Waste Management 27 (2007) 1680–1689

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Country report

The municipal solid waste system and solid waste characterization at

the municipality of Veles, Macedonia
a,*
Kiril Hristovski , Larry Olson a, Nicholas Hild a, Danny Peterson a, Scott Burge b

a
Environmental Technology Management, College of Technology and Applied Sciences, Arizona State University,
7001 E. Williamsfield Road, Mesa, AZ 85212, USA
b
Burge and Associates Inc., 6100 S. Maple Avenue, Suite 114, Tempe, AZ 85283, USA

Accepted 11 September 2006

Available online 13 November 2006

Abstract

A short-term study to characterize the solid waste stream in the Municipality of Veles, Macedonia, was performed during a 1 week
period in the summer of 2002. In this study, several important parameters of the municipal solid waste stream were assessed. It was esti-
mated that the average daily generation rate is 1.06 ± 0.56 kg/cap/day, while the specific weights of the uncompacted and compacted
solid waste are approximately 140.5 kg/m3 and 223 kg/m3, respectively. Furthermore, it was estimated that the daily generated volume
of uncompacted waste is 7.5 ± 4 L/cap/day. Although the short-term study is characterized by numerous limitations, in the absence of
other existing data, such a study with direct measurements could significantly contribute to the development of an efficient solid waste
management system in countries with economies in transition like Macedonia.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction economic growth; changes in social, ethnic, religious or cul-

The first step in developing an effective solid waste man-
agement system is to establish legislation, regulations and
proper managerial practices. These have to be broad
enough to be applicable on a national level, and specific
enough to address the characteristic needs of municipal
solid waste systems on the local level. Establishing appro-
priate regulations and practices requires answers to crucial
questions that can only be obtained by analysis and char-
acterization of the existing solid waste system.
For developed countries, this is not a particularly diffi-
cult task since there are existing data from long-term char-
acterization studies and monitoring of the solid waste
streams both on the local and national level. However,
such data for countries with economies in transition are
virtually nonexistent. The solid waste stream in these coun-
tries could exhibit dramatic changes as a result of increased
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 480 727 1132; fax: +1 480 727 1684.
E-mail address: Kiril.Hristovski@asu.edu (K. Hristovski).
tural structure; opening of markets; or influx of new prod-
ucts and ideas. A literature review indicates that available
data pertaining to the solid waste streams in Albania, Bos-
nia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania and Ser-
bia are based on assumptions, random studies, or national
average estimates from other countries (Ilic et al., 2003;
Linzner, 2004; Ministry of Environmental Protection,
Physical Planning and Construction of Croatia, 2002; Min-
istry of Environment and Water of Bulgaria, n.d.; Ministry
of Waters and Environmental Protection of Romania,
2001; Nath et al., 2000; National Environmental Agency
of Republic of Albania, 1999; Shedkar, 1999; UN ECE,
1999, 2002b,c, 2004).
For example, in the mid-nineties of the last century,
Krüger International Consult of Denmark (1999), in coop-
eration with VKI, Denmark and Symonds Group, UK,
conducted a study on the National Solid Waste Manage-
ment System (NSWMS) in Macedonia, funded by the
Phare Program of the European Union (EU). It was
assumed that the daily generation rate of solid waste in

0956-053X/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2006.09.003
 K. Hristovski et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1680–1689
Macedonia is 0.82 kg/cap/day (about 300 kg/cap/yr) and
0.41 kg/cap/day (about 150 kg/cap/yr) for the urban and
rural areas, respectively, although this study did not pro-
vide any information to support their assumptions. The
assumed values correspond to values that are representa-
tive for low income undeveloped countries and some mid-
dle income countries. Similar values are presented in the
Environmental Performance Review for Macedonia con-
ducted by the UN ECE (2002a), in which it was estimated
that the urban and rural areas generate 360 kg/cap/yr and
120 kg/cap/yr, respectively. Authors can only assume that
the assumptions made by Krüger group were based on sim-
ilar values found for countries with similar GDP and socio-
economic environments, and cultural and regional
similarities.
Governments on the national and local level in countries
with economies in transition generally do not have suffi-
cient funding to perform extensive studies on environmen-
tal issues such as monitoring of the solid waste stream.
Almost all funds for these types of studies are only avail-
able from foreign governments or nongovernmental orga-
nizations, and they are often very scarce and limited in
scope.
Periodic short-term studies, utilizing direct measure-
ments, could be a possible solution to the absence of com-
prehensive scientifically valid data needed to develop an
efficient solid waste management system. Short-term stud-
ies, which can be performed over a 1 or 2 week period,
do not require significant funding or resources. To demon-
strate the benefits of this approach, a 1-week study was
conducted in the Municipality of Veles, Macedonia during
the summer of 2002. The objective of the study was to char-
Fig. 1. Map of Macedonia indicating the location and boundaries of the Municipality of Veles.
1681
acterize the solid waste stream in the municipality of Veles
by direct measurement.
2. Country description
Macedonia is one of the many former socialist countries
in Eastern and Southeastern Europe that have been strug-
gling to transition from a socialist based economy to a free
market economy since the fall of communism in the late
1980s. Located in the south-eastern part Europe, Macedo-
nia is landlocked between, Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania and
Greece (Fig. 1) and encompasses an area of 25,713 km2.
The climate in Macedonia can range from submeditera-
nean to a continental and mountainous climate.
The majority of the country’s land (79%) is character-
ized by mountainous and hillside areas, while the flatlands
and surface waters comprise 19.1% and 1.9%, respectively.
Agricultural land comprises 25% and forests 33% of the
available land (Ministry of Environment and Spatial Plan-
ning of Republic of Macedonia, 2003).
According to the latest census in 2002, the population of
Macedonia is 2,022,547, residing in 84 municipalities and
the city of Skopje. Population density is approximately
80 inhabitants/km2 (State Statistical Office, 2005a,b). Most
of the population resides in urban areas (59%), including
the 23% of the total population that reside in Skopje (State
Statistical Office, 2005a; Ministry of Local Government of
Republic of Macedonia (n.d.), 2006). The unemployment
rate in Macedonia has been slowly increasing in the last
few years from 30.9% in 2001 to 37.2% in 2004, creating
a substantial burden on the economy (State Statistical
Office, (n.d.), 2006).
1682 K. Hristovski et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1680–1689
3. Description of the solid waste system of the Municipality
of Veles
3.1. Demographics and location
The Municipality of Veles is located in the central part
of Macedonia (Fig. 1), approximately 50 km south of the
capital Skopje. With the new municipal organization,
according to the 2002 census, the total population of the
municipality was 55,108 residents residing in the Munici-
pality of Veles and 28 villages, occupying an area of
427.45 km2 (State Statistical Office, 2005a; Municipality
of Veles (n.d.), 2005; Ministry of Local Government of
Republic of Macedonia (n.d.), 2006). The municipality is
characterized by both urban and non-urban areas. Accord-
ing to the information from the 1994 census, 72% of the
population in the municipality of Veles lived in urban
areas, while according to the 2002 census this number has
increased to 77.1% as a result of changes in the municipal
boundaries (Ministry of Finance of Republic of Macedo-
nia, 2002; Municipality of Veles, 2005). According to the
2002 census, 56% of the total population falls into the
non-working category (children under 15, retired, students,
prisoners, etc.). Of the work capable population, which
comprises 44% total population, 39.4% is unemployed
(State Statistical Office, 2005a).
3.2. Climate and weather
The municipality of Veles is characterized by a continen-
tal climate, with average annual temperature of 12 C
(Weather Channel (n.d.), 2006). The average summer tem-
perature (April–September) is 19 C with a peaking average
of 23 C in July, while the average winter temperature
(October–March) is 5 C (Weather Channel (n.d.), 2006).
The average high temperatures reach 30 C in July and
August, while the average lows reach 4 C in January
(Weather Channel (n.d.), 2006).
The average monthly precipitation is 42 mm/mo. Most
of the precipitation occurs in spring and in fall with peaks
of 61 mm and 56 mm of rain in May and November, while
July and August are characterized with least precipitation
of 33 mm and 30 mm of rain, respectively (Weather Chan-
nel (n.d.), 2006).
3.3. Economic setting
There are no large institutions such as universities or
prisons located in the Municipality of Veles, except for a
small military contingent located in barracks. Although
the construction, manufacturing, and mining industries
comprise 14.4% of the total number of businesses in the
municipality, it is mainly represented by several large oper-
ations such as a lead and zinc smelter, leather and silk
industry, porcelain industry, and the industry for manufac-
turing cooking oil, which are capable of generating large
quantities of industrial and commercial waste (State Statis-
tical Office, 2005a). However, due to the receding economy
in the last decade, the majority of the industrial operations
were halted or have maintained a minimum level of
activity.
The largest fraction of the economy of the municipality,
almost 85.6%, is comprised of commercial and noncom-
mercial establishments, small businesses, and institutions
such as trade and retail companies, transport and commu-
nication, public administration and schools, lodging and
restaurants etc. (State Statistical Office, 2005c).
3.4. Solid waste services
The public works services in the Municipality are per-
formed by the Public Communal Enterprise ‘‘Derven’’
(PCE-Derven), which is funded by collection of service fees
and the Municipality. According to the PCE-Derven (per-
sonal communication, 2002), poor infrastructure, high
operation costs and the small population of most of the vil-
lages have made solid waste collection services available to
only 48,500 residents of the Municipality, or approximately
88% of the total municipal population.
During the period of study, solid waste was collected by
a fleet of 13 solid waste collection vehicles as described in
Table 1 with an average age of 13.7 yr. PCE-Derven col-
lects the municipal solid waste every day except on Sundays
and national holidays. The application of the Daily Route
method of waste collection allows the municipal solid waste
generated in a seven day period to be collected once during
these six working days.
The entire municipal solid waste, including the collected
litter, is stored onsite and collected in a variety of contain-
ers. The types and sizes of containers used for onsite stor-
age of the solid waste range from approximately 0.25 m3
single residence containers to 5 m3 curbside containers.
According to PCE-Derven (personal communication,
2002), the most commonly used containers are 5 m3 curb-
side containers. During the study period, there were 95
containers of this type used for onsite storage and collec-
tion of municipal solid waste, servicing approximately
38% of residents in both urban and non-urban areas. The
waste is not bagged in waste bags before storing/disposing
into the containers, but rather is disposed as bulk and
sometimes bagged in old shopping plastic bags. This type
of disposal significantly contributes to mixing of the waste
in the onsite storage containers. The quantity of uncol-
lected litter is estimated to be less than 0.1%, and thus is
not considered in the study.
The entire collected solid waste is deposited at the
municipal solid waste dump located approximately 5 km
east of the town of Veles. The municipal solid waste
dump covers an area of approximately 8 ha and does
not fit the profile of a sanitary landfill. A sanitary landfill
is defined as an engineered facility for disposal of muni-
cipal solid waste, designed and operated to minimize pub-
lic health and environmental impacts (Tchobanoglous
et al., 1993). The municipal dump in Veles does not sat-
 K. Hristovski et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1680–1689 1683

isfy any of the specific engineering criteria typical for san-

itary landfills such as liners, daily caps, drainage systems,
and monitoring wells (EU Council, 1999; Tchobanoglous
Average fuel usage (l/100 km)
et al., 1993; Kreith and Tchobanoglous, 2002). According
to PCE ‘‘Derven’’, (personal communication, 2002) the
operation at the municipal solid waste dump began in
1976, and it was reported to be at approximately 40%
capacity at the time of the study. For the entire operating
period of the municipal solid waste dump, disposal of
solid waste from other municipalities has not been
68.5
20.5
20.5
20.5
20.5
42.0
42.0
38.0
38.0
38.0
23.6
23.6
23.6
recorded. The municipal solid waste dump has been ser-
viced by a dozer with tracks of unknown age that was
capable of spreading and compacting the solid waste,
but lacked the capability of applying daily cover.
For the purpose of this study, municipal solid waste
Serviced by (driver + loader)

was defined as the entire collected solid waste which

entered the municipal solid waste dump generated by
approximately 48,500 serviced residents. The industrial
waste and agricultural waste generated by industry and
the agricultural companies was not collected and dis-
Vehicles used in solid waste collection and transport in July, 2002 as reported by PCE-Derven (personal communication, 2002)

posed of by PCE ‘‘Derven’’, and thus it was not consid-

1+3
1+1
1+1
1+1
1+1
1+2
1+2
1+2
1+2
1+2
1+2
1+2
1+2

ered in the study. The industrial waste generated from

the lead and zinc smelter was collected separately and
disposed of at an industrial waste dump on the com-
pany’s property. In the past, the industrial solid waste
generated from other industries was disposed at unregu-
Age of vehicle (yr)

lated dumpsites, properties of the companies, or collected

by the PCE ‘‘Derven’’. The industrial waste collected by
PCE ‘‘Derven’’ had been disposed at the municipal solid
waste dump. However, for several years before and dur-
13.7
11
14
12
23
26

17

17
17
17
7
7

5
5

ing the study period, local industry was generating insig-

nificant amounts of solid waste as a result of the reduced
or terminated operations due to the impaired economy.
Solid waste generated by the commercial and non-com-
Compactor and loader system

Compactor and loader system

Compactor and loader system

mercial institutions, and by small manufacturing busi-

With single axle 3 ton trailer
With single axle 3 ton trailer
With single axle 3 ton trailer

nesses was generally mixed with the residential waste at

the onsite storage sites, and then disposed of at the muni-
Vehicle description

cipal solid waste dump by PCE ‘‘Derven’’.

Flat bed autojack
Flat bed autojack
Flat bed autojack
Flat bed autojack
Dust tray truck
Dust tray truck
Dust tray truck

4. Methodology

In the study several important parameters of the muni-

cipal solid waste stream in Veles were assessed: solid waste
generation rate, quantity of daily generated uncompacted
municipal solid waste expressed per capita, specific weight
of uncompacted municipal solid waste, specific weight of
Average age of the vehicles

compacted municipal solid waste, and composition of the

municipal solid waste.
Truck IVECO 85-12
Truck IVECO 85-12

Truck IVECO 35-9

Truck IVECO 35-9

The municipal solid waste generation rate was esti-

Truck Zastava 650
Truck TAM 6500
Truck FAP 14/14
Truck FAP 14/14
Truck FAP 13/14

Tractor IMT 539

Tractor IMT 539
Tractor IMT 539
Truck FAP 1616

mated by measuring the weight of the entire weekly gen-

Vehicle type

erated municipal solid waste entering the municipal solid

waste dump. Since there was no entrance scale at the
solid waste dump, the municipality of Veles provided a
commercial scale with mechanical leverage and weights
with a capacity of 2 tons. The waste from the collection
Table 1

vehicles was deposited in a cleared area covered with

No.

10.
11.
12.
13.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

high density polyethylene (HDPE) liner and was weighed

1684 K. Hristovski et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1680–1689
in portions by volunteers. The weight was recorded by a
supervisor, and the waste was then deposited at the
dump.
The composition of the municipal solid waste was esti-
mated utilizing the following procedure: (1) a solid waste
collection vehicle entering the municipal solid waste dump
was randomly selected; (2) the entire waste content of the
collection vehicle was unloaded on a separate HDPE liner;
(3) categorization of the waste was performed by volun-
teers; and (4) each category of waste was weighed. The
composition of at least one solid waste collection vehicle
per day was assessed. Solid waste was separated into the
following categories:
 Organic waste – food waste, putrescible, and other types
of biodegradable waste characterized by high organic
content excluding synthetic organics such as mineral
oil, paints, and solvents.
 Paper – newspaper, magazines, wrapping paper, card-
board, etc.
 Glass – glass bottles, glass containers, and other types of
glass materials such as broken glass.
 Soft plastic – any type of ‘‘soft’’ polymer based plastic
material, which is baglike or liner like, such as polyeth-
ylene (PE) bags and sheets (including LDPE and
HDPE), polypropylene (PP) bags, plasticized polyvinyl-
chloride (PVC), etc.
 Hard plastic – all types of plastic containers and rigid
plastic materials such as polyethylene terephthalate
(PETE) bottles and containers, HDPE and LDPE bot-
tles and containers, HDPE and LDPE caps, PVC based
materials, pipes, and polystyrene (PS) materials.
 Cans – aluminum cans and other ‘‘can-like’’ waste
material.
 Scrap metal – any scrap metal excluding the aluminum
category.
 Garden waste – yard waste such as branches, leaves, and
other wooden material.
 Other waste – material that is impossible to select and
determine its composition, such as construction debris,
ash, unselective organic waste (e.g., paper covered in
food leftovers, motor oil container filled with dirt and
concrete from construction activity, old shoes covered
in food leftovers, smaller pieces of plastic shopping bags
mixed with food leftovers).
The specific weight of the compacted municipal solid
waste, which is defined as the ratio between the mass and
the volume of solid waste after compaction at the munici-
pal dump, was estimated from the daily municipal solid
waste generation rate and the daily average quantity of
waste deposited in the municipal dump. The following rela-
tionship was used in the estimation:
Rmass
qCW ¼ ð1Þ
RCV
where
qCW ” specific weight of the compacted municipal solid
waste; [M] [L]3,
Rmass ” daily municipal solid waste generation;
[M] [T]1,
RCV ” daily average volume of compacted waste depos-
ited in the municipal dump; [L]3 [T]1.
Since the average volume of the daily deposition of solid
waste could not be measured during the study period
because there was no daily cell deposition, the reported
value of 228 m3/day by the municipal authorities was used
for the estimation (PCE ‘‘Derven’’, personal communica-
tion, 2002). This value corresponds with the value reported
in the Macedonian National Environmental Action Plan
(NEAP) (Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning
of Republic of Macedonia, 1996). It is reasonable to expect
that this value would be accompanied by description of the
error. However, the scarce amount of existing information
imposed a serious limitation on the accuracy and the preci-
sion of the derived values.
The specific weight of the uncompacted municipal
solid waste, which is defined as the ratio between the
mass and the volume of the uncompacted solid waste,
was estimated utilizing the composition of the municipal
solid waste. The specific weight of the uncompacted
municipal solid waste was calculated as the sum of the
products between each fraction of solid waste and the
typical specific weights of each fraction for uncompacted
solid waste as reported in the literature (Shah, 2000;
Tchobanoglous et al., 1993). Eq. (2) describes the general
relationship:
qUW ¼ q1  f1 þ q2  f2 þ q3  f3 þ    ð2Þ
where
qUW ” specific weight of the uncompacted municipal
solid waste; [M] [L]3,
q1 ” specific weight of the component 1 of the uncom-
pacted solid waste (i.e., uncompacted food waste) as
reported in the literature; [M] [L]3 (Tchobanoglous
et al., 1993; Shah, 2000),
f1 ” fraction of the component 1 estimated from the
composition.
The rate of generated per capita volume of uncompacted
municipal solid waste was calculated as a ratio of the esti-
mated municipal solid waste generation (expressed per
capita) rate and the estimated specific weight of the uncom-
pacted solid waste. Eq. (3) describes the relationship
Rmass
RVUW ¼ ð3Þ
N  qUW
where
RVUW ” rate of generated per capita volume of uncom-
pacted municipal solid waste; [L]3 [T]1,
N ” number of residents serviced.
Table 2
Total municipal solid waste generated in the Municipality of Veles over 1 week collection period
Date July 1, July 2, July 3, July 4, July 5, July 6, July 7, Sunday Total waste Standard
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday generated deviation
Measured disposal rate (kg) 60,000 61,500 63,000 58,200 59,600 55,800 No collection 358,100 26,937
Estimated generation rate (kg/ 1.24 1.27 1.3 1.20 1.23 1.15 0 1.06 0.47

K. Hristovski et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1680–1689

cap/day)

Table 3
Composition of the municipal solid waste in the Municipality of Veles
N Constituents Vehicle Vehicle #2 (%) Vehicle #3 Vehicle #4 Vehicle #5 Vehicle #6 Vehicle #7 (%) Vehicle #8 Percent Standard
#1(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) average deviation
1 Organic waste 25.31 30.02 23.61 24.03 19.12 24.21 18.81 26.77 23.99 3.71
2 Paper 12.16 23.66 22.47 22.77 25.50 28.09 23.75 29.39 24.47 5.21
3 Glass 8.91 7.61 9.90 4.55 7.57 4.33 8.20 6.47 7.19 1.97
4 Soft plastic 4.83 4.50 5.71 3.45 4.38 5.38 3.26 4.37 4.49 0.85
5 Hard plastic 2.83 2.94 4.57 1.57 2.79 1.94 1.33 2.10 2.51 1.03
6 Cans 0.75 1.21 1.14 1.41 1.20 1.05 0.84 2.97 1.32 0.70
7 Other scrap metal 3.16 7.27 4.19 2.20 6.77 2.84 5.67 6.12 4.78 1.93
8 Garden waste 8.99 10.47 9.14 7.69 8.37 8.52 8.20 8.22 8.70 0.85
9 Other waste 32.97 12.24 19.04 32.19 23.90 23.46 29.78 13.30 23.36 8.07
Total weight analyzed 1200 2310 1310 3180 1250 3340 4140 2850
per vehicle (kg)
Date analyzed 7/1/02 7/2/02 7/3/02 7/3/02 7/4/02 7/4/02 7/5/02 7/6/02
Vehicle type Tractor Zastava 650 Tractor Iveco 35-9 Tractor Iveco 35-9 Iveco 85-12 FAP 14/14

1685
1686 K. Hristovski et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1680–1689
5. Results
Table 2 summarizes the average daily generation rate
per capita, which was estimated to be approximately
1.06 ± 0.56 kg/cap/day or approximately 387 ± 204 kg/yr
at the 98% confidence limits considering seven measure-
ments. The specific weight of the uncompacted solid waste,
estimated by using the composition, was approximately
140.5 kg/m3, while the specific weight of the compacted
waste was estimated to be approximately 223 kg/m3 day
based on the information regarding the volume of munici-
pal waste deposited daily at the municipal dump (Ministry
of Environment and Spatial Planning of Republic of Mac-
edonia, 1996). The rate of generated volume of uncom-
pacted municipal solid waste was estimated to be
7.5 ± 4 L/cap/day at the 98% confidence limits for the solid
waste generation rate. The composition of the municipal
solid waste characterized during the study is presented in
Table 3. It is important to note the limitations of the results
because they only pertain to the summer season. Assump-
tions and extrapolations for other seasons based on the
results may lead to inaccurate conclusions.
As illustrated in Fig. 2, a comparison between the solid
waste in Veles and the major solid waste components char-
acterizing Macedonian solid waste, as published in the
NEAP, was performed using a two sided t-test at 0.020-
level of significance (Ministry of Environment and Spatial
Planning of Republic of Macedonia, 1996). The t-test indi-
cated that only one major component, the total plastics, is
statistically different. Due to the small number of samples
collected and other limitations, the data variations, which
are expressed through the large values for the 98% confi-
dence limits, are quite significant. Although the data from
this study appears to be consistent with the data reported
Fig. 2. Comparison of the major components of the municipal solid waste composition in Macedonia and Municipality of Veles.
in the NEAP, it must be noted that the data published in
the NEAP was from the mid-nineties, while the data from
Veles was from 2002.
6. Discussion
6.1. Municipal solid waste stream
It is important to note that the data generated from a
short-term study have numerous limitations and are based
on specific assumptions. Most of the limitations and
assumptions in this study are a direct consequence of lim-
ited funds and resources and may impact the accuracy
and precision of the data.
According to the GDP per capita for the year 2002,
Macedonia can be classified as an upper end low income
or a lower end middle income country with 1859 USD per
capita (State Statistical Office (n.d.), 2006). Furthermore,
the literature available to the authors indicates that the
estimated solid waste generation rate value for the munic-
ipality of Veles corresponds well with the solid waste gen-
eration rates of the countries in this group and region
(Hoornweg, 2002; Ilic et al., 2003; Ministry of Environ-
mental Protection, Physical Planning and Construction
of Croatia, 2002; Ministry of Environment and Water
of Bulgaria, 2005; Ministry of Waters and Environmental
Protection of Romania, 2001; Tchobanoglous et al., 1993;
UN ECE, 1999, 2002b,c, 2004; Wang and Nie, 2001). For
example, the Croatian Ministry of Environment estimated
331 kg/cap/yr of solid waste generated in 2000, while Bul-
garia generated 518 kg/cap/yr in the same year. At the
time when this data was reported, both countries were
in same GDP group with Macedonia, and both belong
to the same geographical region. However, it must not
 K. Hristovski et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1680–1689
be forgotten that the data for Veles is for the summer of
2002 and may not be a valid comparison with the avail-
able data for Bulgaria and Croatia. Fig. 3 graphically
illustrates the general composition of the solid waste in
Veles in relation to the waste composition of the middle
income countries as reported by Tchobanoglous et al.
(1993).
There are two crucial limitations to comparing the data
in this report with the data found in the literature: (1)
absence of descriptions of quantitative measurements for
existing data; and/or (2) the dynamic nature of the solid
waste parameters which could change from season to sea-
son or from year to year. For example, although the data
in this report could be considered representative for a
summer solid waste stream, it may not be representative
of a typical winter solid waste stream in the Municipality
of Veles. A similar study, which indicated small seasonal
variations in the solid waste stream, was conducted by
Agapitidis and Frantzis (1998) in neighboring Greece.
Considering the same geographical region and similar cul-
tural practices, one could easily assume that the municipal
solid waste stream of Veles could exhibit similar patterns.
However, several factors which are common in Macedo-
nian municipalities could significantly influence the solid
waste stream:
(1) It was observed that most of the onsite storage and
collection containers are very old and lack proper
cover to eliminate any influence of atmospheric
water. This situation could result in increased mois-
ture content of the solid waste during the fall, winter,
and spring periods, which are characterized by rain or
snow and lower temperatures that limit evaporation
and drying of the waste. The increased moisture con-
Fig. 3. Comparison of the solid waste composition in the Municipality of Veles and the middle-income countries as reported by Tchobanoglous et al.
(1993). The vertical error bars represent the upper and lower values reported by Tchobanoglous et al. (1993).
1687
tent of the solid waste could contribute to an appar-
ent increase of the solid waste generation rate and
change in the composition.
(2) During the winter period, most of the population uti-
lizes wood for heating, which could result in
increased generation of ash and other wood-like
waste which significantly impacts the composition
of the municipal solid waste.
(3) Most of the construction activities are concentrated
during the spring/summer/early fall period, resulting
in decreased construction/demolition waste during
the winter period. The cold weather during the late
fall-early spring months contributes to a significant
decrease in the number of construction and demoli-
tion projects. Although very scarce as a result of
the struggling economy, the construction and demoli-
tion debris from larger projects is almost always han-
dled by the construction companies and very seldom
results in deposition in the municipal dump. The con-
struction debris from small house projects, however,
is generally mixed with the municipal solid waste dur-
ing the onsite waste storage phase. Consisting of soil,
dust, concrete and brick pieces, wiring, reinforcement
metal, etc., the construction/demolition debris is
oftentimes mixed with liquid or semi liquid food
waste, motor oil waste, ashes or other waste and is
very difficult to separate from the other waste compo-
nents, which may increase their percentage of the
total composition.
(4) Possibilities of significant economic changes in a very
short period of time may occur. Unemployment, for
example, has significant economic impact on the fam-
ilies in Veles and thus affects the solid waste
generation.
1688 K. Hristovski et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1680–1689
(5) Most of the yard waste is commonly generated dur-
ing the late spring-early fall period. During the late
fall-early spring period, the yard waste component
contributes very little to characteristics of the solid
waste stream.
The comparison between the composition of municipal
solid waste in Veles and the national composition reported
in the Macedonian NEAP (1996) indicates that the evalu-
ated 1-week solid waste stream in Veles could be consid-
ered representative, except for the total plastics (hard and
soft plastics) component. As it can be observed in Fig. 2,
it was reported in the NEAP that plastics constitute
approximately 12% of the national average solid waste
composition, while it was estimated that plastics constitute
approximately 7% of the solid waste composition in the
Municipality of Veles. This may be a bit unusual since
there were no recycling programs in the Municipality at
the time of the study. The differences between the data pub-
lished in the NEAP and the one estimated in Veles could
result from number of factors. The data reported in the
NEAP pertain to a period which was more than five years
prior to this study and thus the comparison may not be
appropriate. On the other hand, it could provide an indica-
tion of the solid waste trends in the country.
The relatively large standard deviations in the data from
Veles resulted in some 98% confidence intervals to be as
high as 50% of the calculated mean values (Table 3). This
is a direct result of the limitations of the study. However,
this study does provide experimental data for important
parameters. The specific weight and volume of the uncom-
pacted waste can be used to better estimate the number and
size of the curbside containers to improve collection effi-
ciency. The specific waste of the compacted solid waste is
a direct indicator of the solid waste deposition efficiency.
Thus additional studies such as this one could be quite
valuable.
6.2. Project challenges
Although the lack of funding may be considered to be
the major contributor, poor management and coordination
practices observed during the study period could be consid-
ered additional reasons for the present conditions in the
municipal solid waste system in Veles and the absence of
existing data. To eliminate unnecessary obstacles, a docu-
ment written in English containing the data collection pro-
cedures, which were summarized in the methodology
section, was provided to the municipality personnel. The
purpose of the document was to minimize the potential
for bias and errors during solid waste selection and analy-
sis. However, the language barrier, insufficient familiarity
with solid waste issues, and the undefined structure of the
municipal project team, appeared to be much greater chal-
lenges than initially anticipated. The resolution of these
issues significantly impacted the time table, management
and outcome of the project.
With adequate preparation, a study of this magnitude
and type could be conducted from planning logistics stage
to data collection and analysis stage within a 3 week per-
iod. The entire study could be conducted with limited
resources of a few thousand US dollars, depending upon
the scale and location of the study. For example, the study
pertaining to the characterization of the waste stream in the
Municipality of Veles could be conducted for less than
5000 USD utilizing a dozen paid personnel and the support
from NGO volunteers and municipal personnel. This
amount includes funding for purchasing and renting the
required low-tech equipment. However, in environments
like the Municipality of Veles, where the vast majority of
the participants in the study had no experience with a pro-
ject of this nature, training and education could represent a
potential challenge, and may require additional time and
funding. Furthermore, the practices of inadequate use or
omission of personal protective equipment, very common
in countries like Macedonia, could contribute to significant
problems related to injuries. This is a specific challenge that
requires special attention and funding.
In summary, the short-term study conducted in the
Municipality of Veles indicated that in projects involving
international cooperation the most difficult challenges are
not the ones focusing on the technical nature of the issues.
Language barriers, coordination, logistics, communication
and other personnel related issues appear to be the most
challenging.
7. Conclusion
The short-term study in the Municipality of Veles sug-
gests that characterization of municipal and national solid
waste systems in countries with economies in transition
could be achieved by direct measurements. Since there is
very little existing data available, it is reasonable to con-
clude that short-term studies pertaining to solid waste
streams could significantly contribute to the characteriza-
tion of the solid waste systems in such countries.
Although it is usually characterized by numerous strict
limitations and assumptions, the data obtained from
short-term studies could: (1) significantly contribute to
the development of legislation, regulations, and manage-
rial practices that would be the basis for compliance with
the requirements mandated by the directives of the EU;
(2) reduce the cost of development and improvement of
a solid waste management system; (3) minimize potential
financial errors caused by inadequate or nonexistent data;
(4) help characterize a national solid waste management
system; (5) provide information on the evolution of the
solid waste system and the changes in the solid waste
stream over time; (6) identify, characterize and quantify
the influence of a free market economy on a solid waste
system; and (7) identify, characterize and quantify the
influence of ethnic, religious or/and cultural factors on a
municipal or national solid waste system within a country
in economic transition.
 K. Hristovski et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1680–1689 1689

Acknowledgements Ministry of Waters and Environmental Protection of Romania. 2001.

State of the Environment Report 2000: Waste Management. Ministry
of Waters and Environmental Protection of Romania, Bucharest,
The study was conducted with funds granted by the US Romania. Retrieved April 13, 2005. <http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/
Agency for International Development, Ecolinks Program. romania/soe2000/eng/cap6/deseuri.htm>.
The Office of the Mayor, volunteers from the Municipality Municipality of Veles (n.d.). 2005. Basic Information, Demographics.
of Veles, and employees at the Public Communal Enter- Municipality of Veles, Macedonia. Retrieved April 15, 2005. <http://
prise ‘‘Derven’’ – Veles, provided direct support without www.veles.gov.mk>.
Municipality of Veles. 2005. Agenda 21. Municipality of Veles, Macedo-
which the study could have not been conducted. Special nia. Retrieved May 30, 2006. <http://www.veles.gov.mk>.
acknowledgment to Daniel Wilson, Ph.D. for the help with Nath, B., Pelovski, Y., Stoyanov, S.K. (Eds.), 2000. Sustainable Solid
statistics. Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region: Proceedings.
Kluwer Academic Publisher, Norwell, MA, USA.
References National Environmental Agency of Republic of Albania. 1999. State of
the Environment Report 1997–1998. National Environmental Agency
of Republic of Albania, Tirana, Albania.
Agapitidis, I., Frantzis, I., 1998. A possible strategy for municipal solid
Shah, K.L., 2000. Basics of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management
waste management in Greece. Waste Management and Research 16,
Technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall, Inc.
244–252.
Shedkar, A., 1999. International report: Municipal solid waste manage-
Council, EU., 1999. Council Directive 1999/31/EC on the Landfill of
ment in Bosnia and Herzegovina with special reference to Republika
Waste. Official Journal of the European Communities L 0182, 1–19.
Srpska entity. Waste Management and Research 17 (1), 59–65.
Hoornweg, D., 2002. What a waste: Solid waste management in Asia.
State Statistical Office of Republic of Macedonia. 2005a. Census of
UNEP Industry and Environment 1, 65–70.
Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia,
Ilic, M., Stevanovic-Carapina, H., Mladenovic, A., Milovanovic, D.,
2002 – Book 13. State Statistical Office of Republic of Macedonia,
Todorovic, M., Gavric, I., Petkovic, G., 2003. Municipal Solid Waste
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia.
Management Plan. Regional Environmental Center for Central and
State Statistical Office of Republic of Macedonia. 2005a. Demographics
Eastern Europe, Belgrade, Serbia and Montenegro.
1994–2002 – Book 8. State Statistical Office of Republic of Macedonia,
Kreith, R., Tchobanoglous, G. (Eds.), 2002. Handbook of Solid Waste
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia.
Management. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.
State Statistical Office of Republic of Macedonia. 2005c. Report 6.1.5.37:
Krüger International Consult of Denmark. 1999. Project 98-0377.00:
Business subjects in the Republic of Macedonia. State Statistical Office
Waste Water, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management FYR of
of Republic of Macedonia, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia.
Macedonia: National Solid Waste Management System: Part B1.
State Statistical Office of Republic of Macedonia (n.d.). 2006. Macedonia
Brussels, EU.
in Numbers. Retrieved January 15, 2006. <http://www.stat.gov.mk>.
Linzner, T., 2004. Municipal Solid Waste Management in the City of
Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H., Vigil, S., 1993. Integrated Solid Waste
Belgrade – Current Situations and Perspectives. Master’s Thesis,
Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues.
Institute for Waste Management, BOKU – University of Natural
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.
Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE). 1999.
Ministry of Environmental Protection, Physical Planning and Construc-
Environmental Performance Review: Croatia. New York and Geneva,
tion of Croatia. 2002. National Environmental Action Plan. Official
United Nations.
Gazette 42/02. Zagreb, Croatia.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE). 2002a.
Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning of Republic of Macedonia.
Environmental Performance Review: the former Yugoslav Republic of
1996. National Environmental Action Plan. Ministry of Environment
Macedonia. New York and Geneva, United Nations.
and Spatial Planning of Republic of Macedonia., Skopje, Republic of
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE). 2002b.
Macedonia.
Environmental Performance Review: Albania. New York and Geneva,
Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning of Republic of Macedo-
United Nations.
nia. 2003. First national report of Republic of Macedonia towards
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE). 2002c.
UN convention for climate change. Ministry of Environment and
Environmental Performance Review: Serbia and Montenegro. New
Spatial Planning of Republic of Macedonia, Skopje, Republic of
York and Geneva, United Nations.
Macedonia.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE). 2004.
Ministry of Finance of Republic of Macedonia. 2002. National strategy
Environmental Performance Review: Bosnia and Herzegovina. New
for reduction of poverty in Republic of Macedonia. Ministry of
York and Geneva, United Nations.
Finance of Republic of Macedonia, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia.
Wang, J., Nie, Y., 2001. Remedial strategies for municipal solid waste
Ministry of Local Government of Republic of Macedonia (n.d.). 2006.
management in China. Journal of the Air and Waste Management
Territorial Organization: Municipality of Veles. Retrieved January 15.
Association 51, 264–272.
<http://www.mls.gov.mk>.
Weather Channel (n.d.). 2006. Monthly averages for Veles, Macedonia.
Ministry of Environment and Water of Bulgaria (n.d.). 2005. National
The Weather Channel Interactive Ltd. Retrieved June 5, 2006. <http://
Waste Management Programme. Sofia, Bulgaria. Retrieved April 15,
www.weather.com/outlook/travel/businesstraveler/wxclimatology/
2005. <http://www2.moew.government.bg/recent_doc/waste/NWMP_
monthly/MKXX0002>.
2003-2007EN_fin.doc>.