● are used to destroy both organisms that invade the body (e.g.

, bacteria, viruses, parasites,

protozoa, fungi) and abnormal cells within the body (e.g., neoplasms, cancers).

A neoplasm is an abnormal growth of cells, also known as a tumor. Neoplastic diseases are
conditions that cause tumor growth — both benign and malignant. Benign tumors are
noncancerous growths. They usually grow slowly and can't spread to other tissues. Malignant
tumors are cancerous and can grow slowly or quickly.

Cancer happens when cells that are not normal grow and spread very fast. Normal
body cells grow and divide and know to stop growing. Over time, they also die. Unlike these
normal cells, cancer cells just continue to grow and divide out of control and don't die when
they're supposed to.

●These drugs affect cells by altering cellular function or disrupting cellular integrity, causing cell
death, or by preventing cellular reproduction, eventually leading to cell death.

Because most chemotherapeutic agents do not possess complete selective toxicity, they also, to
some extent, affect the normal cells of patients.

To understand the actions and adverse effects caused by chemotherapeutic agents and to
deter-
mine interventions that increase therapeutic effectiveness, it is important to understand the
various properties and the basic structure and function of the cell.

The cell is the basic structural unit of all living organisms.

● Cell Nucleus - contains all genetic material necessary for cell reproduction and for the
regulation of cellular production of proteins. Has its own membrane
◦ Nucleolus - A small spherical mass located within the nucleus. Within this mass are dense
fibers and proteins that will eventually become ribosomes - the sites of protein synthesis
within the cell.

● Cell Membrane - thin barrier which separates intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid.
essential for cellular integrity and is equipped with many mechanisms for maintaining cell
homeostasis. cell membrane is a lipoprotein structure, meaning that it is mainly composed of
proteins and lipids
- phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterol. Act as a barrier to regulate what can enter and
exit the cell.
●Cytoplasm - lies within the cell membrane and outside the nucleus and is the site of activities
of cellular metabolism and special cellular functions.
●Mitochondria - produce energy in the form of ATP, which allows the cell to function.
●Endoplasmic Reticulum - a fine network of interconnected channels known as cisternae, which
form the endoplasmic reticulum. Production of proteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol takes
place in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the site of
further lipid and cholesterol production and the production of cell products, such as hormones.
●Golgi Apparatus - a series of flattened sacs that maybe part of the endoplasmic reticulum.
These structures prepare hormones or other substances for secretion by processing them and
packaging them in vesicles to be moved to the cell membrane for excretion from the cell. Golgi
apparatus may produce lysosomes and store other synthesized proteins and enzymes until they
are needed.
●Lysosomes are membrane-covered organelles that contain specific digestive enzymes that can
break down proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids and are responsible for digesting
worn or damaged sections of a cell when the membrane ruptures and the cell dies.

CELL CYCLE
Most cells have the ability to reproduce themselves through the process of mitosis.
The life cycle of a cell, called the cell cycle, consists of four
active phases and a resting phase.

●G0 Phase - resting phase, the cell is stable. It is not making any proteins associated with cell
division and is basically dormant as far as reproduction goes.

◦ Cancer chemotherapy usually works on active, dividing cells, leaving resting cells fairly
untouched. When the resting cells are stimulated to become active and regenerate, the cancer
can return, which is why cancer chemotherapeutic regimens are complicated and extended over
time, and why a 5-year cancer-free period is usually the basic guide for
considering a cancer to be cured.

●G1 Phase - During this period, the cell synthesizes substances needed for DNA formation. The
cell is actively collecting materials to make these substances and producing the building blocks
for DNA.

●S Phase - involves the actual synthesis of DNA, which is an energy-consuming activity. The cell
remains in this phase until the amount of cellular DNA has doubled.

● G2 phase - After the cellular DNA has doubled in preparation for replication, the G2 phase
begins. During this phase, the cell produces all of the substances required for the manufacture
of the mitotic spindles.

● M Phase - After the cell has produced all of the substances necessary for formation of a new
cell, or daughter cell, it undergoes cell division. the cell splits to form two identical daughter
cells, a process called mitosis.

Anti-infective agents are drugs designed to target foreign organisms that have invaded and
infected the body of a human host.
Although anti-infective agents target foreign organisms infecting the body of a human host,
they do not possess selective toxicity, which is the ability to affect certain proteins or enzyme
systems used only by the infecting organism but not by human cells.

Glaucoma is an eye disease caused by damage to the optic nerve that results in gradual loss of
vision, possibly advancing to blindness. This disorder is usually accompanied by increased IOP
Glaucoma occurs when the IOP becomes so high that it causes damage to the optic nerve.

Glaucoma usually occurs as a primary condition without an identifiable cause and is most
frequently found in persons older than 60 years.

In some cases, glaucoma is associated with genetic factors; it can be congenital and occur in
young children. Glaucoma can also be secondary to eye trauma, infection, diabetes,
inflammation, hemorrhage, tumor, or cataracts. Some medications may contribute to the
development or progression of glaucoma, including the long-term use of topical corticosteroids,
some antihypertensives, antihistamines, and antidepressants.

Other major risk factors associated with glaucoma include high blood pressure, migraine
headaches, high degrees of nearsightedness or farsightedness, and normal aging. Glaucoma is
the leading cause of preventable blindness.

Major differences between closed-angle glaucoma and open-angle glaucoma include how
quickly the IOP develops and whether there is narrowing of the anterior chamber angle
between the iris and cornea.

Types of Glaucoma
● Closed-angle glaucoma, also called acute or narrow-angle glaucoma, accounts for only 5% of
all primary glaucoma. The incidence is higher in older adults and in persons of Asian descent.
◦may be caused by stress, impact injury, or medications.
● Open-angle glaucoma is the most common type, accounting for more than 90% of the cases.
Its cause is not known and many patients are asymptomatic. leads to a slow degeneration of
the optic nerve, resulting in a gradual impairment of vision.
◦ It is called open angle because the iris does not cover the trabecular meshwork;
the scleral venous sinus remains open. If discovered early, most patients with open-angle
glaucoma can be successfully treated with medications.