Outlines

 Errors in measurement
 General categories of error (gross errors, random
errors, systematic errors)
 Other errors (absolute and relative errors)
 Accuracy, precision, resolution and significant figures

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Introduction
 No electronic component or
instrument is perfectly accurate; all
have some error or inaccuracy
 It is important to understand how
these errors are specified and how
they combine to create even greater
errors in measurement systems

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• In EVERY
measurement there
is uncertainty.

WHY

• Measuring devices
• Experimental
procedure,
technique
• Nature of the
measurement itself
(difficult e.g. speed
of light)

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Uncertainty

Uncertainty

Analog Digital

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Uncertainty : Analog
 Analog measuring device
 ± ½ (the smallest scale division) Always
report
 At least ! This is the best case uncertainty
to 1 SigFig!

4.20 ±0.05 cm

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Uncertainty: Analog
22.0 ±0.5 V

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Uncertainty : Digital Devices
 Digital measuring device
 ± smallest unit shown
 Aka least count

19.16 ±0.01 V

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Uncertainty estimation
 When measuring physical quantities with an instrument
and obtain a numerical value, it is important to know
how close this value is to the true value.

 (True value) – (measured value) = error

 Unfortunately, the true value is generally unknown. Since

this is the case, the exact error is never known. We can
only estimate error.

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Repeated measurements
 Repeat same measurement many times
 Find average of all trials
 Uncertainty = ± ½ (Max – Min)

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Examples
 Charles Newton measured the length of a table 5
times. He got the following results : 1560 mm, 1565
mm, 1558 mm, 1567 mm, and 1558 mm.

Solution:
Average value = 1563 mm
Uncertainty = (1567 – 1558) /2 = 4.5 mm
Length of the table = 1563 ±5 mm
This means the actual
length is anywhere
between 1558 and 1568
mm.
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General categories of error
 There are three general categories of error:
 Gross errors

 Systematic errors

 Random errors or precision errors

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 Gross errors
 Undetected mistakes that cause a
measurement to be very much farther
from the mean measurement than other
measurements.
 Eg.
 Simple misreading of an instrument
 Misuse of equipment
 The proper use of incorrect or inadequate equipment
 Misrepresentation of data obtained

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 To solve the problem ;
 Trial and error (reading the operation manual and
experimenting).
- Since this approach is time
consuming, it is imperative that the
operation manual be read BEFORE
any instrument is used.

 Following through a course or text in conjunction with a

lab experience.
- The more equipment is used, the
more familiar the technician becomes
with it, and the more consistently valid
the resulting data will be.
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Systematic errors
 Result from mechanical weaknesses of an instrument.
 eg. Worn bearings on meter movements and nonlinear
sweeps on oscilloscopes
 Determinate error.
 Have an identifiable cause and affect the accuracy of results.
 Occur because the measurement system affects the
measured quantity.
 To solve;
 Diagnose the situation correctly and repair or replace the
defective equipment,
 Recalibration or compensation for the error

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15
Random errors or precision errors
 Are errors that affect the precision of a set of
measurements.
 Error whose cannot be directly established
because they appear to be random variations in
the electrical parameters of the measuring system
or device under test.
 Scatters measurements above and below the
mean, with small random errors being more likely
than large ones.

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 The deviation of the measurement from the true value
resulting from the finite precision of the measurement
method being used.
 Instrument friction or hysteresis
 Errors from calibration drift
 Variation of procedure or interpretation of experimenters
 Test condition variations or environmental effects

 Reduce random errors by conducting more

experiments/take more data.

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18
Absolute and relative errors
Absolute errors Relative errors

The uncertainty in a The uncertainty in a

measurement, measurement
expressed with compared to the size
appropriate units . of the measurement.
Also used to expressed
inaccuracies.

Absolute Error = Actual Relative Error = Absolute

Value - Measured Value Error / Known Value
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Example
A B

 Experimental distance from Tree A to Tree B is 18 feet

(5.5 meter) apart. Then, by using measuring tape, the
distance between two trees are in fact 20 feet
(6meters) apart. Calculate the absolute error and
relative error.
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Solution
A B

 Absolute error = 20 -18 = 2 feet (60.96 cm)

 Relative error = 2/20 = 1/10 = 0.1 x 100% = 10%

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Example - Absolute errors
 Given three replicate weights for an object;
 1.00 g, 1.05 g, 0.95 g Indeterminate
 The absolute error  ± 0.05 g Errors (±)

 Given ‘true value’ is 1.11 g, and the measured is 1.00 g

 The absolute error
 1.11 g – 1.00 g = 0.11 g
determinate
Errors (sign)

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 Example - Relative errors
 Given three replicate weights for an object;
 2.00 g, 2.05 g, 1.95 g
 absolute error: ± 0.05 g
 relative error: =± 0.05 g / 2.00 g
= ± 0.025
= ± 2.5%

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More example….

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Example
A component manufacturer
constructs certain resistances to
be anywhere between 1.14 kΩ
and 1.26 kΩ and classifies them
to be 1.2 kΩ resistors. What
tolerance should be stated if the
resistance values are specified
at 25°C.

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Solution
Absolute error = 1.26kΩ – 1.2kΩ = +0.06kΩ
or =1.2kΩ – 1.14k Ω = -0.06k Ω
= ±0.06k Ω

Tolerance =±0.06k Ω/1.2k Ω x 100% = ± 5%

Largest possible resistance at 25°C:

R=1.2k Ω+0.06k Ω = 1.26k Ω

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Example
 Given that the measured field to the nearest meter,
with width of 6m, and length of 8m. Calculate the
accuracy of width, length, the smallest possible area,
measured area and the largest possible area.

Hint: Measuring to the nearest meter means

the true value could be up to half a meter
smaller or larger

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Solution
Accuracy of width and length
 Width, w=6m to the nearest m  5.5m ≤ w ≤ 6.5m
 length, l=8m to the nearest m  7.5m ≤ w ≤ 8.5m
 Area, A = w x l

The smallest possible area : 5.5 x 7.5 = 41.25 m

Measured area : 6 x 8 = 48 m
The largest possible area : 6.5 x 8.5 = 55.25 m

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 Accuracy, precision, resolution and
significant figures
 Accuracy and precision
 When a voltmeter with an error of ±1% indicates exactly
100V, the true level of the measured voltage is somewhere
between 99V and 101V.

Accuracy - defines how close the measurement is to

the actual measured quantity

Precision - with which the measurement is made is

not the same as the accuracy of measurement,
although accuracy and precision are related.
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Differences between precision and accuracy

Precision Accuracy
Reproducibility Correctness
Check by Check by using
repeating different method
measurements
Poor precision Poor accuracy
results from poor results from
technique procedural or
equipment flaws.
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More example… The precision
is 1mV.

Reading shows 8.135V, if the increase and decrease

of reading is 1mV, the reading becomes 8.136V or
8.134V 31
 Resolution
 The smallest observable change of the instrument.
 In the case of 10V analog instrument scale that can be read
to a precision of 50mV, 50mV is the smallest voltage change
that can be observed.
 Thus the measurement resolution is 50 mV
 Similarly, the digital instrument, the measurement
resolution is 1 mV.

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 Significant figures
 Definition  number are those digits that carry
meaning contributing to its precision.
 All non-zero digits are considered significant
 1,2,3…etc
 Zeros appearing anywhere between two non-zero
digits are significant.
 101  3 significant figures
 Leading zeros are NOT significant
 0.0001  1 significant figure
 Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point
are significant
 1.9000  5 significant figures 33
Given
8.135 V  how many significant figures?

4 significant figures meaning that

measurement precision is 0.001, or 1 mV

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Example

What if the readings indicate that the value

you are collected is equal to 8.13V ? How
many significant figures we have? What is
the measurement precision?

Answer: 3 significant figures

0.01 V (precision)

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Example

Given the voltage of an electronic circuit is

8.14 V, and the current is 2.33 mA. Calculate
the resistance of the circuit in its significant
figures.

Answer: R = V/I
= 8.14 V / 2.33 mA
= 3.49 kΩ
WHY??

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 Notes:
 No greater number of a significant figures should be
used in a calculation result than those in the original
quantities.
 If the quantities in a calculation have different
precisions, the precision of the answer should not be
greater than the least precise of the original quantities.

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CONT.
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