Ch-Electric charges:-

Le-Static electricity:
Static Electricity: It is the motion of charged particles causes electrical effects, small
shocks, lightning and sparks. Electrical fields cause forces to act on charged particles.

Electrical charges: All matter consists of atoms. Atoms contain three types of smaller
particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. Of these three, both the protons and
electrons are charged.

Protons are positively charged. Electrons are negatively charged.

Objects that are charged can affect other charged objects using the non-contact forces
of static electricity.

Electrons orbit a nucleus

Generally, the atom has a neutral charge, but if it loses an electron, it becomes
positively charged and if the atom gains an electron, it becomes negatively charged.
Charged atoms are called ‘ions’.

Charging by friction: When insulating materials rub against each other, they may
become electrically charged. Electrons, which are negatively charged, may be ‘rubbed
off’ one material and on to the other. The material that gains electrons becomes
negatively charged. The material that loses electrons is left with a positive charge.
A plastic rod covered in negative charges is placed next to a duster covered in positive
charges.

The duster is rubbed back and forth along the plastic rod.

Electrons carrying a negative charge are transferred and now reside on the duster

When a polythene rod is rubbed with a duster, the friction causes electrons to gain
energy. Electrons gain enough energy to leave the atom and ‘rub off’ onto the
polythene rod.

 The polythene rod has gained electrons, giving it a negative charge.

 The duster has lost electrons, giving it a positive charge.
If the rod is swapped for a different material such as acetate, electrons are rubbed off
the acetate and onto the duster.

 The acetate rod has lost electrons, giving it a positive charge.

 The duster has gained electrons, giving it a negative charge.

Both the rods and the duster are made of insulating materials. Insulators prevent the
electrons from moving and the charge remains static. Conductors, on the other hand,
cannot become charged, as the electrons can move through them.

Connecting a static charge to earth using a conductor (earthing) will remove the excess
charge as electrons will move to cancel out the charge.

Electrical forces: A charged object will experience non-contact force from another
charged object. The type of force will depend on the type of charge (positive or
negative) on the two objects.

The properties of attraction and repulsion are often used to show that an object is
charged:

 a charged rod can pick up small pieces of paper

 a charged balloon can stick to the wall by attraction
 a charged rod can pull a stream of water towards it.

Example: If a negatively charged plastic rod is brought near to another negatively

charged rod, the rods will move apart as they repel each other. If a positively charged
rod is brought close to a negatively charged rod, the rods will pull together as they
attract each other.

The forces of attraction or repulsion are greater when the charged objects are closer.
Question: If a cloth rubs a plastic rod and the cloth is pulled away from the rod slightly,
will the rod and cloth attract, repel or experience no force at all?

Answer: The rod and cloth will attract. This is true as long as there is enough friction
to transfer electrons.

 If electrons are rubbed off the cloth and onto the rod - the cloth will be positively
charged and the rod will be negatively charged.
 If electrons are rubbed off the rod and onto the cloth - the cloth will be negatively
charged and the rod will be positively charged.

In both cases, the opposite charges will attract.

Uses and dangers of electrostatics:

There are many industrial uses of static electricity. These make use of both repulsion
of like charges, and attraction of opposite charges.

a) Insecticides:
Insecticide sprays from aircraft can be electrostatically charged so that they
cover a large area. With this method there is less risk that some of the spray will
blow away or fall unevenly. The droplets of insecticide are all given the same
static charge as they leave the aircraft. The static drops spread evenly as they all
have the same charge and repel each other. They are also attracted to the earth,
so will fall quickly and are less likely to blow away.

b) Photocopiers:
Photocopiers also use static electricity to attract the small particles of ink onto the
paper in the right places.

c) The electrostatic precipitator:

To clean small particles from smoke before it leaves an industrial chimney, a
machine called an electrostatic precipitator will use static electricity to attract the
particles.
Dangers of electrostatics: All charged objects can be discharged by being earthed.
This may happen safely by connecting them to the earth with a conductor.

If the charge is very large, a spark to the earth may happen unexpectedly. Sparks like
this can be dangerous, potentially igniting a fire. A build-up of static charge is a
potential danger when refuelling aircraft or vehicles. Fuel running through the pipes can
provide the friction needed to create a static charge. To prevent this, aircraft are
earthed with a conductor during refuelling.

Less dangerous, but sometimes painful, a spark discharge may happen if a charged
person touches an earthed conductor. For example, a person dragging their feet
across the carpet may become charged. If they then reach out to touch a door handle
or another person, there is a spark and they feel a small shock.

Electric fields: All charged objects have an electric field around them that determines
how they will interact with other charged particles.

A Van de Graaff generator removes electrons to produce a positive charge. A person

does not have to touch the Van de Graaff generator to start feeling the effects, as static
electricity is a non-contact force. This force will act on any charged particle in the
electric field around the generator.

A person touching the dome of the Van de Graaff generator will also lose electrons and
become positively charged. The same will happen to each of their hairs. Since the
person, their head, and each of the hair follicles are all positively charged, the hairs will
repel from the head and from every other strand causing them to stick out from the
head in all directions.
Electric field shapes: An electric field is a region where charges experience a force.
Fields are usually shown as diagrams with arrows:

 The direction of the arrow shows the way a positive charge will be pushed.
 The closer together the lines are, the stronger the field and the greater the force
experienced by charges in that field. This means that the field is stronger closer
to the object.

Field lines point away from positive charges and towards negative charges.

In a radial field around a positive charge, other positive charges are repelled away.
Therefore, the arrows point away from the central positive charge. This is what
happens with a Van de Graaff generator.However, a negative charge placed in that
field would attract the positive charge and feel a force in the opposite direction to the
field lines.

The field between two parallel plates, one positive and the other negative, is a uniform
field. The field lines are straight, parallel and point from positive to negative. If the field
is strong enough, charges can be forced though insulators such as air and a spark will
occur. This is what happens during a lightning strike.
 Le-Uses and dangers of static electricity:
Conductors allow an electric charge to pass through them, but insulators do not.
Objects can be positively charged, negatively charged or neutral. Static electricity can
be useful but dangerous.

Conductors and insulators:

1) Conductors allow electricity to flow through them easily: Metals are good
examples of electrical conductors. For example, the copper in the wires that
connect a television to the plug socket is an electrical conductor.

2) Insulators prevent the flow of electricity: Plastics are good examples of

insulators. In the image, the insulator (plastic) surrounds the conductor (copper
wire). The insulating plastic stops you getting an electric shock from the wires
that carry the electricity.

Electrical cables

Electrostatics: Objects can be positively charged, negatively charged or neutral.

A substance that gains electrons becomes negatively charged, while a substance that
loses electrons becomes positively charged. Atoms or molecules that become charged
are called ions. When a charged object comes near to another object the two objects
will either attract or repel each other:-

 if the charges are the same – they repel.

 if the charges are opposite – they attract.
 if one is charged and the other is not – they may attract depending on the nature
of the substances.
Like charges repel, and unlike charges attract.

By static electricity you can get an electrostatic shock if you are electrically ‘charged’
and you touch something that is earthed, or if you’re earthed and you touch something
that is charged. For example, when you walk on a vinyl floor or a nylon carpet you
‘charge up’ because of friction. You can earth yourself, and so get an electrostatic
shock by touching a metal door handle, water pipe, or even another person. In this
slideshow the man picks up electrons as he walks over the carpet:

The carpet is covered with electrons. As the man walks, he picks up electric charges.
When they shake hands the electricity discharges through the woman, giving her a
shock

Problems with static: Here are some examples of problems associated with static:-

 it is a nuisance when dust and dirt are attracted to insulators such as TV screens
and computer monitors.
 it is a nuisance when clothes made from synthetic materials cling to each other
and to the body, especially just after they’ve been in a tumble dryer

Anti-static sprays, liquids and cloths prevent the build-up of charge by allowing it to
conduct away.

Dangers of static: Static electricity can build up in clouds. This can cause a huge
spark to form between the ground and the cloud. This causes lightning – a flow of
charge through the atmosphere. Here are some examples of dangers associated with
static electricity:-

 It is dangerous when there are flammable gases or a high concentration of

oxygen. A spark could ignite the gases and cause an explosion.
 It is dangerous when you touch something with a large electric charge on it. The
charge will flow through your body causing an electric shock. This could cause
burns or even stop your heart. A person could die from an electric shock.
Refuelling aircrafts and tankers also poses a particular danger. If the fuel passing along
the hose to the vehicle was allowed to build up a static charge, a resulting spark might
ignite the fuel. The hoses are earthed to stop this occurring.

Uses of static electricity: Static electricity can also be useful. Here are some
examples from industry and everyday life.

1) Electrostatic precipitators: Many power stations burn fossil fuels such as coal
and oil. Smoke is produced when these fuels
burn. Smoke comprises tiny solid particles,
such as unreacted carbon, which can damage
buildings and cause breathing difficulties. To
avoid this, the smoke is removed from waste
gases before they pass out of the chimneys.
The electrostatic precipitator is the device
used for this job. The flow chart outlines how
an electrostatic precipitator works.

i. Smoke particles pick up a negative charge.

ii. Smoke particles are attracted to the collecting plates.
iii. Collecting plates are
knocked to remove the
smoke particles.
2) Photocopiers; This flow chart
outlines how a photocopier
works. Ink jet printers use static
electricity to guide a tiny jet of
ink to the correct place on the
page. Laser printers work in a
similar way.
 Ch-Electrical resistance

Le-Resistance:

Electrical current depends on resistance and potential difference. Different electrical

components have different characteristics. These can be investigated using suitable
circuits and apparatus.

Current, potential difference and resistance: The current in a circuit depends on the
potential difference and the resistance. It is easy to think of each of these in the
following way:

 the current is the flow of electric charges

 the potential difference provides the 'push'
 the resistance restricts the flow of charges

Resistance: Electric wires are made of metal, which have electrical resistance. The
atoms in a solid metal are arranged in a regular lattice structure. The outer electrons
from each atom are free to move through the structure, forming a current. However,
they may collide with atoms or meet defects in the lattice. This reduces the number of
electrons flowing, which reduces the current. Conductors have a low resistance and
insulators have a high resistance.

Calculating potential difference: When a charge moves through a potential

difference, electrical work is done and energy is transferred. Potential difference can be
calculated using the equation:

Potential difference = current × resistance ( V = I * R )

This is when:

 potential difference is measured in volts (V)

 current is measured in amps (A)
 resistance is measured in ohms (Ω)

One volt is the potential difference when one coulomb of charge transfers one
joule of energy.
Resistance in series and parallel circuits

Resistors in series: In a series circuit the total resistance across all of the
components (the 'net resistance') increases as more components are added.

The two resistors have the same current flowing through

them. The potential difference across them will be different if
they have different resistances. The total resistance for this
circuit is: R1 + R2.

Resistors in parallel: In a parallel circuit the net resistance

decreases as more components are added, because there are more paths for the
current to flow through.

The two resistors have the same potential difference across them. The current flowing
through them will be different if they have different resistances. The total current in the
circuit is the sum of the currents through each branch. The total resistance for this
circuit is calculated by dividing the potential difference of the cell by the total current for
the circuit.

Current-voltage graphs:

Different devices have different resistance characteristics. These can be investigated

using graphs that show:

 current on the vertical axis

 potential difference on the horizontal axis

These are known as current-voltage graphs or I-V graphs.

Linear circuit elements: Components which show a straight line I-V graph are linear
circuit elements. They are also sometimes called 'ohmic circuit elements'. This means
that current is directly proportional to potential difference for that component. This is
called Ohm's Law. It is true for a fixed resistor or resistor wire at a constant
temperature.

The I-V graph for a linear circuit element.

Non-linear circuit elements: Components which show I-V graphs that are not straight
lines are non-linear circuit elements. The current through them is not directly
proportional to the potential difference across them.

Resistors and filament bulbs: Non-linear circuit elements include fixed resistors that
become hot, and filament bulbs which become hot and glow. The shape of the I-V
graph changes as the temperature of the component increases. When the component
becomes hotter, the atoms in the metal lattice vibrate more. More collisions occur
between the free electrons and atoms, increasing the resistance. An increase in the
potential difference will allow the current to increase, but only up to a certain point.
Diodes: A diode has a very high resistance in one direction. This means that current
can only flow in the other direction.

LDRs and thermistors: Light dependent resistors or LDRs are made of

semiconductor material. Their resistance decreases as the light intensity increases.
LDRs can be used to switch lights on or off automatically, such as stadium lights which
come on when it gets dark.

Thermistors are also made of semiconductor material.

Their resistance decreases as the temperature increases.
Thermistors are used to control temperatures in many
devices, such as ovens and central heating systems.
Suggested practical - Circuit components; There are different ways to investigate
the relationship between current and potential difference for different circuit elements.
In this practical activity, it is important to:

 use appropriate apparatus and methods to measure current and potential

difference
 measure and record current and potential difference for a resistor, filament bulb
and diode

Resistor and filament bulb

Aims: To investigate the relationship between current and potential difference for a
resistor and a filament bulb.

Method

1) connect the circuit as shown in the diagram

2) ensure that the power supply is set to zero at the start
 3) record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter
4) use the variable resistor to alter the potential difference
5) record the new readings
6) repeat steps 3 to 5, increasing the potential difference slightly each time
7) repeat steps 1 to 6, but with the power supply reversed
8) repeat the experiment, but replace the fixed resistor with a bulb.

Results: Record the results in a suitable table. This one shows some example results
for a 10 Ω fixed resistor.

Potential difference (V) Current (A)

0.5 0.05
1.0 0.10
1.5 0.15
2.0 0.20

Analysis: Plot a graph of current against potential difference for each component.

An I-V graph for a fixed resistor at a

constant temperature

An I-V graph for a filament bulb.

Evaluation: For a fixed resistor, the potential difference is directly proportional to the
current, so doubling the amount of energy into the resistor results in a current twice as
fast through the resistor. This relationship is called Ohm's Law and is true because the
resistance of the resistor is fixed and does not change. A resistor is an ohmic
conductor. In a filament bulb, the current does not increase as fast as the potential
difference. Doubling the amount of energy does not cause a current twice as fast. The
more energy that is put into the bulb, the harder it is for the current to flow - the
resistance of the bulb increases. As the potential difference increases, so does the
temperature of the thin wire inside the bulb, the filament. This increases the resistance
of the filament.

Semiconductor diode

Aims: To investigate the relationship between current and potential difference for a
diode.

Method:

 Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. The diode must be protected with a
suitable protective resistor (between 100 Ω and 500 Ω).
  Set the variable resistor to give the lowest potential difference. Record the
readings on the voltmeter and milli-ammeter (an ammeter capable of reading to
±1 mA).
 Alter the variable resistor to increase the potential difference by 0.2 V.
 Record the new readings.
 Repeat steps 3 and 4, increasing the current slightly each time.
 Reverse the power supply connections and repeat steps 2 to 6.

Results: Record the results in a suitable table. This one shows some example results.

Potential difference (V) Current (A)

0.2 0
0.4 0
0.6 0
0.8 0
1.0 0
1.2 0
1.4 1
1.6 3
1.8 8
2.0 20

Analysis: Plot a graph of current against potential difference.

Evaluation: A semiconductor diode only allows current to flow in one direction. In one
direction, the diode's resistance is very large and no current will flow. In the other
direction, the diode's resistance is smaller and current will flow. In this direction, the
diode's resistance is very large at low potential differences. At higher potential
differences, the resistance quickly drops and current begins to flow.

Hazards and control measures:

Hazard Consequence Control measures

Heating of the Burns to the skin Do not touch the resistance wire whilse the
resistance wire circuit is connected, and allow time to cool

Electrical power: Power is the rate of transfer of energy between energy stores.

One watt is equal to one joule per second (J/s).

Energy transferred: The energy transferred can be calculated using the equation:

Energy transferred = power × time

This is when:

 energy is measured in joules (J)

  power is measured in watts (W)
 time is measured in seconds (s)

Power, potential difference and current: Electrical power can be calculated using
the equation:

Power = potential difference × current

This is when:

 power is measured in watts (W)

 potential difference is measured in volts (V)
 current is measured in amps (A)

Power, current and resistance: Electrical power can also be calculated using the
equation:

Power = (current)^2 × resistance

This is when:

 power is measured in watts (W)

 current is measured in amps (A)
 resistance is measured in ohms (Ω)

Le-Electric resistance:

Current transfers energy around circuits. Circuit components have various properties
that can be measured and then used to make circuits for control and testing other
components.

Electric circuit symbols

Symbols: The following symbols show the different components that can be found in
an electrical circuit.
Components: Some of the more common components are:

1) Switch: A switch is used to turn a circuit on (closed) and off (open).

2) Lamp: An electrical current heats the filament in a bulb so that it gives out light.

3) Fixed resistor: A resistor restricts or limits the flow of electrical current. A fixed
resistor has a resistance that does not change.
 4) Variable resistor: Adjusting this resistor changes its resistance. A variable
resistor is used in some dimmer switches and volume controls.

5) Thermistor: The resistance of a thermistor depends on its temperature. At low

temperatures, the thermistor has a high resistance. As the temperature
increases, the resistance decreases. A thermistor can be used in thermostats or
heat activated fire alarms.

6) Light-dependent resistor (LDR): The resistance of a LDR depends on light

intensity. At low light levels, the LDR has a high resistance. As the light intensity
increases, the resistance decreases. A LDR can be used as a sensor in cameras
or automatic lights that come on when it gets dark.

7) Semiconductor diode: A semiconductor diode allows current to flow in one

direction only. Current will not flow in the other direction. Diodes are used to
convert an alternating current into a direct current.

Electrical charge and current: There are two types of current - direct and alternating.
In a direct current, the flow of electrons is consistently in one direction around the
circuit, in an alternating current, the direction of electron flow continually reverses.

Charge: Electrons are negatively charged particles and they transfer energy through
wires as electricity. Charge is a property of a body which experiences a force in an
electric field. Charge is measured in coulombs (C).

Since electrons are so small and one electron will not have much of an effect
anywhere, it is more useful to refer to large groups of electrons. One coulomb of
charge is equivalent to 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.

Current: In a closed circuit that includes a source of potential difference (voltage) there
will be a current flowing around the circuit.

Electrical current in a metal is a flow of electrons

When current flows, electrical work is done and energy transferred. The amount of
charge passing a point in the circuit can be calculated using the equation:
Charge = current × time ( Q = I * t )

This is when:

 charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C)

 current (I) is measured in amperes (A)
 time (t) is measured in seconds (s)

One ampere is the current that flows when one coulomb of charge passes a point in a
circuit in one second.

'Amps' is an abbreviation for 'amperes', the unit for current (also abbreviated as
'A') but the symbol for 'current' is 'I'.

Measuring current: Current is measured using an ammeter. To measure the current

through a component, the ammeter must be placed in series with that component.

Potential difference and resistance:

Potential difference: The current through a component depends on both the

resistance of the component and the potential difference across the component.

Potential difference is a measure of how much energy is transferred between

two points in a circuit.
 To measure the potential difference across a
component, a voltmeter must be placed in
parallel with that component in order to measure
the difference in energy from one side of the
component to the other. Potential difference is
also known as voltage and is measured in volts
(V).

Energy, voltage and charge: When a charge moves through a potential difference,
electrical work is done and energy transferred. The energy transferred can be
calculated using the equation:

Energy transferred = charge moved × potential difference ( E = Q * V )

This is when:

 potential difference (V) is measured in volts (V)

 energy (E) is measured in joules (J)
 charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C)

One volt is the potential difference when one coulomb of charge transfers one joule of
energy.

Potential difference and resistance

Potential difference: The current through a component depends on both the
resistance of the component and the potential difference across the component.

Potential difference is a measure of how much energy is transferred between

two points in a circuit.

Measuring potential difference: To measure the potential difference across a

component, a voltmeter must be placed in parallel with that component in order to
measure the difference in energy from one side of the component to the other.
Potential difference is also known as voltage and is measured in volts (V).

Energy, voltage and charge: When a charge moves through a potential difference,
electrical work is done and energy transferred. The energy transferred can be
calculated using the equation:

Energy transferred = charge moved × potential difference ( E = Q * V )

This is when:

 potential difference (V) is measured in volts (V)

 energy (E) is measured in joules (J)
 charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C)

One volt is the potential difference when one coulomb of charge transfers one joule of
energy.

Conductors have a low resistance. Insulators have large resistances

Required practical - investigate current - voltage graphs: There are different ways
to investigate the relationship between current and potential difference. In this required
practical activity, it is important to:
  measure and observe current and potential difference
 use appropriate apparatus and methods to measure current and potential
difference for a resistor, bulb and diode

(1) (2)

(1)

Aim: To investigate the relationship between current and potential difference for a
resistor, bulb and diode.

Method:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in the first diagram.

2) Adjust the variable resistor so that the potential difference is very low or zero at
the start.
3) Record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter.
4) Use the variable resistor to increase the potential difference.
5) Record the new readings on the voltmeter and ammeter.
6) Repeat steps three to four, each time increasing the potential difference slightly.
7) Reverse the power supply connections and repeat steps two to six.
8) Repeat the experiment but replace the fixed resistor with a bulb.
9) Plot a graph of current against potential difference for each component.

Results for a 10 ohm fixed resistor may look like this:

Potential difference (V) Current (A)

0.5 0.05
1.0 0.10
1.5 0.15
2.0 0.20
… …
Analysis:

Evaluation: For a fixed resistor, the potential difference is directly proportional to the
current. Doubling the amount of energy into the resistor results in a current twice as big
through the resistor. This relationship is called Ohm's Law and is true because the
resistance of the resistor is fixed and does not change. A resistor is an ohmic
conductor.

(2) For a filament bulb, the results may look like this:

Potential Difference (V) Current (A)

0.5 0.10
1.0 0.20
1.5 0.35
2.0 0.50
2.5 0.65
3.0 0.78
3.5 0.90
4.0 1.00
4.5 1.08
5.0 1.15
5.5 1.20
6.0 1.25
6.5 1.31
7.0 1.36
7.5 1.38
8.0 1.41
8.5 1.44
9.0 1.46
9.5 1.48
10,0 1.50
… …

Evaluation: In a filament bulb, the

current does not increase as fast as the
potential difference. Doubling the amount
of energy does not cause a current twice
as big. The more energy that is put into
the bulb, the harder it is for the current to
flow - the resistance of the bulb
increases. As the potential difference
increases, so does the temperature of the
thin wire inside the bulb, the filament. The
increased vibrations of the ions in the
filament because of the increased
temperature make it harder for the
electrons to get past.

Further components: The above

experiment could also be used to
investigate the variation in resistance of a thermistor as the temperature changes, and
the variation in resistance of a light-dependent resistor as the light level is altered.

Series circuits: In series circuits, electrical components are connected one after
another in a single loop.

Circuit rules: An electron will pass through every component on its way round the
circuit. If one of the bulbs is broken then current will not be able to flow round the
circuit. If one bulb goes out, they all go out.
Current in series: A series circuit is one loop; all electrons in that loop form one
current. An ammeter will measure the same current wherever it is placed in the circuit:

This is when:

 current (I) is measured in amps (A)

Potential difference in series. The current will

transfer energy from the power supply to the
components in the circuit. Since energy has to be
conserved, all of the source energy is shared
between the components. Since potential
difference is used to measure changes in energy,
the potential difference supplied is equal to the
total of the potential differences across all other
components:
Vs = V1 +V2+…

 Potential difference (V) is measured in volts (v).

Resistance in series: If resistors are connected in series,

the current must flow through both of them, so the
resistance is increased. To find the total resistance, the
resistances are added together: ( Rt = R1 + R2 )

(Resistance (R) is measured in ohms (Ω))

In series circuits:

 current is the same through each component

 the total potential difference of the power supply is shared between the
components
 the total resistance of the circuit is the sum of individual resistors
Parallel circuits: In parallel circuits, electrical components are connected alongside
one another forming extra loops.
Circuit rules: An electron will not pass through every component on its way round the
circuit. If one of the bulbs is broken then current will still be able to flow round the circuit
through the other loop. If one bulb goes out, the other will stay on.

Current in parallel: Since there are different loops, the current will split as it leaves the
cell and pass through one or other of the loops. An ammeter placed in different parts of
the circuit will show how the current splits:

I1 = I2 + I4 = I3 (I=Current)

Potential difference in parallel: Since energy has to be

conserved, the energy transferred around the circuit by
the electrons is the same whichever path the electrons
follow. Since potential difference is used to measure
changes in energy, the potential difference supplied is
equal to the potential differences across each of the
parallel components:

Resistance in parallel: If resistors are connected in parallel

so that the current will flow through either one or the other, but
not both, then the overall resistance is reduced.

In parallel circuits:

 the total current supplied is split between the

components on different loops
 potential difference is the same across each loop
 the total resistance of the circuit is reduced as the
current can follow multiple paths

Required practical - investigating series and parallel

circuits: There are different ways to investigate resistor
networks. In this required practical activity, it is important to:

 record potential difference and current accurately

 use appropriate apparatus and methods to measure potential difference and
current to work out resistance
Aim: To compare the total resistance in series and parallel arrangements.

Method:

1) Set up the circuit as shown in figure 1, turn the power supply on and close the
switch.
2) Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings and calculate the resistance of the
resistor using R = V/I, where R is resistance, V is potential difference and I is
current.
3) Change the resistor and repeat step two to find the resistance of a second
resistor.
4) Arrange the two resistors in series as shown in figure 2 and close the switch.
5) Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings once again and determine the total
resistance of both resistors in series using R = V/I.
6) Arrange the two resistors in parallel as shown in figure 3 and close the switch.
7) Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings once again and calculate the total
resistance of both resistors in parallel.

This is what the results could look like:

Resistor Potential difference Current (A) Resistance (Ω)

(V)
R1 4.00 0.40 10
R2 4.00 0.40 10
In series 4.00 0.20 20
In parallel 4.00 0.80 5
Analysis

 in series, the resistance of the network is equal to the sum of the two individual
resistances
 in parallel, the resistance of the network is less than either of the two individual
resistances

Evaluation: Placing the resistors in series causes the resistance to be double that of a
single resistor because there is only one path for the electrons to follow - the supply
must drive current through one resistor and then the other. Placing the resistors in
parallel causes the resistance to be half that of a single resistor. The outcomes of this
experiment are the same using filament lamps, or combinations of resistors and lamps,
as the lamps act as resistors.

Hazards and control measures:

Hazards Consequence control measures

Heating of wires and resistors Minor burns Set up circuit before closing the switch

Energy and power in electric circuits:

Heating up wires: As electrons flow through wires, they collide with the ions in the
wire which causes the ions to vibrate more. This increased vibration of the ions
increases the temperature of the wire. Energy has been transferred from the chemical
energy store of the battery into the internal energy store of the wire. The amount of
energy transferred each second (power) between the energy stores can be calculated
using the equation:

Power = current × potential difference ( P = I * V )

This is when:

 power (P) is measured in watts (W)

 current (I) is measured in amps (A)
 potential difference (V) is measured in volts (V)

One watt is equal to one joule per second (J/s). Power dissipated in a resistance can
also be written as:

Power = current2 × resistance ( P = I^2 * R )

 power (P) is measured in watts (W)

 current (I) is measured in amps (A)
 resistance (R) is measured in ohms (Ω)

Efficient transmission of power – Higher: Energy can be transferred by an electrical

current - any electrical appliance needs to be given enough energy every second.
Electrical power can be delivered as a low current with a high voltage, or a high current
with a low voltage.

Power = current2 × resistance ( P = I^2 * R )

The equation shows that a high current will have a much higher heating effect on the
transmission wires than a low current. For this reason, transmitting energy at a high
voltage with a low current will keep the wires cooler and waste less energy. Reducing
the resistance of the wires will also reduce unwanted energy transfer, but reducing the
current will have a much more significant effect.

Le-What determines the rate of energy transfer in a circuit? - OCR 21C:

Electrical current transfers energy around circuits. The power is the rate at which a
circuit transfers energy.
Electrical power: Power is the rate of transfer of energy between energy stores.

One watt (W) is equal to one joule per second (J/s).

Energy transferred: The energy transferred can be calculated using the equation:

Power= Energy transferred/Time

This is when:

 power is measured in watts (W)

 energy is measured in joules (J)
 time is measured in seconds (s)

Energy, voltage and charge: When a charge moves through a potential difference,
electrical work is done and energy transferred. The energy transferred can be
calculated using the equation:

Energy transferred, work done, J = charge, C × potential difference, V ( E = V * Q )

This is when:

 energy (E) is measured in joules (J)

 potential difference (V) is measured in volts (V)
 charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C)

One volt is the potential difference when one coulomb of charge transfers one joule of
energy.

Energy and power in electric circuits:

Heating up wires: As electrons flow through wires, they collide with the ions in the
wire which causes the ions to vibrate more. This increased vibration of the ions
increases the temperature of the wire. Energy has been transferred from the chemical
energy store of the battery into the internal energy store of the wire. The amount of
energy transferred each second (power) between the energy stores can be calculated
using the equation:

Power = potential difference × current ( P = V * I )

This is when:

 power (P) is measured in watts (W)

 potential difference (V) is measured in volts (V)
  current (I) is measured in amps (A)

One watt is equal to one joule per second (J/s).

Efficient transmission of power: Energy can be transferred by an electrical current;

electrical appliances need to be given enough energy every second to work properly.
Electrical power can be delivered as a low current with a high voltage, or a high current
with a low voltage.

Power = current2 × resistance

The equation shows that a high current will have a much higher heating effect on the
transmission wires than a low current. For this reason, transmitting energy at a high
voltage with a low current will keep the wires cooler and waste less energy.

Transformer power transfer: In an electrical circuit, energy is transferred each second.

This is electrical power. The power output of a transformer can be calculated using the
equation:

Power = potential difference × current

This is when:

 power is measured in watts (W)

 potential difference is measured in volts (V)
 current is measured in amperes, also referred to as amps (A)

The National Grid: When electricity is transmitted around the country on the National
Grid, the transmission wires get hot and energy is dissipated to the surroundings. Step-
up transformers at a power station increase the voltage which reduces the current. The
smaller the current, the less energy is dissipated so stepping-up the voltage makes the
transmission of electricity more efficient.

THANK YOU!