Junction Field Effect

Transistor Degradation ~ a u s e d
by Electrostatic Discharge
2

BOX-6 13-8 15

December , 1972

Prepared by:
W. J. K i r k
Department 8$5

Project Team:
F. H. Lewis
M. L. Waddell

1_ i

Prepared f o r the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission

Albuquerque Operations Off ice under Contract
Number A ~ ( 2 9 -I )-613 USAEC.

.. L
 DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States
Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or
usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process
disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately
owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product,
process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any
agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein
do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
 DISCLAIMER

Portions of this document may be illegible in

electronic image products. Images are produced
from the best available original document.
JUNCTION F I E L D E F F E C T
TRANSISTOR DEGRADATION
CAUSED B Y ELECTROSTATIC
DISCHARGE

Distributed D e c e m b e r 1972

Project Leader:
W. J. K i r k
Department 845

Project Team:
F. H. Lewis
M. L. Waddell

-.
I
I NOTICE i
This 'report was ~ r e ~ a r e d . . aasn account of work
sponsored by the United States.Government. Neither
the United States nor the United States Atomic Energy
Commission, nor any of their stttpluyeos, nor any o f
their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees,
makes any warranty, nrprass or implied, or assumes any
legal liability or resp.onsibility for the accuracy, com-
pleteness o r usefulness o f any information, apparatus,
product or process disclosed, o r represents that its use
would not infringe privately owned rights.

KansasCi
Division.
~ismwnotdOT THIS mwn IS Y ~ . m
,,
 T H I S PAGE
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b
-
JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR DEGRADATION CAUSED
B Y ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE

BDX-613-815, UNCLASSIFIED, Distributed December 1972

Prepared by W. J. Kirk, ~ 1 8 4 5

Electrostatic buildup of several hundred volts on the body of an operator is

common in a low-humidity environment. This charge a c r o s s measured
100- to 400-pF distributed capacitances of the human body may be discharged
into a low-current FET, therebydegrading o r destroying the gate-drain
junction. Experiments have shown that static charges a s low a s 140 volts may
damage JFET junctions and that normal body equivalent s e r i e s resistance
(less than 1000 ohms) does not limit the flow of current sfgnlficantly. Safe-
guards against the effects of static discharge on JFET junctions during
assembly and handling a r e therefore necessary.
..

THE BENDIX CORPORATION

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the

KANSAS CITY DIVISION
United States Government. Neither the United States nor the United
States Atomic Energy Commission, nor any of their employees, nor any
of their contractors, subcontractors, or their omployees, makes any : KANSAS CITY. MISSOURI
warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsi-
bility for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information,
apparatus, product or process disclosed, or represents that its use A prime contractor for the
would not infringe privately owned rights. Atomic Energy Commission
.. . Contract Number AT(29-11-613 USAEC

. ~
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 CONTENTS

Section Page

JFET Static Damage ..................... 11

Energy Storage on the Human Body . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 19

ACCOMPLISHMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

FUTURE WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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 ILLUSTRATIONS
.I

Figure Page

I
1 ...............
Static Discharge Test C i r c ~ i t 13

2 JFET ~ e h Circuits.
g . . . . ... . ., . . . . . . . . . .. 14

3 Degraded 2N2608 FET (P77698) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Method of Measuring Human Body Equivalent Series

Resistance and Distributed Capacitance .......... 22

TABLES

Number Page

1 Effect of Capacitance and Voltage Polarity on Static

..............
Catastropic Failure of J F E T t s 12

2 Effects of Capacitance and Voltage on JFET Degradation . . . 15

..
3 Published Values of Body Capacitance and Resistance . . . . 20

" 4 Human Body Capacitance to Earth Ground o r to Metal Plate. . 21

., 5 Body Distributed Capacitance and Equivalent Series . . . . . 23

6 Effects of Series Resistance and Inductance on 2N41184

JFET Static Degradation. ................ 23
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 SUMMARY

A literature search and physical experiments were conducted to determine

the effects of electrostatic discharge on four 'types of junction field effect
t r a n s i s t o r s ( J F E T 1 s )that a r e required in a new electronic -assembly. These
J F E T 1 s had not been used previously in a low-humidity manufacturing envi.- ,
ronment; therefore, preparations for production required that processes and,
facilities necessary to ensure product performance and reliability be evalu-
ated. Common knowledge that the gate-drain junction of..FET1si s susceptible
t o damage from electrostatic discharge prompted special attention t o this
phase of the work.

Electrical models of the human body were devised and t e s t s were conducted
t o determine approximate va1u.e~of capacitance and equivalent s e r i e s body
resistance that can be expected at typical work stations, the electrostatic
potentials that can be expected on the bodies of operators, and the effects of
discharging electrostatic energy into the high-impedance low-current J F E T 1 s
that a r e to be used in this assembly.

Tests t o determinc the effects of eleclr-ustatic discharge on the J'k'ET's

resulted in several significant
..
findings :

e A 2N4118A. the mast susceptible of the four!types tested, was

'
degraded by a static discharge from the body of an operator charged ,
to only 140 volts ;. : This energy level i s about '1 1100 of that required
to detonate an explosive hydrocarbon gas. l . .

o Many samples of the four types of J F E T 1 s were degraded by static

voltage, but remained functional in assemblies. This posed a potential
reliability problem which was solved by including an additional test to
the in-process inspection procedure.
.. ...

Measured operator body capacitances of 90 t o 405 p F were much m o r e

significant than measured equivalent body s e r i e s resistances of 87 to
190 ohms when considering the J F E T static damage potential.

Study and evaluation of static prevention methods .will be continued t o deter-

mine the most effective means of preventing J F E T junction damage in
production assemblies.: Humidity control, operator clothing, fixturing,
and grounding techniques such a s conductive floors and work surfaces a r e ,

some of the aspects to'be considered.

..
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 . . . . -
DISCUSSION
. .

SCOPE AND PURPOSE

This work was conducted a s a part of preparations for manufacturing an elect-

.-
ronic assembly that contains four junction field effect transistors ( J F E T t s )
which had not been used previously in a low-humidity production environment.
Common knowledge that F E T t s a r e susceptible to junction damage caused by
electrostatic discharge prompted this investigation to determine the problems
that might be encountered and the safeguards necessary to ensure product
reliability.

The electrostatic-control work includes

, .

Determining the effects of various static voltages on the J F E T t s ,

8 Establishing the maximum allowable value of static voltage f o r each

of the four J F E T types, and
. .. . . .
. .. ,

Developing procedures to ensure that allowable static voltage values :.

a r e not exceeded,in environments of 5- to 50-percent rh.
..

When the necessary'.static

. . -control techniques have been developed; they will
be applied to.

e J F E T lead forming and pretinning,,

.. .
Fixturing and assembly operations, . .
.- . ..-
.._* ...;
0 J F E T and assembly testing, and .-'

. .

e Special J F E T packaging, both in and out of assemblies.

A C TIVI TY

J F E T Static Damage '

. - . . . .
The four J F E T types were tested to determine which is the most susceptible
t o damage from static electricity. A capacitor w a s charged t 0 . a known volt-
age, then discharged through the gate-drain junction of the J F E T , a s shown
in Figure 1. . The results of those t e s t s ('rabPe 1 ) show that the 2N4118A i s
the most susceptible of the four types t o static discharge and that all of the
four types a r e m o r e sensitive to r e v e r s e breakdo$n. p'olarity than to forward
. .
conducting polarity. . . , . :. . ... .... -. .
Table 1. Effects of.Capacitance and Voltage'
, . Polarity on Static Catastropic Failure of JFET's -

Procedure: Key:
The gates received one discharge pulse a t each .C = -Catastrophic f a i i w e
t e s t voltage in sequence (starting a t 170 volts) X = Catastrophic f a i l a r e a f t e r passing 1530'" r e v e r s e polarity
until failure o c c u r r e d ( s e e Figures 1, 2A and 23. P = Passed
No s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e was used in the t e s t s . Each l e t t e r rep re sen!^ one data point.
 I OK
I .. . .. . .

. . . z : . .. .
. . .. .
.. . . .. . . . . .: , ,
* .

IM .. . . RH. .
-.
n

-
t
0 DRAIN
. . .

RH: BODY RESISTANCE

CH: ,DISCRETE CAPACITOR
OR HUMAN BODY

Figure 1. Static Discharge Test Circuit

The failure criterion for these f i r s t tests was a change in either turn-on
voltage (gate-drain) o r saturated source current. The test circuits a r e
shown in Figure 2. '

. .
'
The results of this catastrophic test were s o inconsistent and the voitages
were s o high that the validity of th6 test method was reviewed. . ~ l t h o u the ~h
method simulated the product usage, it did not indicate the point of f i r s t
transistor degradation., Therefore, four '2N2608 t r a n s i s t o r s that still
passed the catastrophic failure test a f t e r s t r e s s i n g t o f 1500 volts were sub-
jected to complete electrica1,tests which revealed that the gate r e v e r s e
breakdown voltage was grossly reduced. ~ o s t r n o r t e m sof these units r e - I

vealed darlr brown burn paths between the gate and the drain elements, a s
shown in Figure 3 .

The test circuit was modified a s shown in Figure 2C t o u s e gate breakdown

voltage a s the test criterion. This part of the work showed that i t ' i s possible
that a degraded J F E T in an assembly might not be detected by the present
product test procedure. Since long-term product .+'lieliabilityis a paramount
requirement, these t e s t s emphasized the need for static prot'ection.

Sensitivity to r e v e r s e breakdown voltage was used a s the criterion t o obtain

the refined data of the effects of static voltage shown in Table 2. Most of
the data points represent less-than- c a t s ~ t r o p h i cdegradation.
 -IOV *' +IOV ** , * THE POTENTIOMETER
I
0 WAS ADJUSTED FOR A
I I I-VOLT DVM READING.
I NONL l NEAR THE 10-TURN POTENTIO-
, SYSTEMS, INC. METER D I A L WAS USED
AS A TURN-ON VOLTAGE
MODEL 4 2 0 0 l ND l CATOR

D l G lT A L
VOLTMETER

G
N CHANNEL J F E T

D * * REVERE P O L A R I T I E S WERE USED I N

T E S T I N G P-CHANNEL DEVICES

--- - -- .-. - . -- - . - -
A. TURN-ON VOLTAGE FOR I-MICROAMPERE SOURCE.CURRENT

. . 0 + IOV. ( - IOV FOR P-CHANNEL)

l OOM SIMPSON 260

MULTIMETER ,

, . N CHANNEL J F E T
. .

*
0 w

500V'
+
-
FOR P CHANNEL
FOR .N CHANNEL '
,-_I
. .

. .
'-

. .

C. REVERSE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

F i g u r e 2. J F E T Test Ci.rcuits
Table 2. Effects of Capacitance and Voltage on JFET Degradation

J F E T Type 2N2608 2N3112 2N3971 2N4118A

-
Charge on Body of O p e r a t o r

Standing Sitting
Power Static Power Static
Supply Movement Supply Movement
Charge Charge Charge Charge

C a p s l t a n c e ( p F. ) ,. ? ? . ' ? I 8 425 97 218 4 2 5 , 97 218 425 97 218 425 190 118 110 99
I
T e s t iroltage
70
* 85
100
120
. c
140 CCD C DD C DC
160 D D C D
190 D
230 C c ,. D
2 70 D D
320 D C D D
380 DDD c D
4 50 D
530 D D D DD
620 D D D
730 DD
860 ' ' X . D D D
1000 D D
11 05 D.
1190
1275
1360
1445 C
1530 P

Procedure: Key:
Each F E T gate received one discharge pulse a t each t e s t voltage D = Degraded
in sequence ( s t a r t i n g with 70 volts) until t h e gate-drain breakdown . C = Catastrophic, r e v e r s e breakdownc3 volts
voltage a t .5 m i c r o a m p e r e s d e c r e a s e d significantly ( F i g - ~ r e s1 and 2C). X = Degraded a f t e r passing 1530 volts
No s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e was used in t h e t e s t s . r e v e r s e polarity
P = Passed
Each l e t t e r r e p r e s e n t s one data point.
&
 THIS PAGE
WAS INTENTIONALLY
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 kI Drain

Full view at left is at 1SOX

a"#" -'

Detaile below are at 1200X

I
Source

I Figure 3. Degraded 2N2608 FET

 THIS PAGE
WAS INTENTIONALLY .
4

LEFT BLANK
b I
In the f i r s t Bendix controlled-condition experiments a discharge f r o m a
standing operator charged to 140 volts degraded a 2N41184 JFET. The
energy discharge from a 218 pF capacitor charged.to 140 volts is 2 . 1 micro-
joules, about 1/100 of that required to detonate an explosive hydrocarbon
. . .
gas. 14

The effect of the static discharge from the measured 190-pF distributed
capacitance of a standing person on 2N4118A degradation was essentiallythe
s a m e a s that from a 218-pF discrete capacitor. The effect of the measured
110-pF capacitance of an operator in sitting position was comparable t o that
of a 97-pF discrete capacitor. Since these capacitance values a r e not ident-
ical and body equivalent s e r i e s resistance was not considered, t h e comparisons
a r e only approximate. Exact values of body capacitance and voltage charge
vary between individuals and depend on such factors a s clothing, movement,
proximity to surrounding objects, and moisture content in the atmosphere.

Energy Storage on the Human Body

A reasonably accurate energy-storage model of the human body must be used

t o obtain conclusive results of the effects of static energy on J F E T 1 s . A
review of published literature revealed that a rather wide range of body cap-
acitance and resistance values have been used by others. I-14 ~ h e s e
published values a r e listed in Table 3. Equivalent body resistance was .
reported to be a function of voltage, 3, but most models ignored that con-
sideration.

Several different test methods were used t o measure body capacitance under
a variety of conditions..: The results, shown in Tables 4 and 5, indicate that
measured values a r e dependent on the test location'and the test method used;
however, the values obtained were in getler-a1 agreemerit with the values
given in the literature. Capacitances of 97, 21 8, and 425 pF used t o obtain
. the data in Table 2 appear representative of the values expected at a typical
work station.

The RC discharge method u s e d t o measure apparent body resistance was

prompted by Petrick, 'although the technique was altered slightly, as shown. .
i n ' ~ i g u r e4. The test results shown in Table 5 a r & somewhat inaccurate
because of the methods used, but a r e considered sufficiently accurate for use
in static tests. The apparent body resistance of one person varied from 87
to 190 ohms, and did not appear significantly voltage sensitive. The data in
Table 6 indicate that body resistances helow at least 1000 ohmo offer no
significant F E T protection. F o r that reason, the effects of body resistance
w i l l not be investigated further. A slightly conservative but realistic value
of 100 ohms will be assumed for continued work on this project.
. .
Text continues on page '2 6. . ..
Table 3. Published Values of BodyI Capacitance and Resistance
I
I
I

Purpose c, (PF) RH (ohms)

I

Reference Value Test Voltage

Electronic Circuit
Protection:
;Lenzlinger l 100 1500 ..,,..
, .
Protection F r o m
!Electrocution:
,-- - .. - -.
,

lvlorse2 - - - 4000 1.0 15, 000 ,:!

~ e e 3 - - - . 200 to 1000 ~ 6 0 :ac
0
~ewlett-pickard4 -. . -- .
- .
lUUU . - -
.,. - .

Molins ki - - - 5000 'to 18,000 50 ac

800 to 1800 500 ac .
800 to 1800 1000 ac
~riedlander~ - - - 1000 to 1600 .,*
,,,

Protection F r o m I ,
Explosion:
~ ~ oe sni t 10, 000 100 ...
,,.

Petrick 8 1 0 0 to 4000 - - - >t

silsbee9 110 to 2'73 - - - ,,.

.,.

Sc11l.uedt.r.1 0 GOO 500 .**

<Dl

Eichel.1 1 1 0 0 to 400 - - - .,*.

.
MIL-I-23659B 500 5000 ...
.,.
~ a ~ l o r ' 150 0 ..,,I. I

pitts13 ,..
N ~'TJ.A ' 500
200
600
- - -
.,.

!:Test voltage not stated

Table 4. ~ u m a nBody Capacitance to Earth Ground o r to,Metal Plate

I
O p e r a t o r Position Floor Covering Measured Capacitance (pF)

'Dl845 T L a b o r a t o r y D l 4 8 D L a b o r a t o r y (1 0% r h )

Tektronix RC Tektronix Chsrge

130 LC ~ e t e k ~ i s c h a r ~ e1 ~3 0 L C M e t e r Transfer

Standing Rare concrete 120 150 t o 177

'
S h o e s on Vinyl o v e r c o n c r e t e 190 61 0
.- . .
. .
314-inch plywood 118 174 -
G r o u n d e d m e t a l p1at.e 160 ' 21 5 14'00
Guarded m e t a l plate 70 - 103

Standing Bare concrete 150 .

S t o c k i n g s only Vinyl o v e r c o n c r e t e 405~ 8'60' .
3 14.-inch plywood ' 125 - 165
Grounded m e t a l platea i430d 3300 .

S i t t i n g on c h a i r Bare concrete ;: 90 132 t o 1 4 1

F e e t off f l o o r B a r e c o n c r e t e with g u a r d e d c h a i r ,50
Vinyl o v e r c o n c r e t e : 1.10 ) 126
Vinyl o v e r c o n c r e t e with g u a r d e d c h a i r 57
i 314-inch plywood 99 117
1 Grounded m e t a l p l a t e 1'25 182

Sitting on c h z i r Bare concrete 140 . '

' . ,
S h o e s on f l o o r B a r e c o n c r e t e with ' g u a r d e d c h a i r 100 '

Vinyl o v e r c o n c r e t e 186 385

Vinyl o v e r c o n c r e t e with g u a r d e d c h a i r 150
. 3 14-inch plywood 131 171
Grounded m e t a l plate . 225' . 61 0
. ..
C h a i r only Bare concrete 55 .
'
No o p e r a t o r Guarded plate over b a r e concrete '40

Notes: a . T w o C. 004-inch polyethylene s h e e t s b e t w e e n f e e t a n d p l a t e . . .

b. F r o m T a b l e 5. ,. , .. .
C . Body of o p e r a t o r w a s c h a r g e d : t o 200 v o l t s , t h e n d i s c h a r g e d i n t o 2100 pF. C H = ( ~ f i n a 1 ) ( ~ ' 1 0 0 ) ' / ! 2 0 0 -Vfinal).
d. V a l u e s a b o v e 3 0 0 p F w e r e m e a s u r e d with 2 6 0 p F i n s e r i e s with CH.
. ..,
cH = (Cmea)(260)/(260 - Cmea).
. . ..
 - - - -.-
I I- I
I
. I 4
I
I' RH I . .

la
I- I
,c HUMAN I
BODY I
I----,--I MODEL I
OSCILLOSCOPE

RH. =
I - P
IK
IP

F i g u r e 4. Method of Measuring Human Body Equivalent

S e r i e s Resistance and Distributed Capacitance
Table 5. Body Distributed Capacitance and Equivalent Series Resistance
-

Test Condition Voltage. Ipk ( A ) Time Constant . R (ohms) CH(pF)

I '
H ..
(micros kc)

Standing on b a r e 200 0.18 ..

0.18 , .. 110 162
concrete floor - 500 0.44 0'. 2 0 . 135 177
1000 0.88 0.18 135 ' 159
2000 1.68 0.48 190 150

Sitting oil chair ' 200 0.176 0.16 135 ' 141
on b a r e concrete 1000 0. 88 0.1'5 . 135 132 1
'

feet off floor ' 2000 0.92 0.15 87 138

Calibration: . .
135 p F '500 0.48 0.16 40 135
270 pF 500 0. 50 0.31 0 2 70

1 Measured by RC discharge method, a s shown in Figure 4. I

Table 6. Effects of Series Resistance and Inductance
on 2N4118A J F E T Static Degradation

l q e s tVoltage . Series Resistance Inductance

(ohms ) ( .uH)

. 0 1000 .50,000 5

170 D D . C
255 .. .D D
340 . . .D D
42 5 . D ' D
51 0 . . D
..
59 5
680 . .
76 5 D
. ,
850 C . ,

. .
..
93 5 ..
. .

,1020 . '
-. ..
1105 C
1 190 D

C Catastrophic failure (Capacitance 97 p F ) .-

D Degraded
Test procedure a s described in Table 2.
 I
Evaluation of static damage in junction field effect t r a n s i s t o r s has yielded
t h e following conclusions.
. ,

The 2 ~ 4 1 1 8J F~E T t s can be degraded by contact with the body of a n .

operiitor charged to 140 volts.

a A l l of'the four types of J F E T t s could have been significantly degraded

before passing the catastropic failure t e s t s o r during the tests.
Because this is a potential reliability problem, an additional test will
a be included in the product test procedure t o detect a decrease in gate-
drain r e v e r s e breakdown voltage.

8 The 2N4118A is significantly m o r e susceptible than the 2N2608, the I

2N313 2 , o r the 2N3971 tn static d ; ~ r n a gfrom

~ extraneous sources.

The static energy required to degrade a 2N4118A J F E T is approximately

1 / 100 of that required to detonate a sensitive explosive gas.

The polarity of the static voltage applied t o the gate-drain junction of

the JF'ET is significant. The r e v e r s e (breakdown) polarity produces
, g r e a t e r damage than the forward (conducting) polarity.
I

S e r i e s resistances up t o at l e a s t 1000 ohms, which encompass the range

of apparent body resistance, have 110 appreciable effect on the value of
static voltage required to degrade ;a JFET.

A s e r i e s RC circuit was devised to approximate the discharge mechanism of

the human body. ~ q u i v a l e n tbody resistance values of 87 to 190 ohms and
body distributed capacitances of 90 t o 405 pF were measured. These values
a r e believed representative of those that can be expected at typical work
stations.

Fi'UTURE WORK

Additional 2D14118A J F E T static degradat:ion t e s t s k i l l b e conducted t o . :

accumulate sufficient data t o increase statistical confidence in the data
listed in Tab1.e~2 and '5, and the findings of this investigation will be applied
t o static control measures. required t o protect .the J \ F E T t s from static damage
during mandfacturing operations.
 REFERENCES
.
.
,. .
. . .
y :.'
.
. . . .. -. .. . ,

1 11 1I
Martin Lenzlinger, .,Gate Protection of MIS Device's, . : . . . 1EEE.Transactions. :'
. -
on Electron ~ e v. -.i c e s , . + ~ oED-18,'
l.' No. 4, A.p. r i l i 9 7, .1., pp 249-257.. ,,, . . - : ..
. ..:. .. . .
-... . ...-. . . ..., .
' ! .. .
.--A ... ..
* A

..... '
a .

. 2 11
A. R. Morse, comment on " ~ i e l dTreatment of Electric Shock Cases-1,
by W. B. Kouwenhoven, and :W. R. Milnor, AIEE Transactions Power .. $ ! ;

Apparatus and Systemg,>-Vol.7 6 . April .1957, pp.82-:8,7., . . . -...I,_ , ' ,

. ,.. . . - .. -
3
Ralph H. Lee, " ~ l e c t r i c a lSafety
, . .. .
in Industrial ,Plants," IEEE Spectrum,.
June 1971, pp 51-55.'..*:, . - . . . . . .. :el

4 " ~ s i n gElectrically-Operated Equipment Safely withthe Monitored Cardiac

11
Patient, Hawlett -Packard Company, Waltham, Mass. , March 1970, p 22.

. Molinski, 11Effects of Electricity on the Human Body,

5 ~ E. Mining
Congress Journal, Vol. 56, No. 7, July 1970, pp.64-68.

6 11
Gordon D. Friedlander, Electricity in Hospitals : Elimination of Lethal
Hazards, " IEEE Spectrum, September 1971, pp 40-51.
...

7
Louis J. Montesi, 11The Development of a Fixed Gap Electrostatic Spark
11
Discharge Apparatus for Characterizing Explosives, Proc. Sixth Symposium
on Electroexplosive Devices, San Francisco, Calif. , July 8-10, 1969,
pp 2-8.1.

8 ~ o h nT. Petrick, 11Discharge of an Electrostatically Charged Human. 11 Proc.

Sixth Symposium on Electroexplosive Devices, San Francisco, Calif, ,
July 8-10, 1969, pp 3-5.1.

ranci cis B.
Silsbee, 1I Static Electricity, 1I
National Bureau of standards
Circular C438, June 10,. 1942, p 23.
..

10 11 1I
C. .F. Schroeder, J r . , Energy Transfer in Ele.ctrostatic Arcs, Proc. -
Fifth Sympo~iumon Electroexplosive Devices,, June 13-14, 1967, p 2 -5.1. i
 'IF. G. Eichel,
11
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