Melianna Davis and Sasha Glast

Alphabetized and Sorted Annotated Bibliography

PRIMARY SOURCES:
"A 'Fake' Sign Language Interpreter." The New York Times. The New York Times, 11
Dec. 2013. Web. 22 Sept. 2020.

This video conveyed one of the difficulties deaf people face, which is miscommunication
between others. It showed the memorial service for Mandela in front of tons of people, and
beside him was a sign language interpreter. The country’s leading organization for the deaf
accused the interpreter to be fake. This is bad because the sign language interpreter could
be signing the wrong signs or fake signs which would confuse the deaf, therefore this is a
big miscommunication.

American Sign Language. Image. Britannica School, Encyclopædia Britannica, 7 Aug. 2020.
school.eb.com/levels/high/assembly/view/163209. Accessed 23 Sep. 2020.

This picture shows how the attempts to make ASL schools to teach the deaf sign
language were a success and are applying to deaf people’s everyday lives. This is a
picture of deaf people using ASL in public to communicate with people.

Arms, H. P., Lithographer. American Asylum for Deaf and Dumb, Hartford, Conn. / copyright &
lith. , by H.P. Arms Jr., Phila., Pa. [Phila., Pa.: Printed by T. Hunter] Photograph.
Retrieved from the Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/2004670330/

This pictures The American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, later renamed to The
American School for the Deaf. This was the first school for the deaf in the United States
and is located in Hartford, Connecticut. Having a school for the deaf was one of the first
of many steps taken to solve the miscommunication that was deaf education in America.

Charles Gabriel Lemmonier. A Reading of Voltaire. 1812. Painting. Wikimedia

Commons. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ANICET-CHARLES-
GABRIEL_LEMONNIER_A_READING_OF_VOLTAIRE.jpg

This is a painting done during the French Enlightenment.

D.C. Washington--Gallaudet College----Exterior. Photograph. Retrieved from the Library of

Congress,
www.loc.gov/item/96506844/.

This pictures Gallaudet University, the first and only deaf university in the world. The
opening of a university for deaf students was a huge step for deaf education as a whole. It
was opened by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet’s son in 1864. It addressed the
miscommunication of deaf people not getting equal opportunities for education and jobs.
Dean, Gordon. Retrieved from the Digital Public Library of America
https://tessa.lapl.org/cdm/ref/collection/photos/id/127058.

The photograph from DPLA from 1957 showed how it was hard for deaf people to stand
up for themselves or to just communicate normally. Under the description of this picture,
it says how Walter Lee Meiners, who was deaf, was accused of trying to murder his aunt
with a tomahawk, and this is a picture of them at court. Sign language wasn’t very
popular then, and many people who weren’t deaf couldn’t understand the language
because they didn’t know it, so there wasn’t much use in the deaf people trying to
communicate to them in sign language. This shows how it is a miscommunication in
history because major events such as going to court that could mean life or death could be
false accusations because the deaf could rarely speak up due to people not knowing ASL
or just being discriminated against.

Flores, Jessica. "Masks adapt to help interpret for deaf community." USA Today, 29 Apr. 2020,
p. 01D. Gale OneFile: News, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A622304125/STND
u=tlc201375869&sid=STND&xid=5cb583e5. Accessed 2 Sept. 2020.

This article helps show that being deaf has its challenges, mainly due to limited forms of
communication. Due to the corona virus, everyone is pressed to wear a mask. Since
everyone is forced to wear a mask, it makes it basically impossible for deaf people to read
lips, which is one technique that largely helps them understand and communicate to
people. This is a large miscommunication issue.

Credit: Jean Massieu, a deaf mute man. Engraving by L.A. Bouteloup. Credit: Wellcome
Collection. Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
Jean Massieu was a deaf French educator. He wasn’t allowed in school until he was
thirteen due to his condition, but eventually he learned to read and write. It was a
miscommunication that deaf children didn’t deserve to be educated until a certain age. He
played a part in creating French Sign Language. He also invited Thomas Gallaudet to his
school in Paris to study there.

“Library Deaf Collections and Archives.” War-Time Evolution of Employment Opportunities for
the Deaf, Benjamin M. Schowe, January 3, 1943. Accessed September 2, 2020.
gaislandora.wrlc.org/islandora/object/benjaminschowe%3A564#page/5/mode/1up.
This article talked about deaf discrimination in employment. It showed how much harder it
was for deaf people to get jobs, which was a miscommunication between the employers
and the applicants. This gave me an insight into how much less accepting our society was
of deaf people, not even 100 years ago.

“National Association of the Deaf Convention (1893).” Library Deaf Collections and Archives.
gaislandora.wrlc.org/islandora/object/historicalphotographs%3A592.
This photo pictures a convention for the National Association of the Deaf. The NAD is an
organization started in 1880 that is still active today. It was created by deaf leaders who
advocated for deaf rights. It’s still fighting for deaf and disabled rights to this day.
"National Theatre of the Deaf (NTD)." Britannica School, Encyclopædia Britannica, 23 Jun.
2014. school.eb.com/levels/high/article/National-Theatre-of-the-Deaf/609236. Accessed 14
Sep. 2020.

This article shows how the National Theatre of deaf was established and this was a result
of many of the events that happened to spread awareness of deaf to provide more
entertainment and daily life activities and accessibility for the deaf. This was a long-term
effect and greatly impacted deaf people’s daily life by providing them entertainment.

New York Times. "Sign-Language Guides." The New York Times. The New York Times, 31
Dec. 2000. Web. 22 Sept. 2020.
This news article shows how they tried to solve and address the miscommunications of
the deaf and the people in history by having tour guides that are trained to know sign
language, which makes it much easier for the deaf to communicate with people who
know ASL and it eliminates multiple problems with communication.

Rare Book Division, The New York Public Library. "The Beatitudes" The New York Public
Library Digital Collections. 1893. Accessed September 2, 2020.
digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/37fbf160-37ef-0130-2179-58d385a7bbd0.

This article issued in 1893 depicts how Native Americans used sign language. The
movements pictured are “The Beatitudes” from Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount in the
Gospel of Matthew. Many people don’t realize that Native Americans were some of the
first to use a signing system to communicate, which could be considered a
miscommunication in history.

Retrieved from the Digital Public Library of America

http://umedia.lib.umn.edu/item/p16022coll251:4975.

This is a picture of a map of 18th century France.

School for deaf people. Image. Britannica School, Encyclopædia Britannica, 7 Aug. 2020.
school.eb.com/levels/high/assembly/view/163207. Accessed 23 Sep. 2020.

This picture demonstrates and shows deaf children learning sign language at a school for
the deaf. This was an attempt in history to solve the miscommunications between the deaf
and the people by teaching the deaf ASL in schools to make it easier for them to
communicate.

Sign Language Interpreter, 1977. credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/muph051-s01c-i00280.

This picture shows a sign language interpreter at the first National Women’s Conference
in Houston, Texas. It shows how important it is for deaf and hard of hearing people to have
a source of information like a sign language interpreter.
“Statue -- Thomas H. Gallaudet -- Alice Cogswell (1889).” Library Deaf Collections and
Archives. gaislandora.wrlc.org/islandora/object/historicalphotographs%3A1112.
This pictures a statue of Alice Cogswell and Thomas Gallaudet. Alice was a deaf child and
was one of Gallaudet’s biggest inspirations for opening a deaf school. She was the first
student enrolled in the American School for the Deaf.

SECONDARY SOURCES:
Abramson, Joanne. “The History of Sign Language.” Study.com. Accessed September 16, 2020.
study.com/academy/lesson/the-history-of-sign-language.html
This article informed me about being deaf before there was ASL. It explains how that there
were forms of sign language used by Native Americans and talks about how the settlers of
Martha’s Vineyard developed their own regional sign language.

"American Sign Language (ASL)." Britannica School, Encyclopædia Britannica, 16 Jun. 2016.
school.eb.com/levels/high/article/American-Sign-Language/605217. Accessed 1 Sep.
2020.

This article explains how the formal education of deaf students began with the
establishment of the American School for the Deaf in Connecticut. Opening the school
for the deaf was an act to try and solve the lack of knowledge of ASL. The mode of
instruction taught was Signed English, which was an attempt to represent basic English in
hope that if the deaf had basic access to the structure of English, then they could acquire
it. They did these things to attempt solving the many miscommunications deaf people
experienced.

Benedict, Beth Sonnenstrahl. “ Deaf Culture & Community.” Hands & Voices :: Communication
Considerations. Accessed September 16, 2020.
www.handsandvoices.org/comcon/articles/deafculture.htm.
This article brought up the topic of the importance of deaf culture. It brought to light how
deaf culture and the deaf community make deaf and hard of hearing people feel at home.
Being involved in the deaf community will often make deaf and hard of hearing people feel
included and give them a sense of belonging.

Berke, Jamie. “How an Audist Attitude Negatively Affects Deaf People.” Last modified May 2,
2020. Accessed September 16, 2020. www.verywellhealth.com/deaf-culture-audism-
1046267.
This article gave me an insight into deaf discrimination in our world today. It helped me
realize that anyone can be audist, whether or not that was their intention, so we should
always be aware of our words and actions.

Berke, Jamie. “Self-Identification in the Deaf Community.” Verywell Health. Accessed

September 18, 2020. www.verywellhealth.com/deaf-culture-big-d-small-d-1046233.
This article talks about self-identification within the deaf community. It explains how
people who consider themselves “Deaf” with a capital “D” consider themselves as
culturally deaf and have a strong deaf identity, while “deaf” people with a lowercase “d”
 might be more mainstream and less involved with deaf culture or the community as a
whole.

Center, Gallaudet University and Clerc. “Laurent Clerc: Apostle to the Deaf People of the New
World.” Accessed September 2, 2020. www3.gallaudet.edu/clerc-center/info-to-go/deaf-
culture/laurent-clerc.html.
This pictures Laurent Clerc, one of America’s first deaf teachers. Clerc worked With
Thomas Gallaudet. They were both concerned for the lack of deaf education in the United
States, so they worked together and opened the first school for the deaf in America.

Center, Gallaudet University and Clerc. 200 Years of Deaf Education in America.
https://www3.gallaudet.edu/clerc-center/info-to-go/deaf-education/200-years-of-deaf-
education.html.
This site explains how they think Clerc became deaf (due to an accident) that might have
cause hearing damage when he was young, but they weren’t sure if it was a birth defect or
because of the accident. For years, they struggled trying to find treatments and clinics to
restore his hearing but found no luck. Due to his loss of hearing and everyone having very
little knowledge about being deaf, he spent 11 years at home without going to school and
learning how to write due to this ‘disability’. This is a big miscommunication in history
because he lacked education and a systematic mode of communication due to being deaf.

Christle, Christine Ann. “Edward Miner Gallaudet.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia

Britannica Inc. Last modified February 1, 2020. Accessed September 16, 2020.
www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-Miner-Gallaudet.
This article talks about Edward Miner Gallaudet, Thomas Gallaudet’s son, and his impact
on the deaf community. It explains how he followed in his father’s footsteps, advocating
for deaf rights and making sure to carry out Thomas’s legacy.

Collins, Steven D. “American Sign Language (ASL).” Encyclopedia of American Disability

History, Facts On File, 2009. American History,
online.infobase.com/Auth/Index?aid=20268&itemid=WE52&articleId=208287.
Accessed 9 Sept. 2020.

This article talks about deaf people’s activism in the late 19th and 20th centuries and how
they worked toward preserving ASL. Their ways of addressing miscommunication were
to create dictionaries to codify the language. Another way they spread awareness and
addressed the miscommunications that were happening at the time was by creating and
joining deaf organizations. By the 20th century, technological advances protected the
‘language of the eye’.

Collins, Steven D. “American Sign Language (ASL).” Encyclopedia of American Disability

History, Facts On File, 2009. American History, online.infobase.com/Auth/Index?
aid=20268&itemid=WE52&articleId=208287. Accessed 2 Sept. 2020.
 This article explains how Reverend Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and some of his alliances
travelled all over the world to see for the best fit to create a school for deaf people. The
article shows how deaf people were looked upon, by telling us that the school was named
“Hartford's Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb
Persons”, which is now known as American School for the Deaf. They had the school
named for the ‘deaf and dumb persons’ for the longest time, and no one seemed that there
was anything wrong with it.

“Deaf Man Fights the Odds to Become University of Michigan Physician.” AnnArbor. Last
modified March 21, 2010. Accessed September 16, 2020. www.annarbor.com/news/deaf-
man-fights-the-odds-to-become-university-of-michigan-physician/.
This article talks about Philipe Zazove, the third certified deaf physician in America. It
really put in perspective how few disabled people have equal opportunity to pursue careers
in the medical field. It shows that even though society has come a long way, there’s still
farther to go.

“Education: Essay.” Disability History Museum--Education: Essay: Disability History Museum.

Accessed September 9, 2020. www.disabilitymuseum.org/dhm/edu/essay.html?id=38.
This article addressed how the opening of The American School for the Deaf helped
change deaf education in America for the better. It mentions how it was the model for
many other deaf schools that opened later. It also makes note of how the school trained its
students in fields of work that were thought to be “acceptable” for deaf people, addressing
the miscommunication about deaf employment.

Enders, Katalin. “Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins.” Learning to Give. Last modified January 26,
2013. Accessed September 14, 2020. www.learningtogive.org/resources/gallaudet-thomas-
hopkins.
This article describes some of the ways Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet affected deaf
education. It mentions how by founding the first school for the deaf in America, he
debunked the idea that just because someone is deaf they can’t learn, which was a major
miscommunication in history.

Flynn, Nicole. “National Association of the Deaf Over the Years [Infographic].” cielo24. Last
modified May 25, 2017. Accessed September 14, 2020. cielo24.com/2017/05/national-
association-of-the-deaf-infographic/#:~:text=The%20NAD%20is%20a%20non,%2C
%20youth%20leadership%2C%20and%20more.
This article discusses some of the effects the NAD has had on the deaf community. It
mentions many acts and laws passed in the 1900s that helped prevent discrimination in the
workforce and create more job opportunities for deaf people which was a
miscommunication in history.

“Gallaudet University.” National Parks Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Accessed
September 16, 2020. www.nps.gov/nr/travel/wash/dc92.htm.
This article discusses Gallaudet University, the first and only liberal arts college in the U.S.
specifically for deaf people. It made an impact by finally offering deaf students a college
environment where they could meet other deaf people and feel catered to.
Jay, Michelle. “Abbe De L’Epee.” Start ASL. Last modified March 20, 2020. Accessed
September 18, 2020. www.startasl.com/abbe-de-lepee/.
This article taught me about Abbe De L’Epee, a very influential person in sign language
history. He established the first public free deaf school in Paris and established what is
now called Old French Sign Language. Deaf students gravitated to the school instantly.

"Mary Smith Garrett and Emma Garrett." Britannica School, Encyclopædia Britannica, 17 Dec.
1999. school.eb.com/levels/high/article/Mary-Smith-Garrett-and-Emma-Garrett/125746.
Accessed 23 Sep. 2020.

This article talks about Emma Garrett, who actively helped the growth of ASL by
becoming a teacher at many places to help teach ASL to the deaf and to teach other
growing teachers how to teach ASL. This actively helped and was a successful attempt to
help solve the miscommunication issues between the deaf and the people.

Murray, Joseph J. "History of the Deaf." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica,

Inc., 04 Oct. 2019. https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-the-deaf Web. 22 Sept.
2020.
This article talks about how deaf communities came together to help each other out. For
example, Martha’s Vineyard, where a disproportionate amount of the population living
there was affected by the hereditary of deafness. There was also attempts by small
European groups to educate deaf children. These acts helped address and attempt to solve
forms of miscommunications for the deaf.

Newport, Elissa L. "Constraints on Learning and Their Role in Language Acquisition: Studies of
the Acquisition of American Sign Language." Redirecting. 1988. Web. 22 Sept. 2020.

This article shows how ASL is complex and harder for older people to start learning as
adults and how it is still complex for children. It proves that ASL is complicated and
complex to learn, especially if you learn it later on in your life when you’re older, and even
just the verbs. This was a disadvantage especially if you became deaf later in life and
weren’t born with it, you’d have to learn a whole other language just to communicate in
life.

Seamons, Sara. “The History of Sign Language.” GoReact ASL Blog. Last modified November
10, 2017. Accessed September 16, 2020. aslblog.goreact.com/2017/04/19/the-history-of-
sign-language/.
This article puts into perspective some of the ways deaf people were discriminated against
in Ancient times. They couldn’t hold property or get married. Sometimes they were even
denied their rights to religion.

“Sign Language History: Ancient.” Handspeak,

www.handspeak.com/culture/index.php?id=84.
 This article explains the negative view on deaf people and then in the 16th century how
Geronimo Cardano had hope and exclaimed that deaf people could learn and understand
via sign communication. This was a first step towards addressing and solving deaf
miscommunications in history.

Wall, Christine. “National Association of the Deaf.” American Sign Language (ASL). Last
modified July 10, 2013. Accessed September 9, 2020. asluniversity.com/asl101/pages-
layout/nad.htm.
This article talks about the National Association of the Deaf and how it has affected the
deaf community. It gave deaf people and people that are hard of hearing a voice. It helped
to fix the miscommunication that deaf people didn’t have a say in any decisions regarding
things such as their education.

Wiles, Kate. “Deafness, 'Visible Speech' and Alexander Graham Bell.” History Today. Last
modified January 26, 2015. Accessed September 9, 2020.
www.historytoday.com/deafness-visible-speech-and-alexander-graham-bell.
This article discusses how Alexander Graham Bell influenced the deaf community. He
joined with his father, Melville Bell, travelling around America demonstrating Melville’s
Visible Speech. This addressed the miscommunication of deaf people being incapable of
speech.

“Working with Interpreters.” Laurent Clerc National Deaf Education Center. Accessed
September 14, 2020. www3.gallaudet.edu/clerc-center/info-to-go/interpreting/working-
with-interpreters.html.
This article talks about sign language interpreters. Sign language interpreters have allowed
deaf and hard of hearing people to understand what someone is saying on television and in
real life as well. Sign language interpreters make it easier for deaf people to watch the
news and stay caught up with what is going on.