
some radiant heat gain (they are both electromagnetic radiation waves).

You can partially reduce some of the unwanted roof-angled-glazing summer solar heat gain by
installing a skylight in the shade of deciduous (leaf-shedding) trees, or by adding a movable
insulated opaque window covering on the inside or outside of the skylight. This would eliminate
the daylight benefit in the summer. If tree limbs hang over a roof, they will increase problems
with leaves in rain gutters, possibly cause roof-damaging ice dams, shorten roof life, and provide
an easier path for pests to enter your attic. Leaves and twigs on skylights are unappealing,
difficult to clean, and can increase the glazing breakage risk in wind storms.

Skylights provide daylight. The only view they provide is essentially straight up in most
applications. Well-insulated light tubes can bring daylight into northern rooms, without using a
skylight. A passive-solar greenhouse provides abundant daylight for the equator-side of the
building.
"Sawtooth roof glazing" with vertical-glass-only can bring some of the passive solar building
design benefits into the core of a commercial or industrial building, without the need for any
roof-angled glass or skylights.
p.c.t. - wind and ventilation:

Wind ventilation is a kind of passive ventilation that

uses the force of the wind to pull air through the
building. Wind ventilation is the easiest, most
common, and often least expensive form of passive
cooling and ventilation. Successful wind ventilation
is determined by having high thermal comfort and
adequate fresh air for the ventilated spaces, while
having little or no energy use for active HVAC
cooling and ventilation. Strategies for wind
ventilation include operable windows, ventilation
louvers, and rooftop vents, as well as structures to
aim or funnel breezes.

Windows are the most common tool. Advanced

systems can have automated windows or louvers
actuated by thermostats. If air moves through
openings that are intentional as a result of wind
ventilation, then the building has natural ventilation.

If air moves through openings that are not intentional as a result of wind ventilation, then the
building has infiltration, or unwanted ventilation (air leaking in).

The greatest pressure on the windward side of the building is generated when the elevation is at
right angles to the wind direction, so it seems to be obvious that the greatest indoor air velocity
will be achieved in this case.

A wind incidence of 45◦ would reduce pressure by 50% Thus the designer must ascertain the
prevailing wind direction from wind frequency charts of wind roses and must orientate the
building in such a way that the largest openings are facings the wind direction It has, however,
been found by Givoni that a wind incidence at 45◦ would increase the average indoor air velocity
and would provide a better distribution of indoor air movement.
 Tall buildings improve natural ventilation,
and in lower latitudes reduce sun exposure.

While thin and tall buildings can improve

the effectiveness of natural ventilation to
cool buildings, they also increase the
exposed area for heat transfer through the
building envelope. When planning urban
centers, specifically in heating dominated
climates, having the buildings gradually
increase in height will minimize high speed
winds at the pedestrian level which can
influence thermal comfort.

The height difference between neighboring

buildings should not exceed 100%

Orientation for maximum passive ventilation

The effectiveness of this strategy and aperture placement can be estimated. Here are some rules
of thumb for two scenarios in which windows are facing the direction of the prevailing wind:

 For spaces with windows on only one side, natural ventilation will not reach farther than
two times the floor to ceiling height into the building.

 For spaces with windows on opposite sides, the natural ventilation effectiveness limit will
be less than five times the floor to ceiling height into the building.

However, buildings do not have to face directly into the wind to achieve good cross-ventilation.
Internal spaces and structural elements can be designed to channel air through the building in
different directions. In addition, the prevailing wind directions listed by weather data may not be
the actual prevailing wind directions, depending on local site obstructions, such as trees or other
buildings. For buildings that feature a courtyard and are located in climates where cooling is
desired, orienting the courtyard 45 degrees from the prevailing wind maximizes wind in the
courtyard and cross ventilation through the building.
Natural ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air through an indoor space
without using mechanical systems. It refers to the flow of external air to an indoor space as a
result of pressure or temperature differences. There are two types of natural ventilation occurring
in buildings: wind driven ventilation and buoyancy-driven ventilation. While wind is the main
mechanism of wind driven ventilation, buoyancy-driven ventilation occurs as a result of the
directional buoyancy force that results from temperature differences between the interior and
exterior.

The impact of wind on the building form creates areas of positive pressure on the windward side
of a building and negative pressure on the leeward and sides of the building. Thus building shape
and local wind patterns are crucial in creating the wind pressures that will drive air flow through
its apertures. In practical terms wind pressure will vary considerably creating complex air flows
and turbulence by its interaction with elements of the natural environment (trees, hills) and urban
context (buildings, structures). Vernacular and traditional buildings in different climatic regions
rely heavily on natural ventilation for maintaining thermal comfort conditions in the enclosed
spaces.

Natural ventilation, also called passive ventilation, uses natural outside air movement and
pressure differences to both passively cool and ventilate a building. It can include design
strategies like wind ventilation, the stack effect, and night purge ventilation.

Active concepts/cooling
techniques
Includes:

a. Day lighting sensors

b. automatic blinds

c. rain sensors

d. motion detectors

e. integrated lighting control system

COOLING TECHNIQUES:
As the cooling demand is always a result of the
climatic conditions on the building site, cooling
strategies have to be adapted to regional
climate characteristics. Nevertheless measures
and strategies for the reduction of cooling
energy mentioned in this document are unique
principles to be applied to almost all European
climate zones. In general there are two
strategies to reduce the cooling demand in
buildings:

 Passive cooling strategies (on which

will be the main focus of this report)
  Active cooling strategies (like solar cooling)

Passive cooling strategies

The first step towards the reduction of energy consumption has to be done on the demand side.
A comprehensive reduction of the cooling load can be realized by following measures:

Building design

 Reduction of solar gains – Size and orientation of transparent building elements

(applicable mainly for new buildings)

Orientation and size of transparent building elements (windows) have an important influence on
the cooling demand. North orientation of offices will generate best results for the cooling energy
demand, but worst results for the heating energy demand, so in the Middle European climate
pure south orientation is the best orientation for the reduction of the heating and the cooling
energy demand, whereby east and west orientation lead to worst results for the cooling energy
demand.
Daylighting sensors:

Daylight sensors in conjunction with well-

designed lighting systems can maximize the
qualities of daylight. The highest efficiency can
be reached in environments with ample daylight
coming through windows. The intensity of
artificial lighting is constantly adjusted to reflect
the incoming natural luminous flux. At noon all
or most of the illumination can be provided by
sun while early or late in the day this function is
taken over by the artificial lighting system.

Saves energy:
• Reduces energy consumption by dimming or turning off electric lights based on the natural
daylight entering the space

• Can deliver up to 60% lighting energy savings in some areas Provides comfort and convenience

• Helps maintain the proper light level for a space, so a space is never too dark or too bright

• Continuously adjusts lights automatically so occupants don’t have to manually adjust them as
daylight levels change.

Meets codes and standards:

• Meets the mandatory requirements set for building construction and renovation

Automatic blinds:

Automatic blind is a type of window

covering. There are many different kinds of
window blinds which use a variety of control
systems. A typical window blind is made up
of several long horizontal or vertical slats of
various types of fabric, wood, plastic or
metal which are held together by cords that
run through the blind slats. Window blinds
can be adjusted by rotating them from an
open position to a closed position with either
a manual or remote control which allows the
slats to overlap and block out most of the
light. There are also several types of window
blinds that use a single piece of material
instead of slats.

A window blind is also known as a window

shade.

The term window blinds is also sometimes

used to describe window coverings
generically—in this context window blinds include almost every type of window covering, i.e.
shutters, roller blinds, honeycomb shades, wood blinds, roman blinds and of course, standard
vertical and horizontal blinds. In the United Kingdom awnings are sometimes called blinds or
shades.
Blinds can be made in a variety of materials, some expensive, and some less so. Cheaper blinds
are usually made in vinyl, polyester, aluminum, or PVC. These are inexpensive materials that are
all easily accessible and durable at the same time.

Roller blinds:

 These are usually stiffened polyester, mounted on a metal pole and operated with a side
chain or spring mechanism. Lower cost and ready-made blinds often come with a PVC
pole.
Rain sensor:
A rain sensor or rain switch is a switching
device activated by rainfall. There are two main
applications for rain sensors. The first is a water
conservation device connected to an automatic
irrigation system that causes the system to shut
down in the event of rainfall. The second is a
device used to protect the interior of an
automobile from rain and to support the
automatic mode of windscreen wipers.

An additional application in professional satellite

communications antennas is to trigger a rain
blower on the aperture of the antenna feed, to
remove water droplets from the mylar cover that keeps pressurized and dry air inside the wave-
guides.

Irrigation sensors:

 Rain sensors for irrigation systems are available in both wireless and hard-wired versions,
most employing hygroscopic disks that swell in the presence of rain and shrink back
down again as they dry out — an electrical switch is in turn depressed or released by the
hygroscopic disk stack, and the rate of drying is typically adjusted by controlling the
ventilation reaching the stack.

 However, some electrical type sensors are also marketed that use tipping bucket or
conductance type probes to measure rainfall. Wireless and wired versions both use
similar mechanisms to temporarily suspend watering by the irrigation controller —
specifically they are connected to the irrigation controller's sensor terminals, or are
installed in series with the solenoid valve common circuit such that they prevent the
opening of any valves when rain has been sensed.
Motion detectors:
A motion detector is a device that detects
moving objects, particularly people. A motion
detector is often integrated as a component of
a system that automatically performs a task or
alerts a user of motion in an area. Motion
detectors form a vital component of security,
automated lighting control, home control,
energy efficiency, and other useful systems.

An electronic motion detector contains an

optical, microwave, or acoustic sensor, and in
many cases a transmitter for illumination.
However a passive sensor only senses a signal
emitted by the moving object itself.

Changes in the optical, microwave, or acoustic field in the device's proximity are interpreted by
the electronics based on one of the technologies listed below.

Most inexpensive motion detectors can detect up to distances of at least 15 feet (5 meters).
Specialized systems are more expensive but have much longer ranges.

Tomographic motion detection systems can cover much larger areas because the radio waves
are at frequencies which penetrate most walls and obstructions, and are detected in multiple
locations, not just at the location of the transmitter.

Tomographic motion detector:

 Tomographic motion detection systems sense disturbances to radio waves as they pass
from node to node of a mesh network. They have the ability to detect over complete areas
because they can sense through walls and obstructions.

Integrated lighting control system:

 Integrated lighting control systems is are
intelligent network based lighting control
solution that incorporates communication
between various system inputs and outputs
related to lighting control with the use of one
or more central computing devices. Lighting
control systems are widely used on both
indoor and outdoor lighting of commercial,
industrial, and residential spaces. Lighting
control systems serve to provide the right
amount of light where and when it is needed.

Lighting control systems are employed to

maximize the energy savings from the
lighting system, satisfy building codes, or
comply with green building and energy
conservation programs. Lighting control systems are often referred to under the term Smart
Lighting.

Advantage:

 The major advantage of a lighting control system over stand-alone lighting controls or
conventional manual switching is the ability to control individual lights or groups of
lights from a single user interface device. This ability to control multiple light sources
from a user device allows complex lighting scenes to be created. A room may have
multiple scenes pre-set, each one created for different activities in the room. A major
benefit of lighting control systems is reduced energy consumption. Longer lamp life is
also gained when dimming and switching off lights when not in use.

 Wireless lighting control systems provide additional benefits including reduced

installation costs and increased flexibility over where switches and sensors may be
placed.