Differential Calculus and Coordinate Geometry Fall 2018-19

Chapter 1
1.1. Real Numbers, Intervals, and Inequalities
In mathematics, a real number is a value that represents a quantity along a real line.
p
The real numbers include all the rational numbers (no. of the form , p ,qϵ Z , q ≠ 0 ¿, such as the
q
integer −5 and the fraction 4/3, and all the irrational numbers (which is not rational), such as √ 2
(1.41421356…, the square root of 2, an irrational algebraic number). Included within the
irrationals are the transcendental numbers, such as π (3.14159265…). Real numbers can be
thought of as points on an infinitely long line called the number line or real line, where the points
corresponding to integers are equally spaced.

In calculus we will be concerned with sets of real numbers, called intervals, which correspond to
line segments on a coordinate line. For example, if a< b, then the open interval from a ¿ b, denoted
by (a , b) is the line segment extending from a ¿ b, excluding the end points; and the closed interval
from a ¿ b, denoted by [a , b ¿ is the line segment extending from a ¿ b, including the end points.
These sets can be expressed as
( a , b )={x : a< x <b } The open interval from a ¿ b.

[a , b]={x : a≤ x ≤ b } The closed interval from a ¿ b.

Unions and intersections of intervals:

If A∧B are two sets, then the union of A∧B (denoted by A ∪B) is the set whose members belong
to A∨B (or both), and the intersection of A∧B (denoted by A ∩ B) is the set whose members
belong to both A∧B. For example,
{ x : 0< x< 6 } ∪ { x :2< x< 8 }={ x :0< x <8 }

{ x : x <2 } ∩ { x : x ≥0 }={x :0 ≤ x <2 }

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Differential Calculus and Coordinate Geometry Fall 2018-19

{ x : x <2 } ∩ { x : x >2 }=∅

{ x : 0< x< 6 } ¿ {x :2 ≤ x< 8¿}={x :0< x <2}

Or in interval notation,
( 0 , 6 ) ∪ ( 2 ,8 )=( 0 ,8)
(−∞ , 2 ) ∩ [ 0 ,+ ∞ )=¿
(−∞ , 2 ) ∩(2 ,+∞)=∅
( 0 , 6 ) ¿ 2,8 ¿=(0 , 2)
Exercise 1.1
1. In each part, sketch the set on a coordinate line.
(a) [ −3 , 2 ] ∪[1 , 4 ], (b) (−2 , 3 ) ∪¿ , (c) (−∞ , 4 ) ∩(−2 ,+∞ ), (d) (−2 , 4 ) ∩¿
(e) [ −2 , 4 ] [ 1 ,6 ¿ .

Solve Inequalities
Theorem (Properties of Inequalities). Let a, b, c, and d be real numbers.
(i) If a< b and b< c , then a< c .
(ii) If a< b, then a+ c< b+c and a−c <b−c .
(iii) If a< b, then ac <bc when c is positive and ac >bc when c is negative.
(iv) If a< b and c <d , then a+ c< b+d .
1 1
(v) If a and b are both positive or both negative and a< b, then > .
a b

A solution of an inequality in an unknown x is a value of x that makes the inequality a true

statement. For example, x=2 is a solution of the inequality x <5, but x=6 is not. The set of all
solutions of an inequality is called its solution set.
Example 1: Solve the inequality 3+14 x ≤2 x−9.
Solution: Given that,
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Differential Calculus and Coordinate Geometry Fall 2018-19

3+14 x ≤2 x−9
14 x ≤2 x−12 (subtracted 3 from both sides)
12 x ≤−12 (subtracted 2x from both sides)
1
x ≤−1 (multiplied both sides by )
12

Example-2: Solve the inequality 7 ≤ 2−5 x< 12.

Solution: The given inequality is a combination of two inequalities.
7 ≤ 2−5 x< 12 (given)
5 ≤−5 x <10 (subtracted 2 from each member)
−1
−1 ≥ x >−2 (multiplied by and reversed the inequality signs)
5
−2< x ≤−1 (rewritten the inequalities with the smaller number on the left)

Example-3: Solve the inequality x 2−3 x> 10.

Solution: The given inequality is a combination of two inequalities.
x 2−3 x> 10 (given)
x 2−3 x−10>0 (subtracted 10 from both sides)
( x +2 ) (x−5)>0 (factorizing left side)
The values of x for which x +2=0 or x−5=0 are x=−2 and x=5. These points divide the
coordinate line into three open intervals, (−∞ ,−2 ) , (−2 ,5 ) , ( 5 ,+∞ ) on each of which the product
( x +2 ) (x−5) has constant sign. To determine those signs we will choose an arbitrary point in each
interval at which we will determine the sign; these are called test points. The result can be
organized as follows:

Sign of ( x +2 ) (x−5) at the test

Interval Test point
point
(−∞ ,−2 ) −3 ¿
(−2 , 5 ) 0 ¿
( 5 ,+∞ ) 6 ¿

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Differential Calculus and Coordinate Geometry Fall 2018-19

The solution set is (−∞ ,−2 ) ∪ ( 5 ,+∞ ).

Exercise 1.2
1. Solve the inequalities and sketch the solution on a coordinate line
(a) 4 x+1←7 , (b) x 2> 9 x+2 0, (c) ( x +3)2 ≥ 2( x 2+7) .

Absolute Value
The absolute value or magnitude of a real number x is denoted by f ( x )=| x| and is defined by

f ( x )=|a|= a if a ≥ 0 .
{−a if a<0

The graph of y=¿ x−2∨¿ is obtained by translating the graph of y=¿ x∨¿ right 2 units.

Example-4: Solve|x−3|=4.
Solution: The equation |x−3|=4 can be written as x−3=4 or x−3=−4. Solving these two
equations we get x=7and x=−1.
Example-5: Solve |x−1|< 2.
Solution: The equation |x−1|< 2 can be written as −2< x−1<2so x−1<2 or x−1>−2. Solving
these two equations we get x <3 and x >−1.
Exercises 1.3
1. Solve the absolute value Inequalities:
a) |2 x−1|<3 , b) |8−3 x|≤ 2 , c)¿ x∨≥ 6 , d) |5 x−6|>4, e) 2<|x|<6 .
2. Duke made a 76 on the mid term exam in Mathematics. To get a B, the average of her
midterm and her final exam must be between 80 and 90. For what range of scores on the
final exam will she get a B?

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Differential Calculus and Coordinate Geometry Fall 2018-19

Functions, Limits and Continuity of functions

1.2 Definition of Function:
A (real-valued) function f, is a rule that assigns to each element x of a subset of P a unique real
number y. This is usually written as
y  f  x
or f : x → y
The variable x is called the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.
Examples of functions:
(i) The formula C = 2πr expresses the circumference C of a circle as a function of its radius r.
There is exactly one value of C for each value of r. C is function of r.
(ii) The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies in the Universe is directly proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
m1 m2
F=G 2
them. This is the verbal description of the formula r in which F is the force of
attraction, m1 and m2 are the masses, r is the distance between them, and G is a constant. If the
masses are constant, then the verbal description defines F as a function of r. There is exactly one
value of F for each value of r.
y  f  x
Domain: Domain is the set of values of independent variable x for which the function is
defined.
Natural Domain: The natural domain of a function is the largest set of values of independent
variable over which the function is defined.
Note:The domain may be restricted to a subset of the natural domain.
x x
f  x    ,     1 f  x  , x 1
For example, If x  1 then natural domain is , but if x 1 ,
then domain is
 ,1 .
y  f  x
Range: The corresponding set of values of dependent variable is called the range of .
Note: Domain of summation/difference/product/division of two or more functions is the
intersection of the domain of each function. For division denominator is not equal to zero.
x
f  x 
Example 1: Find the natural domain of (i) x  2 ,(ii) g  x   x  1, (iii) h  x   ln  x  1 ,
x 1
y
2
(iv) y  x  x  1, (v) y  x  4, and (vi)  x  2   x  3 .

Solution: (i)Natural domain of f is

 ,     2 since x+ 2≠0 .
(ii)Natural domain of g is [1,∞) since x−1≥0 .

(iii) Natural domain of h is

 1,   since x−1>0 .
(iv) √x is defined when x≥0 and √ x−1 is defined when x−1≥0 or x≥1 .

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Differential Calculus and Coordinate Geometry Fall 2018-19

  0,     1,     1,  
Natural domain .

(v) √ x2−4 2
is defined when x −4 ≥0∨|x|≥ 2∨x ∈ (−∞ ,−2 ] ∪ ¿ .

Natural domain is
 ,  2   2,   .
1
(vi) √ x−1 is defined when x−1≥0 or x≥1 and 
x  2   x  3
is defined when
x≠2, 3 . Natural domain   1,     ,     2, 3   1,     2,3 .
Exercises 1.4
1. Find the natural domain of the following functions. Also show the domain in real line.
x2 x 2−16 2x 1
y , y= y , y ,
(a) x  4 (b) x +4 (c) x  2 x  8 (d) y  2 x  1, (e)
2
x3

3x  9
y , y= √ x 2−16 2
(f) y  x  5  x  6, (g) x  x  6 (h) (i) y  4  x ,
2
,

y  x  3  x  2  , (k) y  cos 3x, (l) y  sin 2 x, (m) y  tan 4 x, (n) y  e

3 x ,
(j)

(o) y  ln( x  5) .

1.2 Graphs of functions: In order to draw the graph of a function at first choose some values of
independent variable from the domain. Then find the corresponding values of dependent variable.
Combine them to form the points and then plot the points. At last joining the points draw the graph.
Graphs of some elementary functions are given bellow:

y=x , D   ,   , R=  ,  

2
y=x ,
D   ,   , R   0,  

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1
3 D   ,   , R   ,   y=
y=x , x
D   ,     0 , R=  ,     0

y=e
x D   ,   , R   0,   y  ln x , D   0,   , R   ,  
,

y=√ x D   0,   , R   0,   y=sin x ,
,
D   ,   , R   1, 1

 n 
y  tan x, D   ,      , n is odd number.
 2 
y=cos x , D   ,   , R   1, 1 R=  ,  

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Differential Calculus and Coordinate Geometry Fall 2018-19

 x2 , x  2
y , D   ,   , R   0,  
y= |x| , D   ,   , R   0,    2 x , x  2

y  sinh  x  D   ,   , R   ,   y  cosh  x  , D   ,   , R   1,  

,
Exercise: 1.5
1. Find the domain and range of the following functions and hence sketch them:
x y y  x4 , y  x  3  5, y  x  5  7,
+ =1, (b)5 x+ 2 y =10 , (c) (d) (e)
(a) 3 2

1
y ,
(f) y  x  5, (g) y  8  x , (i) y  ( x  1)  2, (j) y  ( x  4)  3,
2 2
(h) x4

4x
(k) y  e , (l) y  ln( x  3), (m) y  sin 3 x, (n) y=cos 2 x .

1.3: Limit of function

f  x
If we can make as near as we please to a number L by choosing x sufficiently close to a
f  x
number a (from either side), but x≠a , then L is said to be the limit of as x tends to a.

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This is denoted by
lim f  x   L
xa .
We also write f (x )→L as x → a .
When x approaches a and x<a (i.e. from the left of a), then we
obtain the left-hand limit, denoted by
lim f  x 
xa .
Similarly, if x approaches a from the right (i.e. x>a), we have
the right-hand limit written as
lim f  x 
xa .
lim f  x   L lim f  x   lim f  x   L
Thus xa if and only if xa xa .
Infinite Limits
f  x
If x gets closer to a and the values of get larger and larger in the positive direction, we write
f  x   lim f  x   
as x → a or xa
f  x    f  x
Similarly we say that as x → a if the values of get larger in the negative
direction.
1 1
lim →∞ lim →−∞
Note that, x → 0+ x and x → 0− x .
2
x −1
lim
Example 2: Evaluate x →1 x−1 .

Solution:
Limit x 2 −1
x x−1
0.9 1.9
x  1 0.999 1.999
0.99999 1.99999
1.1 2.1
x  1 1.001 2.001
1.00001 2.00001

From the above table it appears that

lim
x 2−1
lim
x 2−1 x 2 −1
=2 =2 lim =2
− x−1
(a) x → 1 , (b) x → 1+ x−1 , (c) x →1 x−1 .
sin x
lim.
Example 3: Evaluate x0 x
Solution:
x  0 f ( x) x  0
-0.1 -0.01 -0.0001 x (in radian) 0.0001 0.01 0.1
0.99833 0.99998 0.999999998 sin x 0.999999998 0.99998 0.99833
x

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Differential Calculus and Coordinate Geometry Fall 2018-19

From the above table it appears that

sin x sin x sin x

lim 1 1 lim lim 1
(a) x  0 x , (b) x , x  0
(c) x  0 x .
sin x
f  x 
The result is consistent with the graph of x shown in Figure1.

Figure 1
Limit at infinity
f  x
If we can make as near as we wish to L by choosing x large enough, then we write
lim f  x   L
x  .
lim f  x  .
Similarly we can define x
1 1
lim =0 lim =0
Observe that x→∞ x and x →−∞ x .
2
3 x +1
2
lim
Example 4: Evaluate x → ∞ x −x .
1
3
3x  1 2
x2  3
lim 2  lim
x  x  x x  1
1
Solution: x .
 x  2, x  3

f  x   3
lim f  x   x , x  3
Example 5: Justify whether x 3 exists or not if .
3
lim f  x   lim 1 lim f  x   lim x  2  5
Solution: x 3 x 3 x and x 3 x 3 .
lim f  x  lim f  x   lim f  x 
So, x 3 does not exist since x 3 x 3 .
Exercise: 1.6
1. Evaluate the following limits: (if possible)
x 2  16 sin 5 x 1  cos 2 x
lim , lim , lim 2
,
(a) x 4 x  4 (b) x 0 tan 3 x (c) x 0 2 x

√ x−2 , e x −e− x 4 x 3  x 2  3x
(d) lim (e) lim x − x , lim .
(f) x  3x  5
3
x→ 4 x −4 x→ ∞ e +e .

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Differential Calculus and Coordinate Geometry Fall 2018-19

5 1 4
Answer:(a) 16, (b) , (c)1, (d) , (e) 1 and (f) .
3 4 3

1.4: Continuity of function

f  x
A function is said to be continuous at
x=a if the following three conditions are
satisfied
f  a
(i) is defined.
lim f  x 
(ii) xa exists
lim f  x   f  a 
(iii) xa .

 x  1, x  0
2

f  x   2
Example 6: Discuss the continuity of  x  1, x  0 at x = 0.
Solution:
f  x f  0  0  1  1
Here we have (i) is defined at x=0 and .

(ii) x 0

x 0
2

lim f  x   lim x  1  1
and

x  0 x 0

lim f  x   lim x  1  1
2
 .
f  x
Thus the limit does not exist and hence is not continuous at x = 0.
Example7: Find the value of k for which the function f (x ) will be continuous at the indicated
point, where
5 x  1, x 1
f  x  
kx  x , x  1
2
at x=1 .
Solution:
f  1  k  1  1  k  1
For x=1 ,  
f x  kx  x 2
and .
lim f  x   lim  5 x  1  5  1  1  4
x 1 x 1 .

and x 1

x 1

lim f  x   lim kx  x  k  1  1  k  1
2

.
To be continuous at x  1 we must have
lim f  x   lim

f  x
x 1 x 1
 k 1  4 k  3
So, if k  3 then the given function will be continuous at x  1 .
Exercise 1.7
1. Sketch f (x) and hence discuss the continuity of f (x ) at the indicated point, where
x+3 ,0< x <1 2
(a) f ( x )= { 2 at x=1, (b) f ( x )= x −2 x+1 , x ≤ 2 at x=2.
{
2 x +2 , 1≤ x ≤ 4 3 x−2 , x >2

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Differential Calculus and Coordinate Geometry Fall 2018-19

x 2−2 cos x−1 , x ≤ 0

2. Discuss the continuity of f (x ) at x=0 , where f ( x )={ sec x−4 , x >0 .

3. Find the value of k for which the function f (x ) will be continuous everywhere, where
 x  3, 0  x 1
f ( x )= 3 x+ 5 , x ≤1 f ( x)   2
(a)
{ 2 x +k , x> 1 , (b) kx  2, 1 x  4
.

4. An open box is to be made from a 16-inch by 30-inch piece of cardboard by cutting out squares
of equal size from the four corners and bending up the sides (Figure 2a).
a) Let V be the volume of the box that results when the squares have sides of length x. Find a
formula for V as a function of x,
b) Find the domain of V,
c) Use the graph of V given in Figure 2c to estimate the range of V,
d) Describe in words what the graph tells you about the volume.

Figure 2

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