Iraq Kurdistan region

Ministry of high education

Haibat Sultan technical institute
Nursing department
First stage

Report about

(Digestive system)
Prepared by :
Bakhan Khthir Ismail Shekha

Supervisor:
Mr.Peshraw Khdir Ibrahim

2019-2020

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Contents
Introduction:.............................................................................................................................1
Review :....................................................................................................................................1
Structures And Functions Of The Human Digestive System..................................................1
What is digestion and ingestion............................................................................................1
Four major types of Digestive system cells:..........................................................................2
Digestive glands:...................................................................................................................2
Common digestive system disease :.....................................................................................3
1. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD).......................................................................3
2. Gallstones.........................................................................................................................3
3. Celiac Disease...................................................................................................................4
4. Crohn’s Disease................................................................................................................4
5. Ulcerative Colitis..............................................................................................................5
6. Irritable Bowel Syndrome.................................................................................................5
7. Hemorrhoids.....................................................................................................................6
8. Diverticulitis.....................................................................................................................6
9. Anal Fissure......................................................................................................................7
Summery :................................................................................................................................7
References :..............................................................................................................................8

II
Introduction:
Human digestive system, the system used in the human body for the
process of digestion. The human digestive system consists primarily of
the digestive tract, or the series of structures and organs through
which food and liquids pass during their processing into forms absorbable
into the bloodstream. The system also consists of the structures through
which wastes pass in the process of elimination and other organs that
contribute juices necessary for the digestive process.

Review :

Structures And Functions Of The Human Digestive System

The digestive tract begins at the lips and ends at the anus. It consists
of the mouth, or oral cavity, with its teeth, for grinding the food, and
its tongue, which serves to knead food and mix it with saliva; the
throat, or pharynx; the esophagus; the stomach; the small intestine,
consisting of the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum; and
the large intestine, consisting of the cecum, a closed-end sac
connecting with the ileum, the ascending colon, the transverse colon,
the descending colon, and the sigmoid colon, which terminates in
the rectum. Glands contributing digestive juices include the salivary
glands, the gastric glands in the stomach lining, the pancreas, and
the liver and its adjuncts—the gallbladder and bile ducts. All of
these organs and glands contribute to the physical and chemical
breaking down of ingested food and to the eventual elimination of
nondigestible wastes. Their structures and functions are described
step by step in this section.

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What is digestion and ingestion
Ingestion and digestion are two actions that occur in the alimentary canal of animals. The main difference
between ingestion and digestion is that ingestion is the taking of food into the body whereas digestion is
the breakdown of food into small molecules that can be absorbed by the body. Ingestion can be taking
food either into the mouth in animals or into the cytoplasm in protozoans. Mechanical digestion and
chemical digestion are the two types of digestions. In mechanical digestion, large food particles are
broken down into small food particles. This increases the surface area of food, facilitating their chemical
digestion by enzymes. Chemical digestion facilitates the absorption of nutrients from the alimentary
canal.

Four major types of Digestive system cells:

Four major types of secretory epithelial cells cover the surface of the
stomach and extend down into gastric pits and glands:

 Mucous cells: secrete an alkaline mucus that protects the epithelium

against shear stress and acid
 Parietal cells: secrete hydrochloric acid
 Chief cells: secrete pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme
 G cells: secrete the hormone gastrin

There are differences in the distribution of these cell types among regions of
the stomach - for example, parietal cells are abundant in the glands of the
body, but virtually absent in pyloric glands. The micrograph to the right
shows a gastric pit invaginating into the mucosa (fundic region of a raccoon
stomach). Notice that all the surface cells and the cells in the neck of the pit
are foamy in appearance - these are the mucous cells. The other cell types
are farther down in the pit and, in this image, difficult to distinguish.

Digestive glands:
Digestive glands have lubricative, protective, digestive,
and absorptive functions mediated by their secretory products, which are
released into the oral cavity and the duodenum.
The three major digestive glands are:
1. The major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual
glands), associated with the oral cavity through independent excretory
ducts. The minor salivary glands have short branching tubules and are
located throughout the oral mucosa and tongue, where they contribute
to saliva, the product of the salivary glands.

2. The exocrine pancreas secretes a combined aqueous and enzymatic

product draining into the duodenum. The endocrine function of the

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pancreas (represented by the islet of Langerhans) is described in Chapter
19, Endocrine System.

3. The liver, a combined endocrine and exocrine gland, has extensive

access to the blood circulation and releases bile into the duodenum. Bile
is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic components that enable the
absorption of fats by the small intestine.

The structure and function of the gallbladder are included at the end

of the liver section.
Common digestive system disease :

here’s no need to suffer in silence. Here’s a top-to-bottom look at nine of

the most prevalent digestive conditions, their symptoms, and the most
effective treatments available. If you suspect you could have one of these
issues, don't delay in speaking with your doctor.

1. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)

When stomach acid backs up into your esophagus — a condition called

acid reflux — you may feel a burning pain in the middle of your chest. It
often occurs after meals or at night, says Neville Bamji, MD, a clinical
instructor of medicine at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
and a gastroenterologist with New York Gastroenterology Associates.
 

While it’s common for people to experience acid reflux and heartburn
once in a while, having symptoms that affect your daily life or occur at
least twice each week could be a sign of GERD, a chronic digestive
disease that affects 20 percent of Americans, according to the National
Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). If you
experience persistent heartburn, bad breath, tooth erosion, nausea, pain in
your chest or upper part of your abdomen, or have trouble swallowing or
breathing, see your doctor.

Most people find relief by avoiding the foods and beverages that trigger
their symptoms and/or by taking over-the-counter antacids or other
medications that reduce stomach acid production and inflammation of the
esophagus. But some cases of GERD require stronger treatment, such as
medication or surgery.

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2. Gallstones

Gallstones are hard deposits that form in your gallbladder — a small,

pear-shaped sack that stores and secretes bile for digestion. More than 25
million people in the United States have gallstones, with nearly one
million new cases of gallstone disease diagnosed every year —
approximately one-quarter of which require treatment, according to the
American Gastroenterological Association. Gallstones can form when
there’s too much cholesterol or waste in your bile, or if your gallbladder
doesn’t empty properly.

When gallstones block the ducts leading from your gallbladder to your
intestines, they can cause sharp pain in your upper-right abdomen.
Medications sometimes dissolve gallstones, but if that doesn’t work, the
next step is surgery to remove the gallbladder.  

3. Celiac Disease

An estimated 1 in 133 Americans has celiac disease, according to Beyond

Celiac, formerly the National Foundation for Celiac Awareness. The
group also estimates that 83 percent of people who have celiac disease
don’t know they have it, or have been misdiagnosed with a different
condition.

Celiac disease is a serious sensitivity to gluten, which is a protein found

in wheat, rye, and barley. Eat gluten, and your immune system goes on
the attack: It damages your villi, the finger-like protrusions in your small
intestines that help you absorb nutrients from the foods you
eat. Symptoms of celiac disease in children include abdominal pain and
bloating, diarrhea, constipation, vomiting, and weight loss. Symptoms in
adults can also include anemia, fatigue, bone loss, depression, and
seizures.

Yet some people may not have any symptoms. The only treatment for
celiac disease is to completely avoid eating gluten. Common alternatives
to gluten include brown rice, quinoa, lentils, soy flour, corn flour, and
amaranth.

4. Crohn’s Disease

Crohn’s disease is part of a group of digestive conditions called

inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Crohn’s most commonly affects the
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terminal ileum, which connects the end of the small bowel and the
beginning of the colon, but it can affect any part of the digestive tract. As
many as 780,000 Americans may be affected by Crohn’s, according to
the Crohn’s & Colitis Foundation (CCFA).

Doctors aren't sure what causes the disease, but it's thought that genetics
and family history may play a part. The most common Crohn's
symptoms are abdominal pain, diarrhea, rectal bleeding, weight loss, and
fever. “Treatment depends on the symptoms and can include topical pain
relievers, immunosuppressants, and surgery,” Dr. Bamji says.

5. Ulcerative Colitis

Ulcerative colitis is another inflammatory bowel disease that may affect

as many as 907,000 Americans, according to the CCFA. The symptoms
of ulcerative colitis are very similar to those of Crohn's, but the part of the
digestive tract affected is solely the large intestine, also known as the
colon.

If your immune system mistakes food or other materials for invaders,

sores or ulcers develop in the colon’s lining. If you experience frequent
and urgent bowel movements, pain with diarrhea, blood in your stool, or
abdominal cramps, visit your doctor.

Medication can suppress the inflammation, and eliminating foods that

cause discomfort may help as well. In severe cases, treatment for
ulcerative colitis may involve surgery to remove the colon.

6. Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Is your digestive tract irritable? Do you have stomach pain or discomfort

at least three times a month for several months? It could be irritable
bowel syndrome (IBS), another common digestive condition.

An estimated 10 to 15 percent of people worldwide suffer from irritable

bowel syndrome, and of that percentage between 25 and 45 million
people live in the United States, according to the International Foundation
for Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders. Signs of IBS can vary widely:
You can be constipated or have diarrhea, or have hard, dry stools on one
day and loose watery stools on another. Bloating is also a symptom of
IBS.

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What causes IBS isn’t known, but treatment of symptoms centers largely
on diet, such as eating low-fat, high-fiber meals or avoiding common
trigger foods (dairy products, alcohol, caffeine, artificial sweeteners, and
foods that produce gas). 

Friendly bacteria, such as the probiotics found in live yogurt, may also

help you feel better. Stress can trigger IBS symptoms, so some people
find cognitive-behavioral therapy or low-dose antidepressants to be useful
treatments, as well.

7. Hemorrhoids

Bright red blood in the toilet bowl when you move your bowels could be
a sign of hemorrhoids, which is a very common condition. In fact, 75
percent of Americans over age 45 have hemorrhoids, according to the
NIDDK.

Hemorrhoids are an inflammation of the blood vessels at the end of your

digestive tract. They can be painful and itchy. Causes include chronic
constipation, diarrhea, straining during bowel movements, and a lack
of fiber in your diet.

Treat hemorrhoids by eating more fiber, drinking more water, and

exercising. Over-the-counter creams and suppositories may provide
temporary relief of hemorrhoid symptoms. See your doctor if at-home
treatments don’t help; sometimes a hemorrhoidectomy is needed to
remove hemorrhoids surgically.

8. Diverticulitis

Small pouches called diverticula can form anywhere there are weak spots
in the lining of your digestive system, but they are most commonly found
in the colon.

If you have diverticula but no symptoms, the condition is called

diverticulosis, which is quite common among older adults and rarely
causes problems. But if the pouches become inflamed, it’s
called diverticulitis. Symptoms include fever and abdominal
pain. Obesity is a major risk factor for diverticulitis.

Mild diverticulitis is treated with antibiotics and a clear liquid diet so

your colon can heal. A low-fiber diet could be the cause of diverticulitis,
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so your doctor may direct you to eat a diet high in fiber — whole grains,
legumes, vegetables — as part of your treatment.

If you have severe attacks that recur frequently, you may need surgery to
remove the diseased part of your colon.

9. Anal Fissure

Anal fissures are tiny, oval-shaped tears in the lining of the very end of
your digestive tract called your anus. The symptoms are similar to those
of hemorrhoids, such as bleeding and pain after moving your bowels.
Straining and hard bowel movements can cause fissures, but so can soft
stools and diarrhea.

A high-fiber diet that makes your stool well formed and bulky is often the
best treatment for this common digestive condition. Medications to relax
the anal sphincter muscles, as well as topical anesthetics and sitz baths,
can relieve pain; however, chronic fissures may require surgery of the
anal sphincter muscle.

Summery :

The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal tract—also called

the GI tract or digestive tract—and the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.
The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube
from the mouth to the anus. The hollow organs that make up the GI tract
are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and
anus. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are the solid organs of the
digestive system.

The small intestine has three parts. The first part is called the duodenum.
The jejunum is in the middle and the ileum is at the end. The large
intestine includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and rectum. The appendix
is a finger-shaped pouch attached to the cecum. The cecum is the first
part of the large intestine. The colon is next. The rec

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 References :

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3. Papilian V. Salivary glands in Human Anatomy. ALL. 12th edn. 2010; 2
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Extrahepatic biliary tract and gallbladder in Skandalakis’ Surgical Anatomy: Te
Embryologic and Anatomic Basis of Modern Surgery. Greece: Paschalidis Medical
Publications. 2004; 2
5. Skandalakis JE, Colburn GL, Weidman TA, Foster Jr RS, Kingsworth AN, et al.
Liver in Skandalakis’ Surgical Anatomy: Te Embryologic and Anatomic Basis of
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7. Gold, P., M. Gold, and S. O. Freedman. 1968. Cellular location of carcinoembryonic
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