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Non-Newtonian Fluids: Guide to Classification and Characteristics.

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 97034
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS : GUIDE TO CLASSIFICATION AND
CHARACTERISTICS

CONTENTS
Page

1. NOTATION AND UNITS 1

2. INTRODUCTION 3
2.1 Purpose and Scope of ESDU Data Items on Non-Newtonian Fluids 3
2.2 Scope of This Item 3

3. NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS 5
3.1 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Behaviour 5
3.2 Classification of Fluids 5
3.2.1 Classification by phase condition 6
3.2.2 Classification by rheological type 7

4. VISCOSITY AND THE FLOW CURVE 9

4.1 Definition of Viscosity 9
4.2 Classification of Fluid Behaviour 10
4.2.1 Main classes of flow behaviour 10
4.2.1.1 Newtonian behaviour 11
4.2.1.2 Shear-thinning behaviour 11
4.2.1.3 Shear-thickening behaviour 12
4.2.1.4 Bingham plastic behaviour 12
4.2.1.5 Viscoplastic behaviour 13
4.2.2 Flow Behaviour of Real Fluids 13
4.2.2.1 Polymeric systems 15
4.2.2.2 Particulate systems 16

5. VISCOSITY AND FLOW CURVE MODELS 17

5.1 Newtonian Model 18
5.2 Power Law Model 18
5.3 Bingham Plastic Model 18
5.4 Herschel-Bulkley Model 18
5.5 Casson Model 18
5.6 Cross Model 19

6. VISCOSITY AND FLOW CURVE MEASUREMENT 22

6.1 Rotational Viscometers 22
6.2 Tube viscometers 24
6.3 Practical Considerations 25

i
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7. DERIVATION AND REFERENCES 26
7.1 Derivations 26
7.2 References 27

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF RHEOLOGICAL TERMS 28

ii
 97034
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS : GUIDE TO CLASSIFICATION AND
CHARACTERISTICS

1. NOTATION AND UNITS

See Appendix A for Glossary of Terms.

Units

SI British

a parameter in Cross model (Table 5.1) sm sm

a parameter in Prandtl-Eyring and Powell-Eyring N/m2 (Pa) lbf/ft2
models (Table 5.1)
a parameter in Williamson model (Table 5.1) m2/N (Pa-1) ft2/lbf
a parameter in Reiner-Philippoff model (Table 5.1) m4/N2 (Pa-2) ft4/lbf2
a parameter in Meter model (Table 5.1) m2m/Nm (Pa-m) ft2m/lbfm
a parameter in Ellis model (Table 5.1) m2-2m/N1-m (Pa1-m) ft2-2m/lbf1-m
A area m2 ft2
b parameter in Prandtl-Eyring and Powell-Eyring s s
models (Table 5.1)
b parameter in Van Wazer model (Table 5.1) sm sm
c concentration or volume fraction of dispersed – –
phase

c parameter in Powell-Eyring model (Table 5.1) N s/m2 (Pa s) lbf s/ft2

F force N lbf
K consistency coefficient N sn/m2 ( Pa sn) lbf sn /ft2
L plate gap dimension (see Section 4.1) m ft
m exponent in various rheological flow models – –
(Table 5.1)
n exponent in various rheological flow models – –
(Table 5.1)
V velocity m/s ft/s

γ· shear rate s-1 s-1

τ shear stress N/m2 (Pa) lbf/ft2

1
97034
µ dynamic viscosity N s/m2 (Pa s) lbf s/ft2

µ0 asymptotic value of viscosity at very low shear N s/m2 (Pa s) lbf s/ft2
rate

µ∞ asymptotic value of viscosity at very high shear N s/m2 (Pa s) lbf s/ft2
rate

[µ] intrinsic viscosity (Section 4.1) – –

µB Bingham plastic viscosity N s/m2 (Pa s) lbf s/ft2

µC Casson viscosity N s/m2 (Pa s) lbf s/ft2

µN Newtonian viscosity N s/m2 (Pa s) lbf s/ft2

µ red reduced viscosity (Section 4.1) – –

µ rel relative viscosity (Section 4.1) – –

µs viscosity of solvent or continuous phase (Section N s/m2 (Pa s) lbf s/ft2

4.1)

µ sp specific viscosity (Section 4.1) – –

ν kinematic viscosity m2/s ft2/s

τy yield stress N/m2 (Pa) lbf/ft2

τ yB Bingham yield stress N/m2 (Pa) lbf/ft2

τ yC Casson yield stress N/m2 (Pa) lbf/ft2

τ yHB Herschel-Bulkley yield stress N/m2 (Pa) lbf/ft2

τ yV Vocadlo yield stress (Table 5.1) N/m2 (Pa) lbf/ft2

2
 97034
2. INTRODUCTION

2.1 Purpose and Scope of ESDU Data Items on Non-Newtonian Fluids

Knowledge of fluid rheology is important in the design of process equipment such as pipelines, pumps,
extruders, mixers, coaters and heat exchangers. Rheological behaviour can be divided into Newtonian and
non-Newtonian categories and most fluids show non-Newtonian characteristics over at least part of the
shear rate range that can be achieved in practice. There are many different forms of non-Newtonian
behaviour, and each of these forms has to be considered separately in the design process.

In general, fluids behave as Newtonian if they are composed of low molecular weight material (whether
as a pure liquid or in the form of single-component molecular solutions), or when the temperature is well
above the melting point. Newtonian behaviour is characterised by viscosity that is constant with respect
to shear rate (see Section 3.1). Design data for process equipment carrying Newtonian fluids are well
developed. For example, data for pipeline systems carrying Newtonian fluids are provided in Volumes 1-4
of the ESDU Fluid Mechanics, Internal Flow Sub-series.

This Data Item, the first in a group on the flow characteristics of non-Newtonian fluids, provides an
introductory guide to their identification, classification and characterisation, including measurement
methods.

A second Item in the group, ESDU 9501222, provides more detailed guidance on obtaining the viscometric
or flow curve data necessary for estimating frictional pressure drop for pipeflow of non-Newtonian fluids.
ESDU 95012 also provides guidance on the selection and use of the different viscometric geometries
available, and advises on obtaining the viscometric data necessary for the generation of the flow curve.

A third Item in the group, ESDU 9102523, provides methods and computer programs for the estimation,
using the flow curve and by scale-up of small-scale pipeline flow data, of frictional pressure drop in
fully-developed, isothermal flow in straight pipes of uniform circular cross section.

2.2 Scope of This Item

Some examples of fluids that may exhibit non-Newtonian behaviour are listed in Table 2.1. They include
polymer solutions and melts having high molecular weights, suspensions of solids in liquids (which may
be undissolved polymer particles), and emulsions of droplets of a denser or lighter liquid in a second
immiscible liquid medium. The identification and classification of the fluids is carried out from two points
of view: firstly in terms of the phase condition (Section 3.2.1) and secondly in terms of the rheological type
(Section 3.2.2).

Fluids are classified according to the phase condition as either homogeneous or pseudohomogeneous or
heterogeneous. This Data Item is applicable to fluids that can be classified as homogeneous or
pseudohomogeneous. The behaviour of such fluids can be complicated as they can show both Newtonian
and non-Newtonian characteristics under different conditions of composition, temperature and shear rate
(see Section 3.1).

It is difficult to predict whether a particular fluid will exhibit non-Newtonian behaviour under a given set
of conditions, and it must be recognised that a rheological test is the only sure method of ascertaining
the rheological properties of a fluid.

3
97034
TABLE 2.1 Examples of fluids exhibiting non-Newtonian flow behaviour

Adhesives Peat slurries

Biological fluids Plastic melts
Cement slurries Polymer solutions
Chalk slurries Printing inks
Chocolate Quicksand
Coal slurries Rock slurries
Detergent slurries Rubber solutions
Food sauces Sand slurries
Greases Sewage sludges
Hand creams Shampoo
Margarine Soap slurries
Mayonnaise Starch solutions
Metal oxide slurries Tomato paste
Oil well drilling muds Toothpaste
Paints Wet beach sand
Paper pulp

The layout of this Data Item is as follows.

• Section 3 summarises the classification and behaviour of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.

• Section 4 introduces the concepts of viscosity and the flow curve and discusses the flow behaviour
exhibited by fluids under steady-state shear.

• Section 5 outlines various flow curve models used for characterising the flow behaviour exhibited
by fluids under steady-state shear.

• Section 6 summarises five types of viscometric geometry used for flow curve determination of
non-Newtonian fluids. These are described in more detail in ESDU 9501222.

• Appendix A gives a glossary of rheological terms.

4
 97034
3. NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

3.1 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Behaviour

Fluids, in general, may exhibit over a shear rate range both Newtonian and non-Newtonian behaviour. This
phenomenon is illustrated for an example fluid by Sketch 3.1, which shows the existence of characteristic
shear rates below which it exhibits Newtonian behaviour. This behaviour is observed where there is a linear
relationship between shear stress and shear rate with a zero intercept and a slope of constant viscosity. Any
deviation from Newtonian behaviour is said to be non-Newtonian. There are many different types of
non-Newtonian behaviour (see Section 3.2.2). Flow curves (that is, plots of shear stress against shear rate)
illustrating Newtonian and non-Newtonian behaviour are given in the Sketch 3.1.

In a homologous series of fluids (such as suspensions of increasing solids content, polymer solutions of
increasing concentration or polymer melts of increasing molecular weight), the characteristic shear rate
above which the behaviour of the fluid is no longer Newtonian decreases with increasing concentration or
molecular weight or with decreasing temperature. Sketch 3.1 shows that for the high concentration or
molecular weight material, the characteristic shear rate is so low that, under normal conditions, only
non-Newtonian behaviour would be apparent.

locus of characteristic
Concentration shear rate Shear-thinning
or molecular shear stress (Section 4.2.1.2)
weight
Conc. or mol. wt

non-Newtonian
Non-Newtonian shear rate
behaviour
Temp.

shear stress Shear-thickening

.
(Section 4.2.1.3)
Temperature Newtonian
behaviour
Newtonian shear rate

shear stress Bingham plastic

.
loglog γ rate)
(shear (Section 4.2.1.4)

shear rate

shear stress

shear stress Viscoplastic

(Section 4.2.1.5)
shear rate
(Section 4.2.1.1)
shear rate

Sketch 3.1 Illustration of Newtonian and non-Newtonian flow curve behaviour

3.2 Classification of Fluids

Fluids are classified in two ways:

• by consideration of the effect of phase condition on the flow behaviour (see Section 3.2.1)

• by rheological type (see Section 3.2.2).

5
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3.2.1 Classification by phase condition

Fluids may be classified by their phase condition as homogeneous, pseudohomogeneous (that is, able to
be treated as homogeneous) or heterogeneous, as summarised in Sketch 3.2.

Fluid type

Homogeneous Pseudohomogeneous Heterogeneous

CONSIDERED IN THIS ITEM NOT CONSIDERED IN THIS ITEM

Sketch 3.2 Classification of fluids by effect of phase condition on flow behaviour

A number of factors affect the phase condition, one of which is sedimentation under gravity. Suspensions
may be either settling or non-settling. For instance, coarse-particle, granular and flocculated suspensions
tend to settle whereas stabilised fine-particle suspensions have a low settling tendency. However, the
distinction between non-settling and settling suspensions is not clear as judgement has to be made with
regard to the time frame over which settling is deemed to be important. This can be done only by considering
the engineering application in question. For example, in the case of pipeline design, the suspension settling
rate needs to be related to the residence time of the suspension in horizontal, vertical or inclined pipework.
Guidelines on how this is done are given in Appendix A of ESDU 95012.

If solid particles (which may be polymer solids in a non-solvent) or droplets of a denser, second immiscible
liquid in a suspending liquid medium settle sufficiently slowly under gravity or if the droplets of a lighter,
immiscible liquid in a suspending liquid medium rise sufficiently slowly so as not to cause creaming, the
suspension (or emulsion) can be characterised viscometrically. These 'non-settling' suspensions are
considered to be pseudohomogeneous (that is, the particles or droplets are uniformly distributed throughout
the suspending medium). Hence, the usual viscometric methods for measuring the flow curve of
homogeneous fluids can be used for these suspensions, although it is necessary to be aware of the nature
of the material when making the measurement. This is discussed in Section 7 of ESDU 95012. For instance,
in the case of suspensions of high solids and/or fibre content, knowledge of the concentration at which flow
inhomogeneities will develop is required.

If, however, the solid particles or droplets in a suspending liquid medium undergo rapid settling, the
suspension can no longer be treated as pseudohomogeneous (that is, the suspension is heterogeneous). With
these suspensions, flow curve measurements using rotational or tube viscometry are difficult and often
meaningless. It may be possible instead to use the Metzner-Otto method to measure the flow curve. This
method maintains the particles in suspension whilst carrying out the measurements, and is described in
Appendix B of ESDU 95012.

The settling behaviour of suspensions (or creaming of emulsions) is governed primarily by the relative
density of the phases and the particle (or droplet) size. There are other factors that can make a fluid
heterogeneous during flow, such as the particles being fibrous, or the dispersed phase concentration being
very high. In fibrous suspensions, such as wood pulps, micelial fermentation broths and raw sewage sludges,
the elongated particles can become entangled when sheared and form into clumps. At high dispersed-phase
concentrations, cracks can develop in the particle packing on shearing and the particles can clump together
and move en masse17,21. These suspensions readily become heterogeneous when sheared and exhibit
complicated behaviour that cannot be interpreted simply in terms of the flow curve. There are therefore
limitations in terms of particle shape and dispersed-phase concentration under which a suspension is
homogeneous or can be treated as such.

6
 97034
This Item considers only homogeneous liquids and pseudohomogeneous suspensions, either non-settling
or within the limitations of particle shape and concentration discussed above.

3.2.2 Classification by rheological type

Homogeneous and pseudohomogeneous fluids may be further classified into various rheological types on
the basis of their behaviour when subjected to shear. For these fluids, there are three main types of
rheological behaviour: purely viscous, thixotropic and viscoelastic.

Purely viscous behaviour is characterised by the viscosity responding instantaneously to a step change in
shear rate or shear stress. This is characterised by a flow curve that is either a curve through the origin or
a curve or straight line that shows an intercept on the shear stress axis. The viscosity is shear rate-dependent
and time-independent.

Thixotropic behaviour is characterised by shear rate-dependent and time-dependent viscosity. For a

well-rested sample (that is, one that has been allowed to rest for a time to recover from the effects of previous
shear) when a step increase in shear rate or shear stress is applied the viscosity decreases with the time of
shear. Thixotropic behaviour is generally associated with particulate systems (that is, solid/liquid
suspensions, colloids, slurries, pastes and emulsions).

Viscoelastic behaviour is also characterised by shear rate-dependent and time-dependent viscosity and, for
a well-rested sample, when a step increase in shear rate or shear stress is applied the viscosity increases
with the time of shear. Viscoelastic behaviour is generally associated with polymeric systems.

Many fluids can show a combination of thixotropic and viscoelastic behaviour thus making time-dependent
behaviour very difficult to characterise.

If thixotropic or viscoelastic materials are held under constant shear for a sufficiently long time (typically
minutes/hours for thixotropic materials or seconds/minutes for viscoelastic materials) the viscosity will
attain a steady state value. Plotting this viscosity as a function of shear rate in the form of a shear stress
versus shear rate plot will yield the equilibrium flow curve for thixotropic materials or the steady-shear
flow curve for viscoelastic materials. This means that under steady-state operation in a process (such as
pipeline pumping), it may be possible to relate the flow of thixotropic fluids to the equilibrium flow curve
or viscoelastic fluids to steady-state flow curve as if they were time-independent.

The three types of flow curves (purely viscous, equilibrium and steady-state) are similar and can be treated
in the same way (and are referred to as simply ‘the flow curve’). They are summarised in Table 3.1.

TABLE 3.1 TYPES OF RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR

Type of rheological Response to step increase in shear Flow curve measured under
behaviour stress or shear rate steady-state shear

Viscosity achieves shear rate- or

Purely viscous shear stress-dependent values Purely viscous flow curve
instantaneously.

Thixotropic Viscosity decreases with time Equilibrium flow curve

Viscoelastic Viscosity increases with time Steady-shear flow curve

7
97034
This Item considers only those categories of fluid that can be characterised by the flow curve, either

• purely viscous,

• thixotropic under steady-state shear, described by the equilibrium flow curve, or

• viscoelastic under steady-state shear, described by the steady-shear flow curve,

and for which the flow curve can be obtained using viscometry. The flow behaviour is further classified in
Section 4.2.1 and real fluid behaviour is described in Section 4.2.2. Some model flow curves that may be
used for mathematical treatment are introduced in Section 5.

The applicability of this Item is summarised in Sketch 3.3.

Homogeneous FLUID TYPE

(Section 3.2.1)
and pseudohomogeneous

Thixotropic, Viscoelastic, RHEOLOGICAL

Purely viscous TYPE
described by the described by the
equilibrium flow curve steady-shear flow curve (Section 3.2.2)

STEADY-STATE
Newtonian Shear-thinning Shear thickening Bingham plastic Viscoplastic Real fluids FLOW
(Section 4.2.1.1) (Section 4.2.1.2) (Section 4.2.1.3) (Section 4.2.1.4) (Section 4.2.1.5) (Section 4.2.2) BEHAVIOUR
(Section 4.2)

Sketch 3.3 Rheological type classification and applicability of this Item

8
 97034
4. VISCOSITY AND THE FLOW CURVE

4.1 Definition of Viscosity

Viscosity, µ , is just one of several rheological properties that can be used for material characterisation in
engineering application purposes. To define viscosity, consider an element of fluid sandwiched between
two parallel plates of area, A, separated by a gap, L, being subjected to a steady-shear force, F, on its upper
face, Sketch 4.1.
moving plate, area A

F, V

liquid layers
L

stationary plate, area A

Sketch 4.1 Fluid under steady-shear

The steady-shear force will cause the upper plate to move with a velocity, V, relative to the lower plate. The
element is said to be under a shear stress

F
τ = --- (4.1)
A

and flows with a shear rate

V
γ· = --- . (4.2)
L

Dividing the shear stress by the shear rate gives a measure of the resistance of the fluid to flow, that is its
viscosity*, defined as

τ
µ = -· . (4.3)
γ

The dimensions for these rheological quantities are listed in Table 4.1.

*
This is the dynamic viscosity, not to be confused with the kinematic viscosity (the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of the material
with units of m2/s (1 mm2/s = 1 centistoke (cSt)); kinematic viscosity is obtained using U-tube viscometry. Also worthy of note are the
following quantities often quoted for dilute solutions and suspensions.
• Viscosity of the solvent or continuous phase, µs (Pa s).
• Relative viscosity, µrel, given by the ratio of viscosity to the continuous phase viscosity, µ /µs.
• Specific viscosity, µsp, given by (µrel - 1).
• Reduced viscosity, µred, given by the ratio of specific viscosity to the volume fraction of the dispersed phase, µsp /c.
• Intrinsic viscosity, [µ], the limit of µred as c → 0 .

9
97034
.

TABLE 4.1 UNITS OF RHEOLOGICAL QUANTITIES

Quantity SI Unit Conversion

Stress N/m2 (Pa) 1 Pa = 10 dynes/cm2
Shear (strain) rate s-1 –
Viscosity Pa s or Pa.s 1000 mPa s = 1 Pa s
1 mPa s = 1 cP (centipoise)
100 cP = 1 poise
1 Pa s = 10 poise

The viscosity is usually derived from the flow curve: plotting the ratio of shear stress to shear rate as a
function of shear rate will result in a viscosity curve. Instruments that measure viscosity are referred to as
viscometers (Section 6); those measuring other rheological properties in addition to viscosity are known as
rheometers.

4.2 Classification of Fluid Behaviour

Over a limited shear rate range (of one or two decades) a fluid can exhibit a single class of behaviour
characterised by the flow curves of Section 4.2.1. Over a wider shear rate range (within 10–6 to 106 s–1)
most fluids exhibit more than one class of flow behaviour. This is illustrated in Section 4.2.2 for some
common fluids.

4.2.1 Main classes of flow behaviour

The main classes of flow behaviour exhibited by fluids under steady-state shear are

• Newtonian (Section 4.2.1.1),

• shear-thinning (Section 4.2.1.2),

• shear-thickening (Section 4.2.1.3),

• Bingham plastic (Section 4.2.1.4),

• viscoplastic (Section 4.2.1.5).

Flow curve models used to characterise these idealised forms of flow behaviour are presented in Section 5
and Table 5.1.

It is difficult to predict the type of flow behaviour that a fluid will exhibit under given flow conditions (for
example, at a given temperature or concentration). Nonetheless, some standard text books28,29 give
examples that can serve as illustrations. The user should be aware that a rheological test is the only sure
method of ascertaining the rheological behaviour of a fluid.

10
 97034
4.2.1.1 Newtonian behaviour

This is behaviour in which an infinitesimal shear stress will initiate flow and for which the shear stress is
directly proportional to the shear rate. The flow curve, at a given temperature and pressure, is therefore
linear and passes through the origin, as is shown in Sketch 4.2. The slope of the flow curve, which is
constant, is the viscosity of the fluid.

shear stress, τ

0 .
shear rate, γ

Sketch 4.2 Flow curve for fluids exhibiting Newtonian behaviour

4.2.1.2 Shear-thinning behaviour

This is behaviour in which an infinitesimal shear stress will initiate flow (that is, the flow curve passes
through the origin) and for which the rate of increase in shear stress with shear rate decreases with increasing
shear rate as is shown in Sketch 4.3.

shear stress, τ

0 .
shear rate, γ

Sketch 4.3 Flow curve for fluids exhibiting shear-thinning behaviour

This behaviour is sometimes incorrectly termed thixotropy because the equilibrium flow curve of a
thixotropic material is often shear-thinning. However, unlike shear-thinning behaviour, thixotropy is
time-dependent (Section 3.2.2).

11
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4.2.1.3 Shear-thickening behaviour

This is behaviour in which an infinitesimal shear stress will initiate flow (that is, the flow curve passes
through the origin) and for which the rate of increase in shear stress with shear rate increases with increasing
shear rate. This is shown in Sketch 4.4.

shear stress, τ

0 .
shear rate, γ

Sketch 4.4 Flow curve for fluids exhibiting shear-thickening behaviour

4.2.1.4 Bingham plastic behaviour

This is behaviour in which a non-zero shear stress is required to initiate significant flow and for which there
is a linear relationship between the shear stress in excess of the yield stress, τ yB , and the resulting shear
rate. The flow curve for a Bingham fluid is linear but does not pass through the origin, as shown in
Sketch 4.5.

shear stress, τ

τ yB

0 .
shear rate, γ

Sketch 4.5 Flow curve for fluids exhibiting Bingham plastic behaviour

12
 97034
4.2.1.5 Viscoplastic behaviour

This is behaviour in which a non-zero shear stress is required to initiate flow and for which the rate of
increase in shear stress with shear rate in excess of the yield stress, τ y , decreases with increasing shear
rate. The flow curve, shown in Sketch 4.6, has the same characteristic shape as that for a fluid exhibiting
shear-thinning behaviour but does not pass through the origin.

shear stress, τ

τy

0 .
shear rate, γ

Sketch 4.6 Flow curve for fluids exhibiting viscoplastic behaviour

4.2.2 Flow Behaviour of Real Fluids

The main classes of flow behaviour discussed in Section 4.2.1 are observed if the flow curve is measured
over limited ranges of shear rate. Generally, most fluids will exhibit behaviour conforming to more than
one flow classification over a shear rate range wider than two or three decades.

As an example, Sketch 4.7 shows the general shapes of flow and viscosity curves on logarithmic scales for
a typical fluid of low solids concentration. These curves indicate that at low shear rates the viscosity is
constant while at high shear rates the viscosity is again constant, but at a lower level. Between these two
extremes, sometimes known as the first and second Newtonian regions, the viscosity decreases as shear
rate increases. The viscosities in the first and second Newtonian regions are referred to as the zero shear
viscosity, µ 0 , and the infinite shear viscosity, µ∞ .

The shear rate and viscosity ranges vary with the fluid. The shear rate may extend from 10–6 to 106 s–1.
The asymptotic value of viscosity at very low shear rate (zero shear viscosity), µ0 , may be 1 mPa s (for
water) and as high as 105 Pa s (for polymer melts). The asymptotic value at very high shear rate (infinite
shear viscosity), µ∞ , is generally very low, approaching the viscosity of the solvent or suspending liquid.
Models that predict the shapes of these curves may contain three parameters, but more generally four
parameters are necessary. Some examples of such models are given in Table 5.1.

Flow behaviour of polymeric and particulate fluids are discussed and illustrated in Section 4.2.2.1 and
4.2.2.2, respectively.

13
97034
(a)

log τ

.
log γ

µ0
(b)

log µ

µ∞
.
log γ

µ0
(c)

log µ

µ∞

log τ

Sketch 4.7 Typical flow behaviour of real fluids of low solids concentration in terms of
(a) shear stress versus shear rate (flow curve),
(b) viscosity versus shear rate (viscosity curve) and
(c) viscosity versus shear stress.

14
 97034
4.2.2.1 Polymeric systems

For polymeric systems of low concentrations, low molecular weights or at temperatures well above the
glass transition temperature, the typical variation of viscosity with shear rate as a function of concentration,
molecular weight or temperature is shown in Sketch 4.8.

• Increasing concentration
• Increasing molecular weight
• Decreasing temperature

log µ

NEWTONIAN

locus of
characteristic shear rate
.
log γ

Sketch 4.8 Non-Newtonian viscosity in polymeric systems of low concentrations, low molecular
weight or at temperatures well above the glass transition temperature

As the concentration or molecular weight is increased or the temperature is decreased, both the zero and
infinite shear viscosities increase and the change in the zero shear viscosity is much greater than that for
infinite shear viscosity. The characteristic shear rate, where the viscosity begins to decrease with increasing
shear rate and the behaviour of the fluid is no longer Newtonian, decreases with increasing concentration
or molecular weight or with decreasing temperature. The locus of the characteristic shear rate corresponds
to that on Sketch 3.1.

It should be noted that some polymer solutions can be shear-thickening caused by shear-induced
entanglement and agglomeration at high shear rates, and gels may show yield stress. Hence, the flow
behaviour of such polymeric systems is more like that shown in Sketch 4.9 for suspensions of negligible
inter-particle attraction.

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4.2.2.2 Particulate systems

For particulate systems containing a dispersed phase having negligible inter-particle attraction, the typical
variation of viscosity with shear rate as a function of solids content, shown in Sketch 4.9, is complex.

curves for
increasing solids
VI concentration
SC
OP
LA
ST
IC

SHEAR-THICKENING

log µ
SHEAR-
THINNING

NEWTONIAN

locus of characteristic shear rate

.
log γ

Sketch 4.9 Non-Newtonian viscosity in suspensions of negligible inter-particle attraction

At low solids concentrations, the curve indicates shear-thinning behaviour with well-defined zero shear
and infinite shear viscosities. The lower boundary of the shear-thinning region is similar to the curves in
Sketch 4.8. At higher solids concentrations, shear-thickening behaviour is observed at high shear rates.
This becomes more pronounced with increasing solids concentration. The characteristic shear rate decreases
with increasing concentration until at very high concentrations it is less than the lowest measurable shear
rate. The magnitude of the slope at the characteristic shear rate also increases until at very high
concentrations, it attains a value of –1. If replotted as a flow curve, this would show a yield stress and the
flow behaviour would be viscoplastic.

16
 97034
5. VISCOSITY AND FLOW CURVE MODELS

Fluids exhibiting Newtonian behaviour have constant viscosities as defined by Equation (4.3), and a single
point measurement at a convenient shear rate is sufficient to describe such a fluid. Non-Newtonian fluids
have viscosities that are shear rate dependent, and a single point measurement is inadequate to describe the
flow behaviour. Here, the relevant shear rate range in the engineering application must be assessed and
used in determining the measurement conditions for the viscometer/rheometer (see Section 6).

Shear rate-dependent viscosity is often referred to as apparent viscosity, µa but there is no need to make
this distinction if it is accepted that viscosity, as defined in Equation (4.3), can be variable. However, it is
essential that values of µ are quoted with their corresponding values of shear rate (or shear stress).

The non-Newtonian viscosity curve or flow curve data obtained from viscometric measurements under
steady-state shear (discussed in Section 4) can be described mathematically in terms of rheological models
(constitutive equations) and are amenable to curve fitting. The general form of a rheological model is fitted
over a relevant shear rate range to the flow curve or viscosity curve by least-squares regression analysis so
that a specific rheological model can be obtained. This specific equation is then used for material
characterisation or engineering design applications.

The rheological model for Newtonian fluids contains just one constant, µ N (see Section 5.1). Many models
have been proposed to describe non-Newtonian flow behaviour of fluids, although the majority of these
are of little value for engineering design applications and serve more as theoretical analyses. However,
there are several well-established models used widely in the prediction of fluid rheology; in Sketch 5.1
their applicability to the classes of flow behaviour discussed in Section 4.2 is summarised.

Newtonian Shear-thinning Shear thickening Bingham plastic Viscoplastic Real fluids

(Section 4.2.1.1) (Section 4.2.1.2) (Section 4.2.1.3) (Section 4.2.1.4) (Section 4.2.1.5) (Section 4.2.2)

Newtonian Power law Power law Bingham plastic Herschel-Bulkley Cross

(Section 5.1) (Section 5.2) (Section 5.2) (Section 5.3) (Section 5.4) (Section 5.6)
Casson
(Section 5.5)

Sketch 5.1 Applicability of commonly-used rheological models to types of flow behaviour

In general, the simpler models (for example, Newtonian, Bingham plastic and power law) are used for
fitting narrow shear rate ranges (say, one decade), giving straight lines on linear or logarithmic graphs.
Other models such as Herschel-Bulkley and Casson (for two or three decades) and Sisko (for four decades
or more, see Section 5.6) are better for wider shear rate ranges. For the widest shear rate range achievable
in practice (that is, 10–6 to 106 s–1) it is necessary to use a more complex model such as the four-parameter
Cross model.

The rheological models listed in Sketch 5.1 are discussed in turn and those and some other useful models
are summarised in Table 5.1.

17
97034
5.1 Newtonian Model

This is the simplest of all flow curve models and is given by

τ = µ N γ· , (5.1)

with µN being the Newtonian viscosity.

5.2 Power Law Model

This model3 is described by a two-parameter equation

n
τ = Kγ· , (5.2)

where K is the consistency coefficient in units of Pa sn and n is the power law exponent. This equation
describes Newtonian behaviour when n = 1, shear-thinning behaviour when n < 1 or shear-thickening
behaviour when n > 1.

On a log - log plot, the model is represented by a straight line with a slope of n. Values of n typically range
from 0.2 to about 1.4. The further the value of n is from unity, the more pronounced is the non-Newtonian
behaviour of the fluid.

5.3 Bingham Plastic Model

This two parameter model1 is described by

τ = τ yB + µ B γ· , (5.3)

where τ yB is the Bingham yield stress and µB is the Bingham plastic viscosity.

5.4 Herschel-Bulkley Model

This model2, also known as the generalised Bingham plastic model, uses a three parameter yield/power
law equation given by

n
τ = τ yHB + Kγ· , (5.4)

where τ yHB is the Herschel-Bulkley yield stress. This equation describes viscoplastic behaviour when
n < 1. Because power law ( τ yHB = 0; shear-thinning when n < 1 or shear-thickening when n > 1), Newtonian
( τ yHB = 0 and n = 1) and Bingham plastic behaviour (n = 1) can be regarded as special cases, the model
represents the flow behaviour of a wide range of fluids without being too difficult to handle mathematically.

5.5 Casson Model

This theoretical two-parameter model10 is given by

τ = τ yC + µ C γ· , (5.5)

where τ yC is the Casson yield stress and µC is the Casson viscosity.

18
 97034
5.6 Cross Model

Of all the four-parameter models listed in Table 5.1, the Cross model13 is probably the most widely used
in the UK. The Cross model is given by

µ – µ∞ 1
--------------------- = -------------------- , (5.6)
µ0 – µ∞ 1 + aγ·
m

where µ0 and µ ∞ refer to the asymptotic values of viscosity at very low and very high shear rates
respectively, a is a constant with units of sm and m is an exponent.

If γ· → ∞ , the Cross model reduces to the Sisko model9, given by

n–1
µ = µ ∞ + Kγ· (5.7)

when the substitutions m = 1 – n and K = ( µ0 – µ∞ )/a are made. The Sisko model reduces to the power law
model (Section 5.2) when γ· → 0 or to the Bingham plastic model (Section 5.3) when n = 0.

19
20

97034
TABLE 5.1 FLOW CURVE MODELS

Model Constitutive Equation Viscosity Rheological Parameters

Newtonian τ = µN γ· µ = µN µN (Pa s)

Power law3 n n–1 K (Pa sn)

τ = K γ· µ = K γ·
n (dimensionless)

Bingham Plastic1 τyB τ yB (Pa)

τ = τyB + µB γ· - + µB
µ = ------- µB (Pa s)
γ·

Herschel-Bulkley2 n τyHB τ yHB (Pa)

τ = τyHB + Kγ· µ = ----------- ·n – 1
·γ + Kγ K (Pa sn)
n (dimensionless)

Casson10 2 τ yC (Pa)
τ = τ yC + µ C γ· [ τ yC + µ C γ· ] µC (Pa s)
µ = -------------------------------------------
γ·

Vocadlo15 1⁄ n
( τ yV + Kγ )
· n τ yV (Pa)
· n
1⁄ n
τ = ( τ yV + Kγ ) µ = -------------------------------
- K (Pa sn)
γ·
n (dimensionless)
–1
Prandtl-Eyring4,7 –1 · [ a sinh ( bγ· ) ] a (Pa)
τ = a sinh ( bγ ) µ = --------------------------------
-
γ· b (s)

Powell-Eyring8 –1 · a (Pa)
· –1 · [ a sinh ( bγ ) ]
τ = cγ + a sinh ( bγ ) µ = c + -----------------------------------
- b (s)
γ· c (Pa s)
 
TABLE 5.1 FLOW CURVE MODELS (continued)
Model Constitutive Equation Viscosity Rheological Parameters
Cross13 µ0 – µ∞  · µ0 – µ∞ µ0 (Pa s)

τ =  µ ∞ + --------------------- γ µ = µ ∞ + --------------------- µ∞ (Pa s)
·m ·m
 1 + aγ  1 + aγ a (sm)
m (dimensionless)
Sisko9  µ∞ (Pa s)
· n – 1 · ·n – 1
τ =  µ ∞ + Kγ γ µ = µ ∞ + Kγ K (Pa sn)
  n (dimensionless)
Carreau14 µ0 – µ∞ µ0 – µ∞ µ0 (Pa s)
 ·
τ =  µ ∞ + -------------------------------------- γ µ = µ ∞ + -------------------------------------- µ∞ (Pa s)
m ⁄2 2 m⁄ 2
 [ 1 + ( aγ· ) ]
2  [ 1 + ( aγ· ) ] a (s)
m (dimensionless)
Van Wazer11 µ0 – µ∞  · µ0 – µ∞ µ0 (Pa s)
 µ = µ ∞ + ---------------------------------- µ∞
τ =  µ ∞ + ---------------------------------- γ m
(Pa s)
 1 + aγ· + bγ· 
m
1 + aγ· + bγ· a (s)
b (sm)
m (dimensionless)
Williamson5 µ0 – µ∞ µ0 (Pa s)
 µ0 – µ∞ 
τ =  µ ∞ + --------------------- γ· µ = µ ∞ + --------------------- µ∞ (Pa s)
1 + aτ  1 + aτ (Pa–1)
 a

Reiner-Philippoff6 µ0 – µ∞  µ0 – µ∞ µ0 (Pa s)
 µ = µ ∞ + --------------------- µ∞
τ =  µ ∞ + --------------------- γ· 2
(Pa s)
2
 1 + aτ  1 + aτ a (Pa–2)

Meter12 µ0 – µ∞  µ0 – µ∞ µ0 (Pa s)
 µ = µ ∞ + --------------------- µ∞
τ =  µ ∞ + --------------------- γ· m
(Pa s)
m
 1 + aτ  1 + aτ a (Pa–m)

97034
m (dimensionless)
Ellis27 µ0 µ0 µ0 (Pa s)
  µ = ----------------------------- (Pa1-m)
τ =  ----------------------------- γ· m–1
a
m–1
 1 + aτ  1 + aτ m (dimensionless)
21
97034
6. VISCOSITY AND FLOW CURVE MEASUREMENT

Commercial viscometers and rheometers employ a wide range of geometries for viscosity and flow curve
measurement. These can be grouped into two main types: rotational viscometers (Section 6.1) and tube
viscometers (Section 6.2).

6.1 Rotational Viscometers

Rotational viscometers, which rely on rotational motion to achieve simple shear flow, can be operated either
in the controlled-rate or controlled-stress mode. In controlled-rate instruments, there are two methods of
applying the rotation and measuring the resultant torque. The first method (Sketch 6.1a) is to rotate one
member and measure the torque exerted on the other member by the test sample whilst the second method
(Sketch 6.1b) is to rotate one member and measure the resultant torque on the same member. The rotating
member is either at constant speed which can be sequentially stepped or with a steadily-changing speed
ramp. The resultant torque is measured by a torsion spring. In controlled-stress instruments (Sketch 6.1c),
a constant torque, which can be sequentially changed, or a torque ramp is applied to the member, and the
resultant speed is measured.

Controlled-rate mode: applied speed

Motor
a) direct drive b) drive through
Torsion torsion system
system Torsion
system

sample

sample

Motor

Controlled-stress mode: applied torque

Motor
c)

sample

Sketch 6.1 Operational modes of rotational viscometers

The more common geometries used in rotational viscometers are shown in Table 6.1. These are used
interchangeably with any of the operational modes shown in Sketch 6.1.

22
 97034
TABLE 6.1 TYPES OF ROTATIONAL VISCOMETERS

Coaxial cylinder The simplest geometry (a) consists of a bob (inner cylinder)
located in a cup (outer cylinder) with the test sample
contained in the narrow annular gap between the bob and the
cup. Other variations of the coaxial cylinder viscometer that
are commonly used include (b) a bob rotating in a large
container that approximates to the ‘infinite sea’ situation
(that is, the container to bob radius ratio is at least 10), and
(c) the Moore-Davis double cylinder viscometer used for
low viscosity fluids.

(a) Bob in cup (b) Single bob (c) Moore-Davis

See Section 6.2 of ESDU 95012.

Rotating disc This consists of a disc rotating in a large container of test

fluid. The torque exerted by the test fluid on the rotating disc
is measured as a function of rotational speed.

See Section 6.3 of ESDU 95012.

Cone-and-plate Usually, the sample under test is contained between the

exterior angle of a cone and a flat plate (see a). The cone
angle is normally not more than 4o. The axis of the cone is
set normal to the plate with the cone apex touching the plate.

However, for solid/liquid suspensions and emulsions, a cone

(a)
(a) Cone-and-plate
Cone-and-plate
with a truncated apex (see b) is often used to avoid any
problems due to particles jamming.

See Section 6.4 of ESDU 95012.

(b) Truncated cone

Parallel plate The sample under test is held in the gap between two
identical circular flat plates. The gap between the two plates
can be varied, typically up to 5 mm for plates of about
25 mm radius

See Section 6.5 of ESDU 95012.

23
97034
6.2 Tube viscometers

Tube viscometers are generally once-through batch devices consisting of either a horizontal or vertical
length of precision-bored, straight tube through which the test fluid is passed at varying rates from a
reservoir. The diameters of the tube can typically range from 1 to 5 mm. Essentially, there are two types of
tube viscometer, the controlled flow rate and the controlled pressure, as shown in Sketch 6.2.

(i) horizontal tube

(ii) vertical tube

Type A. Controlled flow rate

(i) horizontal tube

p

(ii) vertical tube

Type B. Controlled pressure (p)

Sketch 6.2 Types of tube viscometer

In the controlled flow rate tube viscometer a piston or ram forces the fluid through a horizontal or vertical
tube at a constant flow rate and the resultant pressure drop is measured. In the controlled pressure
viscometer, compressed air (or nitrogen) is applied to drive the fluid through a horizontal or vertical tube
and the resultant volumetric flow rate is measured.

24
 97034
6.3 Practical Considerations

Flow curve measurements can be made using all of these geometries but there are several drawbacks for
each geometry that need to be considered for each fluid under test and each specific application.

ESDU 9501222 provides guidance on the use of these geometries for obtaining relevant viscometric data
required for pipeline design.

For the correct end-use of viscometric data in any processing application, the flow curve must be measured
under appropriate conditions of temperature and shear. Hence, the shear rate (or shear stress) range to be
covered by the viscometer should be matched to that applicable to the particular flow process. With the
range of viscometers commercially available, it is technically possible to measure viscosity over 12 orders
of magnitude of shear rate from 10–6 to 106 s–1. However, most processing applications require viscosity
data over no more than two or three orders of magnitude of shear rate. Table 6.2 lists the shear rates typical
of some flow processes of interest to the engineer.

There are quick and simple methods available for defining the shear rate range for any processing
application. In pumping, the shear rate range in a pipe or in the small clearances of a pump is readily defined
although an average shear rate in a pump can prove more difficult. Refer to ESDU 9501222 for further
details on shear rate estimation in pipeflow. Shear rates in mixers can be defined either as those occurring
in the narrow gaps between the agitator and the mixer wall or as an average through the application of the
Metzner-Otto method (see Appendix B of ESDU 9501222).
TABLE 6.2 SHEAR RATES TYPICAL OF SOME FLOW PROCESSES

Flow process Shear rate range, s–1

Sedimentation of solids in suspending liquid 10–6 to 10–4
Sagging of paint 10–3 to 0.1
Levelling of paint 0.01 to 0.1
Draining under gravity 0.1 to 10
Belt filter pressing 1 to 10
Extrusion 1 to 100
Dip coating 10 to 100
Scroll centrifuging 10 to 100
Mixing 10 to 103
Pipeline flow 10 to 103
Pumping 100 to 103
Hydrocycloning 100 to 104
Brushing, spreading 103 to 104
Milling 103 to 105
High speed coating 105 to 106
Spraying 105 to 106
Lubricating 103 to 106

If a method for shear rate estimation in a particular processing application is not available, a useful approach
is to define the flow region of interest, determine the differences between fluid velocities at two points
across the region (this will often be the surface of some moving element such as a pump impeller or mixer
agitator) and divide this velocity difference by the separation distance between the two points. This typical
shear rate can be used as a basis for choosing a viscometer.

As the equations for calculating the shear stress, shear rate and viscosity assume the flow in the viscometer
is laminar, a check must be made to ensure the validity of the viscometric data. Details on how this is done
are given in ESDU 9501222.

25
97034
7. DERIVATION AND REFERENCES

7.1 Derivations

The following sources have assisted in the preparation of this Item.

1. BINGHAM, E.C. Fluidity and plasticity. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1922.

2. HERSCHEL, W.H. Konsistenzmessungen von Gummi-Benzollosungen. Kolloid-Z., Vol. 39,
BULKLEY, R. pp. 291-300,1926.
3. OSTWALD, W. Über die Viskosität Kolloider Lösungen im Struktur-, Laminar- und
AVERBACH, R. Turbulenzgebeit. Kolloid-Z., Vol. 38, pp. 261-280, 1926.
4. PRANDTL, L. Ein Gedanken Modell zur Kinetischen Theorie der Festen Körper.
Z. Angew. Math. Mech., Vol. 8, pp. 85-106, 1928.
5. WILLIAMSON, R.V. The flow of pseudoplastic materials. Ind. Eng Chem., Vol. 21,
pp. 1108-1115, 1929.
6. PHILIPPOFF, W. Zur Theorie der Strukturviskosität. I. Kolloid-Z., Vol. 71, pp. 1-16, 1935.
7. EYRING, H.J. Viscosity, plasticity and diffusion as examples of absolute reaction rates.
J. Chem. Phys., Vol. 4, pp. 283-291, 1936.
8. POWELL, R.E. Mechanisms for the relaxation theory of viscosity. Nature, Vol. 154,
EYRING, H.J. pp. 427-428, 1944.
9. SISKO, A.W. The flow of lubricating greases. Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. 50, pp. 1789-1792,
1958.
10. CASSON, N. A flow equation for pigmented-oil suspension for the printing ink type. In:
Mill, C.C. (ed). Rheology of dispersed systems. Pergamon Press, New
York, pp. 84-104, 1959.
11. VAN WAZER, J.R. Viscosity and flow measurement. Interscience, New York. 1963.
LYONS, J. W.
KIM, K.Y.
COLWELL, R.E.
12. METER, D.M. Tube flow of non-Newtonian polymer solutions: Part 1. Laminar flow and
BIRD, R.B. rheological models. AIChE.J., Vol. 10, pp. 878-881, 1964.
13. CROSS, M.M. Rheology of non-Newtonian flow: equation for pseudoplastic systems.
J. Colloid Sci., Vol. 20, pp. 417-437, 1965.
14. CARREAU, P.J. PhD Dissertation. Dept of Chemical Engineering, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, 1968.
15. PARZONKA, W. Methode de la charactéristique du comportement rhéologique des
VOCADLO, J. substances viscoplastiques d’aprés les mésures au viscosimetre de Couette
(modèle nouveau à trois paramètres). Rheol. Acta, Vol. 7, pp. 260-265,
1968.
16. BSI Glossary of rheological terms. BS 5168, British Standards Institutòn,
London, 1975.

26
 97034
17. CHENG, D. C-H. Further observations on the rheological behaviour of dense suspensions.
Powder Tech., Vol. 37, pp. 255-273, 1984.
18. CHENG, D. C-H. Thixotropy. Int. J. Cosmetic Sci., Vol. 9, pp. 151-191, 1987.
19. BARNES, H.A. An introduction to rheology. Elsevier, Oxford, 1989.
HUTTON, J.F.
WALTERS, K.
20. BROWN, N.P. Slurry handling : design of solid-liquid systems. Elsevier, London, 1991.
HEYWOOD, N.I.
21. TOY, M.L. Nonhomogeneities in Couette flow of ferrite suspensions. J. Rheol., Vol.
SCRIVEN, L.E. 35, pp. 887-899, 1991.
MACOSKO, C.W.
NELSON, N.K.
OLMSTED, R.D.
22. ESDU Non-Newtonian fluids : obtaining viscometric data for frictional pressure
loss estimation for pipeflow. Item No. 95012, ESDU International plc,
London, September 1996.
23. ESDU Non-Newtonian fluids: frictional pressure loss prediction for fully-
developed flow in straight pipes. Item No.91025, ESDU International plc,
London, April 1997.

7.2 References

The references are recommended sources of information supplementary to that in this Item.

24. WALTERS, K. Rheometry. Chapman and Hall, 1975.

25. BIRD, R.B. Dynamics of polymeric liquids. Vol.1. Fluid mechanics. John Wiley &
ARMSTRONG, R.C. Sons, London, 1977.
HASSAGER O.
26. PATTON, T.C. Paint flow and pigment dispersion. 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Chichester, 1979.
27. WHORLOW, R.W. Rheological techniques. 2nd Ed., Ellis Horwood Ltd, Chichester, 1992.
28. STEFFE, J.F. Rheological methods in food process engineering. Freeman Press,
Michigan, 1992.
29. LABA, D. Rheological properties of cosmetics and toiletries. Marcel Dekker Inc,
New York, 1993.

27
97034
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF RHEOLOGICAL TERMS
This glossary is not intended to be comprehensive but is limited to the terms relevant to this group of Data
Items. Terms and definitions that are italicised are taken from the BS Glossary of Rheological Terms16.
Apparent viscosity
Bingham model
Bingham plastic model
Bingham plastic viscosity
Coefficient of viscosity
Characteristic shear rate
Constitutive equation
Deformation
Dilatancy (usage deprecated)
Dynamic viscosity, µ
Equilibrium flow curve
Flow
Flow curve
Intrinsic viscosity, [ µ ]
Kinematic viscosity, v
Laminar flow
Model
Newtonian model
Newtonian fluid model
Non-Newtonian behaviour
Normal stress
28
See viscosity.
A model characterised by a yield stress; above the yield stress, the
rate of shear is directly proportional to the shear stress minus the
yield stress.
See Bingham model.
Synonym of plastic viscosity (q.v.).
Synonym of viscosity (q.v.).
Shear rate above which flow behaviour is non-Newtonian (see
Sketch 3.1).
An equation relating stress, strain, time and sometimes other varia-
bles such as temperature. Also known as rheological equation of
state.
A change of shape or volume, or both.
Synonym of shear-thickening (q.v.).
A synonym of viscosity used to distinguish it from kinematic viscos-
ity (q.v.).
Flow curve for thixotropic material under steady-state shear.
Continuing deformation.
A curve relating shear stress to shear rate.
The limiting value of the reduced viscosity as the concentration ap-
proaches zero.
The ratio of dynamic viscosity to density for the material.
Flow in which fluid moves in layers of constant thickness. Examples
are found in viscometers, rheometers, straight pipes and ducts.
An idealised relationship of rheological behaviour expressed in
mathematical terms.
See Newtonian fluid model.
A model characterised by a constant value for the ratio of the shear
stress divided by the rate of shear in a simple shear flow and with
zero normal stress differences.
Behaviour not according to the Newtonian flow model.
The component of stress at right angles to the area considered.
 97034
Plastic viscosity For a Bingham model, the excess of shear stress over the yield stress
divided by the rate of shear.
Power law model A model characterised by a linear relationship between log shear
stress and log shear rate.
Purely viscous Behaviour characterised by instantaneous viscosity response to
changes in shear rate or shear stress (step change or otherwise).
Pseudoplasticity 1. A time-independent shear-thinning with no yield stress, but with
viscosity tending to infinity as shear rate tends to zero. Typified by
shear-thinning power law models.

2. Synonym for shear-thinning (q.v.). Usage deprecated.

Rate of shear, γ· The change of shear strain per unit time.
Reduced viscosity, µ red The specific viscosity per unit concentration of the solute or the
dispersed phase.
Relative viscosity, µ rel The ratio of the viscosity of a solution to that of the solvent or of a
dispersion to that of its continuous phase.
Rheogoniometer A rheometer designed for the measurement of normal and shear
components of the stress tensor.
Rheogram A graph of a rheological relationship.
Rheological equation of state Synonym of constitutive equation (q.v.).
Rheological model Synonym of constitutive equation (q.v.).
Rheology The science of deformation and flow of matter.
Rheometer An instrument for measuring rheological properties.
Shear The movement of a layer of material relative to parallel adjacent lay-
ers.
Shear rate, γ· See rate of shear.
Shear strain, γ Relative deformation in shear; term often abbreviated to shear.
Shear stress, τ The component of stress in the plane of the area considered.
Shear-thickening Exhibiting an increase of steady-shear viscosity with increasing rate
of shear.
Shear-thinning Exhibiting a decrease of steady-shear viscosity with increasing rate
of shear.
Shear viscosity Synonym of viscosity (q.v.).
Simple shear Laminar flow between infinite parallel planes.
Specific viscosity, µ sp The difference between the viscosity of a solution or dispersion and
that of the solvent or continuous phase divided by the viscosity of the
solvent or continuous phase.
Steady-shear flow curve Flow curve for viscoelastic material under steady-state shear.

29
97034
Steady (-state) shear Condition where shear rate/stress is constant under constant shear
stress/rate.

Stress tensor A matrix of the shear and normal stress components representing
the state of stress at a point in a body.

Thixotropy In an initially well-rested material (that is, one that has been allowed
to rest for a time to recover from the effects of previous shear), a de-
crease in viscosity with time under constant shear stress/rate, fol-
lowed by a gradual recovery when the shear stress/rate is removed.
Transitional flow A condition between laminar and turbulent flows.
Turbulent flow A condition of flow in which the velocity components show random
variations.
Viscoelasticity Having both viscous and elastic properties. In an initially well-rested
material (that is, one that has been allowed to rest for a time to recover
from the effects of previous shear), an increase in viscosity with time
under constant shear stress/rate.
Viscometer An instrument for the measurement of viscosity.
Viscometric geometry Within a viscometer or rheometer the arrangement of fixed and/or
moving surfaces that define the shape of the sample.
Viscometric flow Laminar flow in a viscometer or rheometer.
Viscoplastic Exhibiting behaviour characterised by a yield stress; above the yield
stress, the shear rate is related non-linearly to shear stress minus the
yield stress.
Viscosity, µ The ratio of shear stress to shear rate.
Viscosity curve A curve relating viscosity to shear rate.
Yield stress, τ y The shear stress below which there is no flow.

30

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