Course Outlines

1. Measurements and Testing

2. D.C Motors
3. Transformers
4. Transmission lines
5. Synchronous Alternators
6. Induction Motors
Measurements
and Testing
• Why measuring and testing
• Standards for testing
• Types of testing
• Testing procedures
• Some measuring instruments
• The deterioration of electrical equipment
is normal and begins as soon as the
equipment is installed.
• If deterioration is not checked, it can
cause electrical failures and malfunctions.
• The purpose of an electrical testing and
measurements is to provide means for
such failures and malfunctions and
discovering hazards that can cause
failure of equipment or interruption of
electrical service.
• Testing of electrical equipment should
consist of conducting routine tests
inspections, repairs of electrical power
system apparatus such as generators,
transformers, circuit breakers, cables,
load motors, switchgear assemblies
along with associated equipment
comprised of control wiring, protective
devices and relays, supervisory
equipment and indicating and metering
instruments.
Why measuring and testing?
Measuring and monitoring electrical
quantities enable the following :
• Optimizing the fault prevention.
• Scheduling the maintenance.
• owing to early identification of
problems that results in greater
protection.
• This is done not only of the plants but
also of the objects connected to them.
An efficient system of measuring and
monitoring electrical quantities is important
for ensuring the success of all initiatives
that require :

• Energy costs to be contained.

• Quality energy supplies.
• Continuity of service of the plants.
Achieving the above objectives requires the
activities to be implemented that are set out
in the following flow chart.
 Functions / Objectives of Electrical Measurements

Reducing Energy Continuity of

Energy Costs Quality Services

Functions : Functions : Functions :

• Sub-metering •Analyzing • Control of plant
consumptions harmonics. in real time.
and dividing •Detecting over
• Remote control.
costs. voltages,
• Monitoring load voltage • Managing
variations and alarms and
patterns. voltage gaps. dividing costs.
• Managing •Detecting • Preventive
peaks. discharges from maintenance and
• Improving steep transients. maintenance in
power factor •Conformity of the event of a
fault.
corrections supply.
Standards for testing :
• Legal standards are all those governing the
behavior of parties subject to the authority
of the state, including the directives that
are normally enacted in national legislation
through legislative decrees.

• Technical standards are all the prescriptions

on the basis of which the machines, devices,
materials and plants have to be designed,
built and tested to ensure their operating
efficiency and safety.
• The technical standards can be
subdivided into :
1. the International Electro Technical
Commission (IEC)
2. the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI)
3. the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
4. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA)
IEC standards
Three committees are specifically
responsible for measuring instrumentation.

• TC85 - Measuring equipment for

electrical and electromagnetic quantities.

• TC66 - Safety of measuring, control and

laboratory instruments.

• TC13 - Electrical energy measurement,

tariff and load control.
 Reference Standards for Measuring
Instruments

TC 13 TC 66 TC 85
Electrical Safety of Measuring
energy measuring, equipment
measurement control and for electrical
, tariff and laboratory and electro-
load control. instruments. magnetic
quantities.
Types of testing :
Types of testing methods include the four
categories of tests as well as the tests
themselves.
Categories of tests :
There are four categories of tests for
electrical equipment namely :
1. Factory tests.
2. Acceptance tests.
3. Routine maintenance tests.
4. Special maintenance tests.
• Factory tests : such tests are
performed at the factory to prove that the
equipment was manufactured properly
and meets specific design parameters.

• The acceptance tests : such tests

are usually run at 80% of the factory test
voltage values to help indicating the
equipment deterioration without being
destructive.
Commissioning tests are also proof tests
usually performed on new equipment and
systems after installation and before
energization, they are run to determine :
 Whether the equipment is in compliance
with specifications to establish
benchmarks for future tests.

 To determine the equipment was installed

correctly and without damage.

 To verify whether the equipment meets

its intended design operation and limits.
• Routine and special maintenance
tests : such tests are run after the
equipment has been in service for a
certain amount of time to determine the
degree of deterioration of physical
parameters as operating time increases
and usually being run at 60% of the factory
tests.
Routine tests are performed on a periodic
basis and special tests are performed on
defective equipment to help determine the
cause of a failure and/or the extent of the
damage.
Types of testing methods :
The testing of electrical power system
equipment involves :
• Checking the insulation adequacy.
• Electrical properties.
• Protection and control.
• Equipment operation.
• Other items as they relate to the
overall system.
Some of these checks are accomplished
using :
 De-energized component tests.
 Instrumentation and relay operation.
 Calibration tests.
 Energized functional testing of control
circuits.
 Megger testing of power circuits.
 Phase out testing of power circuits.
 Service testing.
Testing procedures :
The testing procedure for electrical
equipment includes the following steps as
a flow chart :

1. Identify the equipment or appliances

requiring testing and record them in
the Electrical Testing Register.

2. Ensure that a qualified technician has

calibrated the test equipment within
the last 12 months.
3. Undertake risk assessments to
identify the required frequency of
testing according to standards and
record in the Electrical Testing
Register.

4. Set the testing timeframes.

5. A competent personas a contractor or
trained staff member is engaged to
conduct testing of the equipment and
appliances.
6. Perform the desired testing for the
identified equipment or appliances.

7. Record testing information and results

in the Electrical Testing Register.
 Safety
Some of the experiments involve voltages
that could conceivably lead to serious
injury or death.
Therefore strict adherence to the following
rules will greatly decrease the probability
that accidents will occur.
However, no set of rules can replace basic
common sense, and all persons using the
laboratory are encouraged to constantly
THINK SAFETY !
1. Always assume all circuits are
energized unless you know with
certainty that they are not.
2. Use one hand to make connections.
3. Never work on electrical circuits
with wet or moist hands.
4. Do not play with equipment not
directly involved in your
experiment.
5. When in the lab do not wear clothing
or jewelry which could constitute a
health hazard, Shoes are preferably
to be rubber soled ones and must be
worn in the lab, also, long hair
presents a hazard near moving parts
of machinery.
6. It is important for safety reasons for
anyone to easily trace out your test
circuit and, therefore do not work on
a cluttered bench.
 7. Never touch moving parts of
machinery.
8. Think out ahead of time the
consequences of closing or opening
a switch.
9. Never alter an energized circuit
unless you are certain of the
outcome.
10. If you know or suspect that an
accident is about to occur, take
immediate steps to prevent it.
Inspections and component testing
of main power system
The following components are part of a
typical main power system. These should
be inspected and tested in accordance
with information specified below.

The inspection can be considered as a

part of pre-checks and/or the functional
performance tests.
Some measuring instruments

1.Voltmeter
Voltmeter
to be used
on panels
for voltage
measure
2. Ammeter
Direct insertion for Ammeters & Voltmeters
Indirect insertion for Ammeters & Voltmeters
3. Watt meter
4.P.F meter
Portable P.F meter
P.F Correction Unit
5. Synchroscope
Synchronizing Unit
6.Revolution Counter
7. Electrical Torque Meter Set
Load Resistor :
• Load resistor contains three ganged
resistors with continuous spindle
regulation.
• The resistors are connected to terminals
for 3-ph, single phase or DC voltage.
• The current in the resistor is limited by
tubular wire fuses in each phase.
• The unit has handles and wheels for simple
and quick movement and is enclosed in a
perforated metal cabinet with cooling fan.
Load Reactor
• Enclosed in a strong
metal cabinet.

• The front panel has

mimic diagram,
terminals, fuses and
electrical data.

• The unit can be used on

1- and 3-phase systems.

• It has 12 step regulation.

Load Capacitor
• Housed in a metal
cabinet.
• Electrical data and
symbols on the front
panel with terminals
and fuses.
• This unit can be used
on 1- and 3-phase
systems.
• It has 6 step regulation.
D.C Motor
Slip Ring Induction Motor
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
Synchronous Machine
Three phase Transformer
Load Switches with Selectors
Laboratory Flexes with Safety Plugs
Lab System
 D.C.
Motors
 Overview
• Introduction
• D.C motor theory
• D.C motor construction
• D.C motor types and classification
• D.C motor operation and control
• D.C motor testing
 Introduction
• TheDC motor is a machine that can be
used in many different ways.
• Many large pieces of equipment depend on
a DC motor for their power to move where
the speed and direction of rotation of a dc
motor are easily controlled.
• This makes it useful for operating
equipment such as winches, cranes and
missile launchers which must move in
different directions and at varying speeds.
 D.C Motor Theory
The operation of a dc motor is based on the
following principle :
• A current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field, perpendicular to the lines
of flux, tends to move in a direction
perpendicular to the magnetic lines of flux.
• There is a definite relationship between
the direction of the magnetic field, the
direction of current in the conductor, and
the direction in which the conductor tends
to move.
• This relationship is best explained by using
the left hand rule for motors.

• Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux

density B, when the two ends of the coil
are connected across a D.C voltage
source, current I flows through it.
• A force is exerted on the coil as a result of
the interaction of magnetic field and
electric current, this force on the two
sides of the coil is makes the coil starts to
move in the direction of force.
Fixed Magnets
 Fleming's Left Hand (Motor) Rule
Direction of Rotation

Fixed Magnetic Field Direction

Conventional
Current Direction S
N
 A S Use the Left Hand Rule to Determine
the Rotation Direction of the
Armatures in A and B

N Hint: You will have to turn your left

hand upside down for example A

B
Notice that when the
current through the
armature is reversed,
S
it moves (Rotates) in
the opposite direction
N
•a D.C motor rotates as a result of two
magnetic fields interacting with each
other.

• The armature of a D.C motor acts like an

electromagnet when current flows
through its coils.

• Since the armature is located within the

magnetic field of the field poles, these
two magnetic fields interact.
• The D.C motor has field poles that are
stationary and an armature that turns on
bearings in the space between the field
poles.

• The armature of a D.C motor has windings

on it connected to commutator segments.

• The armature rotation can be illustrated as

follows :
Counter E.M.F
• While a D.C motor is running, it acts
somewhat like a D.C generator where
there is a magnetic field from the field
poles, and a loop of wire is turning and
cutting this magnetic field.
• As the loop sides cut the magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in them, the same as it
was in the loop sides of the dc generator.
• This induced voltage causes current to
flow in the loop and called back E.M.F (Eb).
• This counter E.M.F cannot be equal to or
greater than the applied battery voltage;
if it were, the motor would not run.
• The counter E.M.F is always a little less,
however, it opposes the applied voltage
enough to keep the armature current
from the battery to a fairly low value.
• If there were no such counter E.M.F,
much more current would flow through
the armature and the motor would run
much faster, however, there is no way to
avoid that counter E.M.F.
The equations of the back e.m.f are :

Φ.Z.N P
Eb = .
60 A
Eb α Φ . N

Eb = V - I a . R a
Motor Loads
• Motors are used to turn mechanical
devices, such as water pumps, grinding
wheels, fan blades, and circular saws.

• For example, when a motor is turning a

water pump, the water pump is the load.

• So, the definition of a motor load is the

mechanical device that the motor must
move.
• The mechanical load connected to a D.C
motor affects many electrical quantities
such as the power drawn from the line, the
amount of current, the speed, the motor
efficiency, … etc, which are all partially
controlled by the size of the load.

• The physical and electrical characteristics

of the motor must be matched to the
requirements of the load if the work is to
be done without the possibility of damage
to either the load or the motor.
D.C Motor Construction
 Bearing Brush Body / Yoke

Pulley End Housing

Shaft

Armature
Commutator

Field Core
Brush
holder
Field Winding
1. Yoke which is a steel frame providing
mechanical rigidity and also providing a path of
low magnetic reluctance between poles.
2. Pole Cores which are steel cores around
which field coils are wound with adjacent poles
alternate in polarity like N – S – N – S … etc.
3. Pole Shoe which is a part of the pole steel
structure and conforms to the curvature of the
armature core in order to provide a uniform air
gap length.
4. Field Coils which are coils of insulated
copper wire to provide the m.m.f for the
magnetic field.
5. Armature core which is a stack of steel
laminations mounted on the shaft of the
machine and representing a major part of
the magnetic circuit.
6. Armature coils which is a collection of
copper wires in which voltages are induced
and on which forces are produced by
current, such copper conductors are
placed in the slots.
7. Slots which are rectangular openings
around the periphery of the armature core
into which armature conductors are placed.
8. Commutator which is a ring of copper
segments surrounding the shaft and
insulated from each other by strips of mica
where the ends of armature conductors are
connected to commutator segments.
9. Brushes which are stationary rectangular
carbon and graphite blocks that make
electrical contact with the rotating
commutator for the purpose of completing
the current path from the external
terminals through the armature conductors
and return.
10. Brush-rig which is a mechanical
assembly which holds the brushes in
place and provides the adjusting tension
of the springs which push the brushes
against the commutator.

11. End bells which are steel structures on

both ends of the machine to provide
support for the bearings and brush
rigging.
 Mica
insulation
between
segments

Copper segments
Mica insulation Copper conductors
 D.C Motor Types &
Classification
• DC Machines can be classified according
to the electrical connections of the
armature winding and the field windings.
• The different ways in which these
windings are connected lead to machines
operating with different characteristics.
• The field winding can be either self
excited or separately excited.
• Further, in self excited motors, the field
winding can be connected either in series
or in parallel with the armature winding.

• These different types of connections give

rise to very different types of machines
as displayed in the following diagram.
 DC Motors

Separately Self Permanent

Excited Excited Magnet

Series DC Shunt DC Compound

Motors Motors DC Motors

Cumulative Differential
compound compound

Long shunt Short shunt

DC motors
1. Permanent Magnet DC Motor
2. Separately Excited DC Motor
3. Self Excited DC Motor
a) Shunt Wound DC Motor
b) Series Wound DC Motor
c) Compound Wound DC Motor
i. Cumulative compound DC motor
• Long shunt cumulative DC motor
• Short shunt cumulative DC motor
ii. Differential compound DC motor
• Long shunt differential DC motor
• Short shunt differential DC motor
Permanent Magnet DC Motor
• The permanent magnet D.C motor
consists of an armature winding as in
case of an usual motor, but does not
necessarily contain the field windings.

• The construction of such a type of D.C

motors contains a radially magnetized
permanent magnets mounted on the
inner periphery of the stator core to
produce the field flux.
• The rotor on the other hand has a
conventional D.C armature with
commutator segments and brushes.
• Thediagrammatic representation of a
permanent magnet D.C motor is :
• Since the flux density are chosen at the
time of construction and can’t be
changed there after which means that :
Φ = constant
Accordingly :
E b = K . Φ . N = KΦ . N
i.e : V – Ia . Ra = KΦ . N

V - Ia Ra
N=
KΦ
• Moreover, the torque equation of dc
motor suggests :

Ta = Ka . Φ . Ia = KT . Ia
In this case the torque of D.C motor can
only be changed by controlling the
armature supply.

As a result, torque-speed characteristic

can be drawn as :
 ω or N

ω4
V4
ω3
V3
ω2
V2
ω1
V1

T
Ts1 Ts2 Ts3 Ts4
Separately excited machines
• In case of a separately excited DC motor
the supply is given separately to the field
and armature windings.
• The armature and field winding are
electrically separate from each other.
• The field winding is excited by a separate
DC source.
• So the torque and speed can be varied by
varying field flux φ, independent of the
armature electric current Ia
• Since the flux density can be varied by
varying the field current which means
that :
Φ α If α Vf
Accordingly :
Eb = K . Φ . N α Φ . N
i.e : V – Ia . Ra α Φ . N

V - Ia Ra
Nα
Φ
• Moreover, the torque equation of dc
motor suggests :

Ta = Ka . Φ . Ia α Φ . Ia
In this case the torque and speed of D.C
motor can be changed by controlling
either the field or the armature supply.

As a result, torque-speed characteristic

can be drawn as :
 ω or N

ωo
Va

T
Tst
Self Excited DC Motor
• In case of self excited DC motor, the field
winding is connected either in series or
in parallel or partly in series, partly in
parallel to the armature winding and can
be classified as :

 Shunt wound DC motor.

 Series wound DC motor.

 Compound wound DC motor.

Shunt wound DC motor
• Incase of a shunt wound DC motor or
more specifically shunt wound self
excited DC motor, the field windings are
exposed to the entire terminal voltage as
they are connected in parallel to the
armature winding.
• To understand the characteristic of
such
a type of DC motors, consider the basic
voltage equation given by :

V = Eb + Ia . Ra
 where V , Eb , Ia , Ra are the supply
voltage, back e.m.f, armature current and
armature resistance respectively.
• Sinceback e.m.f increases with flux Φ
and angular speed ω :
Φ α If α V
Accordingly :

Eb = K . Φ . N α Φ . N
i.e : V – I a . Ra α Φ . N
V - Ia Ra
Nα
Φ
• Moreover, the torque equation of dc
motor suggests :

Ta = Ka . Φ . Ia α Φ . Ia
In this case the torque and speed of D.C
motor can be changed by controlling
either the field or the armature supply.

• The DC shunt motor is a constant speed

motor, as the speed does not vary with
the variation of mechanical output load.
 ω or N

V/ Ka.Φ

Slope = Ra/(Ka.Φ)2

Shunt motor Torque – Speed characteristics

 N

FULL LOAD

0
Ia ( Amps)

Speed - armature current characteristics

 T

0
Ia ( Amps)

Torque - armature current characteristics

Series wound DC motor
• Incase of a series wound DC motor or
more specifically series wound self
excited DC motor, the field windings are
connected in series to the armature
winding.
• To understand the characteristic of
such
a type of DC motors, consider the basic
voltage equation given by :

V = Eb + Ia ( Ra + Rs )
 where V , Eb , Ia , Ra , Rs are the supply
voltage, back e.m.f, armature current,
armature resistance and field resistance
respectively.
• Since back e.m.f increases with flux Φ and
angular speed ω :
Φ α If α Ia
Accordingly :
Eb = K . Φ . N α I a . N
i.e : V – Ia (Ra +Rs) α Ia . N
V - I a (R a + R s )
Nα
Ia
• Moreover, the torque equation of dc
motor suggests :

Ta = Ka . Φ . Ia α (Ia)2
In this case the torque and speed of D.C
motor can be changed by controlling the
armature supply.

• The DC series motor has a variable speed

and a high starting torque, therefore it is
suitable in the field of electric traction.
 ω or N

Series motor Torque – Speed characteristics

 N

0
Ia ( Amps)

Speed - armature current characteristics

 T

Saturation of
series field core

0
Ia ( Amps)

Torque - armature current characteristics

Compound Wound DC Motor
• The compound excitation characteristic
in a DC motor can be obtained by
combining the operational characteristic
of both the shunt and series excited DC
motors.

• The compound DC motor essentially

contains the field winding connected
both in series and in parallel to the
armature winding.
• The excitation of compound DC motor can
be of two types depending on the nature of
compounding :

Cumulative Compound DC Motor

• When the shunt field flux assists the

main field flux, produced by the main
field connected in series to the
armature winding then its called
cumulative compound DC motor.
Differential Compound DC Motor

• In case of a differentially compounded

self excited DC motor, the arrangement
of shunt and series winding is such that
the field flux produced by the shunt
field winding diminishes the effect of
flux by the main series field winding.

• The net flux produced in this case is

less than the original flux and hence
does not find much of a practical
application.
 +
Ia IL
ISE

Rsh
M E V
SUPPLY
ISh
Ra
_
 ω or N

Differential
Compound

Cumulative
Compound

Compound motor Torque – Speed characteristics

 N
Differential
Compound

Shunt

Cumulative
Compound

0
Ia ( Amps)

Speed - armature current characteristics

 T

Cumulative
Compound Shunt

Differential
Compound

0
Ia ( Amps)

Torque - armature current characteristics

• Both the cumulative compound and
differential compound DC motors can
either be of short shunt or long shunt type
depending on the nature of arrangement.

Short Shunt DC Motor

• If the shunt field winding is only parallel

to the armature winding and not the
series field winding then its known as
short shunt DC motor or more
specifically short shunt type compound
DC motor.
Long Shunt DC Motor
• If the shunt field winding is parallel to
both the armature winding and the
series field winding then it’s known as
long shunt type compounded DC
motor.