1.1.

Real Numbers, Intervals, and Inequalities

In mathematics, a real number is a value that represents a quantity along a real line.
𝑝
The real numbers include all the rational numbers (no. of the form 𝑞 , 𝑝, 𝑞𝜖ℤ, 𝑞 ≠ 0), such as the

integer −5 and the fraction 4/3, and all the irrational numbers (which is not rational), such as
√2(1.41421356…, the square root of 2, an irrational algebraic number). Included within the
irrationals are the transcendental numbers, such as 𝜋 (3.14159265…). Real numbers can be
thought of as points on an infinitely long line called the number line or real line, where the points
corresponding to integers are equally spaced.

In calculus we will be concerned with sets of real numbers, called intervals, which correspond to
line segments on a coordinate line. For example, if 𝑎 < 𝑏, then the open interval from 𝑎 to 𝑏,
denoted by (𝑎, 𝑏) is the line segment extending from 𝑎 to 𝑏, excluding the end points; and the
closed interval from 𝑎 to 𝑏, denoted by [𝑎, 𝑏] is the line segment extending from 𝑎 to 𝑏, including
the end points. These sets can be expressed as
(𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏} The open interval from 𝑎 to 𝑏.

[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏} The closed interval from 𝑎 to 𝑏.

Unions and intersections of intervals:

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two sets, then the union of 𝐴 and 𝐵 (denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) is the set whose members
belong to 𝐴 or 𝐵 (or both), and the intersection of 𝐴 and 𝐵 (denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) is the set whose
members belong to both 𝐴 and 𝐵. For example,
{𝑥: 0 < 𝑥 < 6} ∪ {𝑥: 2 < 𝑥 < 8} = {𝑥: 0 < 𝑥 < 8}

{𝑥: 𝑥 < 2} ∩ {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ 0} = {𝑥: 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2}

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 {𝑥: 𝑥 < 2} ∩ {𝑥: 𝑥 > 2} = ∅

{𝑥: 0 < 𝑥 < 6}\{𝑥: 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 8} = {𝑥: 0 < 𝑥 < 2}

Or in interval notation,
(0, 6) ∪ (2, 8) = (0, 8)
(−∞, 2) ∩ [0, +∞) = [0, 2)
(−∞, 2) ∩ (2, +∞) = ∅
(0, 6)\[2,8) = (0, 2)

Exercise 1.1
1. In each part, sketch the set on a coordinate line.
(a) [−4, 1] ∪ [0, 3], (b) (−1, 3) ∪ [3,6), (c) (−∞, 3) ∩ (−1, +∞), (d) (−1, 3) ∩ (0, 4]
(e) [−3, 5]\[2, 7].

Solve Inequalities
Theorem (Properties of Inequalities). Let a, b, c, and d be real numbers.
(i) If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑏 < 𝑐, then 𝑎 < 𝑐.
(ii) If 𝑎 < 𝑏, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 < 𝑏 + 𝑐 and 𝑎 − 𝑐 < 𝑏 − 𝑐.
(iii) If 𝑎 < 𝑏, then 𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑐 when c is positive and 𝑎𝑐 > 𝑏𝑐 when c is negative.
(iv) If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑐 < 𝑑, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 < 𝑏 + 𝑑.
1 1
(v) If a and b are both positive or both negative and 𝑎 < 𝑏, then 𝑎
> 𝑏.

A solution of an inequality in an unknown x is a value of x that makes the inequality a true

statement. For example, 𝑥 = 2 is a solution of the inequality 𝑥 < 5, but 𝑥 = 6 is not. The set of all
solutions of an inequality is called its solution set.
Example 1: Solve the inequality 3 + 14𝑥 ≤ 2𝑥 − 9.
Solution: Given that,
3 + 14𝑥 ≤ 2𝑥 − 9
14𝑥 ≤ 2𝑥 − 12 (subtracted 3 from both sides)
12𝑥 ≤ −12 (subtracted 2x from both sides)

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 1
𝑥 ≤ −1 (multiplied both sides by )
12

Example-2: Solve the inequality 7 ≤ 2 − 5𝑥 < 12.

Solution: The given inequality is a combination of two inequalities.
7 ≤ 2 − 5𝑥 < 12 (given)
5 ≤ −5𝑥 < 10 (subtracted 2 from each member)
1
−1 ≥ 𝑥 > −2 (multiplied by− 5 and reversed the inequality signs)

−2 < 𝑥 ≤ −1 (rewritten the inequalities with the smaller number on the left)

Example-3: Solve the inequality 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 > 10.

Solution: The given inequality is a combination of two inequalities.
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 > 10 (given)
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 10 > 0 (subtracted 10 from both sides)
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 5) > 0 (factorizing left side)
The values of x for which 𝑥 + 2 = 0 or 𝑥 − 5 = 0 are 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 5. These points divide the
coordinate line into three open intervals, (−∞, −2), (−2, 5), (5, +∞)on each of which the product
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 5) has constant sign. To determine those signs we will choose an arbitrary point in
each interval at which we will determine the sign; these are called test points. The result can be
organized as follows:

Sign of (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 5) at the

Interval Test point
test point
(−∞, −2) −3 (−)(−) = +
(−2, 5) 0 (+)(−) = −
(5, +∞) 6 (+)(+) = +
The solution set is (−∞, −2) ∪ (5, +∞).
Exercise 1.2
1. Solve the inequalities and sketch the solution on a coordinate line
(a) −5𝑥 + 3 < −7, (b) 𝑥 2 > 𝑥 + 2, (c) (𝑥 + 3)2 ≥ 2(𝑥 2 + 7).

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Absolute Value
The absolute value or magnitude of a real number x is denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| and is defined by
𝑎 if 𝑎 ≥ 0
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑎| = { .
−𝑎 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 0

The graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 2| is obtained by translating the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥| right 2 units.

Example-4: Solve|𝑥 − 3| = 4.
Solution: The equation |𝑥 − 3| = 4 can be written as 𝑥 − 3 = 4 or 𝑥 − 3 = −4. Solving
these two equations we get 𝑥 = 7and 𝑥 = −1.
Example-5: Solve |𝑥 − 1| < 2.
Solution: The equation |𝑥 − 1| < 2 can be written as −2 < 𝑥 − 1 < 2 so 𝑥 − 1 < 2 or 𝑥 − 1 >
−2. Solving these two equations we get 𝑥 < 3 and 𝑥 > −1.
Exercises 1.3
1. Solve the absolute value Inequalities:
a) |2𝑥 − 1| < 3, b) |7 − 3𝑥| ≤ 2, c)|𝑥| ≥ 5, d) |6 − 5𝑥| > 6, e) 3 < |𝑥| < 5.
2. Lira made a 76 on the mid term exam in Mathematics. To get a B, the average of her
midterm and her final exam must be between 80 and 90. For what range of scores on the
final exam will she get a B?

Functions, Limits and Continuity of functions

1.2 Definition of Function:

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A (real-valued) function f, is a rule that assigns to each element x of a subset of P a unique real
number y. This is usually written as
y = f ( x ) or f : x → y
The variable x is called the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.
Examples of functions:
(i) The formula C = 2πr expresses the circumference C of a circle as a function of its radius r.
There is exactly one value of C for each value of r. C is function of r.
(ii) The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies in the Universe is directly proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
mm
them. This is the verbal description of the formula F = G 1 2 2 in which F is the force of attraction,
r
m1 and m2 are the masses, r is the distance between them, and G is a constant. If the masses are
constant, then the verbal description defines F as a function of r. There is exactly one value of F for
each value of r.
Domain: Domain is the set of values of independent variable x for which the function y = f ( x ) is
defined.
Natural Domain: The natural domain of a function is the largest set of values of independent
variable over which the function is defined.
Note:The domain may be restricted to a subset of the natural domain.
x x
For example, If f ( x ) = then natural domain is ( −,  ) − 1 , but if f ( x ) = , x  1,
x −1 x −1
then domain is ( −,1) .
Range: The corresponding set of values of dependent variable is called the range of y = f ( x ) .

Note: Domain of summation/difference/product/division of two or more functions is the

intersection of the domain of each function. For division denominator is not equal to zero.
x
Example 1: Find the natural domain of (i) f ( x ) = ,(ii) g ( x ) = x − 1, (iii) h ( x ) = ln ( x − 1) ,
x+2
x −1
(iv) y = x  x − 1, (v) y = x 2 − 4, and (vi) y = .
( x − 2 )( x − 3)
Solution: (i)Natural domain of f is ( −,  ) − −2 since x + 2  0 .
(ii)Natural domain of g is [1, ) since x − 1  0 .
(iii) Natural domain of h is (1,  ) since x − 1  0 .
(iv) x is defined when x  0 and x − 1 is defined when x − 1  0 or x  1 .
Natural domain =  0,  )  1,  ) = 1,  ) .

(v) x 2 − 4 is defined when𝑥 2 − 4 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| ≥ 2 or 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞) .

Natural domain is ( −, − 2   2,  ) .
1
(vi) x − 1 is defined when x − 1  0 or x  1 and is defined when
( x − 2 )( x − 3)

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x  2, 3 . Natural domain = 1,  )  ( −,  ) − 2, 3 = 1,  ) − 2,3.
Exercises 1.4
1. Find the natural domain of the following functions. Also show the domain in real line.
x+3 𝑥 2 −9 2x 1
(a) y = , (b) 𝑦 = (c) y = 2 , (d) y = 4 x + 3, (e) y = ,
x −9 𝑥+3 x − 2x − 8 x+4

3x + 9
(f) y = x + 4 − x + 5, (g) y = , (h) 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 9, (i) y = 16 − x 2 ,
x − x−6
2

(j) y = ( x − 5)( x + 2 ) , (k) y = cos3x, (l) y = sin 2 x, (m) y = tan 6 x, (n) y = e−4 x ,

(o) y = ln( x − 3) .

1.2 Graphs of functions: In order to draw the graph of a function at first choose some values of
independent variable from the domain. Then find the corresponding values of dependent variable.
Combine them to form the points and then plot the points. At last joining the points draw the graph.
Graphs of some elementary functions are given bellow:

y = x , D = ( −,  ) , R= ( −,  ) y = x 2 , D = ( −,  ) , R =  0,  )

1
y = x 3 , D = ( −,  ) , R = ( −,  ) y= D = ( −,  ) − 0 , R= ( −,  ) − 0
x

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 y = e x , D = ( −,  ) , R = ( 0,  ) y = ln x , D = ( 0,  ) , R = ( −,  )

y = x , D =  0,  ) , R =  0,  ) y = sin x , D = ( −,  ) , R =  −1, +1

 n 
y = tan x, D = ( −,  ) −   , n is odd number.
y = cos x , D = ( −,  ) , R =  −1, +1  2
R= ( −,  )

 x2 , x  2
y = | x | , D = ( −,  ) , R =  0,  ) y= , D = ( −,  ) , R = 0,  )
2 x , x  2

y = sinh ( x ) , D = ( −,  ) , R = ( −,  ) y = cosh ( x ) , D = ( −,  ) , R = 1,  )

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 Exercise: 1.5
1. Find the domain and range of the following functions and hence sketch them:
𝑥 𝑦
(a) 5 + 3 = 1, (b) 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6 , (c) y = x − 3 , (d) y = x − 5 + 3, (e) y = x + 7 − 5,

1
(f) y = x − 6, (g) y = 9 − x , (h) y = , (i) y = ( x + 2)2 − 1, (j) y = ( x − 3)2 + 4,
x −3

(k) y = e3 x , (l) y = ln( x + 2), (m) y = sin 4 x, (n)𝑦 = cos 4𝑥.

1.3: Limit of function

If we can make f ( x ) as near as we please to a number L by choosing x sufficiently close to a
number a (from either side), but x  a , then L is said to be the limit of f ( x ) as x tends to a.
This is denoted by
lim f ( x ) = L .
x→a

We also write f ( x) → L as x → a .
When x approaches a and x<a (i.e. from the left of a), then we
obtain the left-hand limit, denoted by
lim− f ( x ) .
x →a
Similarly, if x approaches a from the right (i.e. x>a), we have
the right-hand limit written as
lim+ f ( x ) .
x →a

Thus lim f ( x ) = L if and only if lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = L .

x→a x →a − x →a

Infinite Limits
If x gets closer to a and the values of f ( x ) get larger and larger in the positive direction, we write
f ( x ) →  as x → a or lim f ( x ) → 
x→a

Similarly we say that f ( x ) → − as x → a if the values of f ( x ) get larger in the negative

direction.
1 1
Note that, lim → and lim → − .
+ −
x→0 x x→0 x

x2 −1
Example 2: Evaluate lim .
x →1 x −1

Solution:
Limit x2 −1
x x −1
0.9 1.9
−
x →1 0.999 1.999
0.99999 1.99999

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 1.1 2.1
+
x →1 1.001 2.001
1.00001 2.00001

From the above table it appears that

x2 − 1 x2 −1 x2 −1
(a) lim− = 2, (b) lim = 2, (c) lim = 2.
x →1 x − 1 x →1+ x − 1 x →1 x − 1
sin x
Example 3: Evaluate lim .
x →0 x
Solution:
x → 0− f ( x) x → 0+
-0.1 -0.01 -0.0001 x (in radian) 0.0001 0.01 0.1
0.99833 0.99998 0.999999998 sin x 0.999999998 0.99998 0.99833
x

From the above table it appears that

sin x sin x sin x

(a) lim− = 1, = 1,
(b) lim+ (c) lim =1.
x →0 x x →0 x x → 0 x
sin x
The result is consistent with the graph of f ( x ) = shown in Figure1.
x

Figure 1
Limit at infinity
If we can make f ( x ) as near as we wish to L by choosing x large enough, then we write
lim f ( x ) = L .
x →

Similarly we can define lim f ( x ) .

x →−

1 1
Observe that lim=0 and lim = 0.
x→ x x→− x
3x 2 + 1
Example 4: Evaluate lim 2 .
x → x − x
1
3+ 2
3x 2 + 1 x = 3.
Solution: lim 2 = lim
x → x − x x → 1
1−
x

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  x + 2, x  3

Example 5: Justify whether lim f ( x ) exists or not if f ( x ) =  3 .
x →3
 x , x  3

3
Solution: lim− f ( x ) = lim− = 1 and lim+ f ( x ) = lim+ x + 2 = 5 .
x →3 x →3 x x →3 x →3

So, lim f ( x ) does not exist since lim− f ( x )  lim+ f ( x ) .

x →3 x →3 x →3

Exercise: 1.6
1. Evaluate the following limits: (if possible)
x2 − 9 sin 3x 1 − cos x
(a) lim , (b) lim , (c) lim ,
x →3 x −3 x →0 tan 2 x x →0 x2

√𝑥−1 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 4 x2 − x + 3
(d) lim , (e) lim , (f) lim ..
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→∞ 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 x → 3x 2 + 5
3 1 1 4
Answer:(a) 6, (b) 2, (c) 2, (d) 2, (e) 1 and (f) 3.

1.4: Continuity of function

A function f ( x ) is said to be continuous at
x = a if the following three conditions are
satisfied
(i) f ( a ) is defined.
(ii) lim f ( x ) exists
x→a

(iii) lim f ( x ) = f ( a ) .
x →a


 x + 1, x  0
2

Example 6: Discuss the continuity of f ( x ) =  2 at x = 0.

 x − 1, x  0

Solution:
Here we have (i) f ( x ) is defined at x = 0 and f ( 0 ) = 0 + 1 = 1 .
(
(ii) lim− f ( x ) = lim− x 2 + 1 = 1 and
x →0 x →0
)
(
lim f ( x ) = lim+ x 2 − 1 = −1 .
x → 0+ x →0
)
Thus the limit does not exist and hence f ( x ) is not continuous at x = 0.
Example7: Find the value of k for which the function f (x) will be continuous at the indicated
point, where
5 x − 1, x 1
f ( x) =  at x = 1.
kx + x , x  1
2

Solution:
For x = 1, f ( x ) = kx + x 2 and f (1) = k (1) + 1 = k + 1 .
lim f ( x ) = lim− ( 5 x − 1) = 5 (1) − 1 = 4 .
x →1− x →1

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and
x →1+ x →1
( )
lim f ( x ) = lim+ kx + x 2 = k (1) + 1 = k + 1 .
To be continuous at x = 1 we must have
lim− f ( x ) = lim
+
f ( x)
x →1 x →1
 k +1 = 4  k = 3
So, if k = 3 then the given function will be continuous at x = 1 .
Exercise 1.7
1. Sketch 𝑓(𝑥) and hence discuss the continuity of f (x) at the indicated point, where
4 − 𝑥2, 𝑥 < 0 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≤ 2
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = { at 𝑥 = 0, (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = { at 𝑥 = 2.
4 + 𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0 3𝑥 − 2, 𝑥>2
𝑥 2 − 2 cos 𝑥 − 1 , 𝑥 ≤ 0
2. Discuss the continuity of f (x) at 𝑥 = 0, where 𝑓(𝑥) = { .
sec 𝑥 − 4 , 𝑥 > 0
3. Find the value of k for which the function f (x) will be continuous everywhere, where
3𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 ≤ 1  x + 3, 0  x 1
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = { , (b) f ( x) =  2 .
2𝑥 + 𝑘, 𝑥 > 1 kx + 2, 1 x  4

4. An open box is to be made from a 16-inch by 30-inch piece of cardboard by cutting out squares
of equal size from the four corners and bending up the sides (Figure 2a).
a) Let V be the volume of the box that results when the squares have sides of length x. Find a
formula for V as a function of x,
b) Find the domain of V,
c) Use the graph of V given in Figure 2c to estimate the range of V,
d) Describe in words what the graph tells you about the volume.

Figure 2

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