Electric charges

Static electricity:
Static Electricity: It is the motion of charged particles causes electrical effects, small shocks, lightning
and sparks. Electrical fields cause forces to act on charged particles.

Electrical charges: All matter consists of atoms. Atoms contain three types of smaller particles:
protons, neutrons and electrons. Of these three, both the protons and electrons are charged.

Protons are positively charged. Electrons are negatively charged.

Objects that are charged can affect other charged objects using the non-contact forces of static
electricity. Electrons orbit a nucleus. Generally, the atom has a neutral charge, but if it loses an
electron, it becomes positively charged and if the atom gains an electron, it becomes negatively
charged. Charged atoms are called ‘ions’.

Charging by friction: When insulating materials rub against each other, they may become electrically
charged. Electrons, which are negatively charged, may be ‘rubbed off’ one material and on to the other.
The material that gains electrons becomes negatively charged. The material that loses electrons is left
with a positive charge.

1. A plastic rod covered in negative charges is placed next to a duster covered in positive charges.
2. The duster is rubbed back and forth along the plastic rod.
3. Electrons carrying a negative charge are transferred and now reside on the duster
When a polythene rod is rubbed with a duster, the friction causes electrons to gain energy. Electrons
gain enough energy to leave the atom and ‘rub off’ onto the polythene rod.

 The polythene rod has gained electrons, giving it a negative charge.

 The duster has lost electrons, giving it a positive charge.

If the rod is swapped for a different material such as acetate, electrons are rubbed off the acetate and
onto the duster.

 The acetate rod has lost electrons, giving it a positive charge.

 The duster has gained electrons, giving it a negative charge.

Both the rods and the duster are made of insulating materials. Insulators prevent the electrons from
moving and the charge remains static. Conductors, on the other hand, cannot become charged, as the
electrons can move through them. Connecting a static charge to earth using a conductor (earthing) will
remove the excess charge as electrons will move to cancel out the charge.
Electrical forces: A charged object will experience non-contact force from another charged object.
The type of force will depend on the type of charge (positive or negative) on the two objects.

The properties of attraction and repulsion are often used to show that an object is charged:

 a charged rod can pick up small pieces of paper

 a charged balloon can stick to the wall by attraction
 a charged rod can pull a stream of water towards it.

Example: If a negatively charged plastic rod is brought near to another negatively charged rod, the
rods will move apart as they repel each other. If a positively charged rod is brought close to a
negatively charged rod, the rods will pull together as they attract each other. (FIG)

Question: If a cloth rubs a plastic rod and the cloth is pulled away from the rod slightly, will the rod
and cloth attract, repel or experience no force at all?

Answer: The rod and cloth will attract. This is true as long as there is enough friction to transfer
electrons.

 If electrons are rubbed off the cloth and onto the rod - the cloth will be positively charged and
the rod will be negatively charged.
 If electrons are rubbed off the rod and onto the cloth - the cloth will be negatively charged and
the rod will be positively charged.

In both cases, the opposite charges will attract.

Uses and dangers of electrostatics:

There are many industrial uses of static electricity. These make use of both repulsion of like charges,
and attraction of opposite charges.

a) Insecticides:
Insecticide sprays from aircraft can be electrostatically charged so that they cover a large area.
With this method there is less risk that some of the spray will blow away or fall unevenly. The
droplets of insecticide are all given the same static charge as they leave the aircraft. The static
drops spread evenly as they all have the same charge and repel each other. They are also
attracted to the earth, so will fall quickly and are less likely to blow away.

b) Photocopiers:
Photocopiers also use static electricity to attract the small particles of ink onto the paper in the
right places.
c) The electrostatic precipitator:
To clean small particles from smoke before it leaves an industrial chimney, a machine called an
electrostatic precipitator will use static electricity to attract the particles.
Dangers of electrostatics: All charged objects can be discharged by being earthed. This may happen
safely by connecting them to the earth with a conductor.

If the charge is very large, a spark to the earth may happen unexpectedly. Sparks like this can be
dangerous, potentially igniting a fire. A build-up of static charge is a potential danger when refuelling
aircraft or vehicles. Fuel running through the pipes can provide the friction needed to create a static
charge. To prevent this, aircraft are earthed with a conductor during refuelling.

Less dangerous, but sometimes painful, a spark discharge may happen if a charged person touches an
earthed conductor. For example, a person dragging their feet across the carpet may become charged. If
they then reach out to touch a door handle or another person, there is a spark and they feel a small
shock.

Electric fields: All charged objects have an electric field around them that
determines how they will interact with other charged particles.

A Van de Graaff generator removes electrons to produce a positive charge. A

person does not have to touch the Van de Graaff generator to start feeling the
effects, as static electricity is a non-contact force. This force will act on any
charged particle in the electric field around the generator.

A person touching the dome of the Van de Graaff generator will also lose
electrons and become positively charged. The same will happen to each of their hairs. Since the person,
their head, and each of the hair follicles are all positively charged, the hairs will repel from the head
and from every other strand causing them to stick out from the head in all directions.

Electric field shapes: An electric field is a region where charges experience a

force. Fields are usually shown as diagrams with arrows:

 The direction of the arrow shows the way a positive charge will be
pushed.
 The closer together the lines are, the stronger the field and the greater the
force experienced by charges in that field. This means that the field is
stronger closer to the object.

Field lines point away from positive charges and towards negative charges.

In a radial field around a positive charge, other positive charges are repelled away. Therefore, the
arrows point away from the central positive charge. This is what happens with a Van de Graaff
generator. However, a negative charge placed in that field would attract the positive charge and feel a
force in the opposite direction to the field lines. The field between two parallel plates, one positive and
the other negative, is a uniform field. The field lines are straight, parallel and point from positive to
negative. If the field is strong enough, charges can be forced though insulators such as air and a spark
will occur. This is what happens during a lightning strike.
 Uses and dangers of static electricity:
Conductors allow an electric charge to pass through them, but insulators do not. Objects can be
positively charged, negatively charged or neutral. Static electricity can be useful but dangerous.

Conductors and insulators:

1) Conductors allow electricity to flow through them easily: Metals are good examples of
electrical conductors. For example, the copper in the wires that connect a television to the plug
socket is an electrical conductor.
2) Insulators prevent the flow of electricity: Plastics are good examples of insulators. In the
image, the insulator (plastic) surrounds the conductor (copper wire). The insulating plastic stops
you getting an electric shock from the wires that carry the electricity.

Electrostatics: Objects can be positively charged, negatively charged or neutral.

A substance that gains electrons becomes negatively charged, while a substance that loses electrons
becomes positively charged. Atoms or molecules that become charged are called ions. When a charged
object comes near to another object the two objects will either attract or repel each other:-

 if the charges are the same – they repel.  if one is charged and the other is not –
 if the charges are opposite – they attract. they may attract depending on the
Like charges repel, and unlike charges attract.

By static electricity you can get an electrostatic shock if you are electrically ‘charged’ and you touch
something that is earthed, or if you’re earthed and you touch something that is charged. For example,
when you walk on a vinyl floor or a nylon carpet you ‘charge up’ because of friction. You can earth
yourself, and so get an electrostatic shock by touching a metal door handle, water pipe, or even another
person. In this slideshow the man picks up electrons as he walks over the carpet:

Problems with static: Here are some examples of problems associated with static:-

 it is a nuisance when dust and dirt are attracted to insulators such as TV screens and computer
monitors.
 it is a nuisance when clothes made from synthetic materials cling to each other and to the body,
especially just after they’ve been in a tumble dryer

Anti-static sprays, liquids and cloths prevent the build-up of charge by allowing it to conduct away.

Dangers of static: Static electricity can build up in clouds. This can cause a huge spark to form
between the ground and the cloud. This causes lightning – a flow of charge through the atmosphere.
Here are some examples of dangers associated with static electricity:-
  It is dangerous when there are flammable gases or a high concentration of oxygen. A spark
could ignite the gases and cause an explosion.
 It is dangerous when you touch something with a large electric charge on it. The charge will
flow through your body causing an electric shock. This could cause burns or even stop your
heart. A person could die from an electric shock.

Refuelling aircrafts and tankers also poses a particular danger. If the fuel passing along the hose to the
vehicle was allowed to build up a static charge, a resulting spark might ignite the fuel. The hoses are
earthed to stop this occurring.

Uses of static electricity: Static electricity can also be useful. Here are some examples from industry
and everyday life.

1) Electrostatic precipitators: Many power stations burn fossil fuels such as coal and oil. Smoke
is produced when these fuels burn. Smoke comprises tiny solid particles, such as unreacted
carbon, which can damage buildings and cause breathing difficulties. To avoid this, the smoke is
removed from waste gases before they pass out of the chimneys. The electrostatic precipitator is
the device used for this job. The flow chart outlines how an electrostatic precipitator works.
i. Smoke particles pick up a negative charge.
ii. Smoke particles are attracted to the collecting plates.
iii. Collecting plates are knocked to remove the smoke particles.

2) Photocopiers; This flow chart outlines how a photocopier works. Ink jet printers use static
electricity to guide a tiny jet of ink to the correct place on the page. Laser printers work in a
similar way.

Ch-Electrical resistance
Resistance:

Electrical current depends on resistance and potential difference. Different electrical components have
different characteristics. These can be investigated using suitable circuits and apparatus.

Current, potential difference and resistance: The current in a circuit depends on the potential
difference and the resistance. It is easy to think of each of these in the following way:

 the current is the flow of electric charges  the resistance restricts the flow of
 the potential difference provides the 'push' charges

Resistance: Electric wires are made of metal, which have electrical resistance. The atoms in a solid
metal are arranged in a regular lattice structure. The outer electrons from each atom are free to move
through the structure, forming a current. However, they may collide with atoms or meet defects in the
lattice. This reduces the number of electrons flowing, which reduces the current. Conductors have a
low resistance and insulators have a high resistance.
Calculating potential difference: When a charge moves through a potential difference, electrical work
is done and energy is transferred. Potential difference can be calculated using the equation:

Potential difference = current × resistance ( V = I * R )

This is when:

 potential difference is measured in volts (V)

 current is measured in amps (A)
 resistance is measured in ohms (Ω)

One volt is the potential difference when one coulomb of charge transfers one joule of energy.

Resistance in series and parallel circuits

Resistors in series: In a series circuit the total resistance across all of the
components (the 'net resistance') increases as more components are
added.The two resistors have the same current flowing through them. The
potential difference across them will be different if they have different
resistances. The total resistance for this circuit is: R1 + R2.

Resistors in parallel: In a parallel circuit the net resistance decreases as

more components are added, because there are more paths for the current to
flow through.

The two resistors have the same potential difference across them. The
current flowing through them will be different if they have different
resistances. The total current in the circuit is the sum of the currents through each branch. The total
resistance for this circuit is calculated by dividing the potential difference of the cell by the total current
for the circuit.

Current-voltage graphs:

Different devices have different resistance characteristics. These can

be investigated using graphs that show:

 current on the vertical axis

 potential difference on the horizontal axis

These are known as current-voltage graphs or I-V graphs.

Linear circuit elements: Components which show a straight line I-

V graph are linear circuit elements. They are also sometimes called 'ohmic circuit elements'. This
means that current is directly proportional to potential difference for that component. This is called
Ohm's Law. It is true for a fixed resistor or resistor wire at a constant temperature.
Non-linear circuit elements: Components which show I-V graphs that are not straight lines are non-
linear circuit elements. The current through them is not directly proportional to the potential difference
across them.

Resistors and filament bulbs: Non-linear circuit elements include fixed

resistors that become hot, and filament bulbs which become hot and glow.
The shape of the I-V graph changes as the temperature of the component
increases. When the component becomes hotter, the atoms in the metal
lattice vibrate more. More collisions occur between the free electrons and
atoms, increasing the resistance. An increase in the potential difference
will allow the current to increase, but only up to a certain point.

Diodes: A diode has a very high resistance in one direction. This means that
current can only flow in the other direction.

LDRs and thermistors: Light dependent resistors or LDRs are made of

semiconductor material. Their resistance decreases as the light intensity
increases. LDRs can be used to switch lights on or off automatically, such as
stadium lights which come on when it gets dark.

Thermistors are also made of semiconductor material. Their resistance decreases

as the temperature increases. Thermistors are used to control temperatures in
many devices, such as ovens and central heating systems.

Suggested practical - Circuit components; There are different ways to investigate the relationship
between current and potential difference for different circuit elements. In this practical activity, it is
important to:

 use appropriate apparatus and methods to measure current and potential difference
 measure and record current and potential difference for a resistor, filament bulb and diode
Resistor and filament bulb

Aims: To investigate the relationship between current and potential

difference for a resistor and a filament bulb.

Method

1) connect the circuit as shown in the diagram

2) ensure that the power supply is set to zero at the start
3) record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter
4) use the variable resistor to alter the potential difference
5) record the new readings
6) repeat steps 3 to 5, increasing the potential difference slightly each time
7) repeat steps 1 to 6, but with the power supply reversed
8) Repeat the experiment, but replace the fixed resistor with a bulb.

Results: Record the results in a table. This one shows some example results for a 10 Ω fixed resistor.

Potential difference (V) Current (A)

0.5 0.05
1.0 0.10
1.5 0.15
2.0 0.20

Analysis: Plot a graph of current against potential difference for each component.

a. An I-V graph for a fixed resistor at a constant temperature b. I-V graph for a filament bulb.

Evaluation: For a fixed resistor, the potential difference is directly proportional to the current, so
doubling the amount of energy into the resistor results in a current twice as fast through the resistor.
This relationship is called Ohm's Law and is true because the resistance of the resistor is fixed and does
not change. A resistor is an ohmic conductor. In a filament bulb, the current does not increase as fast as
the potential difference. Doubling the amount of energy does not cause a current twice as fast. The
more energy that is put into the bulb, the harder it is for the current to flow - the resistance of the bulb
increases. As the potential difference increases, so does the temperature of the thin wire inside the bulb,
the filament. This increases the resistance of the filament.
Semiconductor diode

Aims: To investigate the relationship between current and potential

difference for a diode.

Method:

 Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. The diode must be

protected with a suitable protective resistor (between 100 Ω and
500 Ω).
 Set the variable resistor to give the lowest potential difference. Record the readings on the voltmeter
and milli-ammeter (an ammeter capable of reading to ±1 mA).
 Alter the variable resistor to increase the potential difference by 0.2 V.
 Record the new readings.
 Repeat steps 3 and 4, increasing the current slightly each time.
 Reverse the power supply connections and repeat steps 2 to 6.

Results: Record the results in a suitable table. This one shows some example results.

Potential difference (V) Current (A)

0.2 0
0.4 0
0.6 0
0.8 0
1.0 0
1.2 0
1.4 1
1.6 3
1.8 8
2.0 20

Analysis: Plot a graph of current against potential

difference.

Evaluation: A semiconductor diode only allows current to

flow in one direction. In one direction, the diode's resistance
is very large and no current will flow. In the other direction,
the diode's resistance is smaller and current will flow. In
this direction, the diode's resistance is very large at low
potential differences. At higher potential differences, the
resistance quickly drops and current begins to flow.
Hazards and control measures:

Hazard Consequence Control measures

Heating of the Burns to the skin Do not touch the resistance wire whilse the circuit
resistance wire is connected, and allow time to cool

Electrical power: Power is the rate of transfer of energy between energy stores.

One watt is equal to one joule per second (J/s).

Energy transferred: The energy transferred can be calculated using the equation:
 energy is measured in joules (J)
Energy transferred = power × time
 power is measured in watts (W)
 time is measured in seconds (s)

Power, potential difference and current: Electrical power can be calculated using the equation:

Power = potential difference × current  power is measured in watts (W)

 potential difference is measured in volts (V)
 current is measured in amps (A)
Power, current and resistance: Electrical power can also be calculated using the equation:

Power = (current)^2 × resistance  power is measured in watts (W)

 current is measured in amps (A)
 resistance is measured in ohms (Ω)
Le-Electric resistance:

Current transfers energy around circuits. Circuit components have various properties that can be
measured and then used to make circuits for control and testing other components.

Electric circuit symbols

Symbols: The following symbols show the components that can be found in an electrical circuit.
Components: Some of the more common components are:

1) Switch: A switch is used to turn a circuit on (closed) and off (open).

2) Lamp: An electrical current heats the filament in a bulb so that it gives out light.
3) Fixed resistor: A resistor restricts or limits the flow of electrical current. A fixed resistor has a
resistance that does not change.
4) Variable resistor: Adjusting this resistor changes its resistance. A variable resistor is used in
some dimmer switches and volume controls.
5) Thermistor: The resistance of a thermistor depends on its temperature. At low temperatures, the
thermistor has a high resistance. As the temperature increases, the resistance decreases. A
thermistor can be used in thermostats or heat activated fire alarms.
6) Light-dependent resistor (LDR): The resistance of a LDR depends on light intensity. At low
light levels, the LDR has a high resistance. As the light intensity increases, the resistance
decreases. A LDR can be used as a sensor in cameras or automatic lights that come on when it
gets dark.
7) Semiconductor diode: A semiconductor diode allows current to flow in one direction only.
Current will not flow in the other direction. Diodes are used to convert an alternating current
into a direct current.

Electrical charge and current: There are two types of current - direct and alternating. In a direct
current, the flow of electrons is consistently in one direction around the circuit, in an alternating
current, the direction of electron flow continually reverses.

Charge: Electrons are negatively charged particles and they transfer energy through wires as
electricity. Charge is a property of a body which experiences a force in an electric field. Charge is
measured in coulombs (C).
Since electrons are so small and one electron will not have much of an effect anywhere, it is more
useful to refer to large groups of electrons. One coulomb of charge is equivalent to
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.

Current: In a closed circuit that includes a source of potential difference (voltage) there will be a
current flowing around the circuit.

Electrical current in a metal is a flow of electrons

When current flows, electrical work is done and energy transferred. The
amount of charge passing a point in the circuit can be calculated using the
equation:  charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C)
Charge = current × time ( Q = I * t )  current (I) is measured in amperes (A)
 time (t) is measured in seconds (s)

One ampere is the current that flows when one coulomb of charge passes a
point in a circuit in one second. 'Amps' is an abbreviation for 'amperes', the
unit for current (also abbreviated as 'A') but the symbol for 'current' is 'I'.

Measuring current: Current is measured using an ammeter. To measure the

current through a component, the ammeter must be placed in series with that
component.

Potential difference and resistance:

Potential difference: The current through a component depends on both the resistance of the
component and the potential difference across the component.

Potential difference is a measure of how much energy is transferred between

two points in a circuit.

To measure the potential difference across a component, a voltmeter must be

placed in parallel with that component in order to measure the difference in
energy from one side of the component to the other. Potential difference is also
known as voltage and is measured in volts (V).

Energy, voltage and charge: When a charge moves through a potential difference, electrical work is
done and energy transferred. The energy transferred can be calculated using the equation:

Energy transferred = charge moved × potential difference ( E = Q * V )

 potential difference (V) is measured in volts (V)

 energy (E) is measured in joules (J)
 charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C)
One volt is the potential difference when one coulomb of charge transfers one joule of energy.

Potential difference and resistance

Potential difference: The current through a component depends on both the resistance of the
component and the potential difference across the component. Potential difference is a measure of
how much energy is transferred between two points in a circuit.

Measuring potential difference: To measure the potential difference across a component, a voltmeter
must be placed in parallel with that component in order to measure the difference in energy from one
side of the component to the other. Potential difference is also known as voltage and is measured in
volts (V).

Energy, voltage and charge: When a charge moves through a potential difference, electrical work is
done and energy transferred. The energy transferred can be calculated using the equation:

Energy transferred = charge moved × potential difference ( E = Q * V )

 potential difference (V) is measured in volts (V)

 energy (E) is measured in joules (J)
 charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C)

One volt is the potential difference when one coulomb of charge transfers one joule of energy.

Conductors have a low resistance. Insulators have large resistances

Required practical - investigate current - voltage graphs: There are different ways to investigate the
relationship between current and potential difference. In this required practical activity, it is important
to:

 measure and observe current and potential difference

 use appropriate apparatus and methods to measure current
and potential difference for a resistor, bulb and diode

Aim: To investigate the relationship between current and potential

difference for a resistor, bulb and diode.

Method:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in the first diagram.

2) Adjust the variable resistor so that the potential difference is very low
or zero at the start.
3) Record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter.
4) Use the variable resistor to increase the potential difference.
 5) Record the new readings on the voltmeter and ammeter.
6) Repeat steps three to four, each time increasing the potential difference slightly.
7) Reverse the power supply connections and repeat steps two to six.
8) Repeat the experiment but replace the fixed resistor with a bulb.
9) Plot a graph of current against potential difference for each component.

Results for a 10 ohm fixed resistor may look like this:

Potential difference (V) Current (A)

0.5 0.05
1.0 0.10
1.5 0.15
2.0 0.20
… …

Analysis:

Evaluation: For a fixed resistor, the potential difference is directly

proportional to the current. Doubling the amount of energy into the
resistor results in a current twice as big through the resistor. This
relationship is called Ohm's Law and is true because the
resistance of the resistor is fixed and does not change. A resistor is
an ohmic conductor.

(2) For a filament bulb, the results may look like this:

Potential Difference (V) Current (A)

0.5 0.10
1.0 0.20
1.5 0.35
2.0 0.50
2.5 0.65
3.0 0.78
3.5 0.90
4.0 1.00
4.5 1.08
5.0 1.15
Evaluation: In a filament bulb, the current does
5.5 1.20
6.0 1.25 not increase as fast as the potential difference.
6.5 1.31 Doubling the amount of energy does not cause a
7.0 1.36 current twice as big. The more energy that is put
into the bulb, the harder it is for the current to flow
- the resistance of the bulb increases. As the
potential difference increases, so does the
 7.5 1.38
8.0 1.41
8.5 1.44
9.0 1.46
9.5 1.48
10,0 1.50
… …
Further components: The above experiment could also be used to investigate the variation in
resistance of a thermistor as the temperature changes, and the variation in resistance of a light-
dependent resistor as the light level is altered.

Series circuits: In series circuits, electrical components are connected one after another in a single
loop.

Circuit rules: An electron will pass through every component on its way
round the circuit. If one of the bulbs is broken then current will not be able
to flow round the circuit. If one bulb goes out, they all go out.

Current in series: A series circuit is one loop; all electrons in that loop
form one current. An ammeter will measure the same current wherever it
is placed in the circuit:

 current (I) is measured in amps (A)

Potential difference in series. The current will transfer energy from the
power supply to the components in the circuit. Since energy has to be
conserved, all of the source energy is shared between the components.
Since potential difference is used to measure changes in energy, the
potential difference supplied is equal to the total of the potential
differences across all other components:

Vs = V1 +V2+…

 Potential difference (V) is measured in volts (v).

Resistance in series: If resistors are connected in series, the current must flow through both of them,
so the resistance is increased. To find the total resistance, the resistances are added together: ( Rt = R1
+ R2 )

(Resistance (R) is measured in ohms (Ω))

In series circuits:

 current is the same through each component

 the total potential difference of the power supply is shared between the components
 the total resistance of the circuit is the sum of individual resistors
Parallel circuits: In parallel circuits, electrical components are connected alongside one another
forming extra loops.

Circuit rules: An electron will not pass through every component on its way round the circuit. If one
of the bulbs is broken then current will still be able to flow round the circuit through the other loop. If
one bulb goes out, the other will stay on.

Current in parallel: Since there are different loops, the current will split as it leaves the cell and pass
through one or other of the loops. An ammeter placed in different parts of the circuit will show how the
current splits:

I1 = I2 + I4 = I3 (I=Current)

Potential difference in parallel: Since energy has to be conserved, the

energy transferred around the circuit by the electrons is the same
whichever path the electrons follow. Since potential difference is used
to measure changes in energy, the potential difference supplied is equal
to the potential differences across each of the parallel components:

Resistance in parallel: If resistors are connected in parallel so that the

current will flow through either one or the other, but not both, then the
overall resistance is reduced.

In parallel circuits:

 the total current supplied is split between the components on different loops
 potential difference is the same across each loop
 the total resistance of the circuit is reduced as the current can follow multiple paths

Required practical - investigating series and parallel circuits: There are different ways to
investigate resistor networks. In this required practical activity, it is important to:

 record potential difference and current accurately

 use appropriate apparatus and methods to measure potential difference and current to work out
resistance
Aim: To compare the total resistance in series and parallel arrangements.

Method:

1) Set up the circuit as shown in figure 1, turn the power supply on and close the switch.
2) Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings and calculate the resistance of the resistor using R =
V/I, where R is resistance, V is potential difference and I is current.
3) Change the resistor and repeat step two to find the resistance of a second resistor.
4) Arrange the two resistors in series as shown in figure 2 and close the switch.
5) Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings once again and determine the total resistance of
both resistors in series using R = V/I.
6) Arrange the two resistors in parallel as shown in figure 3 and close the switch.
7) Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings once again and calculate the total resistance of both
resistors in parallel.

This is what the results could look like:

Resistor Potential difference (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)

R1 4.00 0.40 10
R2 4.00 0.40 10
In series 4.00 0.20 20
In parallel 4.00 0.80 5

Analysis

 in series, the resistance of the network is equal to the sum of the two individual resistances
 in parallel, the resistance of the network is less than either of the two individual resistances
Evaluation: Placing the resistors in series causes the resistance to be double that of a single resistor
because there is only one path for the electrons to follow - the supply must drive current through one
resistor and then the other. Placing the resistors in parallel causes the resistance to be half that of a
single resistor. The outcomes of this experiment are the same using filament lamps, or combinations of
resistors and lamps, as the lamps act as resistors.

Hazards and control measures:

Hazards Consequence control measures

Heating of wires and resistors Minor burns Set up circuit before closing the switch

Energy and power in electric circuits:

Heating up wires: As electrons flow through wires, they collide with the ions in the wire which causes
the ions to vibrate more. This increased vibration of the ions increases the temperature of the wire.
Energy has been transferred from the chemical energy store of the battery into the internal energy store
of the wire. The amount of energy transferred each second (power) between the energy stores can be
calculated using the equation:

Power = current × potential difference ( P = I * V )

 power (P) is measured in watts (W)

 current (I) is measured in amps (A)
 potential difference (V) is measured in volts (V)

One watt is equal to one joule per second (J/s). Power dissipated in a resistance can also be written as:

Power = current2 × resistance ( P = I^2 * R )

 power (P) is measured in watts (W)

 current (I) is measured in amps (A)
 resistance (R) is measured in ohms (Ω)

Efficient transmission of power – Higher: Energy can be transferred by an electrical current - any
electrical appliance needs to be given enough energy every second. Electrical power can be delivered
as a low current with a high voltage, or a high current with a low voltage.

Power = current2 × resistance ( P = I^2 * R )

The equation shows that a high current will have a much higher heating effect on the transmission
wires than a low current. For this reason, transmitting energy at a high voltage with a low current will
keep the wires cooler and waste less energy. Reducing the resistance of the wires will also reduce
unwanted energy transfer, but reducing the current will have a much more significant effect.

What determines the rate of energy transfer in a circuit? - OCR 21C:

Electrical current transfers energy around circuits. The power is the rate at which a circuit transfers
energy.

Electrical power: Power is the rate of transfer of energy between energy stores.

One watt (W) is equal to one joule per second (J/s).

Energy transferred: The energy transferred can be calculated using the equation:

Power= Energy transferred/Time

 power is measured in watts (W)  time is measured in seconds (s)

 energy is measured in joules (J)

Energy, voltage and charge: When a charge moves through a potential difference, electrical work is
done and energy transferred. The energy transferred can be calculated using the equation:

Energy transferred, work done, J = charge, C × potential difference, V ( E = V * Q )

 energy (E) is measured in joules (J)

 potential difference (V) is measured in volts (V)
 charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C)

One volt is the potential difference when one coulomb of charge transfers one joule of energy.

Energy and power in electric circuits:

Heating up wires: As electrons flow through wires, they collide with the ions in the wire which causes
the ions to vibrate more. This increased vibration of the ions increases the temperature of the wire.
Energy has been transferred from the chemical energy store of the battery into the internal energy store
of the wire. The amount of energy transferred each second (power) between the energy stores can be
calculated using the equation:
 power (P) is measured in watts (W)
Power = potential difference × current ( P = V * I )  potential difference (V) is measured in volts (V)
 current (I) is measured in amps (A)
One watt is equal to one joule per second (J/s).

Efficient transmission of power: Energy can be transferred by an electrical current; electrical

appliances need to be given enough energy every second to work properly. Electrical power can be
delivered as a low current with a high voltage, or a high current with a low voltage.

Power = current2 × resistance

The equation shows that a high current will have a much higher heating effect on the transmission
wires than a low current. For this reason, transmitting energy at a high voltage with a low current will
keep the wires cooler and waste less energy.

Transformer power transfer: In an electrical circuit, energy is transferred each second. This is electrical
power. The power output of a transformer can be calculated using the equation:

Power = potential difference × current

 power is measured in watts (W)

 potential difference is measured in volts (V)
 current is measured in amperes, also referred to as amps (A)

The National Grid: When electricity is transmitted around the country on the National Grid, the
transmission wires get hot and energy is dissipated to the surroundings. Step-up transformers at a
power station increase the voltage which reduces the current. The smaller the current, the less energy is
dissipated so stepping-up the voltage makes the transmission of electricity more efficient.