Instructor: Dr.

Rabya Aslam
Institute of Chemical Engineering & Technology
University of the Punjab, Lahore
rabya.icet@pu.edu.pk
 Course contents (2 credit hours)
Terminologies used in instrumentation and process control
Characteristics of measurement system
Introduction to Process Instrumentation
Temperature measurement
Pressure measurement
Flow measurement
Level measurement
Composition measurement
Final control element and their characteristics
Transmitters and transducers
Simple control loops
Flow Measurement
 Importance of flow measurement

Transportation (gases, liquids, solids)

Pipe
Aerodynamic surfaces (airfoils, boats, submarines,

Bio-

Lubricated machine parts

 Revisions of important terminologies

Flowrate
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
Reynolds Number
Characterization of fluid motion
Equation of continuity
Bernoulli equation
 Revisions of important terminologies

The basic relationship for determining the liquid's flow

rate in such cases is:
Q=VxA
where
Q = liquid flow through the pipe
V = average velocity of the flow
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe
 Revisions of important terminologies

Reynolds Number
 Revisions of important terminologies

Bernoulli equation is the result of the energy analysis for the

reversible, steady-flow of an incompressible flowing liquid.
For frictionless flow, it states that the sum of the pressure,
velocity, and potential energy heads is constant. It is also a form
of the conservation of momentum principle for steady-flow
control volumes.
 Class activity

Apply mechanical energy balance. Neglect friction losses.

 Flow Measurement

Differential pressure flowmeters

Variable area flowmeters
Positive displacement flowmeters
Turbine flowmeters
Electromagnetic flowmeters
Ultrasonic flowmeters
Coriolis flowmeters
Conveyor based flowmeters
 Differential pressure flowmeters

Orifice Meter
Venturi Meter
Dall tube
Nozzles
Pitot tube
 Differential pressure flowmeters
Orifice Meter, Venturi Meter, Dall tube, Nozzles

Qa = volumetric flow rate

A1 = upstream approach area
A2 = area of the throat or orifice opening
h1 = upstream head measurement
h2 = downstream head
g = gravity constant
C = coefficient determined experimentally
Differential pressure flowmeters
Differential pressure flowmeters
 Differential pressure flowmeters: Orifice meter
Orifice plates account for almost 50% of the instruments used in
industry for measuring volume flow rate.
Advantages:
The orifice plate is the simplest and cheapest type of flowmeter. It is
simply a plate with a hole of specified size and position cut in it,
which can then clamped between flanges in a pipeline.
available in a wide range of sizes
Disadvantages:
The major disadvantages of the orifice plates are their limited range
and sensitivity to flow disturbances.
Higher pressure drop, its inaccuracy is typically at least 2% and may
approach 5%.
Discharge coefficient is low and also problems with the orifice plate
are a gradual change in the discharge coefficient over a period of
time as the sharp edges of the hole wear away.
 Differential pressure flowmeters
A number of obstruction devices are available that are specially
designed to minimize the pressure loss in the measured fluid.
These have various names such as Venturi, flow nozzle and Dall
flow tube.
Differential pressure flowmeters: Venturi meter
Venturi tubes have the advantage of being able to handle
large flow volumes at low pressure drops
A Venturi tube is essentially a section of pipe with a tapered
entrance and a straight throat.
As liquid passes through the throat, its velocity increases,
causing a pressure differential between the inlet and outlet
regions.
The flowmeters have no moving parts. They can be installed in
large diameter pipes using flanged, welded or threaded-end
fittings. Four or more pressure taps are usually installed with
the unit to average the measured pressure.
Differential pressure flowmeters: Flow nozzles
Flow nozzles represent a transition between orifices and flow tubes.
They are less expensive, but they produce more head loss than do
the flow tubes.
Flow Nozzles, at high velocities, can handle approximately 60 %
greater liquid flow than orifice plates having the same pressure drop.
Flow rate of liquids with suspended solids can also be measured.
However, use of the these devices is not recommended for highly
viscous liquids or those containing large amounts of sticky solids.
 Differential pressure flowmeters: Venturi meter
Advantages:
they suffer much less wear, and consequently have a longer life than
orifice plates.
Higher accuracy and offers measurement uncertainty of only 1%.
High discharge coefficient (closer to unity).
Disadvantages:
The major disadvantages of the Venturi tube flowmeter are its size and
cost. It is more difficult, and therefore more expensive to manufacture
than the orifice plate.
A Venturi tube can be typically 6 diameters long, it can become
challenging to use with larger pipe sizes, with associated maintenance
of upstream and downstream pipe lengths also becoming a problem.
 Differential pressure flowmeters: Pitot tube
Pitot tubes sense two pressures
simultaneously, impact and static.
The impact unit consists of a tube with one
end bent at right angles toward the flow
direction
The static tube's end is closed, but a small
slot is located in the side of the unit
Pitot tubes are generally installed by welding
a coupling on a pipe and inserting the probe
through the coupling. It is mostly used for
single point measurements.
Advantages of pitot tubes are low cost,
absence of moving parts, easy installation,
and minimum pressure drop.
Differential pressure flowmeters: Pitot tube
Differential pressure flowmeters: Pitot tube
 Differential pressure flowmeters: Pitot tubes
Advantages:
Pitot tubes have the advantage that they cause negligible pressure loss
in the flow.
They are also cheap, and the installation procedure consists of the very
simple process of pushing them down a small hole drilled in the flow-
carrying pipe.
Disadvantages:
Their main disadvantage is that the measurement inaccuracy is
typically about 5%, although more expensive versions can reduce
inaccuracy down to 1%.
 Variable area flowmeters

The term variable area flowmeters refers to those meters in

which the minimum cross-sectional area available to the
flow through the meter varies with the flow rate.
Examples include rotameter and movable vane meter.
Most commonly used area meter is rotameter. It is reliable
and cheap and used extensively throughout industry,
accounting for about 20% of all flowmeters sold.
 Variable area flowmeters: Rotameter

The rotameter is a robust and simple flowmeter for gases

and liquids, and holds a large share of the market for pipe
diameters smaller than about 100 mm.
In its basic form, the rotameter consists of a conical vertical
glass tube containing a rises in the tube
with increasing flow rate until a balance is reached between
gravitational, buoyancy, and drag forces on the float.
It is used as non-sensing type, however, if desired, automatic
sensing devices can be used to sense the float's level and
transmit a flow signal.
Rotameter tubes are manufactured from glass, metal, or
plastic. Tube diameters vary from 1/4 to greater than 6 in.
Variable area flowmeters: Rotameter
Variable area flowmeters: movable vane meter
The movable vane meter is a robust device suitable for the
measurement of high flow rates where only moderate requirements on
the measurement accuracy are made. Dirty fluids can also be metered.
It contains a flap that at zero flow is held closed by a weight or a spring
A flow forces the vane open until the dynamic force of the flow is in
balance with the restoring force of the weight or the spring. The angle of
the vane is thus a measure of the flow rate, which can be directly
indicated by a pointer attached to the shaft of the vane on a calibrated
scale.
Variable area flowmeters
 Variable area flowmeters: Rotameter
Advantages:
Simple and robust construction.
High reliability.
Applicable to a wide variety of gases and liquids.
Direct reading of flowrate can be obtained.
Disadvantages:
Due to its use of gravity, a rotameter must always be vertically oriented
and right way up, with the fluid flowing upward.
The inaccuracy of the cheapest instruments is typically 5%, however,
more expensive versions offer measurement inaccuracies as low as
0.5%.
 Positive displacement flowmeters
Positive displacement flowmeters account for nearly 10% of the total
number of flowmeters used in industry and are used in large numbers for
metering domestic gas and water consumption.
A positive displacement flowmeter, commonly called a PD meter,
measures the volume flow rate of a continuous flow stream by
momentarily entrapping a segment of the fluid into a chamber of known
volume and releasing that fluid back into the flow stream on the discharge
side of the meter. By monitoring the number of entrapments for a known
period of time or number of entrapments per unit time, the total volume of
flow or the flow rate of the stream can be determined.

Rotary piston form of positive

displacement flowmeter
Positive displacement flowmeters
Positive displacement flowmeters
 Positive displacement flowmeters
Advantages:
High-quality, positive displacement meters will measure with high
accuracy over a wide range of flow rates, and are very reliable over
long periods.
Low pressure drop.
High reliability.
Liquid PD meters are capable of measuring fluids with a wide range of
viscosity and density.
Disadvantages:
More accurate PD meters are quite expensive.
Many PD meters have high inertia of the moving parts; therefore, a
sudden change in the flow rate can damage the meter.
 Turbine flowmeters
Turbine flowmeters use the mechanical energy of the fluid to
rotate a rotor in the flow stream. Blades on the rotor are
angled to transform energy from the flow stream into rotational
energy. The rotor shaft spins on bearings. When the fluid
moves faster, the rotor spins proportionally faster
Turbine flowmeters now constitute 7% of the world market.
 Turbine flowmeters
A turbine flowmeter consists of a multi-bladed wheel mounted in a
pipe along an axis parallel to the direction of fluid flow in the pipe.
The flow of fluid past the wheel causes it to rotate at a rate that is
proportional to the volume flow rate of the fluid. This rate of rotation
has traditionally been measured by constructing the flowmeter such
that it behaves as a variable reluctance tachogenerator.
This is achieved by fabricating the turbine blades from a
ferromagnetic material and placing a permanent magnet and coil
inside the meter housing. A voltage pulse is induced in the coil as
each blade on the turbine wheel moves past it, and if these pulses
are measured by a pulse counter, the pulse frequency and hence
flow rate can be deduced.
Turbine flowmeters can be used to measure the velocity of liquids,
gases and vapors in pipes, such as hydrocarbons, chemicals, water,
cryogenic liquids, air, and industrial gases.
Turbine flowmeters
 Turbine flowmeters
Advantages:
Turbine meters are smaller and lighter than the PD and are preferred
for low-viscosity, high-flow measurements.
Provided that the turbine wheel is mounted in low friction bearings,
measurement inaccuracy can be as low as 0.2 %.
Disadvantages:
Bearing wear is a particular problem. Also they also impose a
permanent pressure loss on the measured system.
Turbine meters are particularly prone to large errors when there is any
significant second phase in the fluid measured.
 Electromagnetic Meters
A magnetic flow meter (mag flowmeter) is a non-invasive
volumetric flow meter which does not have any moving parts
and is ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid
which is conductive or water based.
Electromagnetic flowmeters operate on Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction that states that a voltage will be
induced in mutually perpendicular direction when a conductor
moves through a magnetic field.
The liquid serves as the conductor, the magnetic field is
created by energized coils outside the flow tube, and the
amount of voltage produced is directly proportional to the flow
rate.
 Electromagnetic Meters

Major components are the flow tube (primary element). The

flow tube mounts directly in the pipe. Pressure drop across the
meter is the same as it is through an equivalent length of pipe
because there are no moving parts or obstructions to the flow.
The voltmeter can be attached directly to the flow tube or can
be mounted remotely and connected to it by a shielded cable.
Electromagnetic Meters: Summary
 Electromagnetic Meters
At the present time, magnetic flowmeters account for about 15% of the
new flowmeters sold and this total is slowly growing.
Advantages:
Electromagnetic meters can handle most liquids and slurries, providing
that the material being metered is electrically conductive.
They can measure difficult and corrosive liquids and slurries provided
that suitable lining material is used..
They can measure forward as well as reverse flow with equal accuracy.
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages are high power consumption, and need to obtain a full
pipe and no flow to initially set the zero.
High cost.
 Ultrasonic flowmeters
The ultrasonic technique of volume flow rate measurement is,
like the magnetic flowmeter, a non-invasive method. It is not
restricted to conductive fluids and is particularly useful for
measuring the flow of corrosive fluids and slurries.
Another advantage of an ultrasonic flowmeter over a magnetic
flowmeter is that the instrument can be clamped externally
onto existing pipework rather than being inserted as an
integral part of the flow line.
Two types are most common
Transit time ultrasonic meter
Doppler shift ultrasonic meter
 Transit time ultrasonic flowmeters
Transit time ultrasonic flow meters measure the difference in time from
when an ultrasonic signal is transmitted from the first transducer until it
crosses the pipe and is received by the second transducer. A comparison is
made of upstream and downstream measurements. If there is no flow, the
travel time will be the same in both directions.

Tf is forward transit time

Tb is backward transit time
c is the velocity of sound in the fluid
v is the flow velocity
L is the distance between the ultrasonic
transmitter and receiver, and is the angle of the
ultrasonic beam with respect to the fluid flow
axis.
 Transit time ultrasonic flowmeters
When flow is present, sound moves faster if traveling in the
same direction and slower if moving against it. Since the
ultrasonic signal must traverse the pipe to be received by the
sensor, the liquid cannot be comprised of a significant amount of
solids or bubbles, or the high frequency sound will be decreased
and too weak to travel across the pipe. These are used for clear
liquids.
 Doppler shift ultrasonic flowmeters
The Doppler ultrasonic flow meter operates on the principle of the Doppler
Effect. It stated that the frequencies of the sound waves received by an
observer are dependent upon the motion of the source or observer in
relation to the source of the sound.
A Doppler ultrasonic flow meter uses a transducer to emit an ultrasonic
beam of know frequency into the stream flowing through the pipe. For the
flow meter to operate, there must be solid particles or air bubbles in the
stream to reflect the ultrasonic beam. The motion of particles shifts the
frequency of the beam, which is received by a second transducer. The
frequency shift is proportional to the liquid's velocity.
 Doppler shift ultrasonic flowmeters
The instrument consists essentially of an ultrasonic transmitter receiver
pair clamped onto the outside wall of a fluid-carrying vessel. Ultrasonic
energy consists of a train of short bursts of sinusoidal waveforms at a
frequency between 0.5MHz and 20MHz. This frequency range is described
as ultrasonic because it is outside the range of human hearing. The flow
velocity, v, is given by:

where ft and fr are the frequencies of the transmitted and received ultrasonic
waves, respectively, c is the velocity of sound in the fluid being measured,
and is the angle that the incident and reflected energy waves make with the
axis of flow in the pipe.
 Ultrasonic meters
The industries in order of higher to lower are oil and gas, water and
wastewater, power, chemical, food and beverage, pharmaceutical, metals
and mining, and pulp and paper
Advantages:
Non-invasive type flow meters.
Cause negligible pressure drop.
Can be used for clear liquids, gases and slurries.
High accuracy and reliability.
Disadvantages:
High cost.
The scaling, pitting, and fouling that can occur over time in older piping
systems can be problematic.
 Coriolis flowmeters
Coriolis meters are true mass meters that measure the mass rate of
flow directly, because mass does not change, the meter is linear
without having to be adjusted for variations in liquid properties.
The meter is especially useful for measuring liquids whose viscosity
varies with velocity at given temperatures and pressures.
Coriolis meters have become widely used in industrial environments
because they have the highest accuracy of all types of flowmeters.
 Coriolis flowmeters
Coriolis meters typically consist of one or two vibrating tubes
with an inlet and an outlet. Fluid enters the meter in the inlet,
and mass flow is determined based on the action of the fluid on
the vibrating tubes.
Coriolis flowmeters: Summary
 Coriolis flowmeters
Advantages:
Coriolis meters give excellent accuracy, with measurement
uncertainties of 0.2%.
Directly measures mass flowrate.
Particularly useful for fluids whose density and viscosity changes
significantly with variation in temperature.
Disadvantages:
High cost.
Failure may occur after a period of use because of mechanical fatigue
in the tubes.
Pressure drop is significant
 Conveyor based flowmeters/ bulk flowmeters
These methods are concerned with measurement of the mass flow
of solids that are in the form of small particles.
Based on than weighing the flowing material, two types are
commonly used:
1. Nuclear mass flow sensor based
2. Load cell based to measured mass of material over particular length.
Conveyor based flowmeters/ bulk flowmeters
This mode of transport allows the mass flow rate to be calculated in
terms of the mass of material on a given length of conveyor
multiplied by the speed of the conveyor.
A load cell measures the mass M of material distributed over a
length L of the conveyor. If the conveyor velocity is v, the mass flow
rate, Q, is given by:
 Coriolis flowmeters
Conveyor based flow meters in industries where particles are usually
produced by crushing or grinding procedures, and then transported by
some form of conveyor.
Advantages and disadvantages:
Mass flow rate can be measured for powders, solids
Mostly rather than weighing the flowing material, a nuclear mass-flow
sensor is used, in which a gamma-ray source is directed at the material
being transported along the conveyor. The material absorbs some
radiation, and the amount of radiation received by a detector on the
other side of the material indicates the amount of material on the
conveyor. This technique has obvious safety concerns, and is therefore
subject to licensing and strict regulation.
Flow meters
Level Measurement
Level Measurement
 Level Measurement

There are two categories of level sensing devices. They are

direct level measurement, in which case the actual level is
monitored, and indirect level measurement where a property
of the liquid such as pressure is sensed to determine the
liquid level. Most commonly used instruments are
Dipstick
Gauge glass method/ sight glass instruments
Capacitive probes
Differential pressure level sensors
Bubbler tube level sensors
Radiation based level sensors
 Dipstick
Dipsticks offer a simple means of measuring level
approximately. The ordinary dipstick is the cheapest
device available. It consists of a metal bar on which a
scale is etched.
The stick is fixed at a known position in the liquid-
containing vessel. A level measurement is made by
removing the instrument from the vessel and reading off
how far up the scale the liquid has wetted. As a human
operator is required to remove and read the dipstick, this
method is only used for relatively small vessels.
 Gauge glass
Sight glass (open end/differential) or gauge is the simplest
method for direct visual reading.
In the gauge glass method, a transparent tube is attached to
the bottom and top (top connection not needed in a tank
open to atmosphere) of the tank that is monitored. The
height of the liquid in the tube will be equal to the height of
water in the tank.
 Gauge glass
Different types are used.
1. Simple transparent tube gauge glass
2. Magnetic float gauge glass (Magnetic floats can also be
used in the sight glass so that the liquid level can be
monitored with a magnetic sensor).
3. Sight glass with float (The float material is less dense than
the density of the liquid and floats up and down on top of
the material being measured.)
 Gauge glass

Gauge glasses made from tubular glass or plastic are used for service up to 30 barg
and 400 K.

Simple transparent tube gauge glass Gauge glass with float assembly
 Gauge glass

Gauge glass with magnetic float

 Capacitive probe level sensors
Capacitive probes are also direct sensing level measurement
devices and are used in liquids that are nonconductive and
have a high viscosity.
These probes consists of an inner rod with an outer shell; the
capacitance is measured between the two using a capacitance
bridge. In the portion out of the liquid, air serves as the dielectric
b/w the rod and outer shell.
In the immersed section, the dielectric is that of the liquid that
causes a large capacitive change, if the tank is made of metal it
can serve as the outer shell. The capacitance change is directly
proportional to the level of the liquid. The dielectric constant of
the liquid must be known for this type of measurement. The
dielectric constant can vary with temperature so that
temperature correction may be required.
Capacitive probe level sensors
Capacitive probe level sensors: working
 Capacitive probe level sensors

Capacitive probes can be used in nonconductive liquids and free flowing

solids for level measurement.
 Indirect level sensing

The most commonly used method of indirectly measuring a

liquid level is to measure the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom
of the container. The depth can then be extrapolated from the
pressure and the specific weight of the liquid can be calculated
Using following equation.

The pressure can be measured by any of the pressure sensors.

The dial on the pressure gauge can be calibrated directly with
liquid depth.
The other common methods include use of bubblers, radiation,
and resistive tapes measurements.
 Class activity

A pressure gauge located at the base of an open tank

containing a liquid with a specific weight of 54.5 lb/ft3 shows
11.7 psig. What is the depth of the fluid in the tank?
 Bubbler level sensor
Bubbler devices require a supply of clean air or inert gas.

Gas is forced through a tube whose open end is close to the

bottom of the tank. The specific weight of the gas is negligible
compared to the liquid and can be ignored. The pressure
required to force the liquid out of the tube is equal to the
pressure at the end of the tube due to the liquid, which is the
depth of the liquid multiplied by the specific weight of the liquid.
This method can be used with corrosive liquids by selecting
material of the tube corrosion resistant.
 Class activity

What will be the depth of water at the end of a bubbler tube,

if bubbles start to emerge from the end of the tube when the
air pressure in the bubbler is 148 kPa?
 Radiation based level sensor
This is non-invasive class of level instrumentation devices is
based on a material's tendency to reflect or absorb radiation. For
continuous level gages, the most common types of radiation used
are radar/microwave and ultrasonic.
Radiation methods are sometimes used in cases where the
liquid is corrosive, very hot, or detrimental to installing sensors.
For single-point measurement only one transmitter and a
detector are required.
If several single-point levels are required, a detector will be
required for each level measurement.
The disadvantages of this system are the cost and the need to
handle radioactive material.
Radiation based level sensor
Why Level Measurement is Important?
Composition Measurements
 Composition Measurement: Introduction
A knowledge of the composition of a process stream is often of
major importance. Such information are necessary to
determine whether a particular product has the required
specification or not.
Direct measurement/ online measurement of composition
means determining the nature of the materials entering,
leaving or passing from point to point within a process.
In practice, there are many difficulties in measurement of
composition. First and most important step is to decide what
property of the material can be employed as a suitable
measure of its composition.
This property may be physical or chemical and should be a
quantity that differs widely between the various components of
the material stream being analyzed.
 Composition Measurement: Introduction

It is also important to decide whether off-line or on-line

analysis is required.
The on-line measurement is necessary if the system is
automatically controlled. However, it requires that the response
time of the analyzer must be considerably smaller than that of
the plant in which it is being used to control.
If off-line analysis is sufficient, then such considerations are of
less importance.
Properties utilized for Composition Measurement
There are numerous properties of materials which can be used
as measures of composition, for example
Adsorption of components (as in chromatography)
Absorption of electromagnetic waves (infra-red, ultra-violet,
visible, etc.)
Refractive index
pH
Dielectric constant
density, etc.
 Potential difficulties in composition analysis
In many cases the property will not give a unique result if there are
more than two components, e.g. there may be a number of different
compositions of a particular ternary liquid mixture which will have the
same refractive index or will exhibit the same density.
Other difficulties can make a particular physical property unsuitable
as a measure of composition for a particular system, e.g. the
dielectric constant cannot be used if water is present as the
dielectric constant of water is very much greater than that of most
other liquids.
Instruments containing optical systems (e.g. refractometers and
densitometers) can be sensitive to mechanical vibration.
In cases where it is not practicable to measure composition directly,
then indirect means of obtaining a measurement which itself is a
function of composition may be employed (e.g. the use of boiling
temperature in a distillation column as a measure of the liquid
composition).
Instruments used for Composition and Concentration
Measurement
Spectroscopy
UV-Vis spectroscopy
Infrared spectroscopy
Chromatography
Gas chromatography
Liquid chromatography
Refractometer
Densitometer
Gas analysers, etc.
 1: Spectroscopy

Absorption of electromagnetic radiation by a substance as

a result of interaction of the radiation with the substance is
one of the most exploited property for the determination of
composition, concentration, and structure of unknowns.
Measurement of the absorption of radiations of various
frequencies, as a result of interaction of molecule, is called
spectroscopy.
Two types are most commonly employed:
UV-Vis spectroscopy
IR spectroscopy
 1a:UV-Vis Spectroscopy
Ultraviolet and visible radiation interacts with matter which
causes electronic transitions (promotion of electrons from the
ground state to a high energy state). The ultraviolet
region falls in the range between190-380 nm, the visible
region fall between 380-750 nm.

n
n
n
n
n
1a:UV-Vis Spectroscopy
 1b:IR spectroscopy
IR radiation is absorbed by the bonds of a molecule when the
stretching and bending of each bond yields a change in the dipole
moment of the molecule. When the electromagnetic radiation
interacts with the changing dipole moment of the bond, IR radiation
is absorbed.
1b:IR spectroscopy
 2: Chromatography

1903: The Russian scientist M. Tswett presented

phenomena and their application to biochemical

the starting point of liquid chromatography.

Chromatography is a technique for separating

the components of a mixture on the basis of the
relative amounts of each solute distributed
between the mobile phase and stationary phase.
The mobile phase may be either a liquid or a
gas, while the stationary phase is either a solid
or a liquid.
2: Chromatography: working principle
 2: Chromatography

Various types are available based on selecetion of stationary

and mobile phase. Most commonly used are
Gas Chromatography (gas is the mobile phase,
stationary phase is solid).
Liquid Chromatography (Liquid is the mobile phase,
stationary phase s solid).
Liquid liquid Chromatography (both mobile and
stationary phases are liquids).
 2: Chromatography: working principle

One of the most widely employed instruments for the on-line

and off-line analysis of samples of multicomponent gases or
volatile liquids is the gas or gas-solid chromatograph (GC or
GSC). This is an instrument which analyses discrete
samples of material, and the total time taken between the
extraction of the sample from the process stream and the
production of a result in the form of a signal to a relevant
control system can be considerable.
Total time required for analysis is one of the major difficulties
in using such instruments for on-line control purposes.
However, it is one of the most reliable and used instrument
both on industrial and lab scale for the analysis of
compositions of mixtures.
2: Chromatography

Chromatogram
2: Chromatography

Liquid Chromatography
 3: Refractometers
This involves the measurement of the refractive index of an
optically transparent material.
When light passes between two optical media of differing density,
it will be applies, i.e.

where 1 and 2 are the angles of incidence and n1 and n2 are the
refractive indices for the two media respectively.

If the composition of an optically transparent sample changes,

then its refractive index will also change.
 Inline refractometers (continuous Refractometers)

Total refraction of incident beam I Total reflection at the critical angle of

transmitted as beam T into the
medium of lesser refractive index at
the critical angle. No light exists for
angles in the second medium bigger
than the critical angle.
the incident beam (I) in the first
medium of greater refractive index
than the second. No light is
transmitted into the second medium
for angles exceeding the critical
angle.
Inline refractometers (continuous Refractometers)

The continuous process refractometer generally measures the

effect that this change in refractive index has on the critical angle
occurring at the interface between a glass prism and the sample.
When the angle of incidence within the prism a, becomes so large
that the light cannot emerge, then the ray is totally internally
reflected. The minimum value of at which this occurs is called the
critical angle , c, and

Thus, if n2 (the refractive index of the glass of the prism) is known, then n1,
(the refractive index of the sample) can be determined by measuring c.
Inline refractometers (continuous Refractometers)

Examples of total internal reflection

If n2 (the refractive index of the glass of the prism) is known, then n1, (the
refractive index of the sample) can be determined by measuring c.
 4. Densitometer

Density changes with change in concentration, thus by measuring variation

in density, concentration can be estimated.
Densitometer
Densitometer
 5. Safety Gas Analyzers
Process analyzers measure the concentration of specific
substances for the purpose of measuring and/or controlling
those concentrations in a process stream. Safety analyzers
detect the presence of dangerous concentrations of specific
substances to warn personnel of threats to life or health.
These must be portable, robust, easy to use.
Examples include detection of O2, H2S, CO2 etc.
 O2 Gas Analyzer
Most living things require oxygen to survive. The oxygen content of
air may be reduced by combustion (which combines oxygen with
flammable substances to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor)
or by displacement by a denser gas (such as Propane, butane) in
an enclosed area.
A modern oxygen sensor technology for safety applications is the
micro fuel cell, generating a measurable electric current in the
presence of oxygen by the oxidation of a self-contained fuel
source.
In many sensors, the fuel is pure lead (Pb), with the resulting
chemical reaction producing lead oxide (PbO):
 H2S Gas Analyzer
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) is a highly toxic gas, with a pungent
concentrations but no visible color. At
higher concentrations, the gas acts as a nerve agent to de-
sensitize human smell, so that it seems odorless. Its paralytic
effect on smell extends to more important bodily functions such
as breathing, causing rapid loss of consciousness.
Hydrogen sulfide also happens to be flammable, its LEL value in
air being 4.3%. However, the toxic properties of the gas are
generally the more pressing concern when released into the
atmosphere. Another hazardous property of hydrogen sulfide is
its density: 1.18 times that of air.
The principal source of hydrogen sulfide gas is anaerobic
(oxygen-less) decomposition of organic matter. Sewage
treatment facilities, pulp mills, and oil refineries generate H2S
gas in significant amount and must be equipped with H2S
detectors.
H2S Gas Analyzer
 H2S Gas Analyzer

Electrochemical sensors are often used for detection of H2S which

operate by reacting with the gas and producing an electrical signal
proportional to the gas concentration.
The reactions at the sensing electrode (anode)

The reactions at the cathode

 CO Gas Analyzer
Carbon monoxide (CO) gas is a colorless, odorless, and toxic
gas generated by the incomplete combustion of carbon-based
fuels.
carbon monoxide is also flammable (LEL = 4%), but its toxic
properties are generally of the larger concern.
Carbon monoxide may also be sensed by an electrochemical
cell, using iodine pentoxide as the reacting compound. The
balanced chemical reaction is as follows
at anode:

at cathode:
 Summary
Composition/ concentration analysers are important to
control quality of product.
Gas analyser are important for safety concerns.
Leakage can be detected with portable gas analsers which
operataes on electrochemical reaction.
Selection of a particul analyser depends on cost, online,
offline requirements.
Assignment
Assignment
 Introduction to Control Systems
Open Loop
Closed Loop
Manually closed loop
Automatic closed loop
Elements of a simple closed-loop control system
Open Loop (System: Mixing of cold and hot water)

Figure taken from Fundamental of Industrial Instruments by William Dunn

Block diagram for Open Loop
 Closed loop (manually controlled)

Figure taken from Fundamental of Industrial Instruments by William Dunn

Closed loop (manually controlled)
 Closed loop (automatically controlled)

Figure taken from Fundamental of Industrial Instruments by William Dunn

Closed loop (automatically controlled)
 Introduction to Control Systems

There are three basic components of all

control systems:
1. Sensor/transmitter: also often called the
primary element.
2. Controller brain
system
3. Final control element: often a control
valve, but not always.
 Final Control Element: Introduction

The input signal to the controller is the error, and the output
signal of the controller is fed to the final control element
(FCV) which is one of the basic components of any control
system.
In many process control systems, this output signal is an air
pressure, and the final control element is a valve
(pneumatic) that opens and closes as the air pressure on
the diaphragm changes.
Most common type of FCV is pneumatic control valve
which regulates the flow of fluids, other common examples
of FCV include variable speed pumps, heaters, dampers
etc.
 Final Control Element

The control valve is essentially a variable resistance to the flow

of a fluid, in which the resistance and therefore the flow can be
changed by a signal from a process control.
We will cover
Description of control valves
Action of controller
Characteristics
Sizing of control valves