Objective

Ø Design of shield with adequate attenuation to

Shielding Calculation achieve the required (or acceptable) dose
Techniques equivalent (rate) limitation (or ALARA)

Shielding Issues Factors do be considering in shielding

design
Ø Calculation Methods
Ø Linac Rooms
Ø ALARA
v Barrier Materials
Ø Available space
v Primary, scatter and leakage Barriers
Ø Constructions techniques
v Maze Design
Ø Regulatory limits (or constraints)
v Neutron Shielding
Ø Shielding materials
Ø Simulator (x-ray and CT)
Ø Source term
Ø HDR
Ø Trends in regulatory limits with times
Ø Brachytherapy Rooms
Ø Special Topics
Ø Reports

Conventional Primary Barrier

Calculation Method
Ø We calculate the dose rate at a certain distance from the
source due to primary, scattered and leakage radiation
and from it derive how many TVL’s we need to bring the
radiation levels to the dose constraints (occupational or
public).
[if the attenuation curves are not exponential, use
attenuation curves]

WU
Ø bibliography d pri
v NCRP Report
§ No. 49, for accelerators operating at 10 MV or less
§ No. 51 (144), for higher energy machines P
v Patton H. McGinley: Shielding Techniques for Radiation Oncology
Facilities. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, Wisconsin.

1
 Patient Scatter Leakage

P1
P

W d sec
dl
W

d sec
P2

IMRT Maze and Door Primary Barrier: Source term

Ø What is the Dose Rate at a certain distance from the
source?
v W – Workload = average dose per week at one meter
from the target (source)
v U – Use Factor (orientation) = average fraction of time
per week that the primary beam falls on the barrier
v T – Occupancy Factor = fraction of the time that a
W person will be in the area outside of that barrier (the
most exposed individual)
dm v dpri – distance from source to the point (zone to
L protect) where person will be standing
WUT
P Dose Rate@ d pri = H unshielded =
d 2pri

Primary Barrier Secondary Barrier

Ø Calculate the transmission of the Barrier (B x or Tx)
to bring the Dose Rate to constraint Levels
Ø Transmission for Secondary Barriers
v H shielded = dose per week required outside of
v Consider
the protection barrier
Regulatory § Scatter from Patient, Bp, U=1
constraint § Scatter from Barrier, Bs
H H d2
Bx = shielded = m pri § Leakage thru Barrier, Bl, U=1
Hunshielded WUT v Do the calculation for each barrier

Ø Do the calculation for each primary barrier

2
 Scatter from Patient Scatter from Barriers

2
H m d sec d i2 400 2
H m d sec d i2
Bp = Bs =
aWT F αAWTU

v dsec = distance from the scattering surface to the point to
be protected
v di = distance from the x-
x-ray source to the patient
v a = ratio of scattered radiation at one meter from the
scattering object to the primary radiation at 1 m from the
x -ray target (derived with field size 20x20)
v F = field size at patient (cm2)
v dsec = distance from the scattering surface to the point
to be protected
v di = distance from the x-
x-ray source to the barrier
v α = reflection coefficient for the barrier material,
scattering angle, and x-x-ray beam energy (per m2)
v A = area of beam at the scattering surface in m2

Leakage thru Linac Head Workload Considerations

2 v Choose the maximum weekly expected average

1000H m d sec
Bl = value of the dose at a meter from the target.
WT v Survey (Klech
( Klech et al, 1994)
§ For single x-
x-ray beams W=350 Gy
Gy/week
/week
v 1/1000 = Leakage factor thru the head of linac § For dual x-
x-ray beams W = 250 Gy /week for the
v dsec = distance from the isocenter (or target) to the highest energy x-
x-ray beam
point to be protected
v Disregard electron beam workload
v Energy (@90o) is about the produced by 2E0/3 but
v IMRT – affect all barriers
conservatively assumed equal to the primary
v TBI – affect only one barrier

Dose Constraint
Workload Example
v Average No. of patients/day = 40 Ø Controlled
v Average No. of fields/patient = 5 v Hm = 50 mSv
mSv/year
/year (actually 20 mSv
mSv/year)
/year)
v Average No. of MU/field = 50 (= 20/50 = 0.4 mSv
mSv/week)
/week)
v 1 MU = 1 cGy v Due to ALARA
v No. of days/week = 5 Hm = 0.10 to 0.20 mSv
mSv/week
/week (NCRP116)

patients fields MU cGy days Ø Uncontrolled = General Public

W = 40 5 50 1 5
day patient field MU week v Hm = 1.0 mSv
mSv/year
/year or 0.02 mSv
mSv/week
/week
v Due to ALARA
W = 50000cGy = 500Gy
Hm = 0.010 to 0.02 mSv
mSv/week
/week

3
 Scattering from barriers
Scatter-primary ratio
Scatter--primary ratio (a) at 1 m from a human-
Scatter human -size phantom
for a size 400 cm2 at the phantom, target to phantom
distance of 1 m

Scattering angle 6 MV 10 MV
30o 0.007 0.0030
45 o 0.0018 0.0010
60o 0.0011 0.0005
90o 0.0006 0.0003
135o 0.0004 0.0002
Since scatter radiation has low penetration compared with
leakage radiation it can be ignored above 10 MV

Occupancy Factor
Barrier Materials
T Type of area Physical Properties of Common Shielding Materials
Full occupancy: work areas, such as offices, shops,
1 laboratories, children’
children’s play areas, occupied nearby
buildings, living quarters, wards, nurse's stations Shielding Density Atomic Relative
Material (gcm-3) Number Cost/mass
½ to 1/5 Partial occupancy:
occupancy: corridors, rest rooms, elevators
using operators Ordinary concrete 2.3 11 1.0
Heavy concrete 3.7-4.8
3.7- 26 5.8
Occasional occupancy: waiting rooms, toilets,
1/8 to 1/40 stairways, unattended elevators, janitor ’s closet, outside Low--carbon steel
Low 7.87 26 2.2
areas used only for pedestrians or vehicular traffic Lead 11.35 82 22.2
parking lots Earth, dry -packed 1.5 - low

Barrier
Thickness Barrier Thickness
• Transmission
curves can be Or we can use the tenth value layer (TVL).
6 MV
used to calculate The number (n) of TVL can be obtained by
barrier thickness scattered radiation

n = log10 (1 / Bx )
The thickness S can be obtained by

S = T1 + (n − 1)Te

4
 Barrier Thickness
Barrier Thickness
Tenth value layers (TVL) in concrete, steel, and lead
Tenth value layers (TVL) in concrete, steel, and lead Data based on NCRP 51
Data based on NCRP 51 Shield TVL 1 TVL e
Shield TVL 1 TVL e Energy/MeV Material (m) (m)
Energy/MV Material (m) (m) 15 concrete 0.46 0.43
6 concrete 0.35 0.35 steel 0.108 0.108
steel 0.099 0.099 18 concrete 0.47 0.43
lead 0.055 0.057 steel 0.108 0.108
10 concrete 0.41 0.39 20 concrete 0.48 0.44
steel 0.104 0.104 steel 0.108 0.109
lead 0.057 0.056 24 concrete 0.51 0.46
steel 0.109 0.109

Primary Barrier Photon Tenth-Value Layers

(mm) Come from a Variety of Sources Barrier Thickness
Lead Concrete Steel Earth Borated Poly Tenth value layers (TVL) for primary and secondary
MV TVL1 TVLe TVL1 TVLe TVL1 TVLe TVL1 TVLe TVL1 TVLe leakage radiation at 90o. Data from Varian.
0.2 1.7 1.7 84 84 15 15 135 135 84 84
0.25 2.9 2.9 94 94 19 19 151 151 94 94
Megavoltage from BJR 17
0.3 4.8 4.8 104 104 22 22 167 167 104 104 X-ray Shielding TVL prim TVL 90lkgg
0.4 8.3 8.3 109 109 29 29 175 175 109 109
0.5 11.9 11.9 117 117 33 33 188 188 117 117 MV Material (m) (m)
1 26 26 147 147 54 51 236 236 147 147
2 42 42 210 210 76 69 336 336 210 210
6 concrete 0.343 0.279
4 53 53 292 292 91 91 468 468 292 292 earth 0.572 -
6 56 56 367 323 100 100 572 572 343 343
10 56 56 410 377 104 104 648 648 379 379 steel 0.098 0.080
15 56 56 445 416 108 108 720 720 379 379 lead 0.055 0.045
18 56 56 462 432 109 109 740 740 379 379
20 56 56 470 442 110 110 752 752 390 390 10 concrete 0.389 0.305
24 56 56 483 457 110 110 773 773 401 401
earth 0.648 -
NCRP 49 NCRP 51 Nelson & LaRiviere McGinley Estimated from Concrete
steel 0.105 0.085
lead 0.056 0.046

Barrier Thickness
Barrier Thickness
Tenth value layers (TVL) for primary and secondary
leakage radiation at 90o. Data from Varian. Megavoltage Tenth value layers (TVL) for primary and secondary
from BJR 17 leakage radiation at 90o. Data from Varian.
X-ray Shielding TVL prim TVL 90lkgg Megavoltage from BJR 17
MV Material (m) (m) X-ray Shielding TVL prim TVL 90lkgg
15 concrete 0.432 0.330 MV Material (m) (m)
earth 0.720 - 20 concrete 0.457 0.343
steel 0.108 0.087 steel 0.112 0.088
lead 0.057 0.047 lead 0.055 0.049
18 concrete 0.444 0.330 24 concrete 0.470 0.356
earth 0.740 - steel 0.107 0.089
steel 0.111 0.087 lead 0.052 0.051
lead 0.056 0.047

5
 Rule of thumb for oblique radiation based on NCRP
49 rules for 60Co and 137Cs:
1. If the barrier is composed of concrete,
an attenuation of 1000 is required,
and θ is 50o, increase the barrier 2
First and third TVL for head leakage radiation* θ HVL for low energy and 1 HVL for
Angle TVL 1/TVL 3 high energy radiation. The additional
6 MV 10MV 25MV shielding is required to account for
t
35--55
35 0.353/0.293 0.366/0.328 0.377/0.367 S scattering shown by ray (a) in the fig.
80--100
80 0.341/0.284 0.349/0.311 0.359/0.347
2. For angles of 60o and 70o each of the
125--145
125 0.333/0.269 0.347/0.329 0.355/0.325 thickness need to be increase by 1
and 2 HVL respectively
* Adapted from Nelson and LaRiviere (1984) for ordinary concrete
3. For lead shielding with a required
a attenuation of 1000, the barrier is
increased by 1 HVL at 60o

60Co,
Rules for 4, 10 and 18 MV x-
x-rays. Biggs (1996)
Width and Length of Primary Barrier
1. For 60Co and θ <45o , deviations from obliquity
are noticeable for barrier transmission factors
less than 4x10-3; for θ =60o ; they are noticeable The width of a primary barrier is equal to the maximum
below 1x10-2. beam size at the barrier plus 1 foot (0.305 m) on
either side to prevent radiation from leaking through
2. The concrete shielding thickness for x- x-rays of
the secondary barrier.
10 MV or greater can be based on the slant
thickness (t) providing θ is less than 70o . The maximum field size is normally 40x40 cm and the
maximum width is the diagonal of the field which
3. For steel the slant thickness should not be used
will be equivalent to a width of 56.6 cm.
for an 18 MV beam if the value of q is greater
than 60o and t is greater than 35 cm. The required width W is
4. For lead the slant thickness should not be used W = 0.566 X + 0.61 (m)
for 18 MV beams if the value of q is greater than X is the distance of the barrier in meters from source.
60o and t is greater than 17 cm.

Figure 2.3
Primary Barrier Width
Ø 0.3 meter margin on each side of beam rotated 45 degrees
v Barrier width required assuming 40 cm x 40 cm field size

wC = 0.4 2 d C ' + 0.6 m

Ø Field typically not perfectly square (corners are clipped)

v 35 cm x 35 cm field size typically used to account for this

Target to
* Target
Isocenter Target to
* Target
Isocenter Target to
* Target
Isocenter
Narrow Point Narrow Point Narrow Point
Distance Distance Distance
(d ) (d ) (d )
C' C' C'

0.3 m 0.3 m 0.3 m 0.3 m

C' wC wC Metal
C C' C
wC
0.3 m 0.3 m

6
 Scattered radiation to the door from the
Maze Calculations for up to 10 MV beams
primary beam (Ss)
1. Primary beam
scattered from room
surface
2. Head leakage photons
scattered by room
surface
3. Primary scatter from P
the patient (Sp) W

d
If space is at premium L
m
use a door with
secondary barrier
thickness

Doα 1A1α 2 A2 Figure 3.2

Ss = 2
(d1d r1d r 2 )
where Ss = Dose at door
Do = Workload of accelerator
α1 = Reflection coefficient at first reflection based
on a beam energy of ½ the MV of linac

A1 = Beam area at first reflection (m2)

α 2 = Reflection coefficient at second reflection
Based on a beam energy of 0.5 MV
2
A2 = Cross section of maze (m )
d1 = Distance from target to first reflection (m)
dr1 = Centerline distance along first leg of maze (m)
dr 2 = Centerline distance along second leg of maze (m)

Figure 3.3

The following restrictions apply to Ss. The height

to width ratio of the maze must be between one
and two, and the value of dr2/(A2) 1/2 must be
between two and six.
Values of the reflection coefficient may be
obtained from Figure 3.3. For photon energies
higher than 10 MV, the 10 MV reflection
coefficient is used. This is considered to be a
conservative estimation of the dose at the
door.

7
 Scattered radiation at the door from head Lo Doα1 A1
L=
leakage (d s d i ) 2
where L = Dose at door due to head leakage

Lo = Ratio of dose due to head leakage at 1m from

target to the dose at the isocenter
Figure 3.4
Do = Workload of accelerator
α1 = Reflection coefficient for wall reflection

A1 = Area of wall C that can be seen from maze (m2)

di = Distance from target to maze centerline (m)

ds = Centerline distance along the maze (m)

Scattered dose at the door from the

patient scatter
McGinley and James (1997) observed a factor of 2
between the calculated and measured head
leakage scatter. The head leakage used was
the measured not the standard 0.1%. The
energy assigned to the head leakage was 1.4
and 1.5 MV for the 6 and 10 MV linac as
suggested by Nelson and LaRiviere
LaRiviere..

aDo ( F / 400)α1 A1
Sp = Transmitted dose at the door thru leg of
( d sca d secd r 1 ) 2
maze
where S p = Dose at door due to the patient scatter
Do = Workload of accelerator
a= Reflection coefficient for patient

F = Field area at patient (cm2)

α1 = Reflection coefficient for wall reflection E=0.5MV
A1 = Area of maze back wall that can be seen from
outer maze entrance (m2)

d sca = Distance from target to patient (m)

dsec = Distance from patient to maze centerline (m)
d r1 = Centerline distance along maze (m)

8
 Total Dose (Dc) when beam is pointing at
Lo Do B
T= wall C
(d '' ) 2
where
B= Barrier transmission factor for wall D’
D’ Dc = S p + fSc + L + T =
d '' = Distance from target to the door (m) f = Fraction of beam transmitted through patient

Values of f for 6 MV (0.23) and 10 MV (0.27) have been

reported by McGingley and James (1997)

Total Dose (D
(Dt) from all sources of Photoneutrons
radiation at the door

Dt = 2.64Dc
Relative yield of photoneutrons in semi-
semi-infinite thick
target as a function of incident electron energy
Target Electron Energy (MeV)
For typical case in which the factors U are ¼ each. This Element 10 15 20 25
equation can be used for rooms with a similar layout as Al 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.03
Figure 3.1.
Cu 0.0 0.0 0.11 0.25
The transmission factor required for the door shielding
Fe 0.0 0.0 0.07 0.17
is calculated by dividing the permissible dose at door by D t.
The thickness of lead for a 6 MV can be calculated from Pb 0.0 0.25 0.70 0.93
Figure 3.6. For a 10 MV beam the thickness can be based W 0.0 0.25 0.70 1.00
on broad beam data for 0.21 MV photons.
When the energy of the linac is above 10 MV. This techni
techni--
Que still applies. We need to consider the neutrons.

Figure of linac head Figure 4.3

9
 Φ = Φ dir + Φ sc + Φ th
The room scatter and thermal neutron fluence are
constant in the room given by

Total flux is due to direct neutron production between a

photon and a neutron in the nucleus of the target atom, the
Φ th = 1.26Q / S
Φ sc = 5.4aQ / S
scattered neutrons from the concrete surfaces of the room,
and a thermal neutron energy group.
McCall et al (1979) have found that the direct neutron fluence, S is the surface area of the treatment room in cm2.
which accounts for 15% of the photoneutron
photoneutron.. is given by
The total fluence is given by

Φ dir = aQ / 4πd 2
where a is the transmission factor for neutrons that penetrate aQ 5.4aQ 1.26Q
the head shielding, d is the distance (cm) from target to the Φ= + +
4πd 2
point where fluence is evaluated and Q is the neutron
source strength in neutrons emitted by unit photon dose. S S
The factor a is 1.0 for lead and 0.85 for tungsten shielding

Neutron source strength for medical accelerators

Manufacturer Model Stated MV Q State Rules and Regulations for Head Leakage
neutrons/Gy
neutrons/ Gy
Siemens KD 20 0.92x 1012
1. For operations producing the maximum leakage
Varian 1800 18 1.22
radiation, the absorbed dose due to neutrons and
Varian 1800 15 0.76 photons, at any point in a circular plane (patient
Varian 1800 10 0.06 plane or area) of 2 m radius centered on and
Philips SL--25
SL 22 2.37 perpendicular to the CAX of the beam at the
Philips SL--20
SL 17 0.69 isocenter and outside of the maximum beam size,
shall not exceed 0.1% of the absorbed dose due to
GE Saturne 43 25 2.40 the x-
x-rays at the isocenter.
GE Saturne 43 18 1.50 2. Points outside the patient area and at 1 m from the
GE Saturne 41 15 0.47 path of the electron beam through the accelerator
GE Saturne 41 12 0.24 shall receive an absorbed dose due to photons that
is <= 0.1% of the x-
x-ray dose at the isocenter and < =
0.005% due to neutrons.
Varian 2100C/D and 2300 C/D are similar to the 1800 series

Activation of Materials Activation of Materials

Radionuclides produced in medical accelerators Near the accelerator the dose rate immediately after treatment
is dominated by 28Al and 62Cu, and after one hour the
longer--lived isotopes 187W and 57Ni produce the majority
longer
Reaction Mode of decay Half-life
Half- Photon energy
of the dose rate. It was found by Almen et al (1991) that
Al(n,γγ )28Al
27Al(n, β- 2.3 min 1.780 MeV the annual dose received by the technician from induced
63Cu( γ, n)62Cu
Cu(γ, β+ 9.7 min 0.511 MeV activity was in the range of 1.0 to 2.8 mGy for the trunk
Mn(n,γγ )56Mn
56Mn(n, β- 2.6 hour 0.847 MeV region of the body and 0.7 to 3,3 mGy for the hands. A
Cu(n,γγ )64Cu
63Cu(n, β + /β− 12.7 hour 1.346 MeV workload of 240 days per year and 3500 high-
high-energy ports
treated per year was used to estimate the annual dose.
65Cu( γ, n)64Cu
Cu(γ, β + /β− 12.7 hour 1.346 MeV
McGinley measured the dose rate at the distal end of the
W(n,γγ )178W
186W(n, β- 23.9 hour 0.479/0.686
collimator for several Varian linacs operating at 18 MV and
58Ni( γ,n)
Ni(γ, n)57Ni β+ 36.0 hour 1.378/1.920 found the average level of 0.80 mGy/h
mGy/h,, two minutes after
the machine had been running for 30 minutes. The
engineer should wait for 40 minutes before repair near the
target, after a long run.

10
 Materials for Neutron Shielding Mazes and Doors for High-
High-Energy Rooms

Polyethylene 10.2 cm
Properties of shielding materials Lead 1.27 cm
Hydrogen TVL TVL TVL
Most medical accelerators operating above 10 MV use
content fast slow capture Neutron a maze with a door shielded for neutrons and
Materials (atoms/cm3) neutrons gammas activation photons at the outer maze entrance.
Concrete 0.8--2.4x1022 21.0 34.0
0.8 45.0 low A typical door consists of a steel case 0.635 cm thick
IN containing 10.2 cm of borated polyethylene (5% B
Polyethylene 8.0x1022 4.5 77.0 - very low by weight) and a 1.27 cm lead slab.
5% Boron - - 1.27 - very low The polyethylene is used to moderate the fast and
intermediate energy neutrons, which react with the
Steel - - 10.7 13.5 medium boron ant produce a 0.473 MV photon.
Lead - - 410.0 6.1 low The lead is placed after the polyethylene, where it will
attenuate the photons produced in the boron and
Steel any capture gamma rays generated in the maze by
TVL in cm neutron capture in the concrete walls, ceiling and
0.635 cm
floor.
Method was developed by Kersey (1979).

Neutron dose equivalent Ho at 1.41 m from the target per unit dose
Kersey Technique of x-
x- ray at the isocenter (mSv/Gy
( mSv/Gy X)

2
T  do  −d 2 / 5 Accelerator Model Stated Beam Ho* Reference

H = Ho   10
manufacturer (MV) MV
Varian 1800 18 16.8 1.02- 1.60 Unpublished
1.02-
To  d1  1800
1800
15
10
U
U
0.79-- 1.30 Unpublished
0.79
0.04 Unpublished
H is the neutron dose equivalent at the entrance of the maze
maze per Siemens KD 20 16.5 1.10-- 1.24 McGinley 1988
1.10
unit dose of x-
x- ray at the isocenter.
MD 15 U 0.17 Unpublished
Ho is the neutron dose equivalent at a distance do from the
Philips SL-- 25
SL 25 22.0 2.00 McGinley et al
target.
T/To is the ratio of the outer maze area to the inner maze entrance
entrance SL-- 20
SL 20 17.0 0.44 1993
area. GE Saturne 43 25 18.5 1.38 Fenn and
d1 is the distance from the isocenter to the point on the maze 43 18 14.0 0.55 McGinley 1995
center line from which the isocenter is just visible. 41 15 12.5 0.32
For a maze with one bend, d2 is the distance from A to B of 41 12 11.2 0.09
Figure 5.1. *Ho in mSv/Gy x
TVD is the tenth value distance = 5 m for neutrons. U = unknown

2
T d  1
H = H o  o  10 −d 2 / 510 −d 3 / 5
To  d1  3
Distance d3 is equivalent to distance between points B’
B’ and
C of Figure 5.1.

The neutron dose equivalent a the door will depend on the

collimator opening and gantry angle.

11
 Relative neutron and photon dose equivalent at the outer maze
entrance as a function of beam direction*. Beam direction based on
Figure 5.1. Capture Gamma Ray Shielding
Stated
Energy Relative neutron Relative photon Ø Most linac room have a leaded door designed to attenuate the
(MeV) dose equivalent dose equivalent scattered x- rays from the treatment room into the maze.
1 to 3 3 to 1 up down 1 to 3 3 to 1 up down Ø For high-
high- energy x-
x- rays beams, there is a need to shield for
capture gamma-
gamma- rays produced in the maze. The average of the
18 0.68 1.17 0.74 1.00 0.75 1.13 0.89 1.00 capture gamma-
gamma- rays in concrete is 3.6 MeV.
15 0.83 1.20 1.09 1.00 0.88 1.25 0.90 1.00 Ø A method was devised by McGinley et al (1995b) to determine
the dose due to the capture gamma-
gamma- ray per unit dose of x- ray at
The average neutron energy at the maze entrance has been reported
reported the isocenter.
to be around 100 keV, and the corresponding TVL in polyethylene is
4.5 cm (NCRP 1984).
D = KΦtotal10 − d 2 / TVD2
where K is the ratio of the capture gamma dose to the total
neutron fluence at point A in Figure 5.1 Based on experimental
data, an average value of 0.77x10-
0.77x10- 12 cm2 G y was found for K.
The TVD2 is approximately 6.2 m for 16.2 to 22 MV x- ray
beams.

Radiation dose equivalent rate due to capture gamma rays and

neutrons at the outer maze entrance
Total radiation dose equivalent at the outer maze entrance for a
workload of 500 cGy per week and a maze length of 6.5 m.
Type of Capture gamma Neutron dose Total
maze and dose equivalent equivalent N+g
Type of Photon dose Neutron dose Total dose
door rate (nSv/s
( nSv/s)) rate (nSv/s
( nSv/s)) rate (nSv/s
( nSv/s))
maze and equivalent/w equivalent/w equivalent/w
Conventional 38.8 116.3 166.1
door ( cSv
cSv)) ( cSv
cSv)) ( cSv
cSv))
a. Reduced inner
Conventional 0.0250 0.0710 0.0960
opening 17.5 38.8 56.3
a. No door 0.0105 0.0246 0.0351
b. Inner B door 12.7 31.9 44.6
b. Inner B door 0.0077 0.0187 0.0264
c. Inner poly door 6.9 10.2 17.1
c. Inner poly door 0.0041 0.0058 0.0099
The maze length is 6.5 m and the dose rate at the isocenter is 6.67
6.67
cGy/s..
cGy/s
The reduce inner opening (a) was done with a 45.7 cm thick wall
around the inner opening which was 1.22x2.13 m.
A panel 7 mm thick containing 8.9% boron by weight was used in t he
technique b.
A 5 cm thick polyethylene (5% boron) door was used for technique c.

Maximum dose equivalent rates at the sliding door, console, and

gonad levels below the HVAC penetration.
Direct Shielded Doors Dose equivalent rate
Neutron Photon Total
Beam direction Location ( nSv/s
nSv/s)) ( nSv/s
nSv/s)) ( nSv/s
nSv/s))
Down door face 0.94 0.89 1.83
door frame 1.64 3.31 4.95
below HVAC <0.20 1.09 <1.29
Figure 5.3 and 5.4 console <0.20 0.33 <0.53
Up door face 1.06 0.64 1.70
door frame 1.39 3.06 4.45
below HVAC <0.20 1.09 <1.29
console <0.20 0.33 <0.53
Down door face 2.86 0.67 3.53
door frame 2.06 3.31 5.37
below HVAC <0.20 1.09 <1.29
console <0.20 0.33 <0.53

12
 Maximum dose equivalent expected in any one hour of
operation, in seven consecutive days, and in one year. Laminate Primary Shield
Location Total dose equivalent
One hour Seven Days Annual Primary ceiling shield for 18 MV accelerator facility
( mSv
mSv)) ( mSv
mSv)) ( mSv
mSv)) Accelerator Layer No. Shielding Thickness
Door face 1.06 17.4 870 material (m)
Door frame 1.77 38.7 1930 Varian 2100C 1 concrete 0.305
Below HVAC 0.97 9.5 475 2 lead 0.203
Console <0.17 <4.0 <200 3 polyethylene 0.178
4 concrete 0.305
5 lead 0.051
6 concrete 0.114

Patient Neutron Dose Skyshine

One linac room with a 14 cm steel slab in one wall
Another linac room with a 20 cm lead slab in one wall
Both 18 MV
Lead increased the total body dose by 42%
Steel increased the total body dose by 10%
For TBI lead increased the total body dose by a factor of
2.3 and 1.2 for steel.

D( d1 ds ) 2
B XS = 4.02 x10 −6 Skyshine
D1 O Ω1 .3
B XS = Roof shielding transmission ratio

D=
Photon dose equivalent rate at ground level ( nSv/s
nSv/s))

Distance (m) from isocenter to point where dose

ds = equivalent rate is D

d1 = Distance (m) from x- ray target to a point 2 m above

the roof

D1O = X ray dose rate at 1 m from target (cGy/s

( cGy/s))

Ω= Solid angle of radiation beam ( steradians

13
 Hd12 Measured and calculated x-
x- ray skyshine for an 18 MeV accelerator
B NS = 1.19 x10− 6 with no ceiling shield

Φ 0Ω Distance from
isocenter ds Measured photon Calculated photon
B NS = Roof shielding transmission ratio Ratio
(meters) rate (nSv/s
( nSv/s)) rate (nSv/s
( nSv/s)) m/c

H=
7.5 (at wall) 13.9 56.2 0.25
Neutron dose equivalent rate at ground level ( nSv/s
nSv/s)) 9.4 31.2 35.4 0.88
10.6 41.7 26.9 1.5
d1 = Distance (m) from x-ray target to a point 2 m above
the roof
13.6
19.2
43.7
27.8
17.4
8.3
2.5
3.3

Φ0 = Neutron fluence rate at 1 m from target (cm- 2 s-1 )

25.4
33.0
20.8
15.3
4.9
2.9
4.2
5.3
48.3 6.9 1.3 5.3
Ω= Solid angle of radiation beam ( steradians

Measured neutron skyshine for an 18 MeV accelerator Considerations for Intensity Modulated
with no ceiling shield Radiation Therapy (IMRT)
Distance from Ø IMRT requires increased monitor units per cGy at isocenter
isocenter ds Measured neutron dose equivalent rate v Typical IMRT ratio is 5 MU per cGy, as high as 10 for some
(meters) (nSv/s
nSv/s)) systems
5.14 19 Ø Percent workload with IMRT impacts shielding
8.50 58 v 50% typically assumed; 100% if vault is dedicated to IMRT
11.2 52 Ø Account for IMRT by multiplying x-ray leakage by IMRT factor
14.3 42 v IMRT Factor = % IMRT x IMRT ratio + (1 - % IMRT)
17.3 36 v 3 is typical IMRT factor (50% workload with IMRT ratio of 5)
18.9 29 Ø IMRT factor lower for neutrons if machine is dual energy
20.8 23 v e.g., 1.5 if dual energy linac with 50% of treatments below
10 MV

Simulator Pd
2
W is in milliamperes x minutes
K UX = Radiography 160
WUT
Fluoroscopy 300
P(d sec)2600I
B= CT 3200
WT
N = 3.32 log1 0(1 / B)
S L = N (HVL ), HVL = 0.28 mmlead for125 kV x − rays
P 2 400
KUX = 2
d sca d sec
aWT F
Patient scattering coefficient (a) for 125 kV x- ray
rayfrom
from NCRP No. 49

Angle( deg
Angle( deg)) 30 45 60 90 120 135
a 0.0018 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0.0023 0.0025

14
 CT Isodose (horizontal) CT Isodose (vertical)

µGy/slice

µGy/slice

120 kV, 130 mA, 1.5 s 120 kV, 130 mA, 1.5 s

Transmission in Steel for CT

Transmission in Concrete for CT

Bux

Bux

mm

mm

Transmission in Lead for CT Transmission in plaster for CT

Bux

Bux

mm
mm

15
 HDR 2
Pd
B=
WT
W = γfAt
γ = 0.48 R / Ci / h / m
f = 0.96cGy / R
A = activity (Ci )
t = time

LDR Brachytherapy
Brachytherapy Rooms

2
Pd
B=
0 .80 fγ A
γ = gamma− factor
f = 0.96cGy / R
A = activity (mCi)

Shielding LAB (homework) end

v Shielding calculation for a Linac room for regular

work and considering IMRT
v Shielding calculation for a CT room (simulator)

16