Rathore, Mahesh M. - Engineering Heat and Mass Transfer-University Science Press (2015) PDF

ENGINEERING
HEAT AND MASS

TRANSFER
ENGINEERIN G
HEAT AND MASS
TR ANSFER
BY
MAHESH M. RATHORE
Energy Auditor and Chartered Engineer,
Professor and Head, Mechanical Engineering
SNJB’s K.B. Jain
College of Engineering, Chandwad
Maharashtra, India
BENGALURU Ɣ CHENNAI Ɣ COCHIN Ɣ GUWAHATI Ɣ HYDERABAD

JALANDHAR Ɣ KOLKATA Ɣ LUCKNOW Ɣ MUMBAI Ɣ RANCHI Ɣ NEW DELHI
BOSTON (USA) Ɣ ACCRA (GHANA) Ɣ NAIROBI (KENYA)
ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
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Contents
1. CONCEPTS AND MECHANISMS OF HEAT FLOW 1–23

1.1. What is Heat Transfer ? ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Modes of Heat Transfer .............................................................................................................................................. 2
1.3. Physical Mechanism of Modes of Heat Transfer ...................................................................................................... 2
1.4. Laws of Heat Transfer ................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.5. Combined Convective and Radiation Heat Transfer ............................................................................................... 7
1.6. Thermal Conductivity ................................................................................................................................................. 8
1.7. Isotropic Material and Anisotropic Material .......................................................................................................... 12
1.8. Insulation Materials ................................................................................................................................................. 14
1.9. Thermal Diffusivity .................................................................................................................................................. 17
1.10. Heat Transfer in Boiling and Condensation ........................................................................................................... 20
1.11. Mass Transfer ........................................................................................................................................................... 20
1.12. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................... 21
2. CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 24–41

2.1. Generalised One Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation ................................................................................... 24
2.2. Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation ..................................................................................................... 26
2.3. Initial and Boundary Conditions ............................................................................................................................ 30
2.4. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................... 40
3. STEADY STATE CONDUCTION WITHOUT HEAT GENERATION 42–99

3.1. Plane Wall ................................................................................................................................................................. 42
3.2. Electrical Analogy of Heat Transfer Rate Through a Plane Wall ........................................................................ 43
3.3. Multilayer Plane Wall .............................................................................................................................................. 44
3.4. Thermal Contact Resistance .................................................................................................................................... 64
3.5. Long Hollow Cylinder ............................................................................................................................................... 68
3.6. Critical Thickness of Insulation on Cylinders ........................................................................................................ 81
3.7. Hollow Sphere ........................................................................................................................................................... 86
3.8. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................... 95
4. STEADY STATE CONDUCTION WITH HEAT GENERATION 100–135

4.1. The Plane Wall ........................................................................................................................................................ 100
4.2. The Cylinder ............................................................................................................................................................ 113
v
vi CONTENTS
4.3. Hollow Cylinder with Heat Generation and Specified Surface Temperatures ................................................. 114
4.4. The Sphere ............................................................................................................................................................... 126
4.5. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 131
Review Questions ..................................................................................................................................................... 132
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 132
5. HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACES 136–179

5.1. Types of Fins ........................................................................................................................................................... 136
5.2. Fin Selection and Applications .............................................................................................................................. 137
5.3. Governing Equation ................................................................................................................................................ 137
5.4. Fin Performance ...................................................................................................................................................... 151
5.5. Approximate Solution of Fin: Concept of Corrected Fin Length ........................................................................ 154
5.6. Error in Temperature Measurement by Thermometers ..................................................................................... 167
5.7. Design Considerations for Fins ............................................................................................................................. 170
5.8. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 174
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 175
6. TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION 180–233

6.1. Approximate Solution ............................................................................................................................................. 180
6.2. Analytical Solution ................................................................................................................................................. 199
6.3. Transient Temperature Charts: Heisler and Gröber Charts .............................................................................. 206
6.4. Transient Heat Conduction in Semi Infinite Solids ............................................................................................ 219
6.5. Transient Heat Conduction in Multidimensional Systems ................................................................................. 222
6.6. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 227
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 228
7. PRINCIPLES OF CONVECTION 234–265

7.1. Mechanism of Heat Convection ............................................................................................................................. 234
7.2. Classification of Convection ................................................................................................................................... 234
7.3. Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient ................................................................................................................... 235
7.4. Convection Boundary Layers ................................................................................................................................. 238
7.5. Laminar and Turbulent Flow ................................................................................................................................ 239
7.6. Momentum Equation for Laminar Boundary Layer ............................................................................................ 241
7.7. Energy Equation for the Laminar Boundary Layer ............................................................................................ 243
7.8. Boundary Layer Similarities ................................................................................................................................. 245
7.9. Determination of Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient ..................................................................................... 248
7.10. Dimensional Analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 248
7.11. Physical Significance of the Dimensionless Parameters ..................................................................................... 253
7.12. Turbulent Boundary Layer Heat Transfer ........................................................................................................... 257
7.13. Reynolds Colburn Analogy for Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate ..................................................................... 260
7.14. Mean Film Temperature and Bulk Mean Temperature ...................................................................................... 260
7.15. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 261
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 263
CONTENTS vii
8. EXTERNAL FLOW 266–292

8.1. Laminar Flow Over a Flat Plate ............................................................................................................................ 266
8.2. Reynolds Colburn Analogy: Momentum and Heat transfer Analogy for Laminar Flow Over Flat Plate ....... 271
8.3. Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate ......................................................................................................................... 271
8.4. Combined Laminar and Turbulent Flow .............................................................................................................. 272
8.5. Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres ...................................................................................................................... 281
8.6. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 288
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 289
9. INTERNAL FLOW 293–332

9.1. Flow Inside Ducts ................................................................................................................................................... 293
9.2. Hydrodynamic Considerations ............................................................................................................................... 293
9.3. Thermal Considerations ......................................................................................................................................... 296
9.4. Heat Transfer in Fully Developed Flow ................................................................................................................ 298
9.5. General Thermal Analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 299
9.6. Heat Transfer in Laminar Tube Flow ................................................................................................................... 303
9.7. Flow Inside a Non-circular Duct ............................................................................................................................ 307
9.8. Thermally Developing, Hydrodynamically Developed Laminar Flow ............................................................... 310
9.9. Heat Transfer in Turbulent Flow Inside a Circular Tube ................................................................................... 311
9.10. Heat Transfer to Liquid Metal Flow in Tube ....................................................................................................... 325
9.11. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 326
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 329
10. NATURAL CONVECTION 333–371

10.1. Physical Mechanism ............................................................................................................................................... 333
10.2. Definitions ............................................................................................................................................................... 334
10.3. Natural Convection Over a Vertical Plate ............................................................................................................ 335
10.4. Empirical Correlations for External Free Convection Flow ............................................................................... 338
10.5. Simplified Equations for Air .................................................................................................................................. 355
10.6. Natural Convection in Enclosed Spaces ............................................................................................................... 361
10.7. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 366
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 367
11. CONDENSATION AND BOILING 372–401

11.1. Condensation ........................................................................................................................................................... 372
11.2. Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate ................................................................................................. 373
11.3. Condensation on a Single Horizontal Tube .......................................................................................................... 375
11.4. Turbulent Filmwise Condensation ........................................................................................................................ 377
11.5. Condensate Number ............................................................................................................................................... 377
11.6. Dropwise Condensation .......................................................................................................................................... 378
11.7. Film Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes ........................................................................................................ 378
11.8. Boiling ...................................................................................................................................................................... 385
11.9. Pool Boiling Regimes .............................................................................................................................................. 385
11.10. Mechanism of Nucleate Boiling ............................................................................................................................. 388
11.11. Pool Boiling Correlations ....................................................................................................................................... 389
11.12. Forced Convection Boiling ...................................................................................................................................... 396
11.13. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 398
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 399
viii CONTENTS
12. THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 402–433

12.1. Theories of Radiation .............................................................................................................................................. 402
12.2. Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation ............................................................................................................... 403
12.3. Black Body Radiation ............................................................................................................................................. 403
12.4. Spectral and Total Emissive Power ....................................................................................................................... 404
12.5. Surface Absorption, Reflection and Transmission ............................................................................................... 404
12.6. Black Body Radiation Laws ................................................................................................................................... 406
12.7. Emissivity ................................................................................................................................................................ 413
12.8. Radiation from a Surface ....................................................................................................................................... 419
12.9. Radiosity .................................................................................................................................................................. 421
12.10. Solar Radiation ....................................................................................................................................................... 423
12.11. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 429
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 431
13. RADIATION EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 434–485

13.1 Radiation View Factor ............................................................................................................................................ 434
13.2. Black Body Radiation Exchange ............................................................................................................................ 451
13.3. Radiation from Cavities .......................................................................................................................................... 453
13.4. Radiation Heat Exchange between Diffuse, Gray Surfaces ................................................................................ 455
13.5. The Radiation Exchange between Three Surface Enclosures ............................................................................. 458
13.6. Radiation Heat Transfer in Three Surface Enclosures ....................................................................................... 467
13.7. Radiation Shields .................................................................................................................................................... 470
13.8. Temperature Measurement of a Gas by Thermocouple: Combined Convective and
Radiation Heat Transfer ........................................................................................................................................ 475
13.9. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 477
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 479
14. HEAT EXCHANGERS 486–553

14.1. Classification of Heat Exchanger .......................................................................................................................... 486
14.2. Temperature Distribution ...................................................................................................................................... 489
14.3. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ......................................................................................................................... 489
14.4. Fouling Factor ......................................................................................................................................................... 491
14.5. Heat Exchanger Analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 493
14.6. Log mean Temperature Difference Method .......................................................................................................... 494
14.7. Multipass and Cross Flow Heat Exchangers ........................................................................................................ 496
14.8. The Effectiveness-NTU Method ............................................................................................................................. 511
14.9. Rating of Heat Exchangers .................................................................................................................................... 517
14.10. Sizing of Heat Exchangers ..................................................................................................................................... 517
14.11 Compact Heat Exchangers ..................................................................................................................................... 536
14.12. Plate Heat Exchanger (PHE) ................................................................................................................................. 540
14.13. Requirements of Good Heat Exchanger ................................................................................................................ 541
14.14. Heat Exchanger Design and Selection .................................................................................................................. 542
14.15. Practical Applications of Heat Exchangers .......................................................................................................... 543
14.16. Heat Pipes ................................................................................................................................................................ 543
14.17. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 545
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 547
CONTENTS ix
15. MASS TRANSFER 554–591

15.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. 554
15.2. Modes of Mass Transfer ......................................................................................................................................... 554
15.3. Comparison between Heat and Mass Transfer .................................................................................................... 555
15.4. Concentrations, Velocities and Fluxes .................................................................................................................. 555
15.5. Fick’s Law of Diffusion ........................................................................................................................................... 558
15.6. General Mass Diffusion Equation ......................................................................................................................... 561
15.7. Boundary Conditions .............................................................................................................................................. 563
15.8. Mass Diffusion Without Homogeneous Chemical Reactions .............................................................................. 564
15.9. Mass Diffusion with Homogeneous Chemical Reactions ..................................................................................... 576
15.10. Convective Mass Transfer ...................................................................................................................................... 577
15.11. Dimensional Analysis of Convective Mass Transfer ............................................................................................ 580
15.12. Evaporation of Water into Air ............................................................................................................................... 581
15.13. Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 588
Problems .................................................................................................................................................................. 590
16. EXPERIMENTS IN ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER 592–619

Expt. 1 Thermal Conductivity of Metallic Rod ........................................................................................................... 592
Expt. 2 Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Powder ............................................................................................... 595
Expt. 3 Thermal Conductivity of Composite Wall ................................................................................................... 597
Expt. 4 Natural Convection Experiment .................................................................................................................... 599
Expt. 5 Forced Convection Experiment ...................................................................................................................... 601
Expt. 6 Heat Transfer from Pin Fins .......................................................................................................................... 603
Expt. 7 Stefan Boltzmann Constant ........................................................................................................................... 606
Expt. 8 Measurement of Emissivity of a Test Surface .............................................................................................. 607
Expt. 9 Heat Exchanger Experiment .......................................................................................................................... 609
Expt. 10 Critical Heat Flux ............................................................................................................................................ 613
Expt. 11 Heat Pipe .......................................................................................................................................................... 615
Expt. 12 Thermocouples Calibration Test Rig ............................................................................................................. 617
Review Questions ............................................................................................................................................. 619
APPENDIX 621–645
Appendix A. Thermophysical Properties of Matter .............................................................................................................. 621
A.1 Thermophysical Properties of Selected Metallic Solids .................................................................................. 622
A.2 Thermophysical Properties of Selected Non-metallic Solids .......................................................................... 626
A.3 Thermophysical Properties of Common Materials .......................................................................................... 628
(a) Structural Building Materials ..................................................................................................................... 628
(b) Insulating Materials and Systems .............................................................................................................. 629
(c) Industrial Insulation .................................................................................................................................... 630
(d) Other Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 632
(e) Properties of Common Materials ................................................................................................................. 633
A.4 Thermophysical Properties of Gases at Atmospheric Pressure ..................................................................... 634
A.5 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Liquids ........................................................................................... 638
A.6 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Liquid-Vapour, 1 atm ................................................................... 639
A.7 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Water .............................................................................................. 640
A.8 Thermophysical Properties of Liquid Metals .................................................................................................. 641
A.9 Emissivities of Some Surfaces .......................................................................................................................... 642
(a) Metals ............................................................................................................................................................ 642
(b) Non-metals .................................................................................................................................................... 643
A.10 Solar Radiative Properties for Selected Materials .......................................................................................... 644
A.11 Diffusion Coefficient of Gases and Vapours in Air at 25°C and 100 kPa ...................................................... 644
A.12 Molal Specific Volumes and Latent Heats of Vaporization for Selected Liquids at their
Normal Boiling Points ....................................................................................................................................... 645
INDEX 647–651
Preface to the Third Edition
The first edition of Comprehensive Engineering Heat Transfer was published in 2000. It was written principally
to cater syllabi of Pune and North Maharashtra Universities.
The second revised and enlarged edition was published in year 2005, in which I had tried to incorporate the
relevance of heat and mass transfer applicable to Mechanical, Chemical, Aerospace, Civil Engineering, Computer Science,
Information Technology, Biotechnology, Pharmacology, and Alternative Energy generation.
Confronted with economic realities, many colleges and universities have set clear priorities. In recognition of its
value and applications to society, investment in engineering education has increased. Pedagogically, there is reintroduced
emphasis on the fundamental principles that are the foundation for lifelong learning. The important and sometimes
dominant role of heat transfer in many applications, particularly in conventional as well as in alternative energy generation
and concomitant environmental effects, has reaffirmed its relevance.
In preparing third edition, I have attempted to incorporate recent heat transfer research at a level that is appropriate
for an undergraduate student. I have strived to include new examples and problems that motivate students with interesting
applications, but whose solutions are based firmly on fundamental principles. We have remained true to the pedagogical
approach of previous editions by retaining a rigorous and systematic methodology for problem solving. I have tried to
continue the tradition of providing a text that will serve as a valuable, everyday resource for students and practicing
engineers throughout their careers.
Approach and Organization
Previous editions of the text have adhered to four learning objectives:
1. The student should adopt the meaning of the terminology and physical principles associated with heat transfer.
2. The student should be able to describe relevant transport phenomena for any process or system involving heat
transfer.
3. The student should be able to use requisite inputs for calculating heat transfer rates and/or material
temperatures.
4. The student should be able to develop representative models of processes and systems and draw conclusions
concerning process/system design or performance from the attendant analysis.
Moreover, as in previous editions, specific learning objectives for each chapter are clarified, as are means by which
achievement of the objectives may be assessed. The summary and glossary at the end of each chapter highlight key
terminology and concepts developed in the chapter and poses questions designed to test and enhance student
comprehension.
What’s New in the Third Edition?
In order to reduce the volume and cost of book, it is prepared in two columns and two colours to make it attractive
and interesting. The constructive criticisms and suggestion sent by users have been amalgamated. Answer(s) to almost
all problems presented for practice at the end of each chapter are provided.
Chapter-by-Chapter Content Changes
Chapter 1, Concepts and Mechanisms of Heat Flow is re-written and modified to accentuate the significance of
heat transfer in various contemporary applications. It has also been improved to elaborate the complementary nature of
heat transfer and thermodynamics. The economic thickness of insulation is augmented with a new section with the help
of cost and year of service. Two more sections on heat transfer in boiling and condensation and mass transfer are included
at the end of chapter.
Chapter 2, deals with Conduction-Basic equations and their applications with the help of boundary conditions. In
this edition, the boundary conditions are elaborated with extensive graphical support. The radiation and interface boundary
conditions are incorporated.
Chapters 3, 4 and 5 have undergone extensive revision and some examples are reorganized in order to give them
justification. Some parallel illustrations are withdrawn from these Chapters.
xi
xii PREFACE
Chapter 6, Transient Conduction was substantially modified in the previous edition and has been augmented in
this edition with a streamlined presentation of the methods. The multi-dimensional, semi-infinite body transient heat
transfer has been restructured.
Chapter 7, Principles of Convection includes clarification of how temperature-dependent properties should be
evaluated when calculating the convection heat transfer coefficient. Specifically, presentation of the similarity solution
for flow over a flat plate has been simplified.
Chapter 8, External Flow has been updated and reduced in length. New results for flow over noncircular cylinders
have been added, replacing the correlations of previous editions. The discussion of flow across circular tubes has been
reduced, abolishing redundancy without sacrificing content.
Chapter 9, Internal Flow; entry length correlations have been updated and rearranged.
Chapter 10, Free Convection include a new correlation for free convection from flat plates, replacing a correlation
from previous editions. The discussion of boundary layer effects has been modified.
Aspects of Boiling and Condensation have been updated to incorporate recent advances in, for example, external
condensation on finned tubes in Chapter 11, Condensation phenomena and heat transfer rates are explained. The coverage
of forced convection condensation and related enhancement techniques has been expanded.
The concepts of emissive power, irradiation, radiosity, radiation function and net radiative flux are presented in
Chapter 12, Radiation: Properties and Processes. The coverage of environmental radiation has undergone substantial
revision, with the inclusion of separate discussions of solar radiation, the atmospheric radiation balance, and terrestrial
solar irradiation. Concern for the potential impact of anthropogenic activity on the temperature of the earth is addressed.
Chapter 13, Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces highlights the difference between geometrical surfaces and
radiative surfaces, a key concept that is often difficult for students to appreciate. Increased coverage of radiation exchange
between diffused grey surfaces, included in older editions of the text, has been retained. In doing so, radiation exchange
between differentially small surfaces is briefly introduced.
The content of Chapter 14, Heat Exchangers is experiencing a resurgence in interest due to the critical role such
devices play in conventional and alternative energy generation technologies. Much of the coverage of compact heat
exchangers included in the previous edition was limited to a specific heat exchanger. Although general coverage of
compact heat exchangers have been retained.
Chapter 15, Mass Transfer has been entirely revised extensively from the previous edition. General mass diffusion
equation and boundary conditions are restructured. Concept of solubility, permeability, mass diffusion with and without
homogeneous chemical reaction, steady state diffusion through a plane membrane, water vapour migration have been
incorporated in new sections.
Chapter 16, Experiments in Engineering Heat Transfer have been updated in the interest of students to cater
curriculum. Appendix is added as it was in previous edition.
—Author
Acknowledgements
We wish to acknowledge and thank many of our colleagues in the heat transfer community. In particular, we
would like to express our appreciation to Prof. (Dr.) R. M. Warkhedkar, Govt. Engg. College Karad (M.S.), Prof. S. B.
Patil of MET’s IoE. Nashik, Prof. H. R. Thakare of SNJB’s CoE. Chandwad, Prof. D. H. Dubey of B.S. Deore CoE. Dhule,
Prof. P. A. Deshmukh of R.S. CoE Pune and many friends, students, users whose constructive suggestions helped me to
improve the text and to bring out this edition.
I would like to extend my gratitude to administration and executive management of SNJB’s Late Sau. K. B. Jain
College of engineering, Neminagar, Chandwad (M.S.), India, for providing me facilities, moral support and cherish
cooperation during the preparation of this manuscript.
I also take the opportunity to express my heartiest thanks to Mr. Saurabh Gupta, Managing Director, Laxmi
Publications (P) Ltd. New Delhi, who adapted my desire to bring this volume in two columns and two colours, even after
three proof readings of manuscript.
In closing, I am deeply grateful to my spouse and children, Dr. Ankit, and Pratik for their endless love and
patience.
A human creation can never be perfect. Some mistakes might have crept in the text. My effort in writing the book
will be rewarded, if readers send their constructive suggestions and objective criticism with a view to improve the usefulness
of the book.
—Author
xiii
Nomenclature
A Area normal to heat transfer, m2 h Plank’s constant

Ac Cross-sectional area, m2 hfg Specific enthalpy of vaporization, J/kg
Afin Fin surface area, m2 hrad, hr Radiation heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K
Ap Profile area, m2 I Electrical current, A, radiation intensity,
As Surface area, m2 W/m2.sr
Aun fin Area or bare (un-finned) surface, m2 Isc Solar constant, W/m2
Ano fin Area of surface without fin, m2 i Electric current density, A/m2
a Acceleration, m/s2 J Radiosity, W/m2
Bi Biot number JA Diffusion flux, kgmol/m2.s
Bo Bond number Ja Jacob number
C Heat capacity rate, W/K, specific heat of solids, Kc Mass transfer coefficient, m/s
J/kg. K k Thermal conductivity, W/m.K
CA Molar concentration of species A in a mixture L Length, thickness, fin height, m
CD Drag coefficient Lc Characteristic length, corrected lenght, m
Cp Specific heat of liquids, J/kg. K Le Lewis number
Cf Coefficient of friction LMTD Log mean temperature difference, °C
Co Condensation number M Molecular number, kg/kgmol
D, d Diameter, m m Mass, kg
DAB Mass diffusivity, m2/s
m Mass flow rate, kg/s
Dh Hydraulic diameter, m mf Mass fraction
E Emissive power, W/m2 N Number of tubes
E′ Rate of energy, W Nfin Number of fins
F Force, N Nu Nusselt number
Fo Fourier number NTU Number of transfer units
Fi–j Radiation view factor P Perimeter, m, power, W
f Friction factor Pe Peclet number
f0–λ Blackbody radiation function Pr Prandtl number
G Irradiation, W/m2 P Pressure, N/m2
Gr Grashof number Q Heat transfer rate, W
Gz Graetz number q Heat flux, W/m2
g Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 R Specific gas constant, J/kg.K
go Uniform heat generation per unit volume, Ru Universal gas constant = 8314, J/kgmol. K
W/m3 Ra Rayleigh number
H Height, m Rcont Contact resistance, K/W
h, hc Convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K Re Reynolds number
xiv
CONTENTS xv
Re Electrical resistance, ohms ν Kinematic viscosity, momentum diffusivity,

Rf Fouling resistance, m2.K/W m2/s, frequency
Rth Thermal resistance, K/W ρ Mass density, kg/m3, reflectivity of the radiating
surface, electrical resistively, Ω-m
rcr Critical radius, m
ρi Mass concentration of ith species in a mixture
ri Inner radius, m
σ Stefan Boltzmann constant, W/m2.K4, surface
ro Outer radius, m
tension, N/m
r, θ, z Cylindrical coordinates
τ Shear stress, N/m2, transmissivity
r, θ, φ Spherical coordinates
ω Solid angle, sr
S Shape factor for two dimensional heat
conduction, m Subscripts
Sc Schmidt number b blackbody
Sc Solar constant c Cross-sectional area
Sh Sherwood number cr Critical
cond Conduction
St Stanton number
conv Convection
T Temperature, °C or K
D diameter
t Time, s
e excess, emission
U Overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K
f fluid properties
u, v Mass average velocity components, m/s
fg Phase transformation
V Volume of solid, m3 g saturated vapour
u Fluid velocity, m/s H heat transfer
v Specific volume, m3/kg h hydraulic, hot
w Depth, width, m i inner surface, initial condition, tube inlet
x, y, z Cartesian coordinates condition, incident radiation
x Local distance, m L Based on characteristic length
xcr Critical distance, m l saturated liquid
lm log mean condition
xe Hydrodynamic entry length, m
M momentum transfer
yi Mole fraction of ith species
m mean value
Greek Letters max maximum
α Thermal diffusivity, m2/s o centre or mid-plane condition, outer, tube outlet
β Volumetric expansion coefficient, K–1 condition
δ Thickness of velocity boundary layer, R radiaton surface
characteristic length, mm rad radiation
δth Thickness of thermal boundary layer, mm s surface condition
ε Emissivity of the radiating surface, effectiveness sat saturated condition
of heat exchanger sky sky condition
εfin Fin effectiveness sur Surroundings condition
∈H Turbulent diffusivity for heat transfer th thermal
α absorbed
∈M Turbulent diffusivity for momentum
v vapour condition
ηf, ηfin Fin efficiency
x local condition
ηtotal Total fin efficiency
λ spectral
θ Temperature difference, °C
∞ free stream condition
κB Boltzmann constant ρ reflected
λ Wavelength, µm τ transmitted
µ Dynamic viscosity, kg/m.s
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
BASE UNITS:
QUANTITY UNITS DIMENSION

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS:
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr
DERIVED UNITS:
Acceleration a metre per second squared m/s2
Angular acceleration ω radian per second squared rad/s2
Angular velocity θ radian per second rad/s
Area A square metre m2
Electric potential difference V Volt W/A
Electric resistance Re Ohm Ω
Energy E joule J or N.m
Entropy s joule per kelvin J/K
Force F newton Nor kg.m/s2
Frequency v hertz Hz or 1/s
Heat energy Q joule J or N.m
Magnetomotive force emf ampere A
Power P watt W or J/s
Radiation Intensity I watt per steradian W/sr
Specific heat CP joule per kilogram-kelvin J/kg-K
Stress σ pascal N/m2
Thermal conductivity k watt per metre-kelvin W/m–K
Velocity u meter per second m/s
Volume V cubic metre m3
Work W Joule J or N.m
xvi
SYMBOLS
Greek Alphabets
A α Alpha I ι Iota P ρ Rho

B β Beta K κ Kappa Σ σ Sigma
Γ γ Gamma Λ λ Lambda T τ Tau
D δ Delta M µ Mu Y υ Upsilon
E ε Epsilon N ν Nu Φ ϕ Phi
Z ζ Zeta Ξ ξ Xi X χ Chi
H η Eta O ο Omicorn Ψ ψ Psi
Θ θ Theta Π π Pi Ω ω Omega
∃ there exists V for all
Metric Weights and Measures
LENGTH CAPACITY
10 millimetres = 1 centimetre 10 millilitres = 1 centilitre
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre 10 centilitres = 1 decilitre
10 decimetres = 1 metre 10 decilitres = 1 litre
10 metres = 1 dekametre 10 litres = 1 dekalitre
10 dekametres = 1 hectometre 10 dekalitres = 1 hectolitre
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre 10 hectolitres = 1 kilolitre
VOLUME AREA
1000 cubic centimetres = 1 centigram 100 square metres = 1 are
1000 cubic decimetres = 1 cubic metre 100 ares = 1 hectare
100 hectares = 1 square kilometre
WEIGHT ABBREVIATIONS
10 milligrams = 1 centigram kilometre km tonne t
10 centigrams = 1 decigram metre m
10 decigrams = 1 gram centimetre cm kilogram kg
10 grams = 1 dekagram millimetre mm gram g
10 dekagrams = 1 hectogram kilolitre kl are a
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram litre l hectare ha
100 kilograms = 1 quintal millilitre ml centiare ca
10 quintals = 1 metric ton (tonne)
xvii
Concepts and Mechanisms
of Heat Flow 1
1.1. What is Heat Transfer ? 1.2. Modes of Heat Transfer. 1.3. Physical Mechanism of Modes of Heat Transfer—Conduction
—Convection—Radiation. 1.4. Laws of Heat Transfer—Law of conservation of mass : Continuity equation—Newton’s second
law of motion—Laws of thermodynamics—Fourier law of heat conduction—Newton’s law of cooling—The Stefan Boltzmann
law of thermal radiation. 1.5. Combined Convective and Radiation Heat Transfer—Equation of state. 1.6. Thermal
Conductivity—Variation in thermal conductivity—Determination of thermal conductivity—Variable thermal conductivity.
1.7. Isotropic Material and Anisotropic Material. 1.8. Insulation Materials—Superinsulators—Selection of insulating
materials—The R-Value of insulation—Economic thickness of insulation. 1.9. Thermal Diffusivity. 1.10. Heat Transfer in
Boiling and Condensation. 1.11. Mass Transfer. 1.12. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—Multiple Choice Questions.
Objective of this chapter is to: 1.1. WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER ?

• give an introduction to heat transfer rate, heat
flux, Its simple answer is the definition of heat or heat energy.
• elaborate three modes of heat transfer—conduct- Heat is a form of energy in transit due to
ion, convection and thermal radiation, temperature difference. Heat transfer is transmission
• offer an introduction of physical laws of heat of energy from one region to another region as a result
transfer, of temperature difference between them. Whenever
there exists a temperature difference in mediums or
• enlighten thermal conductivity, R value, thermal
within a media, heat transfer must occur.
conductors and insulators.
The amount of heat transferred per unit time is
The science of Thermodynamics deals with the
called heat transfer rate and is denoted by Q. The
amount of heat transfer as system undergoes a process
heat transfer rate has unit J/s which is equivalent to
from one equilibrium state to another, without any
Watt.
information concerning the nature of interaction or the
time rate at which it occurs. Heat Transfer is a branch When the rate of heat transfer Q is available, then
of thermal science which deals with analysis of rate of total amount of heat energy transferred ∆U during a
heat transfer and temperature distribution taking place time interval ∆t can be obtained from
in a system as well as the nature of heat transfer. The ∆t
design of boilers, condensers, evaporators, heaters, ∆U = ∫0 Qdt = Q∆t (joule) …(1.1)
refrigerators, and heat exchangers, requires considerat- The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to
ions of the amount of heat to be transmitted as well as direction of heat flow is called heat flux and is expressed
the rate at which heat is to be transferred. The successful as;
operation of equipment component such as turbine
blades, walls of combustion chambers, etc. depends on Q
q= (W/m2) …(1.2)
the cooling rate, in order to avoid their metallurgical A
failure. A heat transfer analysis must also be accounted Steady and Unsteady State Heat Transfer
in the design of electronic components, electric machines,
transformers, and bearings to avoid the overheating and For analysis of heat transfer problems, two types of heat
damage of equipment. transfer are considered—steady state and unsteady
1
2 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
state. In case of steady state heat transfer, the moving molecules from a region of lower temperature,
temperature at any location on the system does not vary the heat energy transfer takes place between them. The
with time. The temperature is function of space low energy molecules absorb energy and thus their
coordinates only, but it is independent of time. temperature is increased and the temperature of high
Mathematically, for rectangular coordinate system ; energy molecules is lowered.
T = f(x, y, z) ...(1.3) The conduction heat transfer in liquids and gases
During steady state conditions, the heat transfer occurs due to collisions and diffusion of molecules during
rate is constant and there is no change of internal energy their random motion. However, the nature is much more
of the system. For example, the heat transfer in coolers, complex.
heat exchangers, heat transfer from large furnaces, etc. The temperature gradient is the potential for heat
In unsteady state heat transfer, the temperature conduction. If a body in any phase exists a temperature
varies with time as well as position. The temperature is gradient, will definitely have the conduction heat
a function of time and space coordinates. transfer.
Mathematically, for rectangular coordinates ; 1.3.2. Convection
T = f(x, y, z, t) ...(1.4)
The convection is a mode of heat transfer in which the
During unsteady state or transient heat transfer,
energy is transported by moving fluid particles. The
rate of heat transfer varies with time due to change in
convection heat transfer comprises two mechanisms.
internal energy of the system. Most of the actual heat
First is transfer of energy due to random molecular
transfer processes are unsteady in nature , but some of
motion (diffusion) and second is the energy transfer by
them are considered in steady state to simplify them.
bulk or macroscopic motion of the fluid (advection). The
For example, heat transfer from hot coffee left in a room,
molecules of fluid are moving collectively or as aggre-
cooling and heating process, etc. are transient processes.
gates thus carry energy from high temperature region
The heat transfer may be one, two or three to low temperature region. Therefore, the faster the fluid
directional, depends upon the configuration of the motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.
system considered.
Convection heat transfer may be classified
according to nature of fluid flow.
1.2. MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER If the fluid motion is artifically induced by a
pump, fan or a blower, that forces the fluid over a surface
When the temperature gradient exists in a medium,
to flow as shown in Fig. 1.1(a), the heat transfer is said
which may be solid, liquid, or gas, heat transfer occurred
to be by the forced convection.
is called conduction. In contrast, the convection refers
to heat transfer that will occur between a surface and a
moving medium, when they are at different tempera-
tures. The third mode of heat transfer is thermal
radiation. All surfaces at finite temperature emit energy
in the form of electromagnetic waves. The thermal
Heated
radiation can also occur in absence of any medium. plate Tw
Q Fan
1.3. PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF MODES OF
HEAT TRANSFER Air at T¥
1.3.1. Conduction Fig. 1.1. (a) Forced convection of air (Tw > T∞)
The conduction occurs usually in the stationary If the fluid motion is set-up by buoyancy effects,
mediums. It is the mode of heat transfer in which energy resulting from density difference caused by temperature
exchange takes place from a region of high temperature difference in the fluid as shown in Fig. 1.1(b), the heat
to that of low temperature by direct molecular transfer is said to be by the free or natural convection.
interactions and by the drift of electrons. The heat For example, a hot plate vertically suspended in stag-
conduction may be viewed as the transfer of energy from nant cool air, causes a motion in air layer adjacent to
more energetic molecules to adjacent less energetic the plate surface because of temperature difference in
molecules of a substance. When a fast moving molecules air gives rise to density gradient which in turn sets-up
from a region of high temperature collide with slower the air motion.
CONCEPTS AND MECHANISMS OF HEAT FLOW 3
It is the conservation of mass equation for steady

state incompressible fluid flow. In general, the mass flow
Q ) is expressed as ;
rate ( m
= ρuAc
m ...(1.5)
Tw 2
Heated T¥ where, Ac = cross-sectional area of flow (m ),
plate
ρ = fluid density (kg/m3),
Q
u = fluid velocity (m/s).
The volume of a fluid flowing through a pipe or
duct per unit time is called volume flow rate or
Fig. 1.1. (b) Natural or free convection of air (Tw > T∞ ) discharge rate, denoted by V and is expressed as ;

=uA = m
1.3.3. Radiation V c …(1.6)
ρ
Thermal radiation is the energy emitted by a substance
because of its temperature. The radiation energy emitted 1.4.2. Newton’s Second Law of Motion
by a body is transmitted in the space in the form of It states that the rate of change of momentum in any
electromagnetic waves according to Maxwell wave direction is always equal to sum of all external forces
theory or in the form of discrete photons according to acting on the body in such direction.
Max Plank’s theory. Both concepts have been used in The momentum = mass flow in particular
analysis of radiation heat transfer. Regardless of the direction × directional velocity
form of substance (solid, liquid or gas) the emission of d(mv)
The rate of change of momentum =
energy is due to change in electron configuration of the dt
constituent molecules. While the transfer of energy by Newton’s second law of motion :
conduction or convection requires the presence of d(mv)
ΣFx = ...(1.7)
material medium, radiation does not. In fact, the dt
radiation heat transfer is more efficient in vacuum.
1.4.3. Laws of Thermodynamics
Thermal radiation occurs in the region of wavelengths
0.1 µm to 100 µm on electromagnetic spectrum. In heat transfer analysis, the first and second laws of
thermodynamics are useful. The first law of
thermodynamics states that the energy can neither be
1.4. LAWS OF HEAT TRANSFER created nor be destroyed, only its form can be changed.
In fact its quantity remains constant in either form.
Like all subjects in physical science, some fundamental
The second law of thermodynamics states that
and subsidiary laws are also used in heat transfer
the energy cannot be upgraded, or heat energy cannot
analysis.
flow from a body at lower temperature to a body at
The fundamental laws, which are used in broad higher temperature. In other words, the second law of
area of applications are : thermodynamics talks about the quality of energy, not
1. The law of conservation of mass, of quantity like first law of thermodynamics.
2. Newton’s second law of motion,
1.4.4. Fourier Law of Heat Conduction
3. First and second laws of thermodynamics.
Whenever, a temperature gradient exists in a body, there
The subsidiary laws, which are based on
is an energy transfer from the high temperature region
experimental facts are :
to low temperature region by conduction. The Fourier
4. Fourier law of heat conduction, law states that the rate of heat conduction per unit area
5. Newton’s law of cooling, (heat flux) is directly proportional to the temperature gra-
6. Stefan Boltzmann law for thermal radiation, dient.
7. Equation of state. Q dT
∝
1.4.1. Law of Conservation of Mass : Continuity Equation A dx
It states that the mass of an incompressible fluid system Q dT dT
or =−k or Q = −kA ...(1.8)
is constant in absence of nuclear reaction. A dx dx
where, Q = rate of heat transfer in W, dT (T1 − T2 )

=– ...(1.10)
A = heat transfer area in m2 ; normal to dx L
direction of heat flow, Example 1.1. The wall of a furnace is constructed from
dT 15 cm thick fire brick having constant thermal
= temperature gradient in °C/m ; slope of conductivity of 1.6 W/m.K. The two sides of the wall
dx
temperature curve on T–x diagram, are maintained at 1400 K and 1100 K, respectively.
k = constant of proportionality, called the What is the rate of heat loss through the wall which is
thermal conductivity of material in W/m.°C 50 cm × 3 m on a side?
or W/m.K. Solution
The minus sign is inserted to make the natural Given : A furnace wall with
heat flow, a positive quantity. According to the second T1 = 1400 K, T2 = 1100 K
law of thermodynamics, the heat energy always flows A = 50 cm × 3 m = 0.5 × 3 = 1.5 m2
in the direction of decreasing temperature, thus the tem- k = 1.6 W/m.K
perature gradient dT/dx becomes negative. L = 15 cm = 0.15 m.
A simple case of one dimensional steady state
heat flow through a plane wall is shown in Fig. 1.2. For
constant thermal conductivity k and heat transfer area W
k = 1.6 ——
A, equation (1.8) can be written as ; T1 = 1400 K
m·K
Q
dx = – kdT
A
T2 = 1100 K
L = 15 cm
T
Fig. 1.3. Schematic of furnace wall

To find : Heat loss through the wall.
T(x) dT Assumptions :
T1
1. Steady state conditions.
Q Q
A 2. One dimensional heat conduction through the
T2 wall.
3. Constant properties.
0 x
Analysis : According to Fourier law of heat con-
dx duction, equation (1.9)
L (T1 − T2 )
Q = kA
L
Fig. 1.2. One dimensional steady state Using numerical values
conduction through a plane wall
(1.6 W/m.K) × (1.5 m 2 ) × (1400 K − 1100 K)
Integrating above equation within the limits as ; Q=
(0.15 m)
Q
A z
0
L
dx = – k zT1
T2
dT
= 4800 W. Ans.
Example 1.2. To determine thermal conductivity of
Q hydrogen, a hollow tube with a heating wire concentric
or L = – k(T2 – T1) to the tube is often used. Essentially the gas between the
A
wire and the wall is a hollow cylinder and an electric
(T1 − T2 ) current passing through the wire acts as a heat source.
or Q=kA ...(1.9) Determine thermal conductivity of the gas, using follow-
L
ing data :
Comparing with equation (1.8), the temperature
gradient is linear and is given by T1 = wire temperature = 200°C,
T2 = tube wall temperature = 150°C, Q

I = current in the wire = 0.5 A, or = h(Ts – T∞)
q=
A
V = voltage drop over 0.3 m section of wire or Q = hA(Ts – T∞) ...(1.11)
= 3.6 V, where, Ts = surface temperature, °C,
r2 = tube radius = 0.125 cm, T∞ = fluid temperature, °C,
r1 = wire radius = 0.0025 cm, A = surface area for convection heat transfer,
m2,
L = length of the wire = 0.3 m.
h = constant of proportionality, is called
Solution the heat transfer coefficient. It is measured in W/(m2.K)
Given : Hollow cylinder of hydrogen gas with or W/(m2.°C).
T1 = 200°C, T2 = 150°C, I = 0.5 A, y
V = 3.6 V r2 = 0.125 cm,
r1 = 0.0025 cm, L = 0.3 m. Fluid
Fluid temperature
0.125 cm L = 0.3 m profile
T¥
Heater wire
h
Fig. 1.4. Hydrogen filled tube with concentric heating wire

x
To find : Thermal conductivity of hydrogen gas. Plate at Ts
Assumptions :
Fig. 1.5. Temperature profile in convection heat transfer
1. Steady state heat conduction.
2. Heat conduction in radial direction only. The value of heat transfer coefficient depends on
3. Constant properties. the properties of fluid as well as fluid flow conditions.
Fig. 1.5 shows a temperature profile in convection heat
Analysis : The Fourier law of heat conduction for
transfer. Table 1.1 shows typical values of heat transfer
radial system is given as ;
coefficient for some fluid flow conditions.
Q dT
=–k TABLE 1.1. Typical values of heat transfer
A dr
where, A = 2πrL coefficient h
and Q = VI = (3.6 V) × (0.5 A) = 1.8 W
z z
Fluid flow condition h (W/m2.K)
Q r2 dr T2
Air (1 bar, free convection) 6 – 30
Hence =–k dT
2πL r1 r T1
Air (1 bar, forced convection) 10 – 200
Q FG IJ = – k(T
r
ln 2
Water (free convection) 500 – 1000
or
2 πL H K
r1 2 – T1) Water (forced convection)
Vapourisation of water
600
2500
–
–
8000
1,00,000
Q ln(r2 /r1 )
or k= Condensation of steam 4000 – 25,000
2πL (T1 − T2 )
Substituting numerical values, Example 1.3. Hot air at 150°C flows over a flat plate
maintained at 50°C. The forced convection heat transfer
(1.8 W) × ln(0.125/0.0025)
k= coefficient is 75 W/m2.K. Calculate the heat gain rate by
2π × (0.3 m) × (200°C – 150°C) the plate through an area of 2 m2.
= 0.075 W/m.K. Ans. Solution
1.4.5. Newton’s Law of Cooling Given : Flow of hot air over a flat plate
It is the fundamental law for heat convection and it T∞ = 150°C, Ts = 50°C
states that the rate of heat transfer is directly h = 75 W/m2.K, A = 2 m2.
proportional to the temperature difference between a To find : Heat transfer rate by air to plate.
surface and a fluid, or mathematically Assumptions :
Q (i) Steady state conditions,
∝ (Ts – T∞) (ii) Constant properties,
A
(iii) Heat is transferred by forced convection only. (ii) It is also the net heat flux conducted through
Analysis : According to Newton’s law of cooling the wall, therefore for plane wall
T¥ = 150°C Q k(Ts, o − Ts, i )
q= =
h = 75 W/m .K
2 A L
Ts = 50°C (0.10 W/m.K ) × (16° C − Ts , i )
or (50 W/m2) =
(0.03 m )
Fig. 1.6. Flow over a flat plate
Q = hAs(T∞ – Ts) (50 W/m 2 ) × (0.03 m )
or Ts, i = 16°C –
= (75 W/m2.K) × (2 m2) × (150 – 50) (°C or K) (0.10 W/m.K )
= 15 × 103 W = 15 kW. Ans. = 1°C. Ans.
Example 1.4. A refrigerator stands in a room, where Example 1.5. A hot plate is exposed to an environment
air temperature is 21°C. The surface temperature on the at 100°C. The temperature profile of the environment
outside of the refrigerator is 16°C. The sides are 30 mm fluid is given as T(°C) = 60 + 40 y + 0.1 y2. The thermal
thick and has an equivalent thermal conductivity of conductivity of the plate material is 40 W/m.K. Calculate
0.10 W/m.K. The heat transfer coefficient on the outside the heat transfer coefficient.
is 10 W/m2.K. Assume one dimensional conduction Solution
through the sides, calculate the net heat flow rate and
the inside surface temperature of the refrigerator. Given : A hot plate exposed to an environment
T = (60 + 40 y + 0.1 y2)°C
Solution
k = 40 W/m.K
Given : Heat transfer from a refrigerator wall.
T∞ = 100°C
T∞ = 21°C, Ts, o = 16°C,
L = 30 mm = 0.03 m,
k = 0.10 W/m.K, h = 10 W/m2.K. Q conv.
To find : (i) Net heat flow rate, and T¥ = 100°C

(ii) Inside surface temperature of refrigerator. TS
Assumptions :
dy
2. 1 m2 surface area normal to heat transfer.
Fig. 1.8. Schematic for example 1.5
L = 30 mm
To find : Heat transfer coefficient.
Analysis : Assuming steady state conditions, the
k= energy balance for the plate.
0.10 W/m.K
T¥= 21°C Heat conduction through plate = Heat convection
Outside from the plate
q
Inside
2 or Qcond = Qconv
h = 10 W/m .K
dT
i.e., – kA = hA (Ts – T∞) ...(i)
dy y=0
Ts, i Ts, o = 16°C
where, Ts = temperature of the plate surface,
(a) Refrigerator (b) Cross-section of wall i.e., at y = 0,
Fig. 1.7 Ts = 60 + 40 × 0 + 0.1 × (0)2 = 60°C
Analysis : (i) The convective heat flux is given as; dT LM OP
= 40 + 0.1 × 2 y
q=
Q
= h(T∞ – Ts, o)
and dy y=0 N Q y=0
= 40°C/m
A Using numerical values in eqn. (i)
= (10 W/m2.K) × (21°C – 16°C) Then
= 50 W/m2. Ans. (– 40 W/m.K) × (40°C/m) = h(60°C – 100°C)
Consider a surface of emissivity ε is maintained

( − 40 W/m.K ) × (40° C/m)
or h= at temperature Ts and exchanges energy by convection
− 40° C and radiation with its surroundings at temperature T∞
= 40 W/m2.K. Ans. as shown in Fig. 1.9. The rate of heat loss from the
surface by combined mechanisms of convection and
1.4.6. The Stefan Boltzmann Law of Thermal Radiation
radiation can be expressed as :
It states that the rate of the radiation heat transfer per
unit area from a black surface is directly proportional Q = hc A(Ts – T∞) + ε σ A(Ts4 – T∞4)
to fourth power of the absolute temperature of the ...(1.15)
surface and is given by Introducing the radiation or surface heat transfer
Q Q coefficient (hr) in very similar to convection heat transfer
∝ Ts4 or = σTs4 ...(1.12) coefficient :
A A
Q = hr A(Ts – T∞) …(1.16)
where, Ts = absolute temperature of the surface, K
σ = constant of proportionality, is called the Equating with equation (1.14),
Stefan Boltzmann constant and has a A σ ε (Ts4 – T∞4) = hr A(Ts – T∞)
value of 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4.
The heat flux emitted by a real surface is less ε σ (Ts4 − T∞4 )
we get hr =
than that of black surface and is given by (Ts − Τ∞ )
Q = ε σ (Ts2 – T2∞ ) (Ts + T∞) …(1.17)
= σ ε (Ts4) (W/m2) ...(1.13)
A
If T∞ << Ts, the result is linearised as ;
where, ε = a radiative property of the surfaces and is
called the emissivity. hr = ε σ Ts3 …(1.18)
The net rate of radiation heat exchange between Using the radiation heat transfer coefficient, the
a real surface and its surroundings is expression can be written as ;
Q Q = hc A(Ts – T∞) + hr A(Ts – T∞) ...(1.19)
= σ ε (Ts4 – T∞4) ...(1.14)
A or Q = (hc + hr) A (Ts – T∞) ...(1.20)
where, T∞ = surrounding temperature, K where hc and hr are the convection and radiation heat
Ts = surface temperature, K transfer coefficients, respectively.
The three other radiation laws, Plank’s law, Example 1.6. A black surface is positioned in a vacuum
Wein’s displacement law and Kirchhoff ’s law are also container so that it absorbs incident solar radiant energy
used in radiation heat transfer. at the rate of 950 W/m2. If the surface conducts no heat
to its surroundings, determine its equilibrium
1.5. COMBINED CONVECTIVE AND RADIATION temperature.
HEAT TRANSFER Solution
Given : A black surface absorbs solar energy in
In many engineering applications, if the surface
vacuum
temperature is high enough then the heat transfer from
q = 950 W/m2.
a surface may take place simultaneously by convection
and radiation to the surroundings. To find : The equilibrium temperature of the
surface.
Qconv Assumptions :
T¥ 1. The surface is perfectly black.
Rconv
Q 2. No heat loss by conduction and convection.
Ts
Qrad 3. Stefan Boltzmann’s constant,
T¥ σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4.
Rrad Analysis : The radiant heat flux for a black surface
can be expressed as ;
Fig. 1.9. Schematic for convection and radiation
resistances at the surface q = σ Ts4
FG q IJ
1/4 1.5.1. Equation of State
or Ts =
H σK It is the relation between the properties of an ideal gas.
The perfect gas law is used in convection heat transfer,
= M
L 950 W/m 2 OP 1/ 4
which is :
N 5.67 × 10 W/m .K Q
–8 2 4 p
ρ
= RT ...(1.21)
= 359.78 K
where, p = gas pressure in kN/m2,
The equilibrium temperature of black surface will
ρ = gas density in kg/m3,
be,
R = specific gas constant in kJ/kg.K,
Ts = 86.78°C. Ans.
(= 0.287 kJ/kg.K for air)
Example 1.7. A black body at 30°C is heated to 100°C. T = absolute temperature of gas in K.
Calculate the increase in its emissive power.
1.6. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Solution
Given : A black body emission The thermal conductivity is the property of materials
T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K, and is defined as the ability of the materials to conduct
the heat through it. By inspection of equation (1.9),
T2 = 100 + 273 = 373 K.
thermal conductivity can be interpreted as the rate of
To find : The increase in emissive power.
heat transfer through a unit thickness of material per
Assumptions : unit area per unit temperature difference. The thermal
1. Stefan Boltzmann’s constant, conductivity of a material is a measure of how fast heat
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4. will flow in that material. The large value of thermal
2. No heat loss by conduction and convection. conductivity indicates that the material is a good heat
Analysis : The radiant heat flux or emissive power conductor and low value indicates that the material is a
for a black surface can be expressed as ; poor heat conductor or an insulator.
Eb = σTs4 The thermal conductivity is measured in watts per
Hence the increase in emissive power of a black metre per degree Celsius or Watt per metre per kelvin,
body can be calculated as ; when heat flow rate is expressed in watts. The thermal
Eb2 – Eb1 = σ(T24 – T14) conductivity of a substance is highest in solid phase and
lowest in gaseous phase. Fig. 1.10 shows typical range of
or Eb2 – Eb1 = (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4)
thermal conductivity of various materials at 20°C.
× [(373 K)4 – (303 K)4]
2 The value of thermal conductivity depends upon
= 619.62 W/m . Ans. the manner in which energy is transferred. The pure
Example 1.8. The surface temperature of a central metals allow faster transmission of heat energy through
heating radiator is 60°C. What is the net black body the vibrations of the crystal lattices. Therefore, a metal
radiation heat transfer unit surface area between the in pure state has the maximum thermal conductivity
radiator and its surroundings at 20° ? and is a good conductor of heat. The thermal conductivity
Take σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4 decreases with increasing amount of impurities in the
metals. Most non-metals are poor conductor of heat
Solution
transfer, therefore, have low values of thermal
Given : Central heating radiator as black body conductivity and are called the thermal insulators.
with In gases, the faster the molecules move, the faster,
Ts = 60°C = 333 K, T∞ = 20°C = 293 K. they will transport energy. Therefore, the thermal
To find : Radiation heat transfer conductivity of gases depends on the square root of
Analysis : The black body radiation heat transfer absolute temperature. The thermal conductivities of
rate per unit area between radiator surface and its some typical gases are given in Table 1.2.
surroundings is expressed as ; The physical mechanism of heat conduction in
Q liquids is also same as in gases, however, the mechanism
q= = σ (Ts4 – T∞4) is slightly complex due to close spacing of molecules and
A
= (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4) molecular attraction force exerts a strong influence on
× [(333 K)4 – (293 K)4] energy exchange in collision process. The thermal con-
ductivity of liquids usually lies between those of solids
= 5.67 × 10 × 4.9263 × 109
–8
and gases. The value of thermal conductivity for some
= 279.32 W/m2. Ans. standard liquids is also given in Table 1.2.
Non-metallic
crystals
Diamond
1000 Pure
Graphite metals
Silver Metal
Silicon Copper
Carbide alloys
100 Aluminium
alloys Non-
Iron metals
Thermal conductivity, k (W/m. K)
Bronze Oxides
Steel
Quartz
10 Manganese
Nichrome Liquids
Rock
Mercury
Food
1 Water Insulators
Fibres
Rubber
Oils Gases
Wood
0.1 H2
He
Foams Air
CO2
0.01
Fig. 1.10. Typical range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature
TABLE 1.2. Typical values of thermal conductivities at 20°C
Material Thermal conductivity, k (W/m.K)
Metals :
Diamond 2300
Silver 429
Copper (pure) 401
Gold 317
Aluminium (pure) 237
Iron (pure) 73
Carbon steel, 1% C 43
Non-metallic solids :
Window glass 0.780
Brick 0.720
Asbestos 0.149
Cork 0.045
Glass wool 0.038
Liquids :
Water 0.556
Ethylene glycol 0.249
Ammonia 0.54
Gases :
Helium 0.152
Air 0.024
Steam 0.0206
Carbon dioxide 0.0146
1.6.1. Variation in Thermal Conductivity The thermal conductivity of alloys generally

The temperature is a measure of kinetic energies of increases as temperature increases. Fig. 1.11 also shows
molecules of a substance. Thus the thermal conductivity the variation of thermal conductivity of stainless steel
of materials varies with the temperature. It may also with temperature.
change with pressure in fluids. (ii) Non-metals. Due to absence of free electrons
in non-metals, the heat conduction is only due to lattice
Effect of Temperature vibration. As temperature increases, the number of
Solids. The solids are classified into two groups : collisions per unit time increases ; hence, the rate of
(i) Metals and (ii) Non-metals. heat flow increases in non-metals. Thus the thermal
(i) Metals. The heat energy may be conducted in conductivity of non-metals increases with increase in
the metals by two mechanisms : migration of free electrons the temperature.
and lattice vibrations. These two effects are additive. In Liquids. For most of the liquids, the thermal
general, the presence of the electron gas (large free conductivity decreases with increase in the temperature.
electrons) in metals, makes it a good conductor of heat, But water and glycerine are the exceptional cases. The
but the conduction also takes place due to vibrational thermal conductivity of liquids is independent of
energy in lattice structure. The flow of free electrons in pressure. As a general rule, the thermal conductivity of
metal results in an increase in value of thermal liquids decreases with increasing molecular weight. The
conductivity several times. But at the same time, due to value of thermal conductivity of liquids are taken from
increase in temperature, the vibration of the molecules Table 1.2 as function of temperature in saturated state
in the metals becomes violent and they obstruct the flow and plotted in Fig. 1.12.
of free electrons and contribution to the heat conduction 0.8
by free electrons decreases. Thus it may result in net
Thermal conductivity, k (W/m.K)

Water
decrease in the heat flow. Hence, for most of metals, the
value of thermal conductivity decreases as temperature 0.6
increases. Fig. 1.11 shows the variaton of thermal
Ammonia
conductivity with temperature for few solids.
0.4
500
400 Silver
0.2
300 Copper Engine
oil
200 Aluminium Gold Freon-12
200 300 400 500
Thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
Tungsten Temperature (K)

100
Platinum Fig. 1.12. Effect of temperature on thermal
50 conductivity of selected
Iron
20 Stainless steel, 0.3

AISI 304 H2
rcury
Thermal conductivity, k (W/m. K)
10 Me
He
Aluminium
oxide
5 0.2
Pyroceram
Fused
2 quartz
1
100 300 500 1000 2000 4000 0.1 )
Steam (1atm
Temperature (K)
CO2
Fig. 1.11. Effect of temperature on thermal Air
Freon-12
conductivity of selected solids
0 200 400 600 800 1000
The thermal conductivity of mercury increases Temperature (K)
with increase in temperature is an exceptional case of Fig. 1.13. Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity of
metals. selected gases at normal pressure
Gases. For the gases, the molecules are in α may be negative or positive as shown in Fig. 1.15,
continuous random motion. As temperature increases, depending upon whether thermal conductivity increases
velocities of molecules become higher than in some lower or decreases with rise in temperature. The constant α
temperature region. The molecules move from high is usually positive for non-metals and insulating
temperature region to a region of low temperature and materials and negative for most of the metals.
give up its energy through collisions to lower energy
molecules. Thus the thermal conductivity of gases
T(x)
increases with increase in temperature and it is pro- T1
a=0
portional to square root of the absolute temperature. It
a<0
is also affected by change in pressure and humidity. Q
a>0
1.6.2. Determination of Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity, k can be defined by Fourier T2
law, equation (1.8)
(Q/A) x
k=– ...(1.22)
(dT/dx) L
This equation is used for determination of thermal Fig. 1.15. Variation of thermal conductivity
with temperature
conductivity of a material. A layer of solid material of
thickness L and area A is heated from one side by an With a variable thermal conductivity, Fourier law
electric resistance heater as shown in Fig. 1.14. If the of heat conduction through a plane wall can be expressed
outer surface of heater is perfectly insulated, then all the as ;
heat generated by resistance heater will be transferred
Q dT dT
through the exposed layer of material. When steady state =–k = – k0(1 + αT) ...(1.25)
condition is reached, the temperature of two surfaces of A dx dx
material T1 and T2 are measured and thermal Q
conductivity of material is determined by relation or dx = – k0(1 + αT) dT
A
Integrating both sides within the boundary
Sample
Insulation conditions :
z z
material
T1
Q L T2
dx = – k0 (1 + αT) dT
Resistance T2 A 0 T1
heater
Q=W
or
Q
(L – 0) = – k0 T + α
T2 LM OP T2
A 2 N Q T1
A k0 A LM(T − T1 ) + α
(T2 2 − T12 ) OP
or Q=–
MN PQ
L
2
L 2
Rearranging
Fig. 1.14. Experimental set-up for determination of thermal
conductivity k0 A(T1 − T2 ) α LM OP
k=
QL
...(1.23)
Q=
L
1 + (T1 + T2 )
2 N Q
A (T1 − T2 )
km A(T1 − T2 )
1.6.3. Variable Thermal Conductivity or Q=
L
For many materials, the thermal conductivity can be
where, km = k0 1 + LM α OP ...(1.26)
approximated as a linear function of temperature over
limited range and it is expressed as ; N 2
(T1 + T2 )
Q
The quantity km represents the mean value of
k = k0(1 + αT) ...(1.24)
thermal conductivity evaluated at arithmetic mean
where, k0 is the value of thermal conductivity at some
reference temperature and α is an empirical constant, T1 + T2 FG IJ
dT
whose value depends on material. The value of constant
temperature
2 H
. The term
dxK in eqn. (1.25)
represents the slope of the temperature profile for the Analysis : According to Fourier law of heat
conducting medium. Mathematically, the slope is : conduction
dT
= −
LM Q OP ...(1.27)
Q
=q=–k
dT
dx N
k0 (1 + αT)A Q A dx
dT
(i) When constant α = 0, the equation (1.24) or q = – k0(1 + bT + cT2)
dx
reduces to k = k0 and thermal conductivity does not or qdx = – k0(1 + bT + cT2) dT
change with temperature. The slope of curve is constant
and the temperature profile is linear.
(ii) When constant α > 0, the slope or temperature
profile follows a positive curved line along the material
thickness. Therefore, the thermal conductivity increases T1
with increase in temperature and vise versa. k = k0(1 + bT + cT )
2
(iii) When constant α < 0, the slope or temperature

profile follows a negative curved line along the material
thickness. Therefore, the thermal conductivity T2
decreases with increase in temperature and vise versa.
L
1.7. ISOTROPIC MATERIAL AND ANISOTROPIC

MATERIAL Fig. 1.16. Schematic for example 1.9
If the thermal conductivity of a material does not vary Integrating both sides,
with change in direction or its value is same in all
directions then material is called the isotropic material.
If the thermal conductivity of the material depends on
q z
0
L
dx = – k0 z T2
T1
(1 + bT + cT2) dT
the direction of the heat flow, the material is called

anisotropic material. There are some materials in which or q(L – 0) = – k0 T + b
LM T2
+c
T3 OP T2
thermal conductivity depends upon directions. For N 2 3 Q T1

example, the thermal conductivity of wood in the
direction of grains is different from that in the transverse k0 RS b c
(T2 − T1 ) + (T22 − T12 ) + (T23 − T13 )
UV
direction. So wood is an anisotropic material.
or q = –
L T 2 3 W
Rearranging
Example 1.9. The thermal conductivity of a plane wall
varies as : k0 (T1 − T2 ) b RS c
1 + [T1 + T2 ] + [T12 + T1T2 + T22 ] .
UV
k = k0(1 + bT + cT2)
q=
L 2 T 3 W
If the wall thickness is L and surface temperatures Proved.
are maintained at T1 and T2 , show that the heat flux q Example 1.10. A plane wall of fireclay brick, 25 cm thick
through the wall is given by : is having temperatures 1350°C and 50°C on two sides.
RS
k0 (T1 − T2 ) b c
1 + [T1 + T2 ] + [T12 + T1T2 + T22 ]
UV The thermal conductivity of fireclay varies as ;
q=
L T 2 3 W k = 0.838 (1 + 0.0007 T),
where T is in degree celcius.
Solution Calculate the heat loss per square metre through
Given : The relation for variable thermal conduc- the wall.
tivity as ;
Solution
k = k0(1 + bT + cT2).
Given : A plane wall with variable thermal
Assumptions :
conductivity
1. k0 is constant.
L = 25 cm = 0.25 m, T1 = 1350°C,
2. Steady state conditions. T2 = 50°C
3. One dimensional heat conduction. k = 0.838(1 + 0.0007 T).
To find : Heat loss per sq m through the wall. T2
ro = 10 cm
T1 = 1350°C T1
k(T) p/2 cm
Q = 50
Sector of circle L
T2 = 50°C Fig. 1.18. Schematic for example 1.11

L = 25 cm
Solution
Given : A metal piece in the form of a sector of a
Fig. 1.17. Schematic of plane wall of example 1.10 circle
Assumptions : L = 50 cm = 0.5 m, ro = 10 cm = 0.1 m,
1. Steady state heat conduction. θ = π/2 = 90°, k = 111.63 (1 – 1 × 10–4 T)
2. One dimensional heat conduction.
T1 = 100°C = 373 K, T2 = 20°C = 293 K.
Analysis : According to Fourier law of heat
conduction To find : Heat loss from the cylindrical sector in
axial direction.
Q dT
=–k Assumptions :
A dx
Q 1. Steady state heat conduction.
or dx = – 0.838 × (1 + 0.0007 T) dT 2. Heat transfer in axial direction only.
A
Integrating both sides within the boundary 3. In expression of thermal conductivity, the
conditions : scale of temperature is not mentioned thus assuming
Q
A z
0
L
dx = – 0.838 × z T2
T1
(1 + 0.0007 T) dT
kelvin scale for temperature.
Analysis : The area of cylindrical piece :
Q LM
T2 F I OP T2 πro2 π(0.1 m) 2
or
A
(L – 0) = – 0.838 × T + 0.0007
MN
2 GH JK PQ A=
4
=
4
= 7.854 × 10–3 m2
T1
Fourier law,
Q 0.838 RS
× (T2 − T1 ) +
0.0007
× (T2 2 − T12 )
UV Q dT
or
A
=–
L T 2 W A
=−k
dx
Using numerical values or Q dx = – 111.63 × 7.854 × 10–3
Q 0.838 × (1 – 10–4 T) dT
=– × [(50 – 1350) + 0.00035
A 0.25 Integrating both sides within boundary conditions
z z
× (502 – 13502)]
L T2
= 6492.82 W. Ans. Q dx = – 0.8767 × (1 – 1 × 10–4 T) dT
0 T1
Example 1.11. A metal piece, 50 cm long is in the form
of a sector of a circle of radius 10 cm and includes an
L
Q L = – 0.8767 × MT − 1 × 10 G
F T I OP 2
T2
H 2 JK PQ
angle of π/2. The thermal conductivity of the metal piece or
−4
varies as ; MN T1
k = k0(1 + αT)
where, k0 = 111.63 W/m.K and α = – 1 × 10–4 W/m.K2.
L
= – 0.8767 × M(T − T ) − 1 × 10
−4
Calculate the heat transfer rate, when the two ends

MN 2 1
of the metal piece are maintained at temperatures of FT −T

×G
2 2
I OP
100°C and 20°C. Assume heat flow takes place in axial H 2
2 1
JK PQ
direction only.
Using numerical values : Integrating and rearranging, we get

Q × 0.5 = – 0.8767
Q LMα OP (T1 − T2 )
LM F 293 2
− 373 2 I OP A
= k0 × 1 + × (T1 + T2 )
N2 Q L
× (293 − 373) – 1 × 10–4 ×
N GH JK PQ
2
= 0.28 × 1 +
LM 0.035
b
× 200 + 50 gOPQ
or Q=–
0.8767 × ( − 80 + 2.664) N 2
0.5 (200 − 50)
×
= 135.6 W. Ans. 1.2
Example 1.12. A pipe carrying pressurised water is = 188.125 W/m2.
located in a 1.2 m thick brick wall, whose surfaces are Further, if x is the distance from the hot surface
held at constant temperatures of 200°C and 50°C, in the wall, where temperature, T3 = 125°C, then heat
flow rate can be expressed by replacing T2 by T3 and L
respectively. It is required to locate the pipe in the wall
by x ;
where temperature should not exceed 125°C. Find how
far from the hot surface the pipe should be imbeded ? Q
= 188.125
The thermal conductivity of wall material (brick) varies A
with temperature as ;
= 0.28 × 1 +
LM 0.035
× (200 + 125 )
OP
and
k = 0.28 (1 + 0.035 T) W/m.K, where T is in °C.
k = k0(1 + αT).
N 2 Q
(200 − 125)
Solution ×
x
Given : A pressurised water pipe is located in a
140.44 140.44
brick wall as shown in Fig. 1.19 = or x =
x 188.125
Thickness of wall,
= 0.75 m from left. Ans.
L = 1.2 m
Temperature of wall surfaces, 1.8. INSULATION MATERIALS
T1 = 200°C, T2 = 50°C
There are many situations in engineering applications,
Allowed pipe temperature, when the heat flow rate from a system has to be reduced.
T3 = 125°C Such cases include lagging on heat pipes, a thermos
Thermal conductivity, bottle, ruberisation on electrical cables, etc. An
k = 0.28 (1 + 0.035 T) W/m.K. industrial furnace is provided with innermost layer with
refractory bricks, one or two layers of insulating bricks,
and outer layer with ordinary bricks. All these layers
form a thermal insulation to the furnace. Thus a thermal
Pipe
T1 k = f(T) insulation is a material or combination of materials,
200°C which is mainly used to minimise the heat flow to or
Q
T3
Q from a system.
x
Q Q Thermal insulations are put on the surfaces
50°C T2 exposed to certain environment. They offer a strong
thermal resistance in the path of heat flow. An insulation
reduces the total heat transfer rate from a system. It
L = 1.2 m does not only minimise conduction rate, but also
minimises convection and radiation heat transfer rates.
Fig. 1.19. Schematic for example 1.12 Thermal insulation material must have a very
To find : The location of pipe in the wall. low value of thermal conductivity. It should also be
Analysis : The steady state heat transfer rate per chemically inert, dimensionally stable, and easily
unit area, through wall. available in form, suitable for application on the
surfaces. It should also be cheap and light. In most of
Q dT dT the cases, the thermal insulators are manufactured by
=−k = − k0 (1 + αT)
A dx dx mixing fibre, powders or flakes of insulating materials
with air. The air is trapped inside small cavities of contents. Fig. 1.21 shows the ranges of effective thermal
solids. The same effect can also be produced by filling conductivity for evacuated and non evacuated insulat-
the space across which heat flow is to be minimised with ions.
small solid particles and trapping the air between them.
A gas has very poor thermal conductivity. Commercial Conduction
insulators are ceramics (e.g., insulating bricks), rock- Convection Radiation
wool, gypsum and polymeric (expanded polyurethane,
expanded polystyrene etc.) materials. These materials
are highly porous, or have a high void volume filled with
an inert gas.
The heat transfer through an insulation is by
conduction through the solid material, and by
conduction and convection through the air space as well
as by radiation as shown in Fig. 1.20. Such insulation
materials are characterised by an apparent thermal
conductivity keff.. It is an effective value that accounts
for all mechanisms of heat transfer and it should not
change with temperature, pressure and moisture Fig. 1.20. Heat transfer through an insulating material
Evacuated Non-evacuated
Powders, fibres,
foams, cork, etc.
Powders, fibres,
and foams
Opacified powders
and fibres
Multilayer
insulations
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
10 10 10 10 10 1.0
Effective thermal conductivity keff (W/m.K)
Fig. 1.21. Range of thermal conductivities of thermal insulations
Insulating materials are classified into three cellular materials are polyurethane, expanded polysty-
categories : rene, cellular glass, and cellular silica, etc.
1. Fibrous. The fibrous insulations are obtained 3. Granular. Granular insulations consist of
by mixing small particles or flakes of low density small flakes or particles of inorganic materials, bonded
materials with air. The material is poured into small into some common shapes or used as powders. For
gaps as loose fill or formed into boards or blankets. example, asbestos, perlite powder, diatomaceous silica
Fibrous materials have very high porosity. Mineral wool and vermiculite.
is a common fibrous material for application at
1.8.1. Superinsulators
temperature below 700°C and fibrous glass is used for
temperature below 200°C. For temperature range 700°C The insulators with extremely low apparent thermal
to 1700°C, the refractory fibre, such as alumina or silica conductivity (about one thousand of that of air), called
is used. superinsulators and are obtained by using layers of
2. Cellular. Cellular insulations are closed or highly reflective sheets separated by glass fibres in an
open cell materials that are usually in the form of evacuated space. Like a thermos bottle in which the
extended flexible or rigid boards. These can easily be space between the two surfaces is evacuated to
formed or sprayed in the place to achieve desired suppress conduction and convection and inner surface
geometrical shapes. These materials have low density, is coated with reflective layer to prevent the radiation
low heat capacity, and good compressive strength. Some heat transfer, the heat transfer between two surfaces
can also be reduced by placing highly reflective sheets. superinsulators are used in space applications and
The radiation heat transfer is inversely proportional to cryogenics.
the number of such reflective sheets placed between the
1.8.2. Selection of Insulating Materials
surfaces. Very effective insulations are obtained by
using closely packed layers of highly reflective thin The selection and design of a suitable insulation depends
metal sheets such as aluminium foils separated by upon following factors :
fibres made of insulating materials like glass. Further, 1. Thermal conductivity,
the space between the layers is evacuated to form 2. Density of material,
a very strong vacuum to eliminate the conduction 3. Upperlimit of operating temperature,
and convection heat transfer through the air space. 4. Structural rigidity,
The resulting materials have an apparent thermal 5. Degradation rate,
conductivity below 2 × 10–5 W/m.K, which is one 6. Chemical stability,
thousand times less than the conductivity of air or 7. Cost, i.e., economic thickness of insulation.
any common insulating material. These specially The range of thermal conductivities for common
built insulators are called superinsulators. The temperature insulating materials is given in Table 1.3.
TABLE 1.3. Some insulating materials with their range
of operating temperatures
Insulating materials Max. operating Density Thermal conductivity
temperature (K) (kg/m3) (W/m.K)
Asbestos fibre 420 190–300 0.078–0.098
Cellular glass 700 145 0.046–0.079
Diatomaceous 1145 345 0.92–0.104
Alumina silica fibre 1530 48 0.071–0.15
Magnesia 85% 590 185 0.051–0.061
Polystyrene 350 16–56 0.023–0.040
Mineral fibres 922–1255 430–560 0.071–0.137
1.8.3. The R-Value of Insulation new and more effective materials are developed and use
For building materials, the effectiveness of insulation of insulation is considerably increased. The walls and
is characterised by a term called R-value. The R-value roofs of our house are also applied with some insulation
is the thermal resistance of material for a unit area and like plaster of paris, etc., to minimise the heat transfer
it is the ratio of thickness and effective thermal rate with its surroundings.
conductivity of the material. That is : When an insulation layer is put on a heating
system, the heat loss from the system reduces. The cost
Thickness L of insulation material adds the system cost, while cost
R-value = =
Effective thermal conductivity k eff of reduction in heat loss reduces the operating cost.
...(1.28) Therefore, the cost of insulation material is subsidised
by saving in energy cost. Insulation pays for itself from
The R-value is generally given in English unit
the energy it saves.
h.ft2. °F/Btu.
The insulating material has certain period of
For example, R-value of 6″ thick glass fibre service. Over the service life of the insulation material,
insulation (keff = 0.025 Btu/h.ft2.°F) is designated as R-20 the thickness of insulation at which the sum of cost of
insulation by builders, i.e., insulation and cost of heat loss is minimum as shown in
6″ × (1/12) ft Fig. 1.22, is referred to as economic thickness of
L
R-value = = insulation. If the thickness of insulation is more than
keff 0.025 Btu/h.ft 2 . ° F
the economic thickness, the cost of insulation will not
= 20 h.ft2. °F/Btu. compensate the energy it saves. Thickness of insulation
is controlled by density of material. As density of
1.8.4. Economic Thickness of Insulation material increases, the required thickness of insulation
The energy crisis of 1970s had a tremendous impact on decreases for same thermal effect. If the layer after layer
energy awareness and energy conservation. Since then, of insulation is applied over a surface, the heat transfer
reduces gradually. The inner layer saves more heat than Solution
outer one. A limiting thickness of insulation balances Given : A furnace wall exposed to convection
the cost of energy saved and cost of insulation itself. environment on one side.
This particular critical layer is called optimum
insulation thickness. k = 1.35 W/m.K
The optimum thickness of insulation can be L = 200 mm = 0.2 m
obtained by plotting a graph of value of heat loss and T1 = 1400°C
cost of insulation against the thickness of insulation.
T∞ = 40°C
h = 7.85 + 0.08 (∆T) (W/m2.K)
t
os
nc
T1
Combined cost
tio
ula
Co
Cost
st o Ins
fh
ea h = f(T)
t lo
ss Q
T¥
T2
Economic thickness
Insulation thickness L
Fig. 1.22. Economic thickness of insulation
Fig. 1.23. Schematic of a furnace wall
To find : Heat flux.
1.9. THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
Analysis : Steady state heat transfer rate per unit
Thermal diffusivity is an important thermophysical area
property. It is the ratio of thermal conductivity k of the k(T1 − T2 )
medium to heat capacity ρC. It is denoted by α, and q= = h(T2 – T∞)
measured in m2/s. L
k 1.35 × (1400 − T2 )
α= ...(1.29) or = [7.85 + 0.08 (T2 – 40)] × (T2 – 40)
ρC 0.2
The thermal conductivity k indicates how well a or 9450 – 6.75 T2 = 7.85 T2 – 314 + 0.08 (T2 – 40)2
material can conduct heat and the heat capacity ρC
= 7.85 T2 – 314 + 0.08
represents how much energy a material can store per
unit volume. Therefore, the thermal diffusivity of a × (T22 – 80 T2 + 1600)
material is viewed as the ratio of the heat conducted
= 7.85 T2 – 314 + 0.08 T22
through the material to the heat stored per unit volume.
In other words, the thermal diffusivity of a material is – 6.4 T2 + 128
associated with the propagation of heat energy into the Rearranging, 0.08 T22 + 8.2 T2 – 9636 = 0
medium during the change of temperature with time.
The higher the thermal diffusivity, faster the propaga- − 8.2 + (8.2) 2 + 4 × 0.08 × 9636
tion of heat into the medium. or T2 =
2 × 0.08
Example 1.13. The inside temperature of a furnace wall
(k = 1.35 W/m.K), 200 mm thick, is 1400°C. The heat = 299.57°C
transfer coefficient at the outside surface is a function of The heat flow rate per unit area
temperature difference and is given by k
h = 7.85 + 0.08 ∆T (W/m2.K) q= (T1 – T2)
L
where ∆T is the temperature difference between outside 1.35
wall surface and surroundings. Determine the rate of = × (1400 – 299.57)
0.2
heat transfer per unit area, if the surrounding tempera-
= 7427.88 W. Ans.
ture is 40°C.
Example 1.14. An uninsulated steam pipe is passed Example 1.15. A horizontal plate (k = 30 W/m.K)
through a room in which air and walls are at 25°C. The 600 mm × 900 mm × 30 mm is maintained at 300°C.
outer diameter of the pipe is 50 mm and surface The air at 30°C flows over the plate. If the convection
temperature and emissivity are 500 K and 0.8, coefficient of air over the plate is 22 W/m2.K and 250 W
respectively. If the free convection heat transfer heat is lost from the plate by radiation. Calculate the
coefficient is 15 W/m2.K, what is the rate of heat loss bottom surface temperature of the plate. (P.U., Dec. 2008)
from the surface per unit length of pipe ? Solution
Solution Given : A horizontal plate as shown in Fig. 1.25.
Given : An uninsulated pipe exposed to room air k = 30 W/m.K, A = 600 mm × 900 mm
T∞ = Tw = 25°C = 298 K Ts = 300°C, T∞ = 30°C
Ts = 500 K, D = 50 mm = 0.05 m h = 22 W/m2.K, L = 30 mm = 0.03 m
ε = 0.8, h = 15 W/m2.K. Qrad = 250 W.
0.05 m L
Qrad = 250 W
T¥ = 30°C
Air
Qconv
2
h = 22 W/m .K
2
h = 15 W/m .K e = 0.8
T¥ = 25°C
Ts = 300°C
Fig. 1.24. Schematic of example 1.14
L = 30 mm k = 30 W/m·K
To find : Heat loss per unit length of pipe.
Ti
Assumptions : Qcond
Fig. 1.25. Schematic of horizontal plate, conducting,
2. Heat loss by radiation and convection only. convecting and radiating heat
3. Stefan Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.67 × 10–8 To find : Temperature of bottom surface of the plate.
W/m .K4.
2
Assumptions :
4. Constant properties. 1. Steady state conditions.
Analysis : 2. One dimensional heat conduction in the plate.
(i) Heat loss from the pipe by convection is given 3. Constant properties.
by
Analysis : The surface area of the plate
Qconv = hAs(Ts – T∞) = h(πDL)(Ts – T∞)
A = 600 mm × 900 mm
Q conv
or = 15 × (π × 0.05) × (500 – 298) = 5.40 × 105 mm2 = 0.54 m2
L
= 476 W/m Making the energy balance for the plate :
(ii) Heat loss per unit length of pipe by radiation Rate of heat conduction = Rate of heat convec-
is given by tion + Rate of heat radiation
Q rad or Qcond = Qconv + Qrad
= σε(πD)(Ts4 – T∞4) kA (Ti − Ts )
L or = hA(Ts – T∞) + 250
= 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.8 × (π × 0.05) L
× (5004 – 2984) Using numerical values :
= 389.13 W/m 30 × 0.54 × (Ti − 300)
= 22 × 0.54
Total heat loss from pipe surface per unit length : 0.03
× (300 – 30) + 250
Q Q conv Q rad
= + 0.03
L L L or Ti – 300 = × (3207.6 + 250)
30 × 0.54
= 476 + 389.13
or Ti = 300 + 6.40 = 306.4°C. Ans.
= 865.13 W/m. Ans.
Example 1.16. A black metal plate (k = 25 W/m.K) at at 30°C. The heat transfer coefficient between plate
300°C is exposed to surrounding air at 30°C. It convects surface and air is 20 W/m2.K. The emissivity of the plate
and radiates heat to surroundings. If the convection surface is 0.8. Calculate.
coefficient is 25 W/m2.K, what is the temperature gradient (i) Rate of heat loss by convection.
in the plate ? (ii) Rate of heat loss by radiation.
Solution (iii) Combined convection and radiation heat
Given : An iron plate convects and radiates heat transfer coefficient. (P.U., May 2009)
to surroundings. Solution
k = 25 W/m.K Given : A thin metal plate surface exposed to
Ts = 300°C = 573 K convection and radiation environment.
T∞ = 30°C = 303 K A = 5 m × 3 m = 15 m3
h = 25 W/m2.K. Ts = 300°C = 573 K
Air h = 20 W/m2 . K,
Qrad
2
T∞ = 30°C = 303 K ε = 0.8
h = 25 W/m .K Qconv
To find :
T¥ = 30°C (i) Rate of heat transfer by convection.
Ts = 300°C (ii) Radiation heat transfer rate.
k = 25 W/m.K
(iii) Combined heat transfer coefficient.
Assumption : The Stefan Boltzmann’s constant
Fig. 1.26. Schematic of iron plate
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4.
To find : Temperature gradient in the plate.
Analysis :
Assumptions :
1. Steady state conditions. (i) Convection heat transfer rate from the plate
surface
2. Black metal plate is black body for radiation.
Qconv = hA(Ts – T∞)
3. Stefan Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.67 × 10–8
W/m .K4.
2 = 20 × 15 × (300 – 30)
Analysis : The energy balance for the metal plate = 81,000 W. Ans.
is given as ; (ii) Radiation heat transfer rate from the plate
Heat conducted through the plate Qrad = εσA(Ts4 – T4∞ )
= Heat convection from the surface
= 0.8 × 5.67 × 10–8 × 15
+ Heat radiated from the surface
× (5734 – 3034)
i.e., Qcond = Qconv + Qrad
= 67,612 W. Ans.
dT
or – kA = hA(Ts – T∞) + σA(Ts4 – T∞4) (iii) Combined convection and radiation heat
dx
transfer coefficient
Using numerical values
Total heat transfer rate by convection and
dT radiation
– 25 × = 25 × (573 – 303) + 5.67 × 10–8
dx
Q = Qconv + Qrad
× (5734 – 3034)
= 81,000 + 67,612
= 25 × 270 + 5.67 × 10 × 9.937 × 1010
–8
= 6750 + 5634.34 = 12384.34 = 148, 612 W

dT 12384.34 It can be expressed as :
or =– = – 495.37°C/m. Ans.
dx 25 Q = hcomb A(Ts – T∞ )
Example 1.17. A metal plate with dimension 5 m× 3 m or 148,612 = hcomb × 15 × (300 – 30)
with negligible thickness has a surface temperature of
or hcomb = 36,694 W/m2. Ans.
300°C. One side of it looses heat to the surroundings air
1.10. HEAT TRANSFER IN BOILING AND 1.11. MASS TRANSFER

CONDENSATION Mass transfer is defined as movement of mass due to
concentration difference in a mixture. The concentration
The boiling and condensation are the phase change
difference is the driving potential for the mass transfer.
phenomena with heat transfer. During boiling,
Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as
evaporation and vaporization, the liquid absorbs latent
absorption, evaporation, adsorption, desorption, solvent
heat, gets converted to vapour. Reverse process occurs
extraction, humidification and drying. In many practical
in condensation, where the vapour gets converted into
applications, heat transfer processes occur simulta-
liquid by rejecting its latent heat to some cooling
neously with mass transfer processes and the principles
medium. In all these cases of heat transfer with phase
of mass transfer are very similar to those of heat
change, the temperature remains constant during the
transfer, therefore, the analogy between heat and mass
process. Heat transfer in boiling and condensation is
transfer can easily be established.
characterized by very high values of heat transfer
coefficient at constant temperature and therefore, these
processes of heat transfer are preferred in actual 1.12. SUMMARY
practices. Boiling process takes place in steam
generators, distillation columns and evaporators, while Heat is a form of energy, which transfers due to
the condensation process occurs in the condensers, temperature difference. The heat transfer is a branch
during formation of dew, etc. of thermodynamics, which deals with analysis of rate of
heat transfer, temperature distribution and the nature
The mathematical treatment to actual
of heat transfer taking place in a system.
mechanism of boiling and condensation is very
complicated; therefore, empirical relations are used to During steady state conditions, the rate of heat
calculate the heat transfer coefficient and heat flux. transfer is always constant and the temperature at any
Many useful empirical relations are presented in location does not change with time. In unsteady state,
chapter 11 for estimation of various parameters during the temperature changes with time and position, thus
boiling and condensation processes. the rate of heat transfer varies with time.
TABLE 1.4. Summary of heat transfer rate processes
Mode Mechanism Governing equation Transport property
dT
Conduction Exchange of energy due to q(W/m2) = – k Thermal conductivity
direct molecular interactions dx k(W/m.K)
Convection Diffusion of energy due to q(W/m2) = h(Ts – T∞) Heat transfer coefficient
random molecular motion h(W/m2.K)
plus energy due to bulk
motion (advection)
Radiation Energy transfer by q(W/m2) = ε σ(Ts4 – Tsur4 ) Emissivity ε, or radiation
electromagnetic waves or Q(W) = hr A(Ts – Tsur) heat transfer coeff. hr
TABLE 1.5. Glossary of heat transfer terms

Terms Interpretation
Heat energy A form of energy in transit.
Conduction Energy transfer into the medium due to existence of temperature gradient.
Convection Energy transportation by moving fluid particles from hot region to cold region.
Radiation Emission of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves by the surface.
Emissivity A property of the radiating surface.
Thermal conductivity Ability of the materials, which allows the heat conduction through them.
Heat transfer coefficient A property of the fluid environment associated with heat convection.
Mass transfer Movement of mass due to concentration difference in a mixture.
The thermal insulation is a material or 17. What is the R-value of an insulation ? How is it
combination of materials, which is mainly used to determined ?
minimise the heat flow to or from a system. 18. How does the R-value of an insulation differ from
Thermal diffusivity is the ratio of thermal its thermal resistance ?
conductivity k of the medium and heat capacity ρC. It
19. What is the physical significance of thermal
is denoted by α, and measured in m2/s, i.e., diffusivity ?
k
α=
ρC PROBLEMS
1. Determine the heat flow across a plane wall of 10 cm

REVIEW QUESTIONS thickness with a thermal conductivity of 8.5 W/m.K.
When the surface temperatures are steady and at
1. How does the heat transfer differ from the 200°C and 50°C, the wall area is 2 m2. Also find the
thermodynamics ? temperature gradient in flow direction.
2. How does transient heat transfer differ from steady [Ans. 25500 W, 1500°C/m]
state conduction ? 2. Consider a plane wall 20 cm thick. The inner surface
is kept 400°C, and the outer surface is exposed to an
3. What is heat flux ? How it relates heat transfer rate ?
environment at 800°C with a heat transfer coefficient
4. What are different modes of heat transfer ? Explain of 12 W/(m 2.K). If the temperature of the outer
their potential for occurrence. surface is 685°C, calculate the thermal conductivity
5. How does the heat conduction differ from convection ? of the wall. [Ans. 0.968 W/m.K]
3. A glass window 60 cm × 60 cm is 16 mm thick. If its
6. Prove that convection is not fundamentally different
inside and outside surface temperatures are 20°C
mode of heat transfer. It consists of conduction from
and – 20°C respectively, determine the conduction
the surface to the adjacent layer + energy transfer
heat transfer rate through the window. Take thermal
due to mass transfer + conduction to the adjacent
conductivity of glass as 0.78 W/m.K. [Ans. 702 W]
fluid layer.
4. The wall of a house 7 m wide, 6 m high is made from
7. What are the laws of heat transfer ? 0.3 m thick brick (k = 0.6 W/m.K). The surface
8. State Fourier law of heat conduction and by using it temperature on inside of wall is 26°C and that on
derive an expression for steady state heat conduction outside is 16°C. Find the heat flux and total heat
through a plane wall of thickness L maintains its loss through the wall. [Ans. 20.0 W/m2, 840 W]
two surfaces at temperatures T1 and T2, respectively. 5. Determine steady state heat transfer rate per unit
area through a 3.8 cm thick homogeneous wall with
9. Identify the mode(s) of heat transfer in the following
its two faces maintained at uniform temperature of
cases : 35°C and 25°C. Thermal conductivity of wall
(i) Heat transfer from a room heater, material is 0.19 W/m.K. [Ans. 50 W/m2]
(ii) Hot plate exposed to atmosphere, 6. Calculate rate of heat flow for a red brick wall 5 m
long × 4 m high × 0.25 m thick. Temperature of inner
(iii) Heat loss from thermos flask,
surface is 110°C and that of outer surface is 40°C.
(iv) Cooling of a scooter engine, Thermal conductivity of red brick is 0.7 W/m.K. Also
(v) Heat loss from automobile radiator, calculate the temperature at 20 cm away from the
inner surface of the wall. [Ans. 3920 W, 54°C]
(vi) Heat transfer from sun to a living room.
7. A brass condenser tube [k = 115 W/(m.K)] with an
10. Define thermal conductivity and explain its outside diameter of 2 cm and a thickness of 0.2 cm is
significance in heat transfer. used to condense steam on its outer surface at 50°C
with a heat transfer coefficient of 2000 W/(m2.K).
11. How does the thermal conductivity of liquids and
Cooling water at 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient
gases vary with temperature ?
of 5000 W/(m2.K) flow inside.
12. What are the thermal insulators ? (a) Determine the heat flow rate from the steam to
13. How is the thermal conductivity of plane wall the cooling water per meter of length of the tube.
determined experimentally ? Explain. (b) What would be the heat transfer rate per metre
14. Define isotropic and anisotropic materials. of length of the tube if the outer and the inner
surfaces of the tube were at 50°C and 20°C,
15. Define apparent thermal conductivity. respectively ? Compare this result with (a) and
16. Explain superinsulators. How do they differ from explain the reason for the difference between the
ordinary insulations ? two results. [Ans. (a) 2450 W/m, (b) 97.4 kW/m]
8. A 20 mm dia copper pipe is used to carry heated water. 18. A solid with thermal conductivity 25 W/m.K, has a
The external surface of the pipe is exposed to temperature gradient of – 5°C/cm. Determine the
convection environment at 20°C, with a heat transfer steady state heat flux. If the heat is exchanged by
coefficient of 6 W/m2.K. The pipe surface temperature radiation from the surface (black) to the
is 80°C. Assume black body radiation and calculate surroundings at 30°C, determine the surface
heat loss by convection and radiation.
temperature. [Ans. – 12500 W/m2, 418.6°C]
[Ans. 22.6 W/m, 29.1 W/m]
19. Two black bodies exchange radiation heat, are
9. Determine heat transfer rate through a spherical
maintained at 1500°C and 150°C respectively.
copper shell of thermal conductivity of 386 W/m.K,
Calculate the radiation heat flux due to radiation
inner radius of 20 mm and outer radius of 60 mm.
The inner surface and outer surface temperatures are between them. [Ans. 558.48 kW/m2]
200°C and 100°C, respectively. [Ans. 14551.87 W] 20. A pipe of outer diameter 10 cm and inner diameter
10. A hollow sphere (k = 20 W/m.K) of inside radius 8 cm, whose thermal conductivity is expressed as
30 mm and outside radius 50 mm is electrically k = (5 + 0.01 T) W/m°C, where T is expressed in °C.
heated at its inner surface at a constant rate of The inside and the outside surfaces are maintained
10 5 W/m 2. The outer surface is exposed to a fluid at at 100°C, and 20°C, respectively. What is the heat
30°C with heat transfer coefficient of 170 W/m2.K. loss for 2 m long pipe ? [Ans. 25229.2 W]
Calculate inner and outer surface temperature of
21. In a solar flat plate heater, some of the heat
sphere [Ans. 301.75°C and 241.75°C]
is absorbed by a fluid while the remaining heat is
11. Consider a furnace wall [k = 1 W/(m.K)] with the lost by convection, bottom surface is insulated. The
inside surface at 1000°C and the outside surface at
fraction absorbed is known as efficiency of
400°C. If the heat flow through the wall should not
the collector. If the flux incident has a value
exceed 2000 W/m 2 , what is the minimum wall
thickness L ? [Ans. 30 cm] of 1100 W/m 2 at collection temperature of 60°C.
Determine the collector efficiency when it is exposed
12. Determine the heat transfer rate by convection over
to surroundings at 32°C with convection coefficient
a surface of 1 m2, if a surface at 100°C is exposed to a
fluid at 40°C with convection coefficient of 25 W/m2.K. of 15 W/m2.K. Also find the collector efficiency, if
collection temperature is 45°C.[Ans. 61.8%, 82.2%]
[Ans. 1500 W]
13. An electrically heated plate dissipates by convection 22. Calculate the heat transfer by radiation from the
at a rate of 8000 W/m2 into the ambient air at 25°C. surface of a 60 mm dia spherical lamp (black body)
If the surface of the hot plate is at 125°C, calculate at temperature of 80°C into an ambient at 20°C.
the heat transfer coefficient for convention between [Ans. 5.2 W]
the plate and air. [Ans. 80 W/m2.K] 23. A commercial heat flux meter uses thermocouple
14. A 25 cm diameter sphere at 120°C is suspended in junctions to measure the temperature difference
air at 20°C. If the natural heat transfer coefficient is across a thin layer of vermiculite (k = 0.059 W/m.K),
15 W/m2.K, determine the heat loss from the sphere. that is 0.0005 m thick. What is heat flux when the
[Ans. 294.5 W] temperature difference is 3°C ? [Ans. 354 W/m2]
15. A flat plate of length 1 m and width 0.5 m is placed 24. The inside and outside surfaces of hollow sphere of
in air stream at 30°C blowing parallel to it. The radii r 1 and r 2 are maintained at constant
convective heat transfer coefficient is 30 W/m2.K.
temperature T1 and T2, respectively. The thermal
Calculate the heat transfer rate, if the plate is
conductivity of sphere material varies with
maintained at a temperature of 300°C.
temperature as k(T) = k0 (1 + αT + βT2).
[Ans. 4.05 kW]
16. A surface is at 200°C is exposed to surroundings at Prove that the heat flow rate Q through the sphere
60°C and convects and radiates heat to the is given by
surroundings. Calculate the heat transfer rate from 4πk0r1r2
surface to surroundings, if the convection coefficient Q= (T1 − T2 )
r2 − r1
is 80 W/m2.K. Consider the black bodies for radiation
heat transfer. α β 2
 2 
Take σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4. 1 + 2 (T1 + T2 ) + 3 (T1 + T1T2 + T2 )
[Ans. 13.34 kW/m2]
25. A solid (k = 38 W/m.K) is having temperature
17. A cube shaped solid 20 cm side having density
gradient of 350°C/m. Determine the steady state heat
2500 kg/m3, specific heat 520 J/kg.K has a uniform
flux. If the heat is exchanged by radiation from a
heat generation rate of 100 kW/m 3. If the heat
received over each surface is 40 W, determine the surface (black) to the surrounding at 30°C, determine
time rate of temperature change of solid. the surface temperature of solid.
[Ans. 0.1°C/s] [Ans. 13300 W/m2, 429.1°C]
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (c) Greater than that of conductor

(d) None of above
1. Transfer of heat energy takes place in accordance
with 9. Thermal conductivity of powderly and porous
materials
(a) Zeroth law of thermodynamics
(a) Decreases with increasing temperature
(b) First law of thermodynamics
(b) Increases with increasing temperature
(c) Second law of thermodynamics
(c) Is independent of temperature change, and
(d) Third law of thermodynamics
(d) None of the above
2. Heat energy can be considered as :
10. Low temperature insulating material is :
(a) Form of energy
(a) Asbestos (b) Glass wool
(b) Form of energy in transit
(c) Magnesia (d) Diatomaceous earth
(c) Internal energy.
11. When a fan is switched on in a class room of
(d) All of the above.
50 students, comfort level of students increases due
3. The assumption in the Fourier law Q = –kA(dT/dx), to
(a) Constant value of thermal conductivity (a) Decrease in temperature of room
(b) Constant and uniform temperature at the surface (b) Increase in heat transfer coefficient in room
of wall.
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above
(c) Steady state one dimensional flow
12. What should be the convection heat flux, if heat
(d) Only (b) and (c) transfer coefficient is 40 W/m2. K and the tempera-
(e) All of the above ture difference between surface and fluid is 200°C?
4. Temperature difference between two sides of a wall (a) 7.6 kW/m2 (b) 10 kW/m2
can be increased by (c) 8 kW/m2 (d) 8.5 kW/m2
(a) Increasing the heat flow rate 13. A thin flat plate is hanging freely in air at 27°C.
(b) Decreasing thermal conductivity of material Solar radiation falls in one of its side at the rate of
(c) Either (a) or (b) 500 W/m2. For maintaining the temperature of plate
constant at 32°C, what is the value of heat transfer
(d) Both (a) and (b) coefficient?
5. A slab 50 cm thick is made of fire brick (k = 1.5 (a) 25 W/m2.K (b) 50 W/m2.K
W/m.K). For same heat transfer and same
temperature drop, what will be the wall thickness (c) 100 W/m2.K (d) 200 W/m2.K
of material having thermal conductivity 0.75? 14. The radiation heat transfer rate per unit area
(a) 0.05 m (b) 0.1 m between two black bodies at temperature 900° and
40° (in kW/m2) is :
(c) 0.2 m (d) 0.25 m
(a) 37.2 (b) 10.7
6. Arrange thermal conductivity of materials in
ascending order. Copper, steel, brick and aluminium (c) 107 (d) 1070
(a) Copper steel, brick aluminium 15. The emissivity of real surfaces is always
(b) Brick, aluminium, copper, steel (a) Equal to unit
(c) Brick, steel, aluminium, copper (b) Less than unity
(d) Steel, copper, brick, aluminium (c) Greater than unity, and
7. The thermal conductivity of a material varies with (d) Less than or greater than unity
(a) Area (b) Thickness

Answers
(c) Temperature (d) None of above
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (e) 4. (d)
8. For same thickness, the temperature drop in an
insulation material is : 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c)
(a) Equal to that of conductor 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (c)
(b) Less than that of conductor 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (b)
Conduction—Basic Equations 2
2.1. Generalised One Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation. 2.2. Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation—For
the cartesian coordinates—Three dimensional heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates—Three dimensional heat con-
duction equation in spherical coordinates. 2.3. Initial and Boundary Conditions—Prescribed temperature boundary condi-
tions—Prescribed heat flux boundary conditions—Convection boundary conditions : Surface energy balance—Radiation bound-
ary condition—Interface boundary condition. 2.4. Summary—Review Questions—Problems.
The objective of this chapter is to provide a good The element having

understanding of the heat conduction equations and Heat conduction rate into the element = Q(X)
boundary conditions for the use in mathematical Heat conduction rate from the element
formulation of heat conduction problems.
= Q(X + dX)
Net rate of heat conduction into the element
2.1. GENERALISED ONE DIMENSIONAL HEAT Qnet = Q(X) – Q(X + dX)
CONDUCTION EQUATION If the heat is generated within the element due
to resistance heating, chemical or nuclear reactions, etc.,
For the thermal analysis of the bodies having shapes
and the rate of volumetric heat generation is g (W/m3).
such as slab, rectangle, the cartesian coordinates are
used, while for cylindrical and spherical bodies, the polar Then rate of energy generation, Qgen = g (AdX)
and spherical coordinate systems are used. Due to unequal heat transfer rates to and from
In this section, we derive one dimensional, time the element, its internal energy will change. The rate of
dependent generalised heat conduction equation which change of internal energy,
may be obtained in either coordinate system. ∆E ∂T ∂T
= mC = (ρ A dX)C ...(2.1)
Considering one dimensional element as shown ∂t ∂t ∂t
in Fig. 2.1. where, T = F(X, t), temperature of element as
function of time and direction, °C,
g = G(X, t), the function of time and direction,
W/m3,
g(X) k = K(X), the function of direction, W/m.K,
X
C = specific heat of the material (solid having
Q(X) Q(X + dX) only one specific heat), J/kg.K,
Heat flow in Heat flow out
m = mass of the element = (ρ A dX), kg,
A = area of element normal to the heat
0 dX
X
transfer, m2,
ρ = density of the material, kg/m3,
Fig. 2.1. Element for one dimension heat t = time, s,
conduction equation dX = directional thickness of element, m.
24
CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 25
Making the energy balance on the element. equation for heat conduction with constant thermal
Net rate of heat gain by conduction + rate of conductivity. It is known as unidirectional governing
energy generation equation for heat conduction.
= The net rate of change of internal energy. If there is no internal heat generation within the
material, the above equation reduces to :
∆E
Qnet + Qgen =
∂t 1 ∂ RS
∂T UV = 1 ∂T
or {Q(X) – Q(X + dX)} + g A dX = ρCA dX
∂T
...(2.2)
A ∂X
A
∂XT W α ∂t ...(2.7)
∂t It is known as unidirectional Fourier equation.

According to Taylor’s series We may write this equation in particular
∂ Q(X) coordinate system by introducing proper area A and
Q(X + dX) = Q(X) + dX directional thickness dX as described below.
∂X
3 Rectangular (Cartesian) Coordinate System
∂ 2 Q(X) dX 2 ∂ 3 Q(X) dX
+ + + ..... For rectangular coordinate system,
∂X 2 2! ∂X 3 3!
X = x, directional variable,
If the control volume is considered small enough, A = heat transfer area, does not vary with x
then the higher powers of dX such as dX2, dX3 etc., are direction but remains constant.
negligibly small, therefore, neglected from above Therefore, the eqn. (2.5) reduces to :
equation and it reduces to
RS UV
∂ ∂T g 1 ∂T
Q(X + dX) = Q(X) +
∂ Q(X)
∂X
dX ...(2.3) ∂x ∂xT W+ =
k α ∂t
...(2.8)
It is one dimensional time dependent heat

Substituting this equation in eqn. (2.2), we get conduction equation in rectangular coordinate system.
∂Q(X) ∂T It is used for the analysis of plane wall (slab), with and
– dX + g A dX = ρ C A dX ...(2.4)
∂X ∂t without heat generation for one dimensional steady state
as well as in transient heat conduction.
∂T
Substituting Q(X) = – kA
∂X Cylindrical Coordinate System
Then, –
∂ RS− kA ∂T UV dX + g A dX For cylindrical coordinate system,
∂X T ∂X W X = r, directional variable,
A = heat transfer area, varies with radius;
∂T = 2πrL, for the cylinder element of radius
= ρ C A dX
∂t r and length L.
Rearranging above, we get Using in the eqn. (2.5), we get
1 ∂ RSkA ∂T UV + g = ρ C ∂T 1 ∂ RSr ∂T UV + g = 1 ∂T
A ∂X T ∂X W ∂t
...(2.5) r ∂r T ∂r W k α ∂t ...(2.9)
It is general one dimensional time dependent It is one dimensional time dependent heat
differential heat conduction equation with heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinate system.
generation and directional dependent k. Spherical Coordinate System
If the conducting material is isotropic, its thermal For spherical coordinate system :
conductivity is independent of direction, it is treated as X = r, directional variable
constant quantity, then
A = heat transfer area varies with radius
1 ∂ RSA ∂T UV + g = ρ C ∂T = 1 ∂T = 4πr2, for the spherical element of radius r.
A ∂X T ∂X W k k ∂t α ∂t ...(2.6)
Using in the eqn. (2.5), we get
k 1 ∂ RS
r2
∂T
+
UV
g
=
1 ∂T
...(2.10)
where,
ρC
= α is the thermal diffusivity, a property of
r 2
∂r T ∂r W
k α ∂t
material. It is one dimensional time dependent heat
The above eqn. (2.6) is in general coordinate conduction equation in spherical coordinate system.
system. It is one dimensional time dependent differential
In compact form, d
Xn
RS
dT UV = 0 ...(2.17)
1 ∂ RS
Xn
∂T g 1 ∂T
+ =
UV ...(2.11)
dX T
dx W
Xn ∂X T ∂X k α ∂t W In cartesian coordinate,
where, n = 0 and X = x for cartesian coordinate system,
d dT RS UV = 0
n = 1 and X = r for cylindrical coordinate system,
n = 2 and X = r for cylindrical coordinate system.
dx dx T W ...(2.18)
In cylindrical coordinate,
Steady State Conditions
For steady state heat conduction, the temperature
d
r
dTRS UV = 0 ...(2.19)
at each point within the solid does not vary with time,
dr dr T W
but it decreases in direction of heat flow (steady means In spherical coordinate,
no change with time). d
r2
dTRS
=0
UV ...(2.20)
Hence on right hand side of eqns. (2.6) to (2.11) dr dr T W
∂T
= 0 and T = f(X) only
∂t 2.2. THREE DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
Then the one dimensional governing eqn. (2.11) EQUATION
reduces to
The eqn. (2.6) is the generalized one dimensional time
1 d RSX n dT UV
g
+ =0 ...(2.12) dependent heat conduction equation. By similar
Xn dX T dX W
k approach, the above equation can be extended in the
It is known as unidirectional Poisson equation. three dimensions.
It can also be written as : 2.2.1. For the Cartesian Coordinates
1 d
A
RS
dT
+
g
=0
UV ...(2.13)
Consider a differential volume element with thicknesses
A dX T
dX k W dx, dy and dz in x, y and z directions, respectively. The
rate of incoming and outgoing energy by conduction in
where area A is constant for plane wall but it is variable
respective direction is as shown in Fig. 2.2.
for cylinder and sphere.
The volume of the element V = dx dy dz
In cartesian coordinate,
Net rate of heat conduction into the element in x,
d dT g FG IJ y and z directions
dx dx
+
k
=0H K ...(2.14) Qnet = Qx + Qy + Qz – Qx + dx – Qy + dy – Qz + dz
...(i)
It is known as unidirectional Poisson equation in
the cartesian coordinate. If the heat is generated into the element at the
rate of g(W/m3 ), then volumetric heat generation rate.
In cylindrical coordinate, Qgen = g dx dy dz ...(ii)
1 d
r
RS
dT g
+ =0
UV ...(2.15)
The rate of change of internal energy of the
r dr drT k W differential volume
It is known as unidirectional Poisson equation in ∆E ∂T ∂T

= mC = (ρ dx dy dz) C
the cylindrical coordinate. ∂t ∂t ∂t
...(iii)
In spherical coordinate,
Making the energy balance on the element by
1 d
r2
RS
dT g
+ =0
UV ...(2.16)
using quantities from eqns. (i), (ii) and (iii)
2
r dr T
dr k W Net rate of heat gain by conduction + rate of
It is known as unidirectional Poisson equation in energy generation in the element
the spherical coordinate. = The net rate of change of internal energy
If the heat is not generated within the solid [Qx + Qy + Qz – Qx + dx – Qy + dy – Qz + dz] + g dx dy dz
then eqn. (2.12) is reduced to unidirectional Laplace ∂T
equation, =ρC dx dy dz ...(iv)
∂t
Using Taylor’s series approximation and ρ = density of the material, kg/m3,

rearranging, we get t = time, s
∂ dx, dy, dz = thicknesses of element in x, y and z
∂
– {Qx dx} – {Qy dy} directions, respectively, m
∂x ∂y
kx, ky, kz = thermal conductivities in x, y, z
∂ directions, respectively, W/m.K.
– {Qz dz} + g dx dy dz g = heat generation rate per unit
∂z
volume, W/m3.
∂T
=ρC dx dy dz ...(2.21) The above eqn. (2.22) is three dimensional
∂t differential equation for unsteady state heat
where the heat conduction quantities in each direction conduction for anisotropic material.
are shown in Fig. 2.2. 1. If the thermal conductivity of the material is
Qy + dy constant in all directions, i.e., for isotropic material,
kx = ky = kz = k (constant value of thermal
Qz
y conductivity)
E
Eqn. (2.22) reduces to,
F
A ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T g 1 ∂T
B + 2 + 2 + = ...(2.23)
dy ∂x 2
∂y ∂z k α ∂t
Qgen Qx + dx
Qx k
= g dx dy dz where, α = = Thermal diffusivity of the material.
H G ρC
dz The eqn. (2.23) is the three dimensional diff-
D C
Qz + dz dx erential equation for the transient heat conduction with
x
constant thermal conductivity. It is also known as
z governing equation for heat conduction.
Qy 2. If there is no internal heat generation
Fig. 2.2. Three dimensional element in cartesian coordinate within the material (i.e., g = 0), the governing equation
reduces to the Fourier equation as :
∂T
Qx = – kx dy dz ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T 1 ∂T
∂x + 2 + 2 = ...(2.24)
∂x 2 ∂y ∂z α ∂t
∂T
Qy = – ky dx dz ∂T
∂y 3. For steady state conditions, =0
∂t
∂T The eqn. (2.23) becomes
Qz = – kz dx dy
∂z
∂2T ∂2T ∂2T g
Substituting in eqn. (2.21) and rearranging, 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ =0 ...(2.25)
we get ∂x ∂y ∂z k
∂RS ∂T ∂ UV ∂T RS UV + ∂ RSk ∂T UV + g The eqn. (2.25) is the three dimensional diff-
W ∂z T W
+
∂x T
kx
∂x ∂y W
ky
∂y T z
∂z
erential equation for steady state heat conduction with
constant thermal conductivity. It is also called the
∂T Poisson equation.
=ρC ...(2.22)
∂t 4. If the solid has no heat generation,
It is three dimensional time dependent, g=0
differential heat conduction equation with heat
The eqn. (2.25) reduces to
generation and direction dependent k.
The functional relations for used parameter are : ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T
+ 2 + 2 =0 ...(2.26)
T = A(x, y, z, t) ∂x 2 ∂y ∂z
g = B(x, y, z, t) The eqn. (2.26) is the three dimensional diff-
k = D(x, y, z) erential equation for steady state heat conduction
where A, B, D are some functions, and without heat generation, with constant thermal
C = specific heat of the material, J/kg.K conductivity. It is also known as Laplace equation.
2.2.2. Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation in and heat conduction rate into the element in z direction
Cylindrical Coordinates i.e., r – θ plane
Consider a cylindrical differential volume element of ∂T
Qz = – k (rdθ dr) ...(iii)
isotropic material (k, is constant in all directions). Its ∂z
thicknesses are dr, rdθ, and dz in r, θ and z directions, Net rate of heat conduction out the element in r,
respectively as shown in Fig. 2.3. θ and z directions, respectively.
z
Q r + dr + Q θ + dθ + Q z + dz ...(iv)
Using Taylor’s series approximation
r
dz dr ∂
rdq Q r + dr = Qr + (Qr) dr ...(v)
∂r
∂
Q θ + dθ = Qθ + (Qθ) rdθ ...(vi)
z r∂θ
∂
and Q z + dz = Qz + (Qz) dz ...(vii)
y ∂z
dq The net rate of heat conduction into the element
in r, θ and z directions
q Qnet = (Qr + Qθ + Qz)
x
– ( Q r + dr + Q θ + dθ + Q z + dz )
Qz + dz Using eqns. (v), (vi) and (vii), we get
Volume
Qnet = –
RS ∂ (Q ) dr + ∂ (Q ) rdθ + ∂ (Q ) dzUV
T ∂r W
element
r θ z
r∂θ ∂z
Qr ...(2.28)
Qq + dq Using eqns. (i), (ii), (iii), we get
∂ FG∂T IJ
g(r, q, z) =
∂r
kr
H∂r
dr dθ dz
K
∂ FG
∂T IJ
+
r∂θ
k
H
r∂θ
rdθ dr dz
K
Qq ∂ ∂T FG IJ
Qr + dr
∂z
k+
∂z H
dz rdθ dr
K
For an isotropic material k = constant, then
Qz
LM 1 ∂ FG r ∂T IJ + ∂ FG ∂T IJ + ∂ FG ∂T IJ OP dr rdθ dz
Fig. 2.3. Differential element for cylindrical
coordinate system
Qnet = k
N r ∂r H ∂r K r∂θ H r∂θ K ∂z H ∂z K Q
...(2.29)
The volume of elements V = rdθ dr dz ...(2.27)
If the heat is generated into the element at the
Heat conduction rate into the element in r rate of g(W/m3), then volumetric heat generation rate :
direction i.e., θ – z plane Qgen = g V = g (dr rdθ dz) ...(2.30)
∂T Due to these heat transfer rates into the element,
Qr = – k (rdθ dz) ...(i)
∂r the internal energy of the element may change. The rate
of change of internal energy of the differential volume
Heat conduction rate into the element in θ
element is :
direction i.e., r – z plane
∆E ∂T ∂T
∂T = mC = (ρ dr rdθ dz) C
Qθ = – k (dr dz) ...(ii) ∂t ∂t ∂t
r∂θ ...(2.31)
Making the energy balance on the differential z

element :
Net rate of heat gain by conduction + Rate of
energy generation dr
= Net rate of change of internal energy df
r q
Using the quantities from eqns. (2.29), (2.30) and q
rdq
sin
r
(2.31) respectively, we get dq
LM 1 ∂ FG r ∂T IJ + ∂ FG ∂T IJ + ∂ FG ∂T IJ OP + g
k
N r ∂r H ∂r K r∂θ H r∂θ K ∂z H ∂z K Q
∂T
= ρC ...(2.32) y
∂t df
∂ 2 T 1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T g
1 ρC ∂T f
or + + 2 + 2 + =
∂r 2 r ∂ r ∂θ
r 2
∂z k k ∂t
∂ 2 T 1 ∂T 2
1 2
∂ T ∂ T g 1 ∂T x
or + + 2 + 2 + =
∂r 2 r ∂ r ∂θ
r 2
∂z k α ∂t
...(2.33) Qq + dq Qr + dr
It is the general heat conduction equation in
cylindrical coordinates.
Qf + df
Note: The eqn. (2.33) can also be obtained by transfor-
mation from rectangular coordinates using
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and z = z
The steady state one dimensional heat conduction Qf

equation in radial direction takes the form
∂ 2 T 1 ∂T g
+ + =0 Qq
∂r 2 r ∂ r k Qr
1 ∂ FG ∂T IJ
g Fig. 2.4. Volume element for spherical coordinate system
or
r ∂r H
r
∂r
+ K
k
=0
The rate of heat conduction into the element in θ
It is the Poisson equation derived earlier by direction, i.e., r – φ plane ;
eqn. (2.15). If no heat is generated within the body, then
above equation is reduced to : ∂T
Qθ = – k (dr × r sin θ dφ) ...(ii)
∂ FG ∂T IJ r∂θ
∂r H
r
∂r K
=0 The rate of heat conduction into the element in φ
direction, i.e., r – θ plane ;
2.2.3. Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation in
Spherical Coordinates ∂T
Qφ = – k (dr × rdθ) ...(iii)
Consider a three dimensional spherical differential r sin θ dφ
element of isotropic material. The sides of the element The net rate of heat conduction out the element
are dr, rdθ and r sin θ dφ in r, θ and φ directions, from r, θ and φ directions, respectively.
respectively.
Q r + dr + Q θ + dθ + Q φ + dφ ...(iv)
Volume of element,
V = dr × rdθ × r sin θ dφ Using Taylor’s series approximation :
The rate of heat conduction into the element in r ∂
Q r + dr = Qr + (Qr) dr ...(v)
direction, i.e., θ – φ plane ; ∂r
∂T ∂
Qr = – k (rdθ × r sin θ dφ) ...(i) Q θ + dθ = Qθ + (Qθ) rdθ ...(vi)
∂r r∂θ
∂ ∆E ∂T ∂T
Q φ + dφ = Qφ + (Qφ) r sin θ dφ = mC = ρ (dr rdθ r sin θ dφ) C
r sin θ dφ ∂t ∂r ∂t
...(vii) ∂T
= ρC (r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr) ...(2.36)
Net rate of heat conduction into the element in r, ∂t
θ and φ directions : Making the energy balance on the element :
Qnet = (Qr + Qθ + Qφ) Net rate of heat gain by conduction + Rate of
energy generation
– ( Q r + dr + Q θ + dθ + Q φ + dφ )
= Rate of change of internal energy.
Using eqns. (v), (vi) and (vii), we get Using the quantities from eqns. (2.34), (2.35) and
(2.36), respectively :
LM ∂ (Q ) dr + ∂ (Q ) rdθ OP
Qnet = –
MM ∂r ∂ r∂θ
r
P
θ LM 1 ∂ FG r 2 ∂T IJ
1 ∂ ∂T FG IJ OP
MM r ∂r H K H KP
+ sin θ
(Q ) r sin θ dφP
k 2 ∂r 2 ∂θ ∂θ
r sin θ
MN r sin θ dφ
+ φ
PQ FG IJ PP
MM +
1 ∂ ∂T
H K PQ
Using eqns. (i), (ii) and (iii), we have N 2 2
r sin θ ∂φ ∂φ
L∂ R
Q = – M S− k (rdθ × r sin θ dφ)
∂T U
V dr
× r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr + g r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr
net
N ∂r T ∂r W = ρC (r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr)
∂T
∂t
∂ R ∂T U
+
r∂θ T
S − k (dr × r sin θ dφ) V rdθ
r∂θ W
1 ∂ FG
r2
∂T IJ
1 ∂ ∂T FG IJ
or
r 2 ∂r H ∂ r
+
2 K
r sin θ ∂θ
sin θ
∂θ H K
+
∂ RS− k (dr × rdθ) ∂T UV r sin θ dφOP 1 2
∂ T g
r sin θ dφ T r sin θ dφ W PQ +
r sin θ ∂φ 2 k
2 2
+
L ∂ F ∂T IJ dr sin θ dθ dφ
= k M Gr
ρC ∂T 1 ∂T
N ∂r H ∂r K
2
= = ...(2.37)
k ∂t α ∂t
∂ F
G sin θ r∂∂θT IJK r dr dφ rdθ
It is a the general heat conduction equation in
r∂θ H
+ spherical coordinates.
In absence of any heat generation, the steady
+
∂ FG ∂T IJ dr rdθ r sin θ dφ state one dimensional heat conduction equation in r
r sin θ ∂φ H r sin θ ∂φ K direction, the eqn. (2.37) reduces to :
or Qnet = k 1 ∂ ∂T FG IJ = 0
LM 1 ∂ FG r ∂T IJ 1 ∂ ∂T FG IJ 2
r ∂r
r2
∂r H K
N r ∂r H K H K
2
+ 2 sin θ
2
∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ It is a unidirectional Laplace equation, derived
earlier by eqn. (2.20).
1 ∂ ∂T FG IJ OP r
H K PQ
+ 2 sin θ dθ dφ dr
2 2
r sin θ ∂φ ∂φ Note: The eqn. (2.37), the general heat conduction equa-
tion in spherical coordinates can also be transformed from
...(2.34) Cartesian coordinates by using
If heat is generated within the element at the x = r sin θ cos φ
rate of g (W/m3), then the volumetric heat generation
y = r sin θ sin φ
rate :
Qgen = g dr rdθ r sin θ dφ z = r cos θ.
= g r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr ...(2.35)
Due to these heat transfer rates into the element, 2.3. INITIAL AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
the internal energy of the element may change. The rate
of change of internal energy of the element is : To determine temperature distribution in a medium, it
is necessary to solve the general heat conduction
equation. However, such solution depends on physical T

conditions existing at the boundaries of the medium and
if the situation is time dependent (unsteady), some L
initial conditions are needed.
dT
k
The mathematical expressions of thermal dx x=L
qL
conditions at the boundaries of an object are called qo
boundary conditions. The boundary conditions are –k
dT
several common physical effects, which are simply dx x=0
expressed in mathematical form.

The temperature at any point on the medium at
x
a specified time also depends on the condition of the
medium. The initial condition at the beginning of the Fig. 2.6. Prescribed heat flux boundary conditions
heat conduction process is a mathematical expression Heat flux is given by :
for the temperatue distribution of the medium initially
FG dT IJ
i.e., t = 0.
Since the general heat conduction equation is
qx = – k
H dx K x
second order differential equation in spatial coordinates, Suppose, at x = 0, qx = qo = (the left face)
in any direction at least two thermal conditions are
and at x = L, qx = qL (right face)
needed at the boundary surfaces. Because the equation
is first order in time, only one initial condition must be
where, qo = – k
RS dT UV ...[2.39(a)]
specified. T dx W x =0
Following boundary conditions commonly ap-
peared in heat transfer are discussed below. and qL =–k S
R dT UV ...[2.39(b)]
2.3.1. Prescribed Temperature Boundary Conditions
T dx W x=L
For a plane wall of thickness L, whose left face (x = 0) is If the direction of heat flux at the right face is
maintained at uniform temperature of T1 and right face opposites i.e., towards face, then qL should be considered
at x = L at uniform temperature of T2 as shown in negative.
Fig. 2.5. Then the boundary conditions at two faces are There are two special cases of prescribed heat flux
written as : boundary condition.
T
(i) Insulated boundary
In some engineering applications, the system
boundary is insulated in order to minimise the heat loss
L
T(0, t) = T1
from the system. Although this insulation is not perfect,
T2 = T(L, t)
but in thermal analysis, the heat loss is assumed
Q negligible from the boundary with thermal insulation.
FG dT IJ
x
i.e., qx = 0 = – k
H dx K x
...(2.40)
Fig. 2.5. Prescribed temperature boundary conditions

At x = 0, t = 0 T(x, t) = T1 ...[2.38(a)]
and x = L, t = 0 T(x, t) = T2 ...[2.38(b)]
2.3.2. Prescribed Heat Flux Boundary Conditions qx = 0 = 0
Sometimes, the rate of heat transfer to a boundary is x
0
constant. For example, an electrically heated surface, L
the rate of heat supply (capacity of heater) is constant.
Such conditions are called prescribed heat flux boundary
condition as illustrated in Fig. 2.6. Fig. 2.7. Plan wall with left face insulated
FG dT IJ T
or
H dx K x
=0
FG dT IJ
T¥ 1
T¥ 2
L
For left face
H dx K x=0
=0 h1 h2
FG dT IJ
For right face
H dx K x=L
=0 Q
x
(ii) Thermal symmetry
Fig. 2.9. Plane wall exposed to convection
In many situations, the boundary conditions im- boundaries at both sides
posed on two sides of plane wall, or solid cylinder or
solid sphere are identical, then heat flow from the centre At the right surface, i.e., x = L
to two sides is also identical and centre of the plane is RS dT UV
treated as plane of symmetry. This plane is equivalent
to insulated boundary.
–k
T dx W x=L
= h2 (Tx=L – T∞2) ...(2.43)
These are the convection boundary conditions at

Centre plane of solid cylinder or sphere as shown the faces of the plane wall. Similarly the boundary con-
in Fig. 2.8 ditions can be written for cylinders and spheres.
2.3.4. Radiation Boundary Condition

r
In some practical cases, for example, in space and
cryogenic applications, the outer surface is surrounded
by evacuated space in order to minimize conduction and
convection heat transfer. In such cases, only radiation
Fig. 2.8. A solid cylinder exposed to convection heat transfer can take place from surface and
environment at its outer surface
surrondings and boundary conditions are specified as :
FG dT IJ Heat conduction to surface = radiation heat
H dr K r=0
=0 ...[2.41(a)] transfer from the surface to surrounding
So for centre plane of plane wall of thickness L ; T
FG dT IJ Radiation Conduction e2
H dr K x = L /2
=0 ...[2.41(b)]
e1 T¥2
T¥1
2.3.3. Convection Boundary Conditions : Surface Energy Conduction Radiation
Balance O
L
x
In most practical applications, the heat dissipates by
convection with a known value of heat transfer coeffi-
Fig. 2.10. Radiation boundary conditions on both surfaces
cient h at one or both boundary surfaces. The energy
balance at any boundary surface can be written as : For one dimensional heat conduction in a plane
Convection flux from the fluid to the surface wall of thickness L and thermal conductivity k, the
radiation boundary conditions on both surfaces can be
= Heat flux conducted into the body
expressed as shown in Fig. 2.10.
from the surface
At left surface
For one dimensional heat transfer in x direction
of a plane wall of thickness L, the convection boundary  dT 
–k  dx  4 4
conditions on both surfaces (Fig. 2.9 ) can be expressed  x = 0 = σε1(T ∞ 1 – T x = 0) …[2.44(a)]
as :
At left surface, i.e., x = 0 At right surface
RS dT UV  dT 
= σε2(T4x = L – T4∞ 2) …[2.44(b)]
h1(T∞1 – Tx=0) = – k
T dx W x =0
...(2.42) –k  
 dx x = L
Where ε1 and ε2 are the emissivities of left and 3. Uniform heat generation rate in the plate.
right boundary surfaces, respectively. σ = 5.67 × 10–8
W/m2.K4 is the Stefan Bolzmann constant. T
Note: The temperature in radiation calculations must

be used in kelvin (K) (not in °C).
T1 = 180°C k
2.3.5. Interface Boundary Condition g0
T2 = 120°C
When one or more layers in perfect contact made a com-
Q
posite wall, then both body will have same temperature
L = 25 mm
at interface, because flow rate will be same through both
layers. (Fig. 2.11)
FG dT IJ FG dT IJ x
– kA
H dx K A
= – kB
H dx K B Fig. 2.12. Schematic for example 2.1
and TA(x) = TB(x) ...(2.45) The governing one dimensional steady state heat
conduction equation with heat generation in cartesian
coordinates
d dT FG IJ
g ( x)
kA
dx dx
+H Kk
=0
Assuming uniform heat generation at g0 W/m3,
kB
then
d dT FG IJ
g
qA qB
dx dx H K
=– 0
k
Subjected to boundary conditions as shown in
L1 L2 Fig. 2.12.
Fig. 2.11. Boundary condition at interface of two layers At left face i.e., x = 0, T = T1 = 180°C
These are some boundary conditions at the faces At right face i.e., x = L = 0.025 m, T = T2 = 120°C
of the plane wall, these boundary conditions can also be where T = f(x) only.
written on surfaces of cylinders and spheres.
Example 2.2. Develop the mathematical formulation
The boundary conditions explained above do not of one dimensional steady state heat conduction for
cover all possible boundary conditions, that may be hollow cylinder with constant thermal conductivity k.
imposed on the surfaces. However, in other situations, The heat is supplied into the cylinder at inner surface at
the boundary conditions can be designed by applying r = r1 at a rate of q W/m2 and heat is dissipated by
the energy balance at the surface that is : convection from the surface at r = r2 into an ambient at
Rate of heat entering in = Rate of heat going out. temperature T∞ with heat transfer coefficient h.
Example 2.1. The temperatures on two sides of a 25 mm Solution
thick steel plate with constant thermal conductivity Given :
having uniform heat generation are at 180°C and 120°C. 1. Steady state heat conduction in radial direction.
Develop a mathematical formulation of one dimensional 2. Constant properties.
steady state heat conduction in the plate.
3. No energy generation.
Solution
Given : A steel plate with constant thermal con-
ductivity and uniform heat generation
L = 25 mm = 0.025 m
r1
T1 = 180°C, T2 = 120°C
r2
Mathematical Formulation :
Recognition of Problem : hT
¥
q
1. Constant thermal conductivity.
2. Specified temperatures at two faces of plate. Fig. 2.13. Schematic for example 2.2
Mathematical Formulation : T
The governing heat conduction equation in steady

state without heat generation for a cylinder Air
RS UV = 0
– bx
Insulation g(x) = g0 e
d dT h
dr
r
T
dr W k = Const.
T¥
Subjected to boundary conditions as shown in
Fig. 2.13 L
F dT IJ
x
–k G
At r = r1,
H dr K r = r1
=q Fig. 2.14. Schematic for example 2.3
(i) For insulated surface, at x = 0
FG dT IJ FG dT IJ
and At r = r2, –k
H dr K r = r2
= h(Tr = r2 − T∞ ) H dx K x =0
=0
(ii) For convection heat transfer from right face

where T = F(r).
FG dT IJ
Example 2.3. The volumetric heat generation in a plane –k H dx K x=L
= h (Tx=L – T∞).
wall is given by
Example 2.4. In a cylindrical fuel element for a gas
g(x) = g0 e–βx (W/m3)
cooled nuclear reactor, the heat generation rate within
where g0 and β are constants. The left face of the wall is the fuel element can be approximated as :
insulated, while right face dissipates heat by convection
into an ambient air at T∞. Formulate the problem
LM F r I 2 OP
MN1 − GH r JK
mathematically.
Solution.
g(r) = g0
o PQ W/m 3
Given : For a plane wall with volumetric heat

where ro is outer radius of fuel element and g0 is a
generation as,
constant. The outer surface is maintained at a uniform
g(x) = g0 e–βx temperature To.
1. Boundary conditions. Develop a mathematical formulation assuming
one dimensional heat flow.
2. Constant thermal conductivity of wall.
Solution
Mathematical Formulation :
Given :
Recognition of Problem : (i) A cylindrical fuel element with heat
1. Heat is generation as a function of x in the generation
wall.
LM F r I 2 OP
MN1 − GH r JK
2. No time dependent quantity is given.
3. Boundary conditions at two faces.
g(r) = g0
o PQ W/m
3
4. No information regarding status of thermal (ii) Outer surface at uniform temperature To.
conductivity thus assuming it as constant. These Mathematical Formulation :
conditions indicate for steady state heat conduction with
heat generation in the wall. The differential equation Recognition of Problem :
for steady state heat conduction in x direction is : (i) Heat is generated in the fuel element.
d dTFG IJ
g ( x) (ii) No time dependent quantity is given.
dx dxH K
+
k
=0 (iii) The outer surface of fuel element is
maintained at uniform temperature To.
d dT FG IJ g0 e −βx (iv) Heat conduction in one dimension.
or
dx dx H K =–
k These conditions indicate for one dimensional
Applying boundary conditions. steady state heat conduction with heat generation.
Its governing equation in radial direction is given by 3. Uniform internal heat generation at the rate
eqn. (2.15) of g0 W/m3.
1 d FG
dT IJ
g ( r) Analysis :
r dr
r
H
dr
+
k K =0
(a) Since the temperature distribution is given
as :
d FG
dT IJ r LM F I OP2
T(x) = 900 – 300x – 50x2
MN GH JK PQ
g
or
dr
r
drH K
= – 0 r 1−
k ro and temperature gradient
dT
Subjected to boundary conditions = – 300 – 100x (°C/m or K/m)
dx
(i) At r = ro, T = To
(i) Using boundary condition of prescribed heat
(ii) For solid rod in steady state, the temperature flux entering the left face of the wall :
gradient at centre is always zero due to symmetry
RS dT UV
i.e., at r = 0,
dT
dr
=0
qx = 0 = – k
T dx W x =0
= – k (– 300 – 100 x)x = 0

where T = f(r).
or qx = 0 = – (40 W/m.K) × (– 300 K/m)
Example 2.5. The temperature distribution across a
wall, 1 m thick at a certain instant of time is given as : = 12,000 W/m2
T(x) = 900 – 300 x – 50 x2 The heat entering the left face
where T is in degree Celsius and x in metres. = A qx=0 = 10 × 12,000

The uniform heat generation of 1000 W/m3 is = 1,20,000 W = 120 kW. Ans.
present in wall of area 10 m2 having the properties (ii) Similarly using temperature gradient, the
ρ = 1600 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m.K and C = 4 kJ/kg.K heat flux at the right face :
(a) Determine the rate of heat transfer entering
RS dT UV
the wall (x = 0) and leaving the wall (x = 1 m).
(b) Determine the rate of change of internal energy
qx = L = – k
T dx W x=L
of the wall. = – k (– 300 – 100 x)x = L

(c) Determine the time rate of temperature change or qx = L = – 40 × (– 300 – 100 × 1)
at x = 0, 0.5 m. = 16,000 W/m2
Solution The heat leaving the right face
Given : Temperature distribution across a wall = A qx = L = 1,60,000 W = 160 kW. Ans.
T(x) = 900 – 300 x – 50 x2 (b) The rate of change of internal energy
g0 = 1000 W/m3, A = 10 m2,
= Rate of heat entering the left face
L = 1 m,
ρ = 1600 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m.K, + Rate of heat generation
C = 4 kJ/kg = 4000 J/kg K – Rate of heat leaving right face
To find : = Qx = 0 + g0 A L – Qx = L
(a) (i) The rate of heat transfer at left face (x = 0)
= 120 kW + 1(kW/m3) × 10(m2)
(ii) The rate of heat transfer at right face
(x = L). × 1(m) – 160 kW = – 30 kW. Ans.
(b) The rate of change of internal energy. (c) The rate of change of temperature in the wall
(c) The time rate of temperature change at x = 0 can be calculated by using eqn. (2.8)
and 0.5 m. RS UV
∂ ∂T g
+ 0 =
1 ∂T
Assumptions : T W
∂x ∂x k α ∂t
1. One dimensional conduction in x direction. dT d dT LM RS UV
g
+ 0
OP
2. Medium with constant properties. or
dt
=α
dx dx N T W
k Q
k 40 W/mK (ii) Rate of heat storage per unit length,

where, α= =
ρC 1600(kg/m 3 ) × 4000 (J/kg.K) (iii) Rate of change of temperature at
= 6.25 × 10–6 m2/s r = r1 and r = r2.

Assumptions :
d g 1000
and {– 300 – 100x} + 0 = (– 100) + (i) No heat generation within the element.
dx k 40
2 (ii) Heat flow in radial direction only.
= – 75°C/m
Hence, (iii) Constant properties.
Analysis :
dT
= 6.25 × 10–6 × (– 75) (i) For given temperature distribution in cylinder,
dt
the temperature gradient at any radius r :
= – 4.6875 × 10–4°C/s. Ans.
The change of temperature is independent of dT
= 1000 – 10,000 r
position. Ans. dr
Example 2.6. At a certain time, the temperature distri- Rate of heat transfer at inside surface (r = r1)
bution in a long cylindrical tube with an inner radius of
250 mm and outside radius of 400 mm is given by FG dT IJ
T(r) = 750 + 1000 r – 5000 r2 (°C)
Q r = r1 = – kA
H dr K r =r1
where r in metres. Thermal conductivity and thermal = – k 2π r1 L 1000 − 10,000 r r = r1

diffusivity of the tube material are 58 W/m.K and
0.004 m2/h, respectively. Calculate :
FG Q IJ
(i) Rate of heat flow at inside and outside surfaces
per unit length,
or
H LK r = r1
= – 58 × 2π × 0.25
(ii) Rate of heat storage per unit length, and × 1000 − 10000 × 0.25
(iii) Rate of change of temperature at inner and = 13.66 × 104 W/m. Ans.
outer surfaces.
(in radial outward direction)
Solution Rate of heat flow at outer surface (r = r2) :
Given : Temperature distribution in hollow
cylinder : FG dT IJ
T(r) = 750 + 1000 r – 5000 r2 (°C)
Q r = r2 = – kA
H dr K r =r2
k = 58 W/m.K,
= – k 2π r2 L 1000 − 10,000 × r r = r2
α = 0.004 m2/h
r1 = 250 mm = 0.25 m, FG Q IJ
r2 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
or H LK r = r2
= – 58 × 2π × 0.4
× [1000 – 10000 × 0.4]

= 4.37 × 105 W/m. Ans.
(in radial outward direction)
r1
r2 (ii) Rate of heat storage per unit length
FG Q IJ FG Q IJ
Fig. 2.15. Schematic of cylindrical tube
= H LK r = r1
– H LK r = r2
To find : = 13.66 × 104 – 4.37 × 105

(i) Rate of heat flow per metre length at = – 3.0 × 105 W/m. Ans.
r = r1 and r = r2. (It is decrease rate of internal energy)
(iii) Rate of change of temperature at inner and Analysis : The one dimensional governing heat
outer surfaces conduction equation without heat generation in
One dimensional Fourier equation in radial cartesian coordinate
coordinate FG IJ
∂ ∂T 1 ∂T ρC ∂T
1 d FGdT 1 dT IJ ∂x ∂xH K
=
α ∂t
=
k ∂t
r dr
r
Hdr
=
α dt K The temperature gradient from temperature
dT α d dT FG IJ distribution
or
dt
=
r dr
r
dr H K ∂T d T
= = 12x + 10
For given temperature distribution ∂x dx
FG IJ FG IJ = ∂ T = d T = 12
∂ ∂T 2 2
d
r
H
dT
=
d
K
[1000 r – 10,000 r2] H K ∂x dx
∂x ∂x 2 2
dr dr dr
Using above equation with the numerical values
= 1000 – 20,000 r 580 × 420 ∂T
and at inner surface 12 = ×
300 ∂t
FG dT IJ α ∂T d T
H dt K r = r1
=
r1
[1000 – 20,000 r1] or
∂t
=
dt
= 0.147 °C/s. Ans.
The heat flux is given by
0.004
= [1000 – 20,000 × 0.25] dT( x)
0.25 qx = – k
dx
= – 64°C/h. (decrease) Ans.
dT
At outer surface Using , we get
dx
FG dT IJ 0.004
qx = – k (12x + 10)
H dt K r = r2
=
0.4
[1000 – 20,000 × 0.4] At left face, x = 0
qx = 0 = – 300 × (12 × 0 + 10)
= – 70°C/h. (decrease) Ans.
= – 3000 W/m2. Ans.
Example 2.7. The temperature distribution in a plate of
At the right face,
thickness 20 mm is given by T(°C) = 6x2 + 10x + 4. Assume
no heat generation in the plate, calculate heat flux on x = L = 0.02 m
two sides of the plate. Also calculate rate of temperature qx = L = – 300 × (12 × 0.02 + 10)
change with respect to time, if k = 300 W/m.K,
= – 3072 W/m2. Ans.
ρ = 580 kg/m3 and C = 420 J/kg.K.
Solution Example 2.8. A cylindrical nuclear fuel rod of 50 mm
diameter has uniform heat generation of 5 × 107 W/m3.
Given : Temperature distribution in the plate as : Under steady state conditions, the temperature
T(x) = 6x2 + 10x + 4 (°C) distribution in the rod is given by
L = 20 mm = 0.02 m T(r) = 800 – 4.2 × 105 r2,
k = 300 W/m.K where T in deg. celsius and r in metres. The fuel rod
ρ = 580 kg/m3 properties are :
C = 420 J/kg.K. k = 30 W/m.K, ρ = 1100 kg/m3
To find : (i) Heat flux on two sides of the plate and C = 800 J/kg . K
dT (a) What is the rate of heat transfer per unit length

(ii) , rate of temperature change with of rod at its centre and outer surface?
dt
time. (b) If reactor power is suddenly increased to
Assumption : No heat generation in the plate. 2 × 10 8 W/m 3 , what is the initial time rate of
temperature change at its centre and its outer surface?
Solution At outer surface of the rod (ro = 0.025 m)

Given : A cylindrical nuclear fuel rod with uniform
Q
heat generation.  
 L r = ro = – 30 × 2π × [0.025
g0 = 5 × 107 W/m3,
× (– 8.4 × 105 × 0.025)]
ro = 25 mm = 0.025 m
= 98960.2 W/m. Ans.
The temperature distribution in the rod
(ii) For initial rate of cooling, using eqn (2.9) with
T(r) = 800 – 4.2 × 105 r2
uniform volumetric heat generation g0,
and properties
1 ∂  ∂T  g 0 1 ∂T ρC ∂T
k = 30 W/m.K, r + = =
r ∂r  ∂r  k α ∂t k ∂t
ρ = 1100 kg/m3,
∂T k  1 ∂  ∂T  g0 
C = 800 J/kg.K or = r +
∂t ρC  r ∂r  ∂r  k 
To find :
(i) Rate of heat transfer per unit length of rod at k  ∂2 T 1 ∂T g0 
its centre and outer surface. =  2 + + 
ρC  ∂r r ∂r k
(ii) Initial rate of temperature change at centre Using eqn. (i) and (ii) then
and outer surface of the rod, when reactor power is
suddenly raised to 2 × 10 8 W/m3.. ∂T dT 30
= =
Assumptions : ∂t dt 1100 × 800
1. Heat generation rate is uniform throughout
 1 2 × 108 
the nuclear rod. ×  − 8.4 × 105 + ( − 8.4 × 105 r ) + 
 r 30 
At centre (r = 0)
Analysis : The temperature distribution in the
nuclear fuel rod is given by  dT 
  = 3.409 × 10–5
T(r) = 800 – 4.2 × 105 r2  dt t = 0
Its first order derivative with respect to r is :
 5 2 × 108 
×  − 8.4 × 10 +  = 198.63°C/s. Ans.
dT  30 
= – 8.4 × 105 r …(i)
dr At outer surface (ro = 0.025 m)
and second order derivative w.r.t. r is :  dT 
  = 3.409 × 10–5
 dt t = 0
d2T
= – 8.4 × 105 …(ii)
dr 2  5 −5 2 × 108 
×  − 8.4 × 10 − 8.4 × 10 + 
(i) The heat transfer rate per unit length in the  30 
rod is : = 170°C/s. Ans.
Q  dT  Example 2.9. A long conducting rod of diameter D and

= – k 2π  r  electrical resistance per unit length Re, is initially in
L  dr r
thermal equilibrium with the ambient air and its
At centre of the rod (r = 0) surroundings. The equilibrium is disturbed, when an
electric current I is passed through the rod. Develop an
Q expression that could be used to compute the variation
  = – 30 × 2π × [0 × (– 8.4 × 105 × 0)] of rod temperature during passage of electric current.
 L r = 0
Consider all possible types of heat transfer.
= 0. Ans. (N.M.U., May 2000)
Solution 2.4. SUMMARY

Considering a rod exposed to convection and radiation
1. The generalised one dimensional heat conduction
environment. The energy transfers are :
equation for isotropic material can be expressed
Qg = energy generation rate as :
= (current)2 × (resistance per metre) × length
of the conductor 1 ∂
A
RS
∂T
+
g
=
ρC ∂T UV
= I2Re.L, A ∂X T
∂X k k ∂t W
∆E equation in cartesian coordinate system :
= rate of change of internal energy in the rod
dt
∂ ∂T RS UVg
+ =
1 ∂T
= mass × specific heat × rate of temperature
change with time
∂x ∂x T W k α ∂t
dT πD 2 L F I dT equation in cylindrical coordinate system :
= ρVC
dt
=ρC
4 GH JK dt 1 ∂ ∂T RS g
+ =
1 ∂TUV
Qout = energy discharge rate by convection and
r ∂r
r
∂r T k α ∂t W
radiation : 4. The generalised one dimensional heat conduction
equation in spherical coordinate system :
= h (πDL) (T – T∞) + εσ(πDL) (T4 – T4∞ )
At anytime, the energy balance on the control
1 ∂
r2
∂T RS
+
g 1 ∂T UV
volume r 2
∂r ∂r T k
=
α ∂t W
5. For steady state conditions :
∆E ∂T
Qg – Qout = =0
dt ∂t
and the generalised differential equation reduces
Control volume to Poisson equation
1 ∂
δA
∂T
+
g RS
=0
UV
Qg A ∂X ∂X k T W
DE
D
6. For steady state and without heat generation
dt (one dimensional Laplace equation) :
∂
A
∂TRS UV = 0.
T W
T¥
Qout
Air h ∂X ∂X
The three dimensional governing heat conduction
equation for isotropic materials in cartesian coordinate
system is :
or I2ReL – h(πDL)(T – T∞) – εσ(πDL) (T4 – T∞4) ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T g 1 ∂T
FG
π 2 dTIJ 2
∂x ∂y
+
∂z 2
+ 2
+ =
k α ∂t
= ρC
4 H
D L
dt K Cylindrical coordinate system
or I Re – πDh(T – T∞) – εσπD(T4 – T∞4)
2
∂T 1 ∂T 1 ∂T ∂T g 1 ∂T
Fπ I
= ρC GH D JK
2 dT
+ + + + =
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t
4 dt Spherical coordinate system
or
dT
1 ∂ FG
r2
∂T IJ 1 ∂ ∂T RS UV
dt
r 2 ∂r H ∂r K+
2
r sin θ ∂θ
sin θ
∂θ T W
4{I 2 R e − πDh(T − T∞ ) − εσπD(T 4 − T∞ 4 )} 1 2
∂ T g 1 ∂T
= . Ans. + + =
ρC(πD 2 ) r sin θ ∂φ2 k α ∂t
2 2
REVIEW QUESTIONS PROBLEMS
1. Derive one dimensional time dependent heat 1. The thermal conductivity k, the density ρ, and the
conduction equation with internal heat generation specific heat C of steel are 61 W/m.K, 7865 kg/m3, and
and variable thermal conductivity in cartesian 0.46 kJ/kg.K, respectively. Calculate the thermal
coordinate system. diffusivity of the material. [Ans. 1.686 × 10–5 m2/s]
2. Write an energy balance for a differential volume 2. The thermal conductivity k, the density ρ,
element in r direction, derive one dimensional time and specific heat C of an aluminium plate are
dependent heat conduction equation with internal 160 W/m.K, 2790 kg/m3 and 0.88 kJ/kg.K respectively.
heat generation and constant thermal conductivity. Calculate the thermal diffusivity of the material.
3. Simplify the three dimensional heat conduction [Ans. 6.516 × 10–5 m2/s]
equation in cartesian coordinates to obtain one 3. Consider a plate fuel element of thickness L for a
dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat water cooled nuclear reactor. The energy is generated
generation and constant thermal conductivity. in the fuel element at the rate of g = g0 cos (x) W/m3.
The thermal conductivity of the material is constant.
4. Derive an expression for one dimensional time
Write steady state heat conduction equation
dependent heat conduction with internal heat
governing the temperature distribution in the fuel
generation and constant thermal conductivity in
element.
cartesian coordinate system. Reduce it as :
4. A copper bar of radius ro is suddenly heated by
(i) Poisson equation,
passage of an electric current, which generates heat
(ii) Fourier equation, in the rod at the rate of g0 e–αt. The thermal
(iii) Laplace equation. conductivity of the rod varies with radius, k = k(r).
Write the transient heat conduction equation
5. Derive generalized one dimensional heat conduction governing the temperature distribution in the rod.
equation and deduce it for
5. Consider a plate of thickness L. The boundary surface
(i) Cartesian coordinate in x direction, at x = 0 is subjected to forced convection with heat
(ii) Cylindrical coordinate in r variable, transfer coefficient h into an ambient at temperat-
ure T∞. The boundary surface at x = L is insulated.
(iii) Spherical coordinate in r variable. Write the boundary conditions for both the surfaces.
6. A plane wall of thickness L is subjected to a heat
flux q0 at its left surface, while its right surface LM Ans. h(T FG dT IJ FG dT IJ OP
dissipates heat by convection with a heat transfer N ∞ − Tx =0 ) = − k
H dx K x =0
and
H dx K x =L
=0
PQ
coefficient h into an ambient at T ∞. Write the
boundary conditions at the two surfaces of the wall. 6. One of surface of a marble slab (k = 2 W/m.K) is
7. A spherical shell is electrically heated at the rate of maintained at 300°C, while other boundary surface
q1 (W/m2) at its inner surface at radius r1, and its is subjected to constant heat flux of 5000 W/m2. Write
outer surface dissipates heat by convection with heat the boundary conditions.
transfer coefficient h into an ambient at T∞. Write
LM Ans. T FG dT IJ OP
boundary conditions at two surfaces of shell.
N x =0 = 300° C and
H dx K x =L
= 2500° C/m
PQ
8. A copper bar of radius r = R, is heated by the passage
of an electric current. It dissipates heat by convection 7. Energy is generated at a constant rate g0 W/m3 in a
from its outer surface with convection coefficient h copper rod of radius ro by passage of an electric
into an ambient at T∞. Write boundary condition for current. The heat dissipation is by convection at
its outer surface. boundary surface at r = ro into an ambient air at
9. A plane wall of thickness L is insulated at its left temperature T∞ with the heat transfer coefficient h.
face, while its right face dissipates heat by convection Develop the mathematical formulation for steady
with convection coefficient h into an ambient at T∞. state conditions.
Write boundary conditions at two faces of the wall.
LM Ans. at r = 0,
dT
= 0 and
OP
10. A long hollow cylinder has its inner radius r1 and
outer radius r2. It is insulated at its inner surface MM
dr
dTFG IJ PP
and its outer surface is maintained at constant
MN
at r = ro , − k
H K
dr r =r
= h (Tr =ro − T∞ )
PQ
temperature Ts. Write boundary conditions. o
8. A tomato with diameter D and thermal conductivity in order to obtain the temperature distribution as a
k, initially at uniform temperature Ti is suddenly function of position and time.
dropped into boiling water at T∞ with very large
LM 2
Ans. ∂ T + g = 1 ∂T , T
OP
( x, 0) = T0 , T(0, t) = T0
convection coefficient. Develop a mathematical
formulation of the problem for determining the MM ∂x2 k α ∂t PP
MN ∂T FG IJ PP
temperature distribution within the tomato. and − k
∂x x = L H K
= h(Tx = L − T∞ )
Q
LM Ans. T FG dT IJ OP 11. Steam at 200°C flows through a pipe. The inner and
N ( x , 0) = Ti and − k
H dr K r =ro
= h (Tr =r T∞ )
o PQ outer radii of pipe are 8 cm and 8.5 cm, respectively.
The outer surface of the pipe is heavily insulated. If
the convection heat transfer coefficient at the inner
9. A spherical shell has an inside radius r1, an outside surface of the pipe is 65 W/m2.K, express the boundary
radius r2 and thermal conductivity k, the inside conditions at inner and outer surfaces of the pipe.
surface is heated at a rate of q W/m2, while the outside
surface dissipates heat by convection with heat LM  dT 
Ans. at r = r1, – k  
 dr r = r1
= h [T∞ − Tr = r1 ] 
transfer coefficient h into an ambient T∞. Develop MM 

mathematical formulation for determining the
temperature distribution within the body. MN and at r = r2, 
 dT 

 dr r = r2
= 0 

LM FG dT IJ and OP 12. A spherical metal ball of radius ro, initially at 600°C
MM
Ans. at r = r1 ; q = − k
H dr K r = r1 PP
is allowed to cool in an ambient at 38°C. The
heat transfer coefficient on outer surface of the ball
MN F dT IJ = h (T
; − kG − T )P
is 15 W/m2.K and emissivity of outer surface of ball
at r = r2
H dr K r = r2
r = r2 ∞
PQ is 0.6. Thermal conductivity of the ball material is
30 W/m.K. Express initial and boundary conditions
for cooling process of the ball.
10. A long, rectangular copper bar of thickness L is [Ans. Initial condition = T(r, 0) = Ti = 600°C
maintained at a temperature T0 at its lower surface
 dT 
throughout the bar. Suddenly an electric current is Boundary condition at centre   =0
passed through the bar and its upper surface is  dr  (0, t )
exposed to an air stream at T∞, with convection  dT 
coefficient h, while its bottom surface continues to be Boundary condition at outer surface – k   =h
 dr  ( ro , t )
maintained at T0. Obtain differential heat conduction
4 4
equation and write initial and boundary conditions [T( ro ) − T∞ ] + εσ [T(ro ) − T∞ ] ]
Steady State Conduction Without
Heat Generation 3
3.1. Plane Wall. 3.2. Electrical Analogy of Heat Transfer Rate Through a Plane Wall. 3.3. Multilayer Plane Wall—Plane slabs
in series—Heat conduction through parallel slabs—Composite wall in series and parallel—Overall heat transfer coefficient.
3.4. Thermal Contact Resistance. 3.5. Long Hollow Cylinder—Electrical analogy for hollow cylinder—Multilayer hollow cylinders—
Overall heat transfer coefficient—Log mean area. 3.6. Critical Thickness of Insulation on Cylinders—Effect of thermal resistances.
3.7. Hollow Sphere—Electrical analogy for hollow sphere—Multilayer hollow sphere—Overall heat transfer coefficient—Critical
radius of insulation on sphere. 3.8. Summary—Review Questions—Problems.
Objective of this chapter is to: 3.1. PLANE WALL

• obtain steady state temperature distribution
without heat generation in slab, hollow Consider a plane wall of thickness L, its left face at x = 0,
cylinders and spheres. is at a temperature T1 and right face at x = L is at
• obtain heat conduction rate from differential temperature T2. The wall has no heat generation and
heat conduction equation without heat genera- its thermal conductivity k is assumed constant.
tion in solids. Rewriting the governing differential eqn. (2.18)
• study concept of thermal resistance in series for plane wall.
and parallel. d dT RS UV
• study of concept of contact resistance. dx dx T W =0 ...(3.4)
• study concept of critical thickness of insulation Integrating, we get, slope

on cylinders and spheres. d T ( x)
The steady state temperature distribution within = C1 ...(3.5)
dx
the solid without heat generation is governed by
differential equation.
d FGdT ( X ) IJ = 0 T1
dX
Xn
H dX K ...(3.1)
where, X = x and n = 0 for cartesian coordinates,

X = r and n = 1 for cylindrical coordinates, T2
X = r and n = 2 for spherical coordinates. L

The solution of eqn. (3.1) for the solid subjected
to boundary conditions at both surfaces gives the x
temperature distribution in the body. Knowing the
temperature distribution, the heat flux q(X) anywhere Fig. 3.1. Plane wall
in the solid can be obtained from Fourier law, Integrating again, we get equation of straight line
dT ( X ) T(x) = C1 x + C2 ...(3.6)
q(X) = – k ...(3.2)
dX where C1 and C2 are constant of integrations and are
and heat flow Q = A q(X) ...(3.3) evaluated with use of boundary conditions.
42
STEADY STATE CONDUCTION WITHOUT HEAT GENERATION 43
The boundary conditions : L

T(x) = T1 at x = 0 where, Rth = Rwall = (°C/W or K/W) ...(3.13)
kA
and T(x) = T2 at x = L There is an analogy between a heat flow system
Using first boundary condition in eqn. (3.6), we and an electric current flow system, where current I is
get expressed as
C2 = T1 V − V2 Potential difference
current, I = 1 =
and using second boundary condition in eqn. (3.6) ; Re Electrical Resistance
T2 = C1 L + T1 ...(3.14)
where Re is electric resistance and it is expressed as
T2 − T1
or C1 = ρL
L Re =
Then the temperature distribution in the plane Ac
wall is given by Resistivity of the material × Conductor length
=
x Cross-section area of conductor
T(x) = (T2 – T1) + T1 ...(3.7) ...(3.15)
L
This is the temperature distribution T(x) in a and the potential difference or voltage difference across
plane wall. It is a linear function of x as shown in the resistance is V1 – V2.
Fig. 3.1. Comparison of eqn. (3.12) with eqn. (3.14)
Differentiation eqn. (3.7) with respect to x, we indicates that the rate of heat transfer Q, through a
get, slope, layer analogous to electric current I, thermal resistance
dT( x) T2 − T1 Rth analogous to an electric resistance Re and the tem-
= ...(3.8) perature difference ∆T analogous to voltage difference
dx L
∆V. Such comparison is referred as electrical anal-
The heat flux from the Fourier law,
ogy of rate of heat transfer through a plane wall.
dT( x)
q(x) = – k
dx
T − T1 k(T1 − T2 )
=–k 2 = ...(3.9)
L L
The total heat flow rate Q, through an area A
normal to direction of heat flow,
Q=kA
RS T
1 − T2 UV ...(3.10)
T L W
Ts T¥
3.2. ELECTRICAL ANALOGY OF HEAT TRANSFER
RATE THROUGH A PLANE WALL
Fig. 3.2. Analogy between thermal and electrical resistance
The eqn. (3.10) for rate of heat conduction through a concepts
plane wall (Fig. 3.1) can be rearranged as
The analogous quantities in the expression are,
T − T2 ∆T
Q= 1 = ...(3.11) ∆V ⇒ ∆T,
L L
I ⇒ Q,
kA kA
In this equation, the temperature difference, ∆T L
Re ⇒
on two sides of the wall is driving potential, that causes kA
flow of heat. The term L/kA is the quantity, which Similarly the convection heat transfer given by
opposes the heat flow in the material and it is equivalent eqn. (1.11) can be rearranged as
to a thermal resistance Rth of wall. It is also called Ts − T∞ ∆T
conduction resistance of wall. Then eqn. (3.11) can be Q= = ...(3.16)
1 R conv
rearranged as
hA
∆T ∆T
Q= = (W) ...(3.12) 1
R th R wall where, Rconv = (°C/W or K/W) ...(3.17)
hA
The Rconv is a thermal resistance acts between Rconv, 1 Rwall Rconv, 2 T¥2
T¥1
the surface and its surroundings against the convection
heat transfer, thus it is called convection resistance Q T1 T2 Q
or film resistance or thermal resistance for convection. Fig. 3.4. Equivalent thermal network for plane wall of Fig. 3.3.
Thermal conductance Kc is defined as the re- It can be modified as
ciprocal of thermal resistance and is expressed as T∞ 1 − T1 T1 − T2 T2 − T∞ 2
kA Q= = = ...(3.21)
Kc = ...(3.18) R conv, 1 R wall R conv, 2
L 1 L 1
It is equal to the rate of heat transfer through a where, Rconv, 1 = ,R = , Rconv, 2 = .
h1A wall kA h2 A
solid of area A and thickness L per degree temperature
The thermal circuit representation provides a
difference.
useful tool for the analysis of heat transfer problems.
Consider a plane wall of thickness L, exposed on The equivalent thermal resistance for a plane wall with
its both sides to two different environments at tempera- convection on both sides is shown in Fig. 3.4
tures T∞ , and T∞ with heat transfer coefficients h1 Since these three resistances are in series,
1 2
and h2, respectively as shown in Fig. 3.3. therefore, the total thermal resistance ΣRth is sum of
the series resistances as in electrical network
The steady state heat transfer rate through the
ΣRth = Rconv, 1 + Rwall + Rconv, 2
wall, when its two surfaces are maintained at constant
1 L 1
temperatures T1 and T2 can be expressed as or ΣRth = Rtotal = + + ...(3.22)
h1A kA h2 A
kA (T1 − T2 )
Q1 = and overall temperature difference, (∆T)overall = T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 .
L Therefore, heat current,
T¥1 T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 (∆T) overall
Q= = ...(3.23)
R total ΣR th
T1
3.3. MULTILAYER PLANE WALL

h1 h2
T2
The concept of thermal circuit may also be extended for
L T¥2 composite wall. Such wall may involve any number of
series and parallel thermal resistances due to layers of
different materials.
x 3.3.1. Plane Slabs in Series
Fig. 3.3. Plane wall subjected to convection boundaries Consider a composite wall with three layers in series
and convection heat transfer on both boundary surfaces
When the left face and right face involve convec- as shown in Fig. 3.5.
tion heat transfer due to temperature difference between
surface and surroundings. T¥1
The convection heat transfer rate at the left face h1 T1
T2
exposed to environment at T∞
1
T3
Q2 = h1A( T∞ – T1) ...[3.18 (a)]
1
Q
The convection heat transfer rate at the right face
exposed to environment at T∞ , A B C
Q
2 T4
kB
Q3 = h2A(T2 – T∞ ) ...(3.19) kA kC h2, T¥2
2
In steady state conditions, the heat transfer rate LA LB LC

remains constant ;
Thus Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q (say) T1 T2
T¥1 T3 T1 T¥2
Then Q = h1A( T∞ – T1)
1 Q 1 LA Q
LB LC 1
kA (T1 − T2 ) h1A kAA kBA kCA h2A
= = h2 A(T2 – T∞ ) ...(3.20) Fig. 3.5. Composite slab and its equivalent thermal network
L 2
Heat transfer rate can be expressed as :

(∆T) overall
R| 1 1
U|
Q=
ΣR th
= (T1 – T2) S| L
+
L V|
where, (∆T)overall = T∞ 1 – T∞
2
T kA A A kB A B W
1 L L L 1 L L
ΣRth = + A + B + C + Using RA = and RB = ,
h1A kA A kB A kC A h2 A kA A A kB A B
...(3.24)
where, A = area normal to heat transfer. FG 1 1 IJ = T − T
1 2
Then, Q =
T∞ 1 − T∞ 2
Then Q = (T1 – T2)
HR A
+
RB K R eq
1 L L L 1 ...(3.28)
+ A + B + C +
h1A kA A kB A kC A h2 A
...(3.25)
1 1 1
where, = +
Alternatively, the heat transfer rate associated R eq RA RB
with each layer in composite wall can be expressed as :
1 RARB
T∞ 1 − T1 T1 − T2 T2 − T3 or Req = = ...(3.29)
Q= = = 1 1 R A + RB
1 LA LB +
RA RB
h1 A kA A kB A
It is called the equivalent resistance of parallel
T3 − T4 T4 − T∞ 2
= = ...(3.26) resistances.
LC 1
kC A h2 A 3.3.3. Composite Wall in Series and Parallel
3.3.2. Heat Conduction Through Parallel Slabs Consider a composite wall with series and parallel
configurations as shown in Fig. 3.7
Conduction heat transfer can also occur through a wall
section with two different materials in parallel as shown AE = heat transfer area of layer E
in Fig. 3.6 (a). The material A has thermal conductivity AF = heat transfer area of layer F
kA and heat transfer area AA, while the material B has and A = AE + AF
thermal conductivity kB and heat transfer area AB. The
The equivalent resistance of parallel resistances
temperature over left and right faces are uniform at T1
and T2, respectively. The equivalent thermal circuit is in Fig. 3.7 (b) can be calculated as :
shown in Fig. 3.6 (b). 1 1 1 k A k A
= + = E E + F F ...(3.30)
T1 T2 R eq RE RF LE LF
A
kA LA
RA= —— 1
kAAA Req =
AA QA QA kE A E kF A F
Q +
A B LE LF
kB T1 Q Q T2
AB QB
QB D E G
LB
RB = ——— TD
L kBAB
(a) Schematic of two parallel slabs (b) Equivalent thermal circuit kD kG
kE TG
Fig. 3.6
Q
Since the heat is conducted through two different
F
paths between the same temperature difference, the
total rate of heat transfer is sum of heat flow through kF
areas AA and AB.
Q = QA + QB ...(3.27)
T1 − T2 T1 − T2
= + LD LE = L F LG
L L
(a)
kA A A kB A B
LE Example 3.1. The walls of a house, 4 m high, 5 m wide

RE = L
L kEAE RG = G and 0.3 m thick are made from brick with thermal
RD = D kGA
kDA TG conductivity of 0.9 W/m.K. The temperature of air inside
TD the house is 20°C and outside air is at –10°C. There is a
Q heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2.K on the inside wall
RF =
LF and 30 W/m2.K on the outside wall. Calculate the inside
kFAF and outside wall temperatures, heat flux and total heat
(b) transfer rate through the wall. (N.M.U., May 2007)
LD LE LG
Solution
k DA E kEAE kGAE
Given : A wall of house as shown in Fig. 3.8
TD TG
A = 4 m × 5 m = 20 m2, h1 = 10 W/m2.K
Q L = 0.3 m, k = 0.9 W/m.K, h2 = 30 W/m2.K
LD LF LG T∞ 1 = 20°C, T∞ 2 = – 10°C
kDAF kFAF kGAF
(c)
Fig. 3.7. Equivalent thermal circuit for series and parallel
composite wall
and total thermal resistance from Fig. 3.7(b)
Rtotal = ΣRth = RD + Req + RG
L 1 L
Rtotal = D + + G ...(3.31)
kD A kE A E + kF A F kG A
LE LF 4m
The total resistance can also be obtained from

Fig. 3.7(c) 5m
1 1
=
ΣR th LD LE LG
+ + 0.3 m
kD A E kE A E kG A E k = 0.9 W/m.K
1
+ ...(3.32)
LD LF LG
+ +
kD A F kF A F kG A F T¥1 = 20°C T1
Air
3.3.4. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient T¥2 = – 10°C
For composite systems, it is more appropriate to work T2 q
with overall heat transfer coefficient U, which is defined

2
h1 = 10 W/m .K
by equation 2
h2 = 30 W/m . K
Q = UA(∆T) ...(3.33)
where, ∆T = T∞ 1 – T∞ 2 , overall temperature difference. R1 R2 R3 T¥2
T¥1
The overall heat transfer coefficient U is related to total T1 T2
Q
thermal resistance as
1 Fig. 3.8. Schematic and thermal network
UA = ...(3.34) To find :
ΣR th
From eqn. (3.25), the overall heat transfer (i) Inside and outside wall temperatures T1 and
coefficient T2 ,
(ii) Heat flux, and
1 1
U= (iii) Total heat transfer rate.
ΣR th 1 L A L B L C 1
Assumptions :
+ + + +
h1 kA kB kC h2
1. Steady state heat conduction in one direction
...(3.35) only.
2. Constant properties. (b) Compare the result with the heat loss, if the
3. Negligible radiation heat transfer. window had only a single sheet of glass of thickness
Analysis : The heat transfer rate through the 5 mm instead of thermopane.
house wall, by using eqn. (3.23) (c) Compare the result with the heat flow, if
T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 window has no stagnant air (i.e., a sheet of glass, 10 mm
∆T
Q= = thick).
ΣR th R1 + R2 + R3
Solution
1 1 Given : A thermopane glass window :
where R1 = = = 0.005 K/W
h1 A 10 × 20 L1 = L3 = 5 mm = 0.005 m,
L 0.3 L2 = 10 mm = 0.01 m,
R2 = = = 0.0167 K/W k1 = k3 = 0.78 W/m.K,
kA 0.9 × 20
k2 = 0.025 W/m.K
1 1 h1 = 10 W/m2.K,
R3 = = = 1.67 × 10–3 K/W
h2 A 30 × 20 h2 = 50 W/m2.K
(i) Heat transfer rate through wall ∆T = T∞ 1 – T∞ 2 = 60°C.
20 − ( −10) To find :
Q=
0.005 + 0.0167 + 1.67 × 10 −3 (a) Heat flow rate through the glass per m2.
(b) Heat flow rate when window has only a glass
= 1285.7 W. Ans.
sheet of 5 mm thick.
(ii) Heat flux (c) Heat flow rate when window has only a glass
Q 1285.7 sheet of 10 mm thick.
or q= = = 64.28 W/m2. Ans.
A 20 Air gap Glass
(iii) Inside and outside wall surface temperatures: Inside Outside
Steady state convective heat transfer rate is given by Air Air
eqn. (3.16)
Ts − T∞
Q=
R conv h1 h2
At inside surface T¥1

Q
T¥2
T∞1 − T1
Q= k2 k3
R1 k1
or T1 = T∞ 1 – QR1 = 20 – 1285.7 × 0.005

= 13.57°C. Ans. L1 L2 L3
At outside surface
(a) Schematic
T2 − T∞2
Q= R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 T
R3 T¥1 ¥2
Q
or T2 = QR3 + T∞ (b) Equivalent thermal network
2
Fig. 3.9
= 1285.7 × 1.67 × 10–3 + (–10) Assumptions :
= –7.85°C. Ans. (i) One dimensional steady state heat flow.
Example 3.2. A thermopane window consists of two (ii) Constant properties.
5 mm thick glass (k = 0.78 W/m.K) sheets separated by Analysis : The various specific thermal
10 mm stagnant air gap (k = 0.025 W/m.K). The resistances (for 1 m2) are shown and calculated as :
convection heat transfer coefficient for inner and outside 1 1
air are 10 W/m2.K and 50 W/m2.K, respectively. R1 = = = 0.10 K/W
h1A 10 × 1
(a) Determine the rate of heat loss per m2 of the
glass surface for a temperature difference of 60°C L1 0.005
R2 = R4 = = = 0.00641 K/W
between the inside and outside air. k1A 0.78 × 1
L2 0.01 thick, the second layer 2.5 cm thick mortar (k = 0.7

R3 = = = 0.40 K/W W/m.K), the third layer 10 cm thick limestone
k2 A 0.025 × 1
1 1 (k = 0.66 W/m.K) and outer layer of 1.25 cm thick
R5 = = = 0.020 K/W plaster (k = 0.7 W/m.K). The heat transfer coefficients
h2 A 50 × 1
on interior and exterior of the wall fluid layers are
(a) The heat flow rate through the thermopane 5.8 W/m2.K and 11.6 W/m2.K, respectively. Find :
window is given by (i) Overall heat transfer coefficient,
∆T T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 (ii) Overall thermal resistance per m2,
Q= =
ΣR th R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 (iii) Rate of heat transfer per m2, if the interior of
60 the room is at 26°C while outer air is at – 7°C,
= (iv) Temperature at the junction between mortar
0.1 + 2 × 0.00641 + 0.4 + 0.020
60 and limestone. (P.U., Dec. 2009)
= = 112.60 W/m2. Ans.
0.53282 Solution
(b) If the window has a single sheet of glass of Given : A multilayer composite exposed to
5 mm thick, the total thermal resistance different atmospheres on both boundary surfaces.
ΣRth = R1 + R2 + R5 L1 = 25 cm = 0.25 m, k1 = 0.66 W/m.K,
= 0.1 + 0.00641 + 0.02 = 0.12641 K/W L2 = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m, k2 = 0.7 W/m.K,
60 L3 = 10 cm = 0.1 m, k3 = 0.66 W/m.K,
Q= = 474.65 W/m2. Ans.
0.12641 L4 = 1.25 cm = 0.0125 m, k4 = 0.7 W/m.K,
The heat loss is about four times that of previous h1 = 5.8 W/m2.K, h2 = 11.6 W/m2.K,
case.
T∞ = 26°C, T∞ = – 7°C.
(c) If the window has a glass sheet of 10 mm thick 1 2
only, then total resistance To find :

ΣRth = R1 + 2 (R2) + R5 (i) Overall heat Transfer coefficient,
= 0.1 + 2 × 0.00641 + 0.02 (ii) Total thermal resistance, ΣRth,
= 0.13282 K/W (iii) The heat flow rate through composite, Q,
The heat loss per m2 ; (iv) T3, temperature at the interface of mortar and
limestone.
60 Assumptions :
Q= = 451.74 W/m2. Ans.
0.13282 (i) Steady state heat conduction rate through
Heat loss does not decrease appreciably by 1 m2 area.
increasing the glass thickness. (ii) Heat transfer in one direction only.
Example 3.3. A wall is constructed of several layers. (iii) Constant properties.
The first layer consists of brick (k = 0.66 W/m.K), 25 cm (iv) No thermal contact resistance at interfaces.
Lime
Brick Mortar stone
Plaster
h1 Q h2
T¥1 T¥2
L1 L2 L3 L4
T¥1 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T¥2
R1 Q
R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Fig. 3.10. Multilayer wall and its equivalent thermal circuit

Analysis : The schematic and equivalent thermal Under steady state operating conditions, the
resistances for composite wall are shown in Fig. 3.10 : measurement reveals an outer surface temperature of
1 1 material C is 20°C and inner surface of A is 600°C and
where, R1 = = = 0.1724 K/W oven air temperature is 800°C. The inside convection
h1 A 5.8 × 1
coefficient is 25 W/m2.K. What is the value of kB ?
L1 0.25
R2 = = = 0.378 K/W (P.U., May 1997)
k1A 0.66 × 1
L2 0.025 Solution
R3 = = = 0.0357 K/W
k2 A 0.7 × 1 Given : A composite wall of an oven with
L3 0.1 kA = 20 W/m.K, kC = 50 W/m.K
R4 = = = 0.1515 K/W
k3 A 0.66 × 1 LA = 0.3 m, LC = 0.15 m
L4 0.0125 LB = 0.15 m, Ti = 600°C
R5 = = = 0.0178 K/W
k4 A 0.7 × 1 To = 20°C, T∞ = 800°C
1 1 hi = 25 W/m2.K
R6 = = = 0.0862 K/W
h2 A 11.6 × 1
T¥
(i) Overall heat transfer coefficient,
hi
1 1 Ti
U= =
AΣR th A(R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 kA kB kC
+ R5 + R6 ) Q
1 A B C
U= To
1 × (0.1724 + 0.378 + 0.0357 LA LB LC
+ 0.1515 + 0.0178 + 0.0862)
1
=
0.8424 T¥ Ti T0
or U = 1.187 W/m2.K. Ans.
Q
(ii) The overall thermal resistances 1 LA LB LC
hiA kAA kBA kCA
1 1
ΣRth = =
UA 1.187 × 1 Fig. 3.11. Schematic and equivalent resistances
= 0.8424 K/W. Ans. To find : The thermal conductivity kB.
(iii) The heat flow rate through the composite per Assumptions :
m2 ; (i) Steady state heat conduction in axial direction
T∞ 1 − T∞ 226 − (− 7) 33 only.
Q= = =
ΣR th 0.8424 0.8424 (ii) Constant properties.
= 39.17 W/m2. Ans. Analysis : The heat transfer rate per unit area in
(iv) The temperature at the interface of mortar the slab can be calculated by considering convection at
and limestone can be calculated as : inner side.
T∞ 1 − T3 Q
Q= = hi (T∞ – Ti) = 25 × (800 – 600)
R1 + R2 + R3 A
or T3 = T∞ 1 – 39.17 × (0.1724 + 0.378 = 5000 W/m2
Further this heat is conducted through composite
+ 0.0357) = 3°C. Ans. wall, therefore ;
Example 3.4. The composite wall of an oven consists of Q Ti − To
three materials, two of them are of known thermal =
A L L L
conductivity, kA = 20 W/m.K and kC = 50 W/m.K and
A
+ B + C
kA kB kC
known thickness LA = 0.3 m and LC = 0.15 m. The third
material B, which is sandwiched between material A 600 − 20
or 5000 =
and C is of known thickness, LB = 0.15 m, but of unknown 0.3 0.15 0.15
+ +
thermal conductivity kB. 20 kB 50
0.15 (d) Thickness of cork layer for 30% heat reduction

or 0.018 + = 0.116 of existing value.
kB
Analysis : (a) Individual thermal resistances per
or kB = 1.53 W/m.K. Ans. m2 in the network
Example 3.5. The wall of a cold storage consists of three L 1 0.25
R1 = = = 0.357 m2.K/W
layers: an outer layer of ordinary bricks, 25 cm thick, a k1 0.7
middle layer of cork, 10 cm thick and an inner layer of L 0.1
R2 = 2 = = 2.326 m2.K/W
cement, 6 cm thick. The thermal conductivities of the k2 0.043
materials are 0.7, 0.043 and 0.72 W/m.K, respectively. L 0.06
R3 = 3 = = 0.083 m2.K/W
The temperature of the outer surface of the wall is 30°C k3 0.72
and that of inner is – 15°C. Calculate : All resistances are in series, thus total thermal
(a) Steady state rate of heat gain per unit area, resistance
(b) Temperature at the interfaces of composite ΣRth = R1 + R2 + R3
wall, = 0.357 + 2.326 + 0.083
= 2.766 m2. K/W
(c) The percentage of total heat resistance offered
Rate of heat gain per m2
by individual layers, and
∆T T − T4
(d) What additional thickness of cork should be q= = 1
provided to reduce the heat gain 30% less than the ΣR th ΣR th
present value ? 30 − (− 15) 45
= =
Solution 2.766 2.766
= 16.27 W/m2. Ans.
Given : Composite wall of a cold storage : (b) Temperature at the interfaces :
L1 = 25 cm = 0.25 m, k1 = 0.7 W/m.K (i) Heat flux across brick layer
L2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m, k2 = 0.043 W/m.K
L3 = 6 cm = 0.06 m, k3 = 0.72 W/m.K T1 − T2
q=
T1 = 30°C, T4 = – 15°C. R1
To find : or T2 = T1 – qR1 = 30 – 16.27 × 0.357
(a) Heat flux, q, = 24.19°C. Ans.
(b) Temperatures, T2, T3,
It is the temperature at interface between brick
(c) Percentage resistance offered by individual
and cork layers.
layers,
Bricks Cork
Cement
T1 = 30°C
T1 T2 T3 T4
T4 = – 15°C Q
R1 R2 R3
1 2 3
L1 L2 L3
(a) Schematic (b) Thermal network
Fig. 3.12. Schematic and thermal network

(ii) Heat flux across cork layer Additional resistance to be offered by cork
T − T3
q= 2 = Σ R th 1 – ΣRth
R2
R2′ = 3.95 – 2.766 = 1.184 m2.K/W
or T3 = T2 – qR2 = 24.19 – 16.27 × 2.326
= – 13.65°C. Ans. L ′2
Further R2′ =
It is the temperature at interface between cork k2
and cement layers. or L2′ = R2′ k2 = 1.184 × 0.043
(c) Percentage thermal resistance offered by an
= 0.051 m = 5.1 cm. Ans.
individual ith layer
Ri It is an additional thickness of cork to be provided.
= × 100
ΣR th Example 3.6. The door of an industrial furnace is
% resistance offered by brick layer 2 m × 4 m in surface area and is to be insulated to reduce
0.357 the heat loss to not more than 1200 W/m2. The interior
= × 100 = 12.9% and exterior walls of the door are 10 mm and 7 mm thick
2.766
% resistance offered by cork layer steel sheets (k = 25 W/m.K). Between these two sheets, a
suitable thickness of insulation material is to be placed.
2.326
= × 100 = 84.1% The effective gas temperature inside the furnace is
2.766 1200°C and the overall heat transfer coefficient between
% resistance offered by cement layer
the gas and door is 20 W/m2.K. The heat transfer
0.083
= × 100 = 3.0%. Ans. coefficient outside the door is 5 W/m2.C. The surrounding
2.766 air temperature is 20°C. Select suitable insulation
(d) Desired rate of heat flow = 30% less of present
material and its size.
value = 0.7 × present value
q1 = 0.7 × 16.27 = 11.39 W/m2 Solution
∆T Given : A door of an industrial furnace as shown
∴ q1 = below :
ΣR th 1
30 − (− 15) Size = 2 m × 4 m
or 11.39 =
ΣR th 1 q = 1200 W/m2
45 L1 = 10 mm = 0.01 m, k1 = 25 W/m.K
or Σ R th 1 = = 3.95 m2.K/W
11.39 L3 = 7 mm = 0.007 m, k3 = 25 W/m.K
Insulation
Gas Air
2
q = 1200 W/m
2 2
Ui = 20 W/m .K ho = 5 W/m .K
1 2 3
T¥1 = 1200°C T¥2 = 20°C
10 mm 7 mm
L1 L2 L3
(a) Schematic of furnace
(b) Furnace door cross-section
T¥1 = 1200°C T1 Insulation T2 T¥2 = 20°C
Q
Ri R1 R2 R3 Ro
(c) Thermal network
To find : The thickness is too large and door would be

(a) Material of insulation, and heavy also.
(b) Thickness of insulation. (b) For same temperature range, silica fibre
Assumptions : (k = 0.115 W/m.K), a light material can also be
(i) Steady state conditions. selected (Table A-3 of Appendix),
(ii) 1 m2 area of the door for analysis. Thickness
Analysis : The thermal circuit for heat transfer k (∆T) 0.115 × (1139.5 − 260.3)
L2 = =
through furnace door is shown in Fig. 3.13. q 1200
The individual thermal resistances in the
= 0.084 m = 8.5 cm. Ans.
network ;
It is more appropriate choice as compared to above
1 1
Ri = = = 0.05 m2.K/W solution.
U i 20
Example 3.7. An exterior wall of a house consists of a
L 1 0.01 10.16 cm layer of common brick having thermal
R1 = = = 0.0004 m2.K/W
k1 25 conductivity 0.7 W/m.K. It is followed by a 3.8 cm layer
L 3 0.007 of gypsum plaster with thermal conductivity of
R3 = = = 0.00028 m2.K/W 0.48 W/m.K. What thickness of loosely packed rockwool
k3 25
insulation (k = 0.065 W/m.K) should be added to reduce
1 1 the heat loss through the wall by 80% ?
Ro = = = 0.2 m2.K/W
h0 5 (P.U., May 1992)
The total material resistance
Solution
ΣRth, m = R1 + R3 = 0.0004 + 0.00028 Given : L1 = 10.16 cm = 0.1016 m
= 0.00068 m2.K/W.
k1 = 0.7 W/m.K
The material resistance is negligible compared
to other three resistances i.e., Ri, R2 and Ro. The L2 = 3.8 cm = 0.038 m
temperature T1 on inner side of insulation k2 = 0.48 W/m.K
Q T∞ 1 − T1 k3 = 0.065 W/m.K
=q=
A Ri + R1 q2 = 0.2 q1.
1200 − T1 Bricks Gypsum plaster

or 1200 =
0.05 + 0.0004
or T1 = 1200 – 1200 × 0.0504 = 1139.5°C Proposed
rock wool
Temperature T2 on outer side of insulation insulation
T2 − T∞ 2
q=
R3 + R o
or T2 = 20 + 1200 × (0.00028 + 0.2) = 260.3°C k1 k2 k3
For the temperature range 240°C to 1140°C,
the following isulation materials can be selected.
(a) The fire clay brick (refractory brick,
k = 1.09 W/m.K) (Table A-3 of Appendix),
L1 L2
The thickness of insulation L3
(∆T) k (∆T) Fig. 3.14. Exterior wall of a house

q= or L2 =
L 2 /k q To find :
1.09 × (1139.5 − 260.3) (i) Heat loss without insulation.
L2 =
1200 (ii) Heat loss with insulation.
or L2 = 0.8 m. Ans. (iii) Thickness of rockwool insulation.
Assumptions : Example 3.8. Two M.S. (k = 52 W/m.K) circular rods I

(i) Steady state heat conduction. and II are interconnected by a sphere III as shown in
(ii) Heat conduction in one direction only. Fig. 3.15. The respective cross-sectional areas of rods are
(iii) Constant properties. AI = 12.5 cm2 and AII = 6.25 cm2. The system is well
insulated except for end faces of rods. Under steady state
(iv) No contact thermal resistance at the inter-
conditions following data are known.
faces.
Analysis : (i) Considering ∆T is the temperature T∞1 = 77°C, T∞2 = 3°C,
difference across the composite wall, then heat flow per h1 = 25 W/m2.K, T1 = 60°C,
unit area or heat flux.
T3 = 10°C,
Q1 ∆T ∆T
= q1 = = Temperature T3 is measured at a point 7.5 cm from
A L L 0.1016 0.038
1
+ 2 + the right face of rod II. Find the heat transfer coefficient
k1 k2 0.7 0.48 h2. (P.U., May 1997)
= 4.458 ∆T
(ii) After addition of insulation, heat loss is Solution
reduced by 80%, therefore, permissible heat flux will Given : Two M.S. Rods connected by a sphere as
only be 20 per cent of q1 shown in Fig. 3.15 below :
q2 = 0.2 × q1 = 0.2 × 4.458 ∆T = 0.8916 ∆T k = 52 W/m.K, L = 7.5 cm
where, q2 = heat flux with insulation and it can be A1 = 12.5 cm2, A2 = 6.5 cm2
expressed as :
T∞ 1 = 77°C, T∞ 2 = 3°C
∆T
(iii) q2 = h1 = 25 W/m2.K.
0.1016 0.038 L3
+ +
0.7 0.48 0.065 To find : Heat transfer coefficient at right face h2.
L3 Assumptions :
or 0.224 + = 1.12
0.065 (i) One dimensional heat flow.
or L3 = 0.0583 m = 5.83 cm, (ii) No contact thermal resistance at interfaces.
thickness of rockwool insulation. Ans. (iii) Constant properties.
T0
T3 = 10°C
T1 = 60°C T2
T¥1 = 77°C T¥2 = 3°C
2 AI AIII AII
h1 = 25 W/m .K h2 = ?
7.5 cm
Fig. 3.15. Schematic
Analysis : The heat flow at the left face 10 − 3

or 0.53125 =
Q = h1A1 ( T∞ – T1) 0.075 1
+
1
52 × (6.5 × 10 ) h2 × (6.5 × 10 − 4 )
−4
= 25 × (12.5 × 10–4) (77 – 60) 0.075 1 7

or + –4 = = 13.18
= 0.53125 W. 0.0338 6.5 × 10 h2 0.53125
Since system is insulated on its lateral surfaces, 1
therefore, in steady state, same heat will flow at right or h2 = –4
6.5 × 10 × (13.18 − 2.22)
end of the rod. Applying electrical analogy for heat flow, = 140.42 W/m2.K. Ans.
in the right side of rod and its ambient Example 3.9. The temperature of the inner side of a
T3 − T∞ 2 furnace wall is 640°C and that of on other side is 240°C
Q= and it is exposed to an atmosphere at 40°C. In order to
L 1 reduce the heat loss from the furnace, its wall thickness
+
kA II h2 A II is increased by 100%.
Calculate the percentage decrease in the heat loss

T1 − T∞ T1 − T∞
due to increase in wall thickness. Assume no change in Also Q1 = =
properties except temperature. (P.U., Dec. 2008) L1 1 2k 1
+ +
kA hA h kA h A
Solution
Given : Furnace wall with (T1 − T∞ )
L1 = L, L2 = 2L1 = 3 = 0.333 h A(T1 – T∞) ...(ii)
T1 = 640°C, T2 = 240°C hA
T∞ = 40°C.
To find : When wall thickness is increased by 100%, then
(i) Heat flow with original wall thickness. refer Fig. 3.16 (c) thermal network, we have
(ii) Heat flow with change in the wall thickness.
T1 − T∞ T1 − T∞
(iii) Percentage change in heat flow. Q2 = =
Assumptions : L2 1 2L 1 1
+ +
(i) One dimensional steady state heat flow. kA hA kA hA
(ii) No contact thermal resistance at interfaces.
(iii) Constant properties. T1 − T∞
= = 0.2 hA (T1 – T∞) ...(iii)
2 × 2k 1
Proposed +
wall layer h kA hA
Furnace
Air Change in heat flow
T1 = 640°C Q1 – Q2 = 0.333 hA(T1 – T∞) – 0.2 hA(T1 – T∞)
h
T2 = 0.1333 hA(T1 – T∞)
% decrease in heat flow
T¥ = 40°C
0.1333 hA (T1 − T∞ )
= × 100
0.333 hA (T1 − T∞ )
L1 = 40%. Ans.
L2 = 2 L1 Example 3.10. A square plate heater (size : 15 cm × 15 cm)
(a) Schematic is inserted between two slabs. Slab A is 2 cm thick
T1 T2 T¥ (k = 50 W/m.K) and slab B is 1 cm thick (k = 0.2 W/m.K).
Q The outside heat transfer coefficient on both sides of A
L1 1
hA and B are 200 and 50 W/m2.K, respectively. The tem-
kA
perature of surrounding air is 25°C. If the rating of the
(b) Thermal network
heater is 1 kW, find :
L2 1 (i) Maximum temperature in the system.
T1 kA hA
T¥ (ii) Outer surface temperature of two slabs.
Q
Draw equivalent electrical circuit of the system.
(c) Thermal network with L2 = 2L1 (P.U., Nov. 2008)
Solution
Analysis : From thermal network, Fig. 3.16 (b)
Given :
we have
kA A = 15 cm × 15 cm
Q1 = (T1 – T2) = hA(T2 – T∞)
L1 = 225 cm2 = 225 × 10–4 m2
k LA = 2 cm = 0.02 m, LB = 1 cm = 0.01 m
or × (640 – 240) = h (240 – 40)
L1 kA = 50 W/m.K, kB = 0.2 W/m.K
k 2k hA = 200 W/m2.K, hB = 50 W/m2.K
or 400 × = 200 h or L1 = ...(i)
L1 h T∞ = 25°C, Q = 1 kW = 1000 W.
To find : 1 1
(i) Maximum temperature of the system. Rconv,1 = = = 0.22 K/W
hA A 200 × (225 × 10 −4 )
(ii) Outer surface temperature on both slabs.
Assumptions : And total series resistance on left side :
(i) Steady state heat flow in one direction only. Rseries1 = Rconv,1 + RA = 0.0177 + 0.22
(ii) Constant thermal conductivity. = 0.2377 K/W
(iii) No contact thermal resistance at interfaces. On right side of heater
Analysis : (i) Since heater is inserted between two LB 0.01
slabs, therefore, two arrangements for equivalent RB = = = 2.22 K/W
kB A 0.2 × (225 × 10 −4 )
thermal circuit are shown in Fig. 3.17(b) and (c). On
left side of arrangement (b) 1 1
LA 0.02 Rconv, 2 = = = 0.88 K/W
RA = = = 0.0177 K/W hB A 50 × (225 × 10 −4 )
kA A 50 × (225 × 10 −4 )
T1
TL
A B Heater at T1
TR
2 2
hA = 200 W/m .K kA kB hB = 50 W/m .K
T¥ = 25°C T¥ = 25°C
LA LB
(a) Schematic RA Rconv, 1
Rconv, 1 RA RB Rconv, 2 Q1
T¥ T1 T¥ T1 T¥
Q1 Q2
Q2 Rconv, 2
RB
(b) (c) Thermal network

And total series resistance on right side And this heat will also flow through left face of
Rseries2 = RB + Rconv, 2 = 2.22 + 0.88 = 3.1 K/W the wall
The equivalent resistance of two sides as in T1 − TL
Q1 =
arrangement (c) RA
1 1 1 1 1 245.77 − TL
or = + = + or 928.77 = or TL = 229.33°C. Ans.
R eq R series 1 R series 2 0.2377 3.1 0.0177
Hence, outer surface temperature of left slab is
Req = 0.22077 K/W 229.33°C
Further heat flow from heater to surroundings Heat flow towards right side of the wall
T1 − T∞ T − 25 T − T∞ 245.77 – 25
Q = 1000 = = 1 Q2 = 1 = = 71.21 W
R eq 0.22077 R series 2 3.1
or T1 = 245.77°C. Ans. T1 − TR
(ii) Heat flow towards left side and Q2 = 71.21 = or TR = 87.6°C
RB
T − T∞ 245.77 − 25 Hence the right side outer surface temperature
Q1 = 1 = = 928.77 W
R series 1 0.2377 = 87.6°C. Ans.
Example 3.11. The large furnace wall consists of

Rc1 Rc2
250 mm thick common brick layer (k = 0.65 W/m.K),
lined on inside with 300 mm thick layer of magnesite T¥1 T2 T¥2
bricks (k = 11.5 W/m.K). The inner side of the furnace is Rr1 Rr2 Q
R1 R2
exposed to hot gases at 1400°C with convective heat
transfer coefficient of 17.5 W/m2.K, and radiative heat
(b) Thermal network
transfer coefficient of 23.2 W/m2.K. The temperature of
surrounding air is 30°C with convective heat transfer Fig. 3.18. Schematic and thermal network for furnace wall
coefficient of 7.5 W/m2.K and radiation heat transfer
coefficient of 11.5 W/m2.K. Calculate : Analysis : (i) The individual thermal resistances
per m2 in thermal network ;
(i) Rate of heat transfer through the wall per unit
area. 1 1
R c1 = = = 0.0571 m2.K/W
(ii) Maximum temperature to which the common hc1 17.5
brick is subjected.
1 1
R r1 = = = 0.0431 m2.K/W
Solution hr1 23.2
Given : Furnace wall
L1 0.3
L1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m, L2 = 250 mm = 0.25 m R1 = = = 0.026 m2.K/W
k1 11.5
k1 = 11.5 W/m.K, k2 = 0.65 W/m.K
L 2 0.25
R2 = = = 0.3846 m2.K/W
T∞ 1 = 1400°C, T∞ 2 = 30°C k2 0.65
hc1 = 17.5 W/m2.K, hc2 = 7.5 W/m2.K 1 1

R c2 = = = 0.1333 m2.K/W
hc2 7.5
hr1 = 23.2 W/m2.K, hr2 = 11.5 W/m2.K.
1 1
To find : R r2 = = = 0.087 m2.K/W
hr2 11.5
(i) Rate of heat transfer per unit area.
(ii) Maximum temperature T2, at interface. The resistances R c1 and R r1 are in parallel, their
equivalent resistance
Assumptions :
(i) Steady state one dimensional heat flow. 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = 40.7
R eq 1 R c1 R r1 0.0571 0.0431
(ii) No contact resistance at interface.
(iii) Constant properties. 1
R eq 1 = = 0.0245 m2.K/W
Common 40.7
Magnesite
bricks bricks The resistances R c2 and R r2 are also in parallel,
Furnace Surrounding
gases air their equivalent resistance,
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = 19
T¥1
T2
T¥2 R eq 2 R c2 R r2 0.1333 0.087
Q 1
hc R eq 2 = = 0.05263 m2.K/W
hc
1 2 19
Now R eq 1 , R1, R2 and R eq 2 are in series, and their
hr
1
hr
2
sum.
ΣRth = R eq 1 + R1 + R2 + R eq 2
L1 L2 = 0.0245 + 0.026 + 0.3846 + 0.05263
(a) Schematic = 0.4877 m2.K/W
The heat flow rate per unit area Analysis : Since, wall has a window, therefore,
the effective wall area,
T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 1400 − 30
q= = Ae = Aw – Ag = 15 – 2 = 13 m2
ΣR th 0.4877
LP Lw LP
= 2808.92 W/m2. Ans.
(ii) Maximum temperature T2, to which common Bricks
1m
brick layer is subjected can be obtained by considering
resistance R eq 1 and R1
5m 2m Lg
T∞ 1 − T2 Glass
q=
R eq 1 + R 1
Plaster
1400 − T2
or 2808.92 =
0.0245 + 0.026
3m
or T2 = 1400 – 141.85 = 1258.15°C. Ans. (a) Schematic of window in a wall (b) Cross-section of wall
Example 3.12. A wall 30 cm thick has size 5 m × 3 m R1 R2 R3

made of red bricks (k = 0.35 W/m.K). It is covered on both
sides by the layers of plaster 2 cm thick (k = 0.6 W/m.K). 10°C 40°C
The wall has a window of size 1 m × 2 m. The window
door is made of glass, 12 mm thick having thermal Lg
conductivity 1.2 W/m.K. Estimate the rate of heat flow kgAg
through the wall. Inner and outer surface temperatures (c) Equivalent thermal network
are 10°C and 40°C, respectively. (P.U., Dec. 1995) Fig. 3.19. Schematic and thermal network
Solution Now referring thermal circuit Fig. 3.19(c), the
Given : A wall with a window with three resistances are in series, therefore, the total wall
resistance,
For wall Lw = 30 cm = 0.3 m,
Aw = 5 × 3 = 15 m2 LP Lw LP
Rw = R1 + R2 + R3 = + +
kw = 0.35 W/m.K, kP A e kw A e kP A e
LP = 2 cm = 0.02 m 1 F
0.02 0.3 0.02 I
kP = 0.6 W/m.K,
or Rw =
13
×
H
0.6
+
0.35
+
0.6
= 0.0710 K/W
K
For glass : Ag = 1 × 2 = 2 m2, The resistance of window glass :
Lg = 12 mm = 0.012 m
Lg 0.012
kg = 1.2 W/m.K, Rg = = = 5 × 10–3 K/W
kg A g 1.2 × 2
T1 = 10°C
T2 = 40°C. The window glass resistance acts in parallel to
wall resistances. Therefore, the equivalent resistance :
To find : The rate of heat transfer through
composite. 1 1 1
= +
Assumptions : R eq Rw R g
(i) Steady state heat flow in one direction only. 1

(ii) Constant thermal conductivity. Req = = 4.67 × 10–3 K/W
1 1
+
(iii) No contact thermal resistance at interfaces. 0.0710 5 × 10 −3
Now heat flow rate through composite L2 = 2 cm = 0.02 m

T1 − T2 40 − 10 k1 = 22 W/m.K
Q= = k2 = 0.033 W/m.K
R eq 4.67 × 10 −3
h1 = 3000 W/m2.K
= 6422.5 W. Ans.
h2 = 25 W/m2.K
Example 3.13. A 5 m wide, 4 m high and 40 m long
klin, used to cure concrete pipe is made of 20 cm thick T∞ 1 = 40°C
concrete wall and ceiling (k = 0.9 W/m.K). The klin is T∞ 2 = – 4°C
maintained at 40°C by injecting hot steam into it. The
two ends of the klin 4 m × 5 m in size are covered by a To find : Rate of heat transfer from klin to
door which is made of a 3 mm thick steel sheet surroundings.
(k = 22 W/m.K) covered with 2 cm thick styrofoam Assumptions :
(k = 0.033 W/m.K). The convection heat transfer (i) Steady state conditions.
coefficient on inner and outer surfaces of the klin are (ii) No heat transfer from edges and corner of
3000 W/m2.K and 25 W/m2.K, respectively. Neglect any klins.
heat loss through the floor, determine the heat loss from (iii) Heat transfer area corresponds to inner
the klin when the ambient air is at – 4°C. dimensions.
Solution Analysis : For heat transfer from klin to its
Given : A klin used for curing of concrete pipes surroundings, through left, right, and top sides and
front and back door, the thermal network is shown in
Width, w=5m
Fig. 3.20 (b).
Height, H=4m
Since left, right and top wall construction is same,
Length, z = 40 m
thus area of heat transfer corresponds to inner dimen-
Thickness, L = 20 cm sions.
T¥ 1 = 40°C
2
A1 = [2 × (4 m – 2 × 0.2 m) + (5 m – 2 × 0.2 m)] × 40 m
h1 = 3000 W/m .K Left and right sides Top side Length
T¥ = – 4°C
= 11.8 m × 40 m = 472 m2
h2 = 25 W/m .K
2 Area corresponds to inner dimension of doors
A2 = 2 × (4 m – 2 × 0.2 m)
× (5 m – 2 × 0.2 m) = 33.12 m2
The individual thermal resistance of network
1 1
4m For walls, R1 = =
h1A 1 3000 × 472
20
cm = 7.062 × 10–7 K/W
L 0.2
R2 = =
40
m kA 1 0.9 × 472
w=5m
= 4.70 × 10–4 K/W
1 1
(a) Schematic
R3 = =
R1 R2 R3 h2 A 1 25 × 472
= 8.474 × 10–5 K/W
Q1 for wall
T¥1 T¥ 2 1 1
For doors, R4 = =
Q Q h1A 2 3000 × 33.12
R4 R5 R6 R7
= 1.006 × 10–5 K/W
Q2 for doors L1 0.003
R5 = =
(b) k1A 2 22 × 33.12
Fig. 3.20 = 4.117 × 10–6 K/W
For door k = 0.9 W/m.K of klin L2 0.02
R6 = =
size = 4 m × 5 m k2 A 2 0.033 × 33.12
L1 = 3 mm = 0.003 m = 0.0183 K/W
1 1 The heat flow rate through klin walls and doors

R7 = = = 0.0012 K/W
h2 A 2 25 × 33.12 T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 40 − (− 4) 44
Q= = =
The resistances R1, R2 and R3 for wall are in R eq 5.40 × 10 −4 5 .40 × 10 −4
series, its total resistance = 81.47 × 103 W = 81.47 kW. Ans.
Σ R s1 = R1 + R2 + R3 Example 3.14. A 3 m high and 5 m wide wall
= 7.062 × 10–7 + 4.70 × 10–4 + 8.474 × 10–5 consists of 16 cm × 22 cm cross-section horizontal bricks
= 5.554 × 10–4 K/W ( k = 0.72 W /m. K ) separated by 3 cm thick mortar
Further, the resistances R4, R5, R6 and R7 for door layers (k = 0.25 W/m.K). The brick wall also consists of
are also in series, its total resistance 2 cm thick plaster (k = 0.22 W/m.K) layers on each side
Σ R s2 = R4 + R5 + R6 + R7 of brick and 3 cm thick rigid foam (k = 0.026 W/m.K) on
= 1.006 × 10–5 + 4.117 × 10–6 the inner side of the wall as shown in Fig. 3.21(a). The
+ 0.0183 + 0.0012 indoor and outdoor temperatures are 55 and 25°C and
= 0.0195 K/W convection heat transfer coefficients on inner and outer
sides 10 W/m2.K and 25 W/m2.K, respectively. Assume
The resistances Σ R s1 and Σ R s2 are parallel to
one dimensional heat transfer and disregard radiation,
each other, its equivalent resistance determine the rate of heat transfer through the wall.
1 1 1 (A.U., July 1999)
= +
R eq ΣR s1 ΣR s2
Solution
1 1
= + = 1851.63 Given : A composite plane wall
5.554 × 10 −4 0.0195 Wall size : 3 m × 5 m
1
or Req = = 5.40 × 10–4 K/W Brick size : 16 cm × 22 cm
1851.63
Foam Plaster
Mortar
3 cm 3
Indoor Outdoor
1.5
T¥1 = 55°C 25 cm T¥2 = 25°C
Brick 22 cm
4
1.5
2 3 cm 1 2 3 2
h1 = 10 W/m .K 2 h2 = 25 W/m K
3
2 16 cm 2
(a) Schematic
R3
T¥1 R4 T¥2
Rconv,1 R1 R2 R3 R2 Rconv, 2 Q
(b) Equivalent thermal network

Fig. 3.21
L1 = 3 cm = 0.03 m, L2 = 2 cm = 0.02 m Now the equivalent resistance is in series with

L3 = 16 cm = 0.16 m, L4 = 16 cm = 0.16 m other resistances and total resistance
k1 = 0.026 W/m2.K, k2 = 0.22 W/m.K ΣRth = Rconv, 1 + R1 + R2 + Req + R2 + Rconv, 2
k3 = 0.25 W/m.K, k4 = 0.72 W/m.K = 0.4 + 4.6 + 0.36 + 0.964 + 0.36 + 0.16
= 6.844 K/W
T∞ 1 = 55°C, T∞ 2 = 25°C,
Then the heat transfer rate through the portion
h1 = 10 W/m2.K, h2 = 25 W/m2.K. (0.25 m2) is
To find : Rate heat transfer through wall. T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 55 − 25
Q= = = 4.383 W
Assumptions : ΣR th 6.844
(i) Steady state conditions. For heat transfer rate from total surface area of
(ii) No contact resistance at interfaces. wall
(iii) Wall size 3 m × 5 m is too large, but construc- Area of wall
=Q×
tion repeats itself after every 25 cm distance in vertical Area considered
direction, therefore, for analysis, considering a portion 15
of wall 0.25 m high and 1 m deep as representation of = 4.383 × = 262 W. Ans.
0.25
entire wall. Example 3.15. Consider a 5 m high and 8 m long and
Analysis : Wall area, 0.22 m thick wall whose representation is shown in
Awall = 3 m × 5 m = 15 m2 Fig. 3.22(a). The thermal conductivity of various
Area under consideration, materials used are kA = kF = 2, kB = 8, kC = 20, kD = 15,
and kE = 35 W/m.K. The left surface of the wall is
A1 = 0.25 m × 1 m = 0.25 m2
maintained at uniform temperatures of 300°C. The right
Central Area of mortar, surface is exposed to convection environment at 50°C with
A2 = Amortar = 0.015 × 1 = 0.015 m2 h = 20 W/m2.K. Determine (a) one dimensional heat
Area of brick, transfer rate through the wall, (b) temperature at the
A3 = Abrick = 0.22 × 1 = 0.22 m2 point where section B, D and E meet, and (c) temperature
drop across the section F. (V.T.U., May 2001)
The individual thermal resistance of thermal
network ; Solution
1 1 Given : A composite wall
Rconv, 1 = = = 0.4 K/W Awall = 5 m × 8 m = 40 m2
h1A 1 10 × 0.25
L1 0.03 For representative cross-section of wall
R1 = Rfoam = = = 4.6 K/W
k1A 1 0.026 × 0.25 kA = kF = 2 W/m.K,
L2 0.02 kB = 8 W/m.K,
R2 = Rplaster = = = 0.36 K/W
k2 A 1 0.22 × 0.25 kC = 20 W/m.K,
kD = 15 W/m.K
L3 0.16
R3 = Rmortar = = = 42.67 K/W kE = 35 W/m.K,
k3 A 2 0.25 × 0.015
LA = 1 cm = 0.01 m,
L3 0.16
R4 = Rbrick = = = 1.01 K/W LB = LC = 5 cm = 0.05 m
k4 A 3 0.72 × 0.22
LD = LE = 10 cm = 0.1 m,
1 1
Rconv, 2 = = = 0.16 K/W LF = 6 cm = 0.06 m
h2 A 25 × 0.25
z = 6 cm + 6 cm = 12 cm = 0.12 m,
The three resistance R3, R4 and R3 are parallel to
zB = zC = 4 cm = 0.04 m
each other and their equivalent resistance
w = 100 cm = 1 m,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + + zD = zE = 6 cm = 0.06 m,
R eq R 3 R 4 R 3 42.67 1.01 42.67
= 1.036 W/K T1 = 300°C,
1 T∞ = 50°C,
or Req = = 0.964 K/W h = 20 W/m2.K.
1.036
Individual thermal resistances of thermal

network
T1 = 300°C
C D T¥ = 50°C LA 0.01
4 cm 2
h = 20 W/m K RA = = = 0.04167 K/W
6 cm kA A 1 2 × 0.12
B Q LB 0.05
A 4 cm T2 F RB = = = 0.15625 K/W
E kB A 2 8 × 0.04
LC 0.05
C 6 cm RC = = = 0.0625 K/W
4 cm kC A 2 20 × 0.04
m LD 0.1
1 cm 0c RD = = = 0.111 K/W
10 kD A 3 15 × 0.06
5 cm 10 cm 6 cm
LE 0.1
(a) Schematic RE = = = 0.0476 K/W
RC RD kE A 3 35 × 0.06
LF 0.06
T1 RA RB RF T4 Rconv T¥ RF = = = 0.25 K/W
T2 T3
kF A 1 2 × 0.12
RC RE 1 1
Rconv = = = 0.4167 K/W
hA 1 20 × 0.12
The resistance RB and RC are parallel as shown
Fig. 3.22. Representation of wall 5 m × 8 m × 0.22 m in size
in thermal network Fig. 3.32(b), their equivalent
To find : resistance
(i) Heat transfer rate through composite wall, 1 1 1 1
(ii) Temperature T2 at the point where section = + +
R eq 1 RC RB RC
B, D and E meet, and
(iii) Temperature drop across the section F. 1 1 1
= + +
Assumptions : 0.0625 0.15625 0.0625
(i) Steady state heat conduction. 1
R eq 1 = = 0.0260 K/W
(ii) No contact resistance at interfaces. 38.4
Further, the resistance RD and RE are parallel as
(iii) No radiation heat transfer in the system. shown and their equivalent resistance :
Analysis : (i) Equivalent thermal network for given 1 1 1
composite wall is shown in Fig. 3.22 (b). = +
R eq 2 R D R E
The cross-section area of representative portion
1 1
of wall = + = 30.017 W/K
0.111 0.0476
A1 = w × z = (1 m) × (0.12 m) = 0.12 m2 1
Area for section B and C, ∴ R eq 2 = = 0.0333 K/W
30.017
A2 = w × zB = 1 m × 0.04 = 0.04 m2 Now, resistances RA, R eq , R eq 2 , RF and Rconv are
1
Area for section B and D, in series as shown in Fig. 3.22(c)
A3 = w × zD = 1 m × 0.06 m = 0.06 m2
T1 RA Req T2 Req T3 RF T4 Rconv T¥

1 2
Fig. 3.22. (c) Modified thermal network

Total thermal resistance Heat flow rate in representative section of wall
ΣRth = RA + R eq 1 + R eq 2 + RF + Rconv Ts − T∞ 300 − 50

Q= = = 325.65 W
ΣR th 0.7677
= 0.04167 + 0.0260 + 0.0333 + 0.25 Heat transfer rate from total surface of the wall
+ 0.4167
Wall area
= 0.7677 K/W =Q×
Representative area
A wall 40 Bricks Insulation

=Q× = 325.65 ×
A1 0.12 Wood
Ti = 200°C
= 108.55 × 103 W = 108.55 kW. Ans.
(ii) Temperature T2 :
Considering the heat flow through resistances RA
and R eq 1 , d
Aluminium
Ts − T2 bolt
Q=
R A + R eq 1
To = 10°C
or T2 = Ts – Q × (RA + R eq 1 )
= 300 – 325.65 × (0.04167 + 0.0260)
= 300 – 22.03 ≈ 278°C. Ans. L1 L2 L3
(iii) Temperature drop across section F : (a) Schematic
The heat flow through section F can be expressed
as : Ti
R1 R2 R3
To
T3 − T4 Q1
Q= or T3 – T4 = Q RF
RF (b) Thermal network without rivet
= 325.65 × 0.25 = 81.41°C. Ans. Ti R4 R5 R6 To

Example 3.16. A composite insulating wall has three Q2
layers of material held together by 3 cm diameter
aluminium rivet per 0.1 m2 of surface. The layers of
material consists of 10 cm thick brick with hot surface
at 200°C, 1 cm thick wood with cold surface at 10°C. RRivet
These two layers are interposed by third layer of (c) Thermal network with rivet
insulating material 25 cm thick. The conductivity of the
materials are : Fig. 3.23
kbrick = 0.93 W/m.K, kinsulation = 0.12 W/m.K
Assumptions :
kwood = 0.175 W/m.K, kAluminium = 204 W/m.K
(i) Steady state heat flow in one direction only.
Assuming one dimensional heat flow. Calculate
the percentage increase in heat transfer rate due to rivets. (ii) Constant thermal conductivity.
(N.M.U., May 1998) (iii) No contact thermal resistances at interfaces.
Solution Analysis : (i) The resistances acting in path of
Given : The schematic is shown in Fig. 3.23 (a) heat flow without rivets as shown in 3.23 (b) :
Aw = 0.1 m2,
L1 = 10 cm = 0.1 m,
d = 3 cm = 0.03 m,
Ti = 200°C
1 L1 L2 L3
+
LM
+
OP
L2 = 25 cm = 0.25 m, L3 = 1 cm = 0.01 m,
ΣRseries =
A w k1 k2 N k3 Q
k1 = 0.93 W/m.K, To = 10°C LM
1 0.1 0.25 0.01 OP
k2 = 0.12 W/m.K, k3 = 0.175 W/m.K,
=
N
+ +
0.1 0.93 0.12 0.175
= 22.48 K/W
Q
k4 = 204 W/m.K. Heat transfer rate without rivet,
To find : ∆T 200 − 10
Q1 = = = 8.45 W. Ans.
(i) Heat flow rate without rivet. ΣR series 22.48
(ii) Heat flow rate with rivet. (ii) The heat transfer rate with rivet : Thermal
(iii) Percentage increase in heat flow due to rivet. network in Fig. 3.23 (c)
The area of rivet through which heat is conducted Solution

(i.e., cross-sectional area) Given : Wall of an industrial furnace as shown in
ARivet = (π/4) (dRivet)2 = (π/4) × (0.03)2 Fig. 3.24.
= 7.068 × 10–4 m2 T∞ 1 = 1700°C, h1 = 50 W/m2.K
L Rivet L + L2 + L3 T∞ 2 = 35°C, h2 = 10 W/m2.K

RRivet = = 1
A Rivet kRivet A Rivet k4 L1 = 250 mm = 0.25 m
k1 = 0.28 (1 + 8.33 × 10–4 T) W/m°C
0.1 + 0.25 + 0.01 k2 = 0.113(1 + 2.06 × 10–4 T) W/m°C.
= = 2.496 K/W
7.068 × 10 −4 × 204 q = 900 W/m2.
With consideration of rivet, the net effective area To find : Thickness of diatomaceous brick layer.
of the wall Refractory Diatomaceous
bricks
Ae = Aw – ARivet = 0.1 – 7.068 × 10–4 bricks
= 0.099293 m2 Surrounding
T¥1 = 1700°C Air
Now the wall resistance ;
LM
1 L1 L2 L3
+ +
OP T1
ΣRw =
A e k1 Nk2 k3 Q 2
h1 = 50 W/m .K
2
h2 = 10 W/m .K
1 LM
0.1 0.25 0.01 OP T2
=
N + +
0.099293 0.93 0.12 0.175 Q Furnace
gases
T3
= 22.64 K/W
T¥2 = 35°C
1 1 1 1 1
and = + = +
R eq ΣR w R Rivet 22.64 2.496
L1 L2
Req = 2.245 K/W
Fig. 3.24. Schematic of furnace wall
Further, heat flow through composite wall
Assumptions :
Ti − To 200 − 10 (i) No contact resistance at interface.
Q2 = = = 84.6 W. Ans.
R eq 2.245 (ii) Steady state one dimensional heat flow.
(iii) The percentage increase in heat flow due to Analysis : The average thermal conductivity of
rivet each layer can be expressed by eqn. (1.20) as :
Q2 − Q1 84.6 − 8.45 LM FG T + T IJ OP W/m.°C
k1 = 0.28 1 + 8.33 × 10 −4
H 2 KQ
1 2
Q1
=
8.45
≈ 9 or 900%. Ans.
N
Example 3.17. The following data refers to wall of an LM FG T + T IJ OP W/m.°C
H 2 KQ
−4 2 3
k2 = 0.113 1 + 2.06 × 10
industrial furnace :
Temperature of gases in the furnace = 1700°C
N
where T1, T2 and T3 are temperature of surfaces as
Temperature of air outside the furnace = 35°C shown in Fig. 3.24 and for steady state heat transfer,
Combined convective and radiative heat transfer T1 and T3 are calculated as :
coefficient of the furnace gases = 50 W/m2.K. Heat q = h1 ( T∞ – T1)
transfer coefficient of surrounding air = 10 W/m2.K. 1
The inner wall of the furnace is made of q 900

or T1 = T∞ 1 – = 1700 – = 1682°C
refractory bricks [k = 0.28 (1 + 0.000833 T) W/m.°C], h1 50
250 mm thick and it is followed by diatomaceous brick and q = h2 (T3 – T∞ 2 )
layer, [k = 0.113 (1 + 0.000206 T) W/m.°C].
Calculate the thickness of diatomaceous brick q 900
or T3 = + T∞ 2 = + 35 = 125°C
layer, so the heat loss to surrounding air should not h2 10
exceed 900 W/m2.
Now for refractory brick layer the interface acts as a strong resistance to heat flow,
k1 (T1 − T2 ) this resistance is called as contact resistance. This
q= resistance is primarily function of surface roughness,
L1
the pressure holding the two surfaces in contact, the
LM FG T + T2 IJ OP × FG T – T IJ interference fluid and interface temperature. The
= 0.28 × 1 + 8.33 × 10 −4
H KQ H L K
1 1 2
N 2 1
contact resistance acts as parallel resistance that due
to contact spots and air voids as shown in Fig. 3.25(d).
900 (1682 − T2 ) If the heat flux through the two solid surfaces in
or = [1 + 4.165 × 10–4 (1682 + T2)]
0.28 0.25 contact is q and the temperature difference across the
900 × 0.25 contact (fluid gap) is ∆T (= Tc1 − Tc2 ) as shown in
or = (1682 – T2)
0.28 Fig. 3.25(e), the contact resistance is defined by
+ 4.165 × 10–4 × (16822 – T22) Tc − Tc2
803.57 = 1682 – T2 + 4.165 × 10–4 × (2829124 – T22) Rcontact = 1 (m2.K/W) ...(3.36)
q
= 1682 – T2 + 1178.33 – 4.165 × 10–4 T22 Temperature drop across
Rearranging, contact surfaces
4.165 × 10–4 T22 + T2 – 2056.76 = 0 =
Heat flux
1.0 2 + 4 × 4.165 × 10 −4
– 1.0 ±
× 2056.76 Solid 1 Solid 2 Air void
or T2 = Contact
2 × 4.165 × 10 −4 spot
= 1325.25°C and (ignoring –ve sign)
LM
0.000833 OP q
Then k1 = 0.28 1 +
N 2
× (1682 + 1325.25)
Q
= 0.630 W/m°C
LM F
1325.25 + 125 I OP (b) Expanded view
H KQ
(a) Schematic
and
N
k2 = 0.113 1 + 0.000206 ×
2
T
of interface
= 0.130 W/m°C
Further heat transfer through diatomaceous T1
bricks layer Temperature
drop due to
k (T − T3 ) contact
q= 2 2
Tc1
L2 resistance
0.130 × (1325.25 − 125) Tc2

or L2 =
900 T2
= 0.17337 = 173.37 mm. Ans.
x
The thickness of diatomaceous brick layer is
(c) Temperature distribution
173.37 mm.
Rvoids
3.4. THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

Tc1 Tc2
In composite system, the contact resistance develops T1 T2
R1 R2
when two surfaces in contact do not fit tightly due to
significant surface asperities. The direct contact between
Rspots
the solid surfaces takes place at a limited number of
spots and the voids between them are usually filled with (d) Actual resistance
air or surrounding fluid as shown in Fig. 3.25. Heat
T1 Tc1 Tc2 T2
transfer is therefore, due to conduction across the actual
contact spots and layer of fluid filling the voids, R1 Rcontact R2
q
Fig. 3.25(b). The convection and radiation heat transfer (e) Modified thermal network
in thin layer of fluid are negligible. The thermal
Fig. 3.25. Contact resistance between two solids
conductivity of the fluid is very less than that of solid,
An increase in contact pressure can reduce the L 0.01

contact resistance drastically. The Table 3.1 gives some R1 = R3 = = = 4.167 × 10–5 m2.K/W
k 240
representative values, that illustrate the effect of pressure From Table 3.1, contact resistance Rcontact is
on thermal contact resistance for some material. 2.75 × 10–4 m2.K/W
TABLE 3.1. Typical values of thermal contact i.e., R2 = Rcontact = 2.75 × 10–4 m2.K/W
resistance The heat flux
Material Thermal contact resistance (m2.K/W) ∆T T1 − T2
q= =
Contact pressure, Contact pressure, ΣR th R 1 + R 2 + R 3
1 bar 100 bar 400 − 150
or q=
Aluminium 0.00015–0.0005 0.00002–0.00004 4.167 × 10 −5 + 2.75 × 10 −4
Copper 0.0001–0.001 0.00001–0.00005 + 4.167 × 10 −5
Magnesium 0.00015–0.00035 0.00002–0.00004
= 2.79 × 10 W/m2. Ans.
4
Stainless steel 0.0006–0.0025 0.00007–0.0004
The properties of interfacial fluid also affects T1
Voids
the contact resistance as given in Table 3.2. A viscous
fluid like glycerine on the interface can reduce the
contact resistance 10 times with respect to air at a given
pressure. A thermally conducting liquid is called a
q
thermal grease. A high conducting pastes like silicon
oil are applied between the contact surfaces before they
are pressed against each other and these are usually
used to mount the electronic components to heat sink.
T2
TABLE 3.2. Thermal contact resistance for
aluminium-aluminium interface with different L L
interfacial fluids having 10 µm surface
roughness under 1 bar contact pressure (a) Schematic of aluminium plates in contact
Interfacial fluid Contact resistance (m2.K/W) Tc1 Tc2

T1 T2
Air 2.75 × 10–4 q
Helium 1.05 × 10–4 R1 R2 R3
Hydrogen 0.72 × 10–4 (b) Thermal circuit
Silicon oil 0.525 × 10–4
Fig. 3.26
Glycerin 0.265 × 10–4
(b) The temperature drop across contact
Example 3.18. Two large aluminium plates resistance :
(k = 240 W/m.K), each 1 cm thick with 10 µm surface Heat flux across contact resistance is given as :
roughness are placed in contact under pressure of 1 bar in Tc − Tc2
air (k = 0.026 W/m.K). The temperature at inside and q= 1
outside surfaces are 400°C and 150°C. Calculate (a) the R contact
heat flux, and (b) temperature drop due to contact resistance. or ( Tc – Tc ) = q Rcontact = 2.79 × 104 × 2.75 × 10–4
1 2
Solution = 7.67°C. Ans.

Given : Two large aluminium plates in contact. Example 3.19. A plane composite slab with unit cross-
k = 240 W/m.K, L = 1 cm = 0.01 m sectional area is made up material A, (100 mm thick,
–6
La = 10 µm = 10 × 10 m, T1 = 400°C kA = 60 W/m.K) and material B (10 mm thick,
T2 = 150°C, ka = 0.026 W/m.K. kB = 2 W/m.K). Thermal contact resistance at the
To find : interface is 0.003 m2.K/W. The temperature of open side
(a) Heat flux of slab A is 300°C and that of open side of slab B is
50°C. Calculate:
(b) Temperature drop (T3 – T4) due to contact
resistance. (i) Rate of heat flow through the slab.
Analysis : (a) The individual thermal resistance (ii) Temperature on both sides of interface.
per 1 m2 area (P.U., May 2009)
Solution or T2 = T1 – Q RA
Given : A composite wall with contact resistance = 300 – 25,862 × 1.667 × 10–3
as shown in Fig. 3.27. = 256.9°C. Ans.
LA = 100 mm = 0.1 m LB = 10 mm = 0.01 m Heat transfer rate in material B
kA = 60 W/m.K kB = 2 W/m.K T3 − T4
Q=
T1 = 300°C T4 = 50°C RB
2
Rcont =0.003 m .K/W or T3 = Q RB + T4
= 25,862 × 0.005 + 50 = 179.3°C. Ans.
Material A
kA = 60 W/m.K
Material B Example 3.20. A furnace wall is made of three layers.
kB =
2 W/m.K
First layer is of insulation (k = 0.6 W/m.K), 12 cm thick.
Its face is exposed to gases at 870°C with convection
T1
coefficient of 110 W/m2.K. It is covered with (backed
= 300°C
with), a 10 cm thick layer of fire brick (k = 0.8 W/m.K)
with a contact resistance of 2.6 × 10–4 m2.K/W between
first and second layer. The third layer is a plate of 10 cm
thickness (k = 4 W/m.K) with a contact resistance
T4 between second and third layer of 1.5 × 10–4 m2.K/W. The
= 50°C plate is exposed to air at 30°C with convection coefficient of
15 W/m2.K. Determine the heat flow rate and overall heat
transfer coefficient. (V.T.U., July 2002)
100 mm 10 mm
Q 50°C
Solution
300°C Given : A composite wall
RA Rcont RB
k1 = 0.6 W/m.K L1 = 12 cm = 0.12 m
Fig. 3.27
To find : T∞ 1 = 870°C h1 = 110 W/m2.K
(a) Heat transfer rate through slab. L2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m k2 = 0.8 W/m.K
(b) Temperature on both sides interface. R c1 = 2.6 × 10–4 m2.K/W L3 = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Analysis: Assuming 1 m2 slab area, and calcula-
ting material resistance. k3 = 4 W/m.K R c2 = 1.5 × 10–4 m2.K/W
Thermal resistance of material A T∞ 2 = 30°C h2 = 15 W/m2.K.
LA 0.1
RA = = Insulation Firebrick
kA 60
Contact
= 1.667 × 10–3 m2.K/W Hot
k1 k2 k3
surfaces
Thermal resistance of material B ; gases Air
L 0.01
RB = B = = 0.005 m2.K/W
kB 2
T¥1 = 870°C T¥2 = 30°C
Total thermal resistance in the circuit
∑ Rth = RA + Rcont + RB 2 2
h1 = 110 W/m .K h2 = 15 W/m .K
= 1.667 × 10–3 + 0.003 + 0.005
= 9.667 × 10–3 m2.K/W
(a) Heat flow rate
∆Τ 300 − 50
Q= =
∑ th 9.667 × 10−3
R
L1 L2 L3
= 25,862 W. Ans.
(b) Temperature on interfaces. Fig. 3.28. Schematic of furnace wall
The heat flow rate in material A is given by To find :
T − T2 (i) Heat flow rate through composite wall, and
Q= 1
RA (ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Assumptions :
(i) Steady state one dimensional heat conduction in the wall.
(ii) 1 m2 area of wall surface.
(iii) Constant properties.
Analysis : (i) The equivalent thermal network of composite wall is shown below :
T¥1 T¥2
Rconv R1 Rc R2 Rc R3 Rconv Q
1 1 2 2
Fig. 3.28 (a)
All resistance are in series, total thermal Q 1971

or U= =
resistance A × (T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 ) 1 × (870 − 30)
ΣRth = R conv 1 + R1 + R c1 + R2 + R c2 + R3 + R conv 2 = 2.346 W/m2K. Ans.
Calculating each resistance individually Example 3.21. A layer of 5 cm refractory brick
(k = 2 W/m.K) is to be placed between two 4 mm thick
1 1
R conv 1 = = = 9.090 × 10–3 m2.K/W steel (k = 40 W/m.K) plates. The both faces of brick
h1A 110 × 1
adjacent to the plates have rough solid to solid contact
1 1 over 20% of the area, where the average height of
R conv 2 = = = 0.0667 m2.K/W asperities is 1 mm. The outer surface temperature of steel
h2 A 15
plates are 400°C and 100°C, respectively.
L1 0.12 (i) Find the rate of heat flow per unit area and
R1 = = = 0.2 m2.K/W
k1A 0.6 × 1 assume that the cavity area is filled with air
(k = 0.02 W/m.K).
L2 0.1 (ii) Find the rate of heat flow, if the faces of brick
R2 = = = 0.125 m2.K/W
k2 A 0.8 × 1 are smooth and have solid to solid perfect contact over
entire area. (P.U., Dec. 2008)
L3 0.1
R3 = = = 0.025 m2.K/W
k3 A 4 × 1 Solution
Given : The schematic is shown in Fig. 3.29(a).
Then
L1 = 4 mm = 0.004 m (Steel plate),
ΣRth = 9.090 × 10–3 + 0.2 + 2.6 × 10–4 + 0.125
L2 = 1 mm = 0.001 m (Air gap),
+ 1.5 × 10–4 + 0.025 + 0.0667
L3 = 5 cm = 0.05 m (brick layer),
= 0.4262 m2.K/W k1 = 40 W/m.K,
The heat flow rate can be obtained from thermal k2 = 0.02 W/m.K,
circuit as : k3 = 2 W/m.K,
T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 870 − 30 T1 = 400°C,
Q= =
ΣR th 0.4262 T2 = 100°C.
Contact area = 20%
= 1971 W/m2. Ans.
To find :
(ii) The overall heat transfer is expressed as :
(i) Heat flow rate with contact resistance.
1 1
U= = (ii) Heat flow rate without contact resistance.
A ΣR th 1 × 0.4262
Assumptions :
= 2.346 W/m2.K. Ans. (i) Steady state one direction heat flow.
or it can also be calculated from heat transfer rate, (ii) Constant properties.
Q = UA (∆T)overall (iii) Heat transfer area as 1 m2.
Steel Refractory Steel Req = 2.403 × 10–3 K/W

bricks plate
plate
The total resistance,
ΣR = 2R1 + 2Req + R4
= 2 × 1 × 10–4 + 2 × 2.403 × 10–3 + 0.024
= 0.029 K/W
The heat flow rate with contact resistance :
400 − 100
1 4 1 Q1 = = 10342 W. Ans.
2 0.029
(ii) The heat transfer rate without contact
3
resistance
T1 − T2
4 cm Q2 =
5 cm 4 cm
2R 1 + R brick
(a) Schematic of composite The resistance of brick layer without air pockets,
L brick 0.05
R2 R2 Rbrick = = = 0.025 K/W
kbrick A 2 × 1
R1 R4 R1 The heat flow rate :
T1 T2
400 − 100
Q2 =
2 × 1 × 10 − 4 + 0.025
R3 R3 = 11904.7 W. Ans.
3.5. LONG HOLLOW CYLINDER
Fig. 3.29
Analysis : (i) When cavities are filled with air. Consider a long hollow cylinder as shown in Fig. 3.30.
The heat flow rate through the plates : The inner surface at r = r1 is kept at temperature T1
T1 − T2 and outer surface at r = r2 is kept at temperature T2.
∆T
Q= = There is no heat generation and the thermal conductiv-
ΣR th 2R 1 + 2R contact + R 4 ity of the solid is kept constant.
For steel plate :
L1 0.004
R1 = = = 1 × 10–4 K/W
k1A 40 × 1 Q
Since the contact area is 20% (i.e., A2 = 0.2 m2), r2
hence area of air pockets is 80% (i.e., A1 = 0.8 m2)
Air resistance, r1 T1
T2
L2 1 × 10 −3
R2 = = = 0.0625 K/W L
k2 A 1 0.02 × 0.8
For brick contact, (a) Hollow cylinder with specified temperatures
L2 1 × 10 −3
R3 = = = 0.0025 K/W T1
Rcyl
T2
k3 A 2 2 × 0.2 Q
Since the refractory bricks having 1 mm air (b) Equivalent thermal resistances
pockets on both sides, hence effective thickness Fig. 3.30
of refractory layer, L4 = 50 cm – 2 × 1 mm = 48 mm
Rewriting eqn. (2.18) for cylinder,
= 0.048 m.
For refractory brick, d RS
dT UV
L
R4 = 4 =
0.048 m
= 0.024 K/W
dr
r
T
dr
=0
W ...(3.37)
k3 A 2×1 where, T = T(r) the function of r direction.

Equivalence of parallel resistances R2 and R3 : Integrating with respect to r, we get
1 1 1 1 1 r dT dT C 1
= + = + = C1 or = ...(3.38)
R eq R 2 R 3 0.0625 0.0025 dr dr r
Integrating again, we get 3.5.1. Electrical Analogy for Hollow Cylinder

T(r) = C1 ln(r) + C2 ...(3.39) Like plane wall, the electrical analogy can also be
Subjected to boundary conditions for evaluation extended for hollow cylinder without heat generation.
of constants C1 and C2, Rearranging eqn. (3.44)
T(r) = T1 at r = r1 and T(r) = T2 at r = r2, T1 − T2 ∆T
Using in equation (3.39), we get Q= = ...(3.45)
ln (r2 /r1 ) R cyl
T1 = C1 ln (r1) + C2 ...[3.40 (a)] 2πL k
T2 = C1 ln (r2) + C2 ...[3.40 (b)]
ln (r2 /r1 )
Solving, we get where, Rcyl = = thermal resistance to heat flow
2πL k
T2 − T1
C1 =
FG IJ
r
through hollow cylinder as shown in Fig. 3.30 (b).
ln 2
H K
r1
r1 = inner radius,
r2 = outer radius.
T2 − T1
and C2 = T1 –
r2 FG IJ
ln (r1) Now consider steady state one dimensional heat
flow through a cylindrical layer that is exposed to con-
ln
r1 H K vection on both sides to fluids at T∞ and T∞ 2 with heat
Substituting these constants in eqn. (3.39), 1
transfer coefficients h1 and h2, respectively as shown in
T2 − T1 T2 − T1 Fig. 3.31. The thermal resistance network in this case
T(r) =
r2 FG IJ
ln (r) + T1 –
r2
ln (r1)
FG IJ consists of one conduction and two convection resistances
ln
r1 H K ln
r1 H K in series, and the rate of heat transfer is expressed as :
Rearranging, we get T∞ 1 − T∞ 2
T(r) − T1 ln (r) − ln (r1 ) Q=
ΣR th
T2 − T1
=
r FG IJ
ln 2
r1 H K where ΣRth = Rconv, 1 + Rcyl + Rconv, 2
T(r) − T1 ln (r/r1 ) 1 ln (r2 /r1 ) 1

or = ...(3.41) = + + ...(3.46)
T2 − T1 ln (r2 /r1 ) (2πr1L) h1 2πL k (2πr2 L) h2
Differentiating with respect to r, we get slope
dT(r) (T − T1 ) r1 1
= 2 × ×
dr ln (r2 /r1 ) r r1 Q
T2 − T1
= ...(3.42)
r ln (r2 /r1 ) T¥
Rconv,1 Rcyl Rconv,2
T¥2
The heat flux : r1 1 h1 h2
dT(r) FG
k T2 − T1 IJ r2
q(r) = – k
dr
=−
H
r ln (r2 /r1 K L
FG
k T1 − T2 IJ Fig. 3.31. Thermal resistance network for hollow cylinder
=
H
r ln (r2 /r1 ) K ...(3.43) subjected to convection heat transfer at inner
and outer surfaces
The total heat transfer rate,
Q = Aq 3.5.2. Multilayer Hollow Cylinders
2πrL k (T1 − T2 ) 2πL k(T1 − T2 ) Now consider a composite system of three hollow
or Q= = cylinders as shown in Fig. 3.32 (thermal conductivities
r ln (r2 /r1 ) ln (r2 /r1 )
kA, kB, and kC, respectively) with convection on inner
...(3.44) and outer surfaces. Recalling the treatment given to
where L is the length of cylinder and A = 2πrL, area of composite wall, the total thermal resistance :
cylinder at radius r. ΣRth = Rconv, 1 + R1 + R2 + R3 + Rconv, 2
where, U1 = overall heat transfer coefficient based on

3
inner surface area A1 (= 2πr1L). It may also be defined
kC in terms of any of the intermediate areas providing
2 k
B
U1A1 = U2A2 = U3A3 = U4A4 ...(3.50)
The specific forms of U2, U3 and U4 may be
1 kA T¥2 evaluated from eqn. (3.47)
r1 r2 r3
r4 h2 3.5.4. Log Mean Area
h1
T¥1 Rewriting eqn. (3.45) in the form for cylinder shown in
Fig. 3.33(a);
(a) Hollow composite cylinder
r2 T2 T1
T¥1 T1 T2 T3 T4 T¥2
Rconv,1 R1 R2 R3 Rconv,2 T2
T1
Fig. 3.32 Q
1 ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 )
or ΣRth = + +
2πr1Lh1 2πLk1 2πLk2
ln(r4 / r3 ) 1
+ + ...(3.47) Q
2πLk3 2πr4 Lh2 r1
(∆T)overall = T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 r2 – r1
T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 (a) Cylinder (b) Equivalent slab

Thus, Q=
1 ln (r2 /r1 ) ln (r3 / r2 ) Fig. 3.33
+ +
h1A 1 2πL kA 2πL kB
T1 − T2
ln (r4 /r3 ) 1 Q=
+ + R cyl
2πL kC h2 A 2
...(3.48) ln (r2 /r1 )
where Rcyl = ...(3.51)
where, A1 = 2π r1L and A2 = 2π r4L 2πL k
Rearranging this equation as
3.5.3. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
An overall heat transfer coefficient can be evaluated as :
ln
LM 2πr L OP
2
Q = U1A1 (∆T)overall =
(∆T) overall
Rcyl =
(r2 − r1 )
× N 2 πr L Q
1
ΣR th (r2 − r1 ) 2 πL k
where A1 = Inner surface area of cylinder = 2πr1L
(r2 − r1 ) ln (A 2 /A 1 )
1 =
and U1 = (A 2 − A 1 ) k
2πr1L ΣR th
1 (r2 − r1 )
or Rcyl = ...(3.52)
U1 =
2πr1L
1 LM
+
ln (r2 /r1 ) ln (r3 /r2 )
+
A mk
2πr1L h1 N 2πL kA 2πL kB A2 − A1
+
ln (r4 /r3 )
+
1 OP where, Am =
ln ( A 2 /A 1 )
...(3.53)
2πL kC 2πr4 L h2 Q A2 = 2πr2L = area of outer surface of cylinder,
1 A1 = 2πr1L = area of inner surface of cylinder,
or U1 = ...(3.49)
1 r1 ln (r2 /r1 ) r1 ln (r3 /r2 ) Am = logarithmic mean area or log mean area
+ +
h1 kA kB of cylinder,
r1 ln (r4 /r3 ) r r2 – r1 = thickness of cylinder,
+ + 1
kC r4 h2 Rcyl = thermal resistance of cylinder.
Now the heat flow for hollow cylinder can be Solution

written as : Given : A hollow cylinder is heated at its inner
A m k (T1 − T2 ) surface
Q= ...(3.54) r1 = 30 mm, r2 = 50 mm
r2 − r1
This approach can be used to transform a q = 105 W/m2, T∞ = 80°C
cylinder into a equivalent slab of thickness (r2 – r1) as h = 400 W/m2.K, k = 15 W/m.K.
shown in Fig. 3.33(b).
Example 3.22. A long hollow cylinder (k = 50 W/m.K)
has an inner radius of 10 cm, and outer radius of 20 cm. q1
The inner surface is heated uniformly at constant rate of Fluid T1
1.16 × 105 W/m2 and outer surface is maintained at 30°C. r1
T2
h
Calculate the temperature of inner surface. r2
Solution T¥
Given : A long hollow cylinder heated uniformly

at its inner surface : (a)
r1 = 10 cm = 0.1 m, r2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
k = 50 W/m.K, q1 = 1.16 × 105 W/m2 T1 T2 T¥
T2 = 30°C. R1 R2
q
To find : Inner surface temperature. (b)
Assumptions : Fig. 3.34
(i) Steady state heat conduction in radial To find : Temperatures of inner and outer surfaces
direction only. of the cylinder.
(ii) 1 m length of cylinder for analysis. Analysis : The individual thermal resistance
Analysis : The heat transfer rate through the ln (r2 /r1 ) ln (50 / 30) 0.0340
cylinder R1 = = =
2πL k 2πL × 15 2πL
Q = A(r) q(r) = (2πr1L) q1 ...(i)
1 1 0.05
Further, the heat conduction rate through the R2 = = =
cylinder can be expressed as : 2π r2 L h (2πL) × 0.05 × 400 2πL
These resistances are in series, total thermal
2πk L (T1 − T2 )
Q= ...(ii) resistance
ln (r2 /r1 )
0.0340 0.05 0.084
For steady state combining these two equations, ΣRth = R1 + R2 = + =
2πL 2πL 2πL
we get The heat flow rate through the network
2πk L (T1 − T2 ) ∆T (T − T∞ ) × 2πL
(2πr1L) q1 = Q = q (2πr1L) = = 1
ln (r2 /r1 ) ΣR th 0.084
Substituting the numerical values to obtain T1 Equating 2nd and 4th terms
2π × 50 L (T1 − 30) (T1 − 80) × 2πL
(2π × 0.1 L) × 1.16 × 105 = 105 × (2πL) × 0.03 =
ln (0.2 / 0.1) 0.084
or T1 – 80 = 252°C or T1 = 252 + 80
It gives T1 = 160.8 + 30 = 190.8°C. Ans.
= 332°C. Ans.
Example 3.23. A hollow cylinder with inner radius The temperature of inner surface is 332°C.
30 mm and outer radius 50 mm is heated at the inner Further, heat convection rate
surface at a rate of 105 W/m2 and dissipated heat by
Q = q (2πr1L) = h(2π r2L) (T2 – T∞)
convection from outer surface into a fluid at 80°C with
heat transfer coefficient of 400 W/m2.K. There is no or 105 × 0.03 = 400 × 0.05 × (T2 – 80)
energy generation and thermal conductivity of the 3000
or T2 = + 80 = 230°C. Ans.
material is constant at 15 W/m.K. Calculate the tem- 20
peratures of inside and outside surfaces of the cylinder. The temperature of outer surface is 230°C.
Example 3.24. A copper wire 0.1 mm in diameter is When steady current flows through copper wire
insulated with plastic to an outer diameter of 0.3 mm ρ cu L ρ cu L
and is exposed to an environment at 40°C. The heat Q = I2Re = I2 = I2
transfer coefficient from the outer surface of the plastic Ac (π/4) d12
to surroundings is 8.75 W/m2.K. What is the maximum π Q d12
steady current in amperes, that this wire can carry or I2 = ×
4 ρ cu L
without heating any part of plastic above 95°C ? The
thermal conductivities of plastic and copper are 0.35 and π 4.356 L × (0.1 × 10 −2 ) 2
384 W/m.K, respectively. The electrical resistivity of the = × = 174.53
4 1.96 × 10 −8 × L
copper is 0.196 × 10–5 ohm.cm.
I = 13.21 Amp. Ans.
Solution
Example 3.25. A steel tube (k = 45 W/m.K) of outside
Given : A copper wire plastic insulation
diameter 7.6 cm, and thickness 1.3 cm, is covered with
d1 = 0.1 mm = 0.1 × 10–3 m,
an insulating material (k = 0.2 W/m.K) of thickness 2 cm.
r1 = 5 × 10–4 m A hot gas at 330°C, with convection coefficient of
d2 = 0.3 mm = 0.3 × 10–3 m, 200 W/m2.K, is flowing inside the tube. The outer surface
r2 = 15 × 10–4 m of the insulation is exposed to ambient air at 30°C, with
T∞ = 40°C, convection coefficient of 50 W/m2.K.
Ts = 95°C Calculate :
h = 8.75 W/m2 K, (i) Heat loss to air from the 5 m long tube,
kplastic = 0.35 W/m.K (ii) The temperature drop due to thermal
kcu = 384 W/m.K, resistances of the hot gases, steel tube, the insulation
ρcu = 0.196 × 10–5 Ω.cm = 1.96 × 10–8 Ω.m. layer and the outside air.
To find : The maximum steady current flow in wire.
Solution
Assumptions :
(i) Steady state heat conduction in radial Given : A steel pipe covered with an insulation
direction only. layer :
(ii) Constant properties. d1 = (7.6 – 2 × 1.3) cm = 5.0 cm,
(iii) No contact resistance. r1 = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m,
r2 = 3.8 cm = 0.038 m,
Copper wire r3 = (3.8 + 2.0) cm = 0.058 m,
d2 L=5m
k1 = 45 W/m.K,
h
k2 = 0.2 W/m.K
Ts h1 = 200 W/m2.K,
T¥
h2 = 50 W/m2.K
T∞ 1 = 330°C,
d1 Plastic
insulation T∞ 2 = 30°C
Fig. 3.35 To find :
Analysis : The heat flow rate from the wire to (i) The heat loss from 5 m length of the tube.
surroundings can be calculated by electrical analogy. (ii) Temperature drop due to thermal resistances
2πL (Ts − T∞ ) of hot gases, steel tube, insulation layer and the outside
Q=
ln (r2 /r1 ) 1 air.
+
kplastic r2 h Assumptions :
2πL (95 − 40) (i) Steady state heat conduction in radial
=
ln (15 / 5) 1 direction only.
+
0.35 15 × 10 –4 × 8.75 (ii) No contact resistance at interface.
= 4.356L (W)
lay
er ∆T2 = Q × R2 = 3531.8 W × 2.96 × 10–4 K/W
on
u lati = 1.045°C
2 cm Ins
∆T3 = Q × R3 = 3531.8 W × 0.0673 K/W
= 237.68°C
h2 ∆T4 = Q × R4 = 3531.8 W × 0.01098 K/W
r1 d2 = 38.77°C. Ans.
T¥2 Example 3.26. A steam pipe of 5 cm inside diameter
L and 6.5 cm outside diameter is covered with a 2.75 cm
radial thickness of high temperature insulation
1.3 cm
T¥1 h1 (k = 1.1 W/m.K). The surface heat transfer coefficient
for inside and outside surfaces are 4650 W/m2.K
(a)
and 11.5 W/m2.K, respectively. The thermal conductivity
T¥1 R1 R2 R3 R4
T¥2 of the pipe material is 45 W/m.K. If the steam
Q temperature is 200°C and ambient air temperature is
(b) 25°C, determine :
Fig. 3.36 (i) Heat loss per metre length of pipe.
Analysis : (i) Applying electrical analogy for the (ii) Temperature at the interface.
radial heat flow through the tube : (iii) Overall heat transfer coefficient.
T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 (V.T.U., July 2002)
Q=
ΣR th
Solution
where, A1 = 2πr1 L = 2π × 0.025 × 5 = 0.785 m2
Given : A steam pipe covered with high
A2 = 2πr3 L = 2π × 0.058 × 5 = 1.822 m2
temperature insulation :
The various thermal resistances
1 1 d1 = 5 cm or r1 = 0.025 m
R1 = = = 6.37 × 10–3 K/W d2 = 6.5 cm r2 = 0.0325 m
h1 A 1 200 × 0.785
ln (r2 /r1 ) ln (0.038/0.025) or k1 = 45 W/m.K k2 = 1.1 W/m.K
R2 = =
2πL k1 2π × 5 × 45 r3 = 0.0325 + 0.0275 = 0.06 m
= 2.96 × 10–4 K/W h1 = 4650 W/m2.K, h2 = 11.5 W/m2.K
ln (r3 /r2 ) ln (0.058/0.038)
R3 = = = 0.0673 K/W T∞ 1 = 200°C, T∞ 2 = 25°C
2πL k2 2π × 5 × 0.2
1 1
R4 = = = 0.01098 K/W
h4 A 2 50 × 1.822
All resistances are in series.
Insulation
Thus, the total resistance,
ΣRth = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
Steam Pipe r1
ΣRth = 6.37 × 10–3 + 2.96 × 10–4 + 0.0673
Air h1
+ 0.01098 r2
–3 h2
= 84.94 × 10 K/W T¥1
r3
The total heat loss, T¥2
330 − 30
Q= = 3531.8 W. Ans.
84.84 × 10 −3 (a) Schematic
(ii) The temperature drop can be calculated by T¥1 T1 T2 T3 T¥2
relation :
R1 Q
∆Ti = Q × Ri R2 R3 R4
∆T1 = Q × R1 = 3531.8 W × 6.37 × 10–3 K/W (b) Thermal network

= 22.5°C Fig. 3.37
To find : (iii) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on

(i) Heat loss per metre length of the pipe. inner radius
(ii) Temperature T2 at the interface. 1 1
Ui = =
(iii) Overall heat transfer coefficient. A i ΣR th πd1L ΣR th
Assumptions : 1
(i) Steady state conditions. =
π × 0.05 × 1 × 0.320
(ii) Heat transfer in radial direction only.
= 19.89 W/m2.K. Ans.
(iii) 1 m length of the pipe.
Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer
(iv) Constant properties.
radius
(v) No contact resistance at the interface.
1 1
Analysis : Using the electrical analogy for radial Uo = =
heat flow through composite cylinder. A o ΣR th 2πr3 L ΣR th
1
T∞1 − T∞2 =
Q= 2π × 0.06 × 1 × 0.320
ΣR th
= 8.29 W/m2.K. Ans.
1 1
where R1 = = Example 3.27. A pipe line (di = 160 mm, do = 170 mm)
h1A i 2πr1L h1
is covered with a layer of insulation, 100 mm, with
1 variable thermal conductivity as k = 0.062 (1 +
=
2π × 0.025 × 1 × 4650 0.000363T) W/m°C. Calculate the heat loss per metre
= 0.00137 m2.K/W length of the pipe for temperature of outer pipe surface
FG r IJ ln FG 0.0325 IJ
2
as 300°C and outer insulation layer as 50°C.
R2 =
ln
H r K = H 0.025 K = 9.28 × 10
1 –4 m2.K/W
Solution
2πL k1 2π × 1 × 45 Given : An insulation layer on a pipe line
FG r IJ ln FG 0.06 IJ
3 di = 160 mm, do = 170 mm
R3 =
ln
H r K = H 0.0325 K
2
= 0.088 m2.K/W
r2 = 85 mm = 0.085 m
2πL k2 2π × 1 × 1.1 r3 = 85 mm + 100 mm = 0.185 m
1 1 1 For insulation
R4 = = =
h2 A o 2π r3 L × h2 2π × 0.06 × 1 × 11.5 k = 0.062 × (1 + 0.000363 T) W/m°C
= 0.23 m2 .K/W = k0 (1 + αT)
All resistances are in series, thus
ΣRth = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 T2
= 0.00137 + 9.28 × 10–4 + 0.088 + 0.23 Insulation

T3
= 0.320 m2.K/W
(i) Heat loss per metre length of the pipe Pipe
r1
200 − 25
Q= = 545.25 W/m. Ans. r2
0.320
(ii) The temperature T2 at the interface : r3
Considering first two resistances of thermal

network, then heat flow rate
Fig. 3.38
T∞ 1 − T2
Q= To find : Heat loss rate from pipe per metre
R1 + R2 length.
200 − T2 Analysis : Heat transfer rate through insulation
or 545.25 = cylinder
0.00137 + 9.28 × 10 − 4
dT
or 200 – T2 = 545.25 × 2.298 × 10–3 = 1.253 Q = – kA
dr
or T2 = 200 – 1.138 = 198.75°C. Ans. or Q dr = – k0 (1 + αT) (2πrL) dT
or
Q
2πL z
r2
r3 dr
r
= − k0 z
T2
T3
(1 + αT) dT
when good insulating material is kept next to pipe.
Q1 =
2πL (T1 − T3 )
= 1.856πL (∆T)k2
Q r FG IJ = – k L(T α OP ln (4/1.5) ln (6.5/4)
or
2 πL
ln 3
r2 H K MN 0 3 − T2 ) +
2
(T3 2 − T2 2 )
Q k2
+
5k2
= k0 (T2 – T3) 1 +
α RS
(T2 + T3 )
UV Now if poor insulating material (of higher thermal
conductivity) is kept next to pipe surface
2 T W
or Q=
2πL k0 (T2 − T3 ) α
1 + (T2 + T3 )
RS UV Q2 =
2πL (∆T)
ln (4/1.5) ln (6.5/4)
= 2.928πL (∆T)k2
ln (r3 / r2 ) 2 T W 5k2
+
k2
Using numerical values Percentage reduction in heat flow
2π × 1 × 0.062 × (300 − 50) Q2 − Q1
Q= × × 100
ln (0.185/0.085) Q2
RS1 + 0.000363 × (300 + 50)UV 2.928 − 1.856
T 2 W 2.928
100 = 36.6%. Ans.
= 133.18 W/m. Ans.
Example 3.29. A steam pipe, 10 cm in outer diameter is
Example 3.28. A 3 cm outer diameter steam pipe is to covered with two layers of insulation material each 2.5 cm
be covered with two layers of insulation each having thick, one having thermal conductivity thrice the other.
thickness of 2.5 cm. The average thermal conductivity of Show that the effective thermal conductivity of two layers
one material is five times of the other. Determine the is approximately 15% less when better insulation material
percentage decrease in heat transfer, if better insulating is placed as inside layer, than when it is on the outside.
material is kept next to pipe surface than it is as outer (P.U., May 1998)
layer. Assume that the outside and inside temperatures
are fixed. (P.U., May 1996) Solution
Given : Two layers of insulation on a steam pipe.
Solution
d1 = 10 cm, r1 = 5 cm
Given : A steam pipe covered with two layers of r2 = 5 cm + 2.5 cm = 7.5 cm
insulation ;
r3 = 7.5 cm + 2.5 cm = 10 cm
d1 = 3 cm or r1 = 1.5 cm k1 = 3k2
r2 = 1.5 cm + 2.5 cm = 4 cm
r3 = 4 cm + 2.5 cm = 6.5 cm
2nd layer Ist layer
k1 = 5k2 of insulation of insulation
To find : Percentage reduction in heat loss, if r1
better order of insulation is placed.
Assumptions :
(i) Steady state heat conduction in radial
direction only. r2
(ii) No contact resistance at interfaces. r3
Steam
(iii) k1 and k2 are the thermal conductivities for pipe
the two layers of insulation. We consider k1 = 5 k2 i.e.,
k2 is good insulator. Fig. 3.39
Analysis : The steady state heat transfer rate is Analysis : The steady state heat transfer rate
expressed as : through composite cylinder.
2π L ∆ T ∆T 2πL(∆T)
Q=
 r2  r 
Q=
F r I F r I
ln G J ln G J
2
=
Fr I Fr I
ln G J ln G J
3 2 3
ln   ln  3 
 r1  +  r4 
Hr K + Hr K Hr K + Hr K
1 2 1 2
k1 k2 2πL k1 2πL k2 k1 k2
When better insulating matter (k2) is placed as Solution

inside layer, Given : Two insulation layer on a heat pipe.
2πL(∆T) d = 3 cm,
Q1 =
FG IJ
7.5 10FG IJ = 1.99 × [2πL k2 (∆T)]
r1 = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
ln
5H K+
ln
7.5 H K T1 = 120°C
k2 3k2 T∞ = 30°C
The effective thermal conductivity of two layers Q = 120 W/m
insulation in this arrangement
k1 = 5 W/m.K,
2πLki (∆T)
Q1 =
10 FG IJ V1 = 3.15 × 10–3 m3/m
ln
5 H K k2 = 1 W/m.K,
V2 = 4 × 10–3 m3/m.
2πL ki (∆T)
or 1.99 × 2πL k2 (∆T) = To find :
0.6931
(i) Better arrangement of insulation.
or ki = 1.382 k2 ...(i)
(ii) Percentage change in heat loss with better
When effective insulation layer (k2) is placed as
arrangement.
outside layer.
2πL (∆T) 2πL k2 (∆T)
Q2 =
FG r IJ ln FG r IJ =
FG IJ
7.5
ln 2
Hr K + Hr K
3 ln
H K
5 FG IJ
10
H K
Insulation 2
1 2 + ln Insulation 1
3k2 k2 3 7.5 r1
Air
= 2.365 × [2πL k2 (∆T)]
Effective thermal conductivity of two layer in this
arrangement.
2πL ko (∆T)
2.365 [2πL k2 (∆T)] =
10 FG IJ
H K
r2
ln
5 r3 Pipe
or ko = 1.639 k2
Fig. 3.40
% change in effective thermal conductivity
1.639 − 1.382 Analysis : (i) When heat is transferred from pipe
× 100 = 15.7% to surroundings by convection,
1.639
less, if better insulation material is placed as inside T1 − T∞
Q = hA(T1 – T∞) =
layer. Proved. R conv
Example 3.30. A 3 cm diameter pipe at 120°C is losing The resistance of convection
heat by convection at rate of 120 W per metre length. The T1 − T∞ 120 − 30
surrounding temperature is 30°C. It is required to reduce Rconv = = = 0.75 K/W
Q 120
the heat loss to a minimum value by providing insulation.
The following insulation materials are available : For a pipe with two layer of insulation
ΣRth = Rconv + R1 + R2
Insulation 1 : Quantity = 3.15 × 10–3 m3 per metre
length of pipe FG r IJ ln FG r IJ
2 3
Thermal conductivity, k1 = 5 W/m.K.

= 0.75 +
ln
Hr K + Hr K.
1 2
Insulation 2 : Quantity = 4 × 10–3 m3 per metre 2πLk1 2πLk2

length Arrangement 1 : Insulation material 1 is placed
Thermal conductivity, k2 = 1 W/m.K. as inside layer of insulation
V1 = π (r22 – r21)L
Examine the better insulating layer relative to pipe
and determine the percentage change in heat transfer or 3.15 × 10–3 = π(r22 – 0.0152) × 1
from that arrangement. or r22 = 1.2276 × 10–3 m2
or r2 = 0.035 m of 20 W/m2.K. Find the temperature at the interface

and V2 = π (r32 – r22) × L between the two cylinders and at the outer surface.
4 × 10 −3 (P.U., Dec. 2009)

r32 = + 0.035 2 = 2.498 × 10 –3 m 2
π Solution
or r3 = 0.05 m Given : A long cylindrical nuclear reacting
FG 0.035 IJ ln FG 0.05 IJ material with uniform heat generation ;
Now, ΣRth = 0.75 +

ln
H 0.015 K + H 0.035 K r1 = 12 cm = 0.12 m,
k1 = 2 W/m.K
2π × 1 × 5 2π × 1 × 1
go = 30 × 103 W/m3,
= 0.75 + 0.0269 + 0.0568 = 0.834 K/W. r2 = 24 cm = 0.24 m
Heat loss rate k2 = 5 W/m.K,
∆T 120 − 30 T∞ = 30°C
Q1 = = = 107.96 W
ΣR th 0.834 h = 20 W/m2.K.
Arrangement 2 : The insulation 2 is placed next
r2
to pipe surface and insulation 1 as outer layer.
V2 = π (r22 – r12)L r1 Insulation
−3 Air
4 × 10
or r22 = + (0.015)2 Nuclear rod
π h
= 1.498 × 10–3 m2 T¥
or r2 = 0.0387 m T1
and V1 = π (r32 – r22) × L To
−3
3.15 × 10 Fig. 3.41. Schematic of cylinder consists of nuclear fuel,
or r32 = + (0.0387)2
π covered with insulation
= 2.500 × 10–3 m2 To find : Temperatures T1 and To.
or r3 = 0.05 m
Assumptions :
FG 0.0387 IJ ln FG 0.050 IJ (i) Constant properties.
ΣRth = 0.75 +
ln
H 0.015 K + H 0.0387 K (ii) No contact resistance.
2π × 1 × 1 2πL × 5 (iii) Steady state heat conduction in radial
= 0.75 + 0.150 + 0.0081 direction.
= 0.909 K/W m2 (iv) 1 m length of the cylinder for analysis.
Heat loss rate Analysis : Since the heat is generated uniformly
throughout the volume of nuclear reacting material
120 − 30 cylinder, hence total heat generation rate per m length ;
Q2 = = 99.0 W.
0.909
Qg = go πr2L = 30 × 103 × π × (0.12)2 × 1
Comment : The second arrangement is more
effective. = 1357.16 W/m
(ii) The percentage decrease in heat loss In steady state conditions, this heat will be
convected from outer cylinder surface therefore ;
107.96 − 99.0
= × 100 = 8.2%. Ans. Qg = Qout = 2πr2 L h(To – T∞)
107.96
or 1357.16 = 2 × π × 0.24 × 1 × 20 × (To – 30)
Example 3.31. A long cylindrical rod of radius 12 cm,
or To = 30 + 45 = 75°C. Ans.
consists of nuclear reacting material (k = 2 W/m.K)
generating 30 kW/m3 uniformly throughout its volume. Further, this heat will also be conducted through
The rod is encapsulated within another cylinder insulation cylinder, hence
(k = 5 W/m.K) whose outer radius is 24 cm and surface 2πLk2 (T1 − To )
Qg =
is surrounded by air at 30°C with heat transfer coefficient ln (r2 /r1 )
Q g ln (r2 /r1 ) Analysis : The heat loss rate per metre of bare
or T1 = + To pipe surface
2πLk2
Qb
= 2πr1h(Ts – T∞)
1357.16 × ln (0.24/0.12) L
= + 75 = 2π × 0.015 m × 8.5 × (200 – 30)
2π × 1 × 5
= 136.18 W/m
= 105°C. Ans.
After addition of insulation, the heat loss is
Example 3.32. A steel pipe 3 cm in diameter has its reduced by 40%. Hence allowable heat loss is 60% only.
outer surface at 200°C, is placed in air at 30°C with Hence allowable heat loss,
heat transfer coefficient of 8.5 W/m2.K. It is proposed Q1 = 0.6 Qb = 0.6 × 136.18 = 81.71 W/m
to add insulation (k = 0.07 W/m.K) on its outer surface
to reduce the heat loss by 40%. Estimate the thickness of Now from thermal network ;
insulation required, if pipe temperature and heat transfer Heat loss per metre length of pipe
coefficient remain unchanged. Q1 2 π ( ∆T)
=
L ln (r2 /r1 ) 1
Solution +
kins r2 h
Given : A steel pipe proposed for insulation layer
d1 = 3 cm or r1 = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m 2 π (200 − 30)
=
ln (r2 /0.015) 1
Ts = 200°C, +
0.07 8.5r2
T∞ = 30°C
= 81.71 W/m
h = 8.5 W/m2.K
ln (r2 /0.015) 1
kins = 0.07 W/m2.K or + = 13.072
0.07 8.5r2
Q1 = 0.6 Qb.
ln (r2 ) 1 ln (0.015)
or + = 13.072 +
0.07 8.5r2 0.07
Pipe = 13.072 – 59.995 = – 46.923
Proposed
at 200°C
insulation ln (r2 ) 1
Air or + + 46.923 = 0
0.07 8.5r2
h
It is a transcedental equation and can be solved
r1
T¥ r2 by numerical methods, we get
r2 = 2.79 × 10–2 m = 2.79 cm
So required thickness of insulation
= 2.79 – 1.5 = 1.29 cm. Ans.
(a) Schematic of pipe with insulation

Example 3.33. Air at 90°C flows in a copper tube
(k = 384 W/m.K) of 4 cm inner diameter and with
ln (r2/r1) 1 0.6 cm thick walls which are heated from the outside
2pLkins 2pr2Lh by water at 125°C. A scale of 0.3 cm thick is deposited
Ts T¥
Q1 on outer surface of the tube whose thermal
conductivity is 1.75 W/m.K. The air and water side heat
(b) Equivalent thermal network transfer coefficients are 221 and 3605 W/m2.K,
Fig. 3.42 respectively. Find (a) overall heat transfer coefficient
To find : The thickness of insulation. on the outside area basis (b) water to air heat transfer
(c) temperature drop across the scale deposit.
Assumptions :
Solution
(i) Steady state heat conduction in radial direc-
Given :
tion only.
T∞ 1 = 90°C,
(ii) No contact resistance, when insulation is
placed on steel pipe. T∞ 2 = 125°C,
(iii) Constant properties. d1 = 4 cm or r1 = 2 cm,
r2 = 2 cm + 0.6 cm = 2.6 cm (b) The heat transfer rate per metre length ;
r3 = 2.6 cm + 0.3 cm = 2.9 cm Q = Uo Ao(∆T)overall
k1 = 384 W/m.K,
= Uo × (2π r3L) ( T∞ – T∞ )
k2 = 1.75 W/m.K 2 1
ho = 3605 W/m2.K, = 115.37 × (2π × 0.029 × 1) × (125 – 90)

hi = 221 W/m2.K = 735.76 W/m. Ans.
To find : (c) Temperature drop across the scale deposition :
(a) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on
2πLk2 (T2 − T3 )
outer surface. Q=
ln (r3 /r2 )
(b) Heat transfer rate.
(c) Temperature drop across scale deposit. Q ln (r3 /r2 ) 735.76 × ln (2.9/2.6)
T2 – T3 = =
2πLk2 2π × 1 × 1.75
= 7.3°C. Ans.
Example 3.34. A steel pipe, 30 cm in outer diameter,
Scale carries steam and its surface temperature is 250°C. It is
0.3 cm
exposed to ambient air at 30°C. The heat is lost by
r2 convection and radiation. The convective heat transfer
r3 r1 coefficient is 22 W/m2.K. Calculate the heat loss from
1 m length of pipe.
If a layer of insulation (k = 0.36 W/m.K), 75 mm
thick is applied on the pipe in order to minimise the heat
0.6 cm
loss. The cost of heat is ` 200 per 106 kJ. The cost of
(a) Schematic insulation is ` 8000 per m length. The unit is in operation
for 2000 h/year. The cost of capital should be recovered
T¥1 T1 T2 T3 T¥2 in two years. Check the economical merits of insulation.
Q Neglect radiation heat transfer after addition of
1 ln (r2/r1) ln (r3/r2) 1 insulation.
hiAi 2pLk1 2pLk2 hoAo
Solution
(b) Thermal network
Given : An insulation on steam pipe
Fig. 3.43
(i) d1 = 30 cm, r1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Assumptions :
T1 = 250°C = 523 K
(i) Steady state heat conduction in radial
direction. T∞ = 30°C = 303 K
hc = 22 W/m2.K
(ii) No contact resistance.
(iii) Pipe length is 1 metre. Pipe
Insulation
Analysis : (a) Overall heat transfer coefficient h
based on outer area :
T¥ T1
1 r1
Uo =
r3 r r 1
+ 3 ln (r2 /r1 ) + 3 ln (r3 /r2 ) + r2
r1hi k1 k2 ho
1
Uo =
0.029 0.029 2.6 FG IJ Fig. 3.44. Schematic
0.02 × 221
+
384
× ln
2 H K (ii) k = 0.36 W/m.K
0.029 2.9 1 FG IJ r2 – r1 = 75 mm = 75 × 10–3 m
+
1.75
× ln
2.6
+
3605 H K r2 = 0.225 m
= 115.37 W/m2.K. Ans. Cost of heat : ` 200 per 106 kJ
Cost of insulation : ` 8000 per metre Cost of heat saved per year
Operation hours in 2 years = 2000 × 2 = 4000 h = Rate of heat saving × Life of insulation
To find : Cost of insulation
×
(i) The heat loss/m from bare pipe. Amount of heat
J FG IJ s FG IJ
(ii) Economical merits of insulation.
Assumptions : =
7068.07
s H K
× 3600
h H K
× 4000 h × ` 200
(10 6 × 10 3 J)
(i) Steady state heat loss in radial direction only. = ` 20356 in two years
(ii) No contact resistance. Saving in amount = 20356 – 8000 = ` 12356
(iii) Bare pipe surface as black surface. Hence it is economical, because for 1 m length,
(iv) Stefan Boltzmann constant the cost of insulation is ` 8000 for service of two
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 K4. years. Ans.
Analysis : (i) Heat loss/m from bare pipe = heat Example 3.35. (a) A cable of radius r1 and resistance
loss by convection and radiation. Re(Ω/m) and carrying a current I(A) is surrounded by
Q1 = hc(2πr1L) (T1 – T∞) an insulator of radius r2 and thermal conductivity k.
+ σ (2πr1L) (T14 – T4∞) The external heat transfer coefficient and air temperature
are ho and T∞ , respectively. Derive an expression for
Q1 temperature distribution in the insulator.
or = 22 × (2π × 0.15) × (523 – 303) + 5.67
L (b) A 1 mm dia. copper wire of resistance 0.02 Ω/m
× 10–8 × (2π × 0.15) × (5234 – 3034) is surrounded by a 2.3 mm dia. plastic coating of
= 4561.6 + 3547.7 = 8109.33 W. Ans. k = 0.2 W/m.K. The outside surface of the coating is
(ii) When insulation is added, then outer surface cooled by air, where the convective heat transfer
temperature of insulation (T2) is unknown, and at outer coefficient is 16 W/m2.K. Determine the maximum
surface current, if the surface to air temperature difference is to
Qcond = Qconv + negligible radiation be limited to 35°C. What is the temperature of the copper
wire, if ambient temperature is 25°C ?
2πL k(T1 − T2 )
Fr I
ln G J2
= hc(2πr2L) (T2 – T∞) Solution
Hr K
1 cable.
(a) Given : The insulation system on an electrical
0.36 × (250 − T2 ) To find : An expression for temperature distribu-

FG
0.225 IJ
= 22 × (0.225) × (T2 – 30) tion in the insulation layer.
ln
H0.15 K Insulation
r2
or 0.179 × (250 – T2) = T2 – 30
250 × 0.179 + 30 Electrical
or T2 = cable
1.179 h
= 63.5°C
Now heat loss from steam pipe per metre length
Q2 = hc(2πr2L) × (T2 – T∞) r1 T¥
Q2 Fig. 3.45
or = 22 × (2π × 0.225) × (63.5 – 30)
L Assumptions :
= 1041.25 W (i) Steady state heat conduction.
Saving in heat loss (ii) Heat conduction in radial direction only.
Q1 Q2 (iii) 1 m length of the cable and insulation.
= – = 8109.33 – 1041.25
L L Analysis : (a) The temperature distribution in
= 7068.07 W cylinder, eqn. (3.30)
T(r) = C1 loge r + C2 ...(i)
With boundary conditions, At r = r2, (surface of insulation)
Q 2 π × 35
(i) At r = r1, = I2Re I2 =
L
F dT IJ R| ln (1.15/1.15) + 1 U|
= – 2πr k G
0.02 × S| 0.2 × 16 |W
V
H dr K
1
r = r1
...(ii) T 1.15 × 10 −3
Differentiating eqn. (i) with respect to r 70 π

dT FG IJ C
= 1
=
0.02 × 54.35
= 202.32
H K
dr r = r1 r1 or I = 14.22 A. Ans.
Using in eqn. (ii), (ii) Temperature of copper wire i.e., at r = r1.
C1 I2R e Using eqn. (iii)
I2Re = – 2πr1 k or C1 = –
r1 2πk R| ln FG 1.15 IJ U|
Then T(r) = –
I2R e
ln(r) + C2 T1 =
(14.22) 2 × 0.02
×
|S H 0.5 K + 1 |V
2πk 2π || 0.2 1.15 × 10 −3
× 16 |
(ii) At r = r2,
Q
= I2Re T |W
L + 25
= ho(2πr2) (Tr = r2 − T∞ ) = 0.6436 × (4.164 + 54.35) + 25 = 62.66°C. Ans.
or 2
|R I R ln (r ) + C
I R = h (2πr ) S−
2
e
− T∞
|UV
e o
|T 2πk 2 2 2
|W 3.6. CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION
I Re 2
I Re 2 ON CYLINDERS
or C2 = + ln (r2 ) + T∞
2πr2 ho 2 πk It is our general perception that the addition of
Using the values of C1 and C2 in eqn. (i), we get insulation on a surface minimizes the heat loss rate.
I2R e I 2R e I2R e For a plane wall, thicker the insulation layer, lower the
T(r) = – ln (r) + + ln (r2 ) + T∞ heat transfer rate. It is because of constant heat transfer
2 πk 2πr2 ho 2 πk
area and addition of insulation always increases total
I2R e r
ln 2 +
FG IJ
I2R e
+ T∞ thermal resistance in the path of heat flow, without
=
2 πk r H K
2πr2 ho affecting the convection resistance.
R| ln FG r IJ 2 U|
or T(r) =
I 2R e |S H r K + 1 |V + T . Ans.
2π || k r h 2 o || ∞ Insulation
T W Fluid
...(iii) r1 T1 T¥
Rins Rconv
(b) Given : d1 = 1 mm, r1 = 0.5 mm
d2 = 2.3 mm, r2 = 1.15 mm, T¥
r2
k = 0.2 W/m.K h L
h = 16 W/m2.K,
Re = 0.02 Ω/m, Fig. 3.46. Insulated cylinder exposed to ambient
Ts – T∞ = 35°C, For cylindrical pipes and spheres exposed to
T∞ = 25°C convection environment, the addition of insulation,
To find : however, is a different matter. The addition of insulation
(i) Maximum current carrying conductor. increases the conduction resistance but decreases the
(ii) Temperature of copper wire. convection resistance due to increase in surface area
Analysis : (i) Rearranging eqn. (iii), exposed to environment. The heat transfer rate from
these bodies may decrease or increase depending on the
2π (T − T∞ )
I2 = effects of dominating resistance.
Re
RS
ln (r2 / r)
+
1 UV Consider a layer of insulation of thermal
k T r2 ho W conductivity k, applied on a circular pipe of radius r1 as
shown in Fig. 3.46. The inner surface temperature of radius as shown in Fig. 3.47. Therefore, the insulation
insulation is T1 and outer surface is exposed to thickness on heat pipes is always kept greater than
environment at T∞ with heat transfer coefficient h. critical thickness in order to minimise the heat loss.
From thermal network, the heat transfer rate : The electrical wires or cables, carrying current
are insulated with rubber, PVC or some polymer
T1 − T∞ (T1 − T∞ )
Q= = insulation to provide safety against some grounded
R ins + R conv ln (r2 /r1 ) 1
+ surface. When current flows through the conductor, the
2πLk (2π r2 L) h heat is generated at the rate of
2πL(T1 − T∞ ) Q = I2Re ...(3.57)
= ...(3.55)
ln (r2 /r1 ) 1 In order to keep the wire or cable temperature
+
k r2 h steady and within safety limit, this generated heat must
In order to determine outer radius of insulation, be dissipated to the surroundings at the same rate at
which will maximise the heat transfer rate, which it is generated. Therefore, in electrical wires or
differentiating above equation with respect to r2 and cables, the thickness of insulation is always kept at critical
equating it to zero. thickness (rcr – r1) in order to maximise heat loss.
LM 1 F r I F 1 I − F 1 I OP 3.6.1. Effect of Thermal Resistances

MN k GH r JK GH r JK GH r h JK PQ
1
2πL(T1 − T∞ ) 2 Actually with addition of insulation, the exposure area
dQ 2 1 2
=0 = increases. This can be explained in other way with the
dr2 LM ln (r r ) + 1 OP
2 1
2
help of material and surface resistances as shown in
N k r hQ 2 Fig. 3.48.
1 1 Rth
or − =0
r2 k r22 h
k SRth
or r2 = rcr, cylinder = ...(3.56)
h
where, rcr = Critical radius of insulation.
SRmin
Addition of insulation increases the heat loss upto
certain radius of cylinder that is called critical radius Material
resistance
of insulation. This thickness of insulation layer is
called the critical thickness of insulation, at which Surface
heat loss becomes maximum. resistance
0 rcr r2
Qmax
Fig. 3.48. Effect of resistance on heat transfer
Qbare
When the outer radius of insulation is increased,
ln (r2 r1 )
it increases the material resistance Rins = ,
2πr2 Lk
1
while outer surface resistance Rconv = decreases.
2π r2 Lh
O r1 rcr r2
Until r2 is smaller than the critical radius rcr, the surface
Fig. 3.47. Effect of insulation thickness on heat resistance decreases at faster rate than increase in
transfer rate
material resistance. Hence, the net resistance decreases
If the outer radius is greater than the critical causing the heat flow to increase. But when r2 becomes
radius rcr, any addition of insulation on the pipe surface, more than critical radius rcr, the material resistance
decreases the heat loss as one expects. But if the radius increases at faster rate, resulting into increase in net
is less than the critical radius as in small diameter tubes, resistance, causing the heat flow to decrease.
cables or wires, the heat loss will increase with addition
of insulation upto critical radius of insulation, where Example 3.36. An electrical wire, 2 mm in diameter is
the heat loss becomes maximum and heat loss begins to covered with a 2.5 mm thick layer of plastic insulation
decrease with addition of insulation beyond the critical (k = 0.5 W/m.K) to reduce the heat loss. Heat is dissipated
from the outer surface of insulation to surrounding air Comment : The addition of insulation increases
at 25°C by convection with heat transfer coefficient of the heat dissipation from the wire by a factor 6.44.
10 W/m2.K. The wire is maintained at constant (iii) Critical thickness of insulation :
temperature of 120°C. Estimate the rate of heat k 0.5
dissipation from the wire per unit length with and Critical radius, rcr = = = 0.05 m = 50 mm
h 10
without insulation. Calculate the thickness of insulation Critical thickness of insulation
when the heat dissipation rate is maximum. What is = rcr – r1 = 50 mm – 1 mm = 49 mm. Ans.
maximum value of heat dissipation ? (iv) Maximum heat dissipation rate :
Solution Q max 2π (T1 − T∞ )
=
Given : d1 = 2 mm, r1 = 1 mm L ln (rcr r1 ) 1
+
r2 = 1 mm + 2.5 mm k h rcr
= 3.5 mm 2π (120 − 25) 596.9
k = 0.5 W/m.K
=
50 FG IJ =
9.824
h = 10 W/m2.K
ln
1 H K
+
1
T1 = 120°C 0.5 10 × (50 × 10 −3 )
T∞ = 25°C. = 60.75 W/m. Ans.
Example 3.37. An electric cable of 20 mm diameter is
r2
insulated with rubber, which is exposed to atmosphere
tion at 30°C. Calculate the most economical thickness of
r1 Insula
rubber insulation (k = 0.175 W/m.K). When cable surface
air wire
temperature with and without insulation is at 70°C. Also
Elect. calculate the percentage increase in heat dissipation and
h current carrying capacity when most economical
T¥ thickness is provided. Take heat transfer coefficient,
h = 9.3 W/m2.K.
Fig. 3.49 Solution
To find : Given : An electric cable insulated with rubber
d1 = 20 mm,
(i) Rate of heat dissipation from the wire per m,
r1 = 10 mm = 0.01 m
without insulation ;
T∞ = 30°C,
(ii) Rate of heat dissipation from wire per m, with Ts = 70°C
insulation ; k = 0.175 W/m.K,
(iii) Critical thickness of insulation ; and h = 9.3 W/m2.K.
(iv) Maximum heat dissipation rate.
Analysis : (i) Heat dissipation rate from bare wire pipe
on
per m, (without insulation) Ambient Insulati
Q1 = hA (T1 – T∞) = h (πd1L)(T1 – T∞) T1
Q1 20
= (10 W/m2.K) × (π × 2 × 10–3 m)
m
or h r2 m
L
× (120 – 25) (°C) = 5.97 W/m. Ans. T¥
L
(ii) Heat dissipation rate from the insulated
wire per metre length.
Q2 2π (T1 − T∞ ) (a) Schematic
= 2 π (120 − 25)
L ln (r2 r1 )
+
1 = FG IJ
.
35 Ts T¥
k hr2 ln
H K
1
+
1 In(rcr/r1) 1
Q
0.5 . × 10 −3
10 × 35 2pLk (2prcrL)h
596.9 (b) Thermal network

= = 19.2 W/m. Ans.
2.505 + 28.57 Fig. 3.50
To find : Example 3.38. An electric cable of 12 mm diameter is

(i) The critical thickness of insulation. insulated to increase the current capacity. Due to
(ii) Percentage increase in heat dissipation and insulation the current carrying capacity is increased by
current carrying capacity with critical thickness 15% without increasing cable surface temperature above
insulation. 70°C. The environmental temperature is 30°C. Assume
Assumptions : that the heat transfer coefficient from the bare or
(i) Steady state conduction in radial direction insulated cable is 14 W/m2.K. Calculate the conductivity
only. of insulating material.
(ii) No contact resistance at interface. Solution
Analysis : (i) The critical radius of insulation Given : An electric cable insulated to increase the
k 0.175 current carrying capacity
rcr = = = 0.188 m
h 9.3 d = 12 mm, Ts = 70°C,
= 18.81 mm
T∞ = 30°C, h = 14 W/m2.K.
Then critical thickness of insulation
= rcr – r1 = 18.81 – 10 Insulation
d2
= 8.81 mm. Ans.
(ii) Heat dissipation rate per metre length from
bare surface of pipe
h
Q1
= 2πr1h(Ts – T∞)
L
= 2π × 0.01 × 9.3 × (70 – 30) T¥
= 23.37 W/m Electric
al cable
The heat dissipation rate with critical thickness d1
of insulation can be calculated by electrical analogy.
Fig. 3.51. Schematic of cable with insulation
Q2 ∆T
= To find : Thermal conductivity of insulation.
L ln (rcr r1 ) 1
+ Assumptions :
2 πk 2πrcr h
2π (70 − 30) (i) Steady state heat transfer in radial direction.
=
ln (18.81/ 10) 1 (ii) Heat loss from the cable or insulation surface
+
0.175 18.81 × 10 −3 × 9.3 by convection only.
= 26.94 W/m (iii) 1 m long electrical cable.
The percentage increase in the heat dissipation Analysis : The heat dissipation rate per metre
rate length of the bare cable
Q 2 − Q 1 26.94 − 23.37 Q1 = hA (∆T) = (πd L) h (Ts – T∞)
= =
Q1 23.37 = (π × 12 × 10–3 × 1) × 14 × (70 – 30)
= 0.1527 = 15.275%. Ans. = 21.11 W
Further,
Heat dissipation with bare cable The heat dissipation rate with insulation will be
Q1 = I12Re maximum when,
Heat dissipation with insulated cable k
r2 = rcr = or r2h = k
Q2 = I22Re h
Using for maximum heat dissipation rate from
I2 Q2 26.94 insulated cable :
or = = = 1.0733
I1 Q1 23.37 Ts − T∞
Q2 =
Hence, percentage increase in current carrying ln (r2 r1 ) 1
+
capacity 2 πLk (2 πr2 L)h
I2 − I1 2 π × 1 × (70 − 30 ) 251.32 k
× 100 = (1.0733 − 1) × 100 = =
I1 ln (k hr1 ) 1 1 + ln (11.90 k)
+
= 7.33%. Ans. k k
Now, T∞ = 20°C,
2
I2 R e Q2 h = 20.5 W/m2.K.
= To find :
I12 R e Q1
(i) Thickness of plastic corresponds to minimum
251.32 k 1 temperature in a cotton insulation.
= ×
1 + ln (11.90 k) 21.11 (ii) Temperature of copper rod and maximum
11.90 k temperature in plastic layer.
=
1 + ln (11.90 k) Assumptions :
But, I2 = 1.15I1 (i) Steady state conditions.
I22 11.90 k
or = 1.3225 = (iii) No contact resistance at interfaces.
I 12 1 + ln (11.90 k)
(iv) 1 m length of copper conductor.
Considering 2nd and 3rd terms of equation, we
get Cotton fibre
1 + ln (11.90k) = 9k or ln (11.9k) – 9k + 1 = 0 Plastic

By trial and error r1
Let k = 0.1 W/m.K, then, Air

Copper
1.19 – 0.9 + 1 ≠ 0 rod
Let k = 0.2, then h
0.8671 – 1.9422 + 1 = (– 0.075) ≠ 0.031 r2

T¥
Let k = 0.2158,
satisfy the equation, therefore,
r3
Thermal conductivity of insulating material is (a) Schematic
0.2158 W/m.K. Ans. T1 T2 T¥
Q
Example 3.39. A current of 1000 A is flowing through
a long copper conductor (k = 390 W/m.K), 25 mm in R1 R2 Rconv
diameter, having its electric resistivity of 1.08 µΩ cm. (b) Thermal network
This rod is insulated to a radius of 17.5 mm with fibrous Fig. 3.52
cotton (k = 0.058 W/m.K), which is further covered by a
layer of plastic (k = 0.42 W/m.K) and then it is exposed Analysis : (i) Thickness of plastic layer for
to surrounding air at 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient minimum temperature in cotton fibre insulation :
of 20.5 W/m2.K. Calculate : For given system the heat transfer rate is given
(i) thickness of plastic layer, which gives as :
minimum temperature in a cotton insulation. ∆T ∆T
Q= =
(ii) the temperature of copper rod and maximum Σ R th ln (r2 r1 ) ln (r3 r2 ) 1
+ +
temperature in the plastic layer for above condition. 2πLk1 2πLk2 (2 πr3 L) h
Solution For maximum heat transfer rate through plastic
layer, which give minimum temperature of cotton
Given : Two insulation layers on a copper insulation.
conductor ; Differentiating above equation w.r.t. r3
I = 1000 A, LM 1 FG r IJ × FG 1 IJ − 1 F 1 I OP
k = 390 W/m.K
M 2πL k H r K H r K 2πLh GH r JK PP
2
0+ 2
= 0 = ∆T M
d1 = 25 mm = 25 × 10–3 m, dQ 2 3 2 3
r1 = 12.5 × 10–3 m dr3 MM |RS ln br r g + ln br r g + 1 |UV PP

2 1 3 2
2
ρ = 1.08 × 10–8 Ω-m

r2 = 17.5 mm = 17.5 × 10–3 m
MN |T 2πLk 2πLk 2πr Lh |W PQ
1 2 3
1 1 k2
k1 = 0.058 W/m.K, or = 2 or r3 =
r3 k2 r3 h h
k2 = 0.42 W/m.K (condition of critical radius of insulation)
0.42 3.7. HOLLOW SPHERE

or r3 = = 0.02048 m = 20.48 mm
20.5
Thickness of plastic layer Consider a hollow sphere of inner radius r1 and outer
= r3 – r2 = 20.48 – 17.5 = 2.98 mm. Ans. radius r2 as shown in Fig. 3.53. Its inner and outer
(ii) Temperature of copper rod and maximum surfaces are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and
temperature in plastic layer : T2 , respectively. There is no heat generation in the solid
and thermal conductivity, k is assumed constant.
(a) Temperature of copper rod :
The resistance of 1 m copper conductor
ρL ρL 1.08 × 10 −8 × 1
Re = = =
A c (π 4) d12 (π 4) × (25 × 10 −3 ) 2 T2 T1
= 2.2 × Ω/m 10–5 r2 r1
Heat generation rate per metre, in copper
conductor
Q = I2Re = (1000)2 × 2.2 × 10–5
Fig. 3.53. Sphere with specified temperature
= 22.0 W/m
The governing differential equation in spherical
The individual resistances in thermal network
coordinates eqn. (2.20).
(Fig. 3.52)
F 17.5 IJ LM
d r 2 dT(r) OP
ln G =0
R1 =
ln (r2 r1 )
=
H 12.5 K dr N
dr Q
2π Lk1 2π × 1 × 0.058 Integrating with respect to r,
= 0.923 K/W LM r dT(r) OP = C
2
FG 20.48 IJ N dr Q 1
R2 =
ln (r3 r2 )
=
ln
H 17.5 K LM dT(r) OP = C1
2π Lk2 2 π × 1 × 0.42 or
N dr Q r 2
...(3.58)
= 0.0595 K /W Integrating again, we get

1 C1
Rconv = T(r) = – + C2 ...(3.59)
2 πr3 Lh r
Subjected to boundary conditions,
1
= T(r) = T1 at r = r1
2 π × 20.48 × 10 −3 × 1 × 20.5
and T(r) = T2 at r = r2
= 0.379 K/W
The heat flow rate Using, we get two simultaneous equations as,
C1
∆T (T1 − T∞ ) T1 = – + C2 ...(i)
Q= = r1
ΣR th R 1 + R 2 + R conv
C1
or T1 – 20 = 22 × (0.923 + 0.0595 + 0.379) T2 = − + C2 ...(ii)
r2
or T1 = 20 + 29.95 = 49.95°C. Ans.
Subtracting eqn. (ii) from (i), we get
(b) Maximum temperature in plastic layer :
It will occur at cotton fibre insulation and plastic T1 – T2 = C1
LM 1 − 1 OP
layer interface, say it is T2. From thermal network Nr r Q
2 1
r1r2 (T1 − T2 )
T1 − T2 or C1 = −
Q= or 49.95 – T2 = 22 × 0.923 r2 − r1
R1
r2 T2 − r1T1
or T2 = 49.95 – 21.077 = 28.87°C. Ans. and C2 =
r2 − r1
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in eqn. (3.59) Q
r1r2 FG T1 − T2IJ r T − r1T1

+ 2 2
T(r) =
Hr K ...(3.60) h2
r 2 − r1 r2 − r1 h1
Differentiating eqn. (3.60) with respect to r, we T¥1 T¥2
get r1 Rconv, 1 Rsph Rconv, 2
dT(r) 1 (r r )(T − T2 )
=− 2 12 1 r2
dr r (r2 − r1 )
The heat flux
dT(r) Fig. 3.55. Thermal resistance network for a hollow
q(r) = − k
dr sphere subjected to convection heat transfer at
= −k −
LM 1 (T − T2 )
(r1r2 ) 1
OP inner and outer surfaces
N r2 (r2 − r1 ) Q where h1 and h2 represent convection coefficient at inner

k (T − T2 ) and outer surfaces of hollow sphere, while T∞ 1 and T∞
q(r) = (r1r2 ) 1 ...(3.61) 2
r 2
(r2 − r1 ) are temperatures of ambient on two sides.
The heat transfer rate : 3.7.2. Multilayer Hollow Sphere
Q = q(r) A = q(r) (4πr2) The radial heat flow Q through a multilayer sphere as
4 π r1r2 k (T1 − T2 ) shown in Fig. 3.56 (a) can be obtained by using thermal
= ...(3.62) resistance concept to each layer
(r2 − r1 )
T − T1 T1 − T2 T2 − T3 T3 − T∞ 2
3.7.1. Electrical Analogy for Hollow Sphere Q = ∞1 = = =
R conv, 1 R1 R2 R conv, 2
Rearranging the equation (3.62)
...(3.67)
(T1 − T2 )
Q= ...(3.63)
(r2 − r1 )
4 π r1r2 k
h1 h2
Rsph
T1 T2
Q T¥
1
Fig. 3.54. Equivalent thermal network T¥

r1 2
It can be written in the form,

T1 − T2 r2
Q= ...(3.64)
R sph r3
r2 − r1 (a) Composite sphere
where Rsph = ...(3.65)
4 π r1r2 k
T¥1 T¥2
Where Rsph is called the thermal resistance to heat T1 T2 T3
flow for a hollow sphere. The equivalent thermal net- Rconv, 1 Q
R1 R2 Rconv, 2
work is shown in Fig. 3.54. If convection heat transfer
is involved at the boundary surfaces as shown in (b) Equivalent thermal resistances
Fig. 3.55 then heat flow, Fig. 3.56
T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 Since all thermal resistances are in series as

Q= shown in Fig. 3.56(b) ;
R conv, 1 + R sph + R conv, 2 Therefore,
T∞ 1 − T∞ 2
= T∞ 1 − T∞ 2 (∆T) overall
1 (r − r1 ) 1 Q= =
+ 2 + R conv, 1 + R 1 + R 2 + R conv, 2 ΣR th
4 π r1 h1 4 π r1 r2 k 4 π r22 h2
2
...(3.66) ...(3.68)
where various resistances are For maximum heat transfer rate,

1 r2 − r1 dQ
Rconv, 1 = , R1 = =0
4 π r12 h1 4 π r1r2 k1 dr2
r3 − r2 2k
1 we get, rcr, sphere = ...(3.73)
R2 = , Rconv, 2 = ...(3.69) h
4 π r2 r3 k2 4 π r32 h2
where rcr, sphere is the critical radius of insulation. The
and ΣRth = Rconv, 1 + R1 + R2 + Rconv, 2. heat transfer rate would be maximum with this radius
It is total thermal resistance between the tem- of insulation on spheres.
peratures T∞ and T∞ 2 . Example 3.40. A spherical thin walled metallic
1
container is used to store liquid nitrogen at 77 K. The

3.7.3. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient container has a diameter of 0.5 m and is covered with
The heat flow rate Q through multilayer sphere can be an evacuated reflective insulation system composed of
expressed in form : silica powder (k = 0.0017 W/m.K). The insulation is
Q = U1A1 (∆T) = U2A2 (∆T) ...(3.70) 25 mm thick and its outer surface is exposed to ambient
where U is overall heat transfer coefficient and can be air at 300 K. The convective coefficient is known to be
expressed as : 20 W/m2.K. The latent heat of vaporization and density
of liquid nitrogen are 2 × 105 J/kg and 804 kg/m3,
1 respectively.
U2A2 = U1A1 = ...(3.71)
ΣR th (i) What is the rate of heat transfer to the liquid
1 1 nitrogen ?
or U2 = and U1 = (ii) What is the rate of liquid boil off ?
A 2 ΣR th A 1 ΣR th
(N.M.U., May 2009; P.U., Dec. 2002)
where U2 is the overall heat transfer coefficient based
on outer surface Solution
U1 is the overall heat transfer coefficient based .
m.hfg
on inner surface. Thin walled
Air container,
3.7.4. Critical Radius of Insulation on Sphere r1 = 0.25 m
Consider a hollow sphere of outer radius r1 is covered
with a layer of insulation (of outer radius r2) of 2 Q
ho = 20 W/m .K
constant thermal conductivity k and exposed to
T¥ = 300 K
convection environment as shown in Fig. 3.57. 2 Insulation
outer surface
Liquid nitrogen r2 = 0.275 m
Insulating layer T¥ = 77 K
1
(r2 – r1)
(a) Schematic
T1
h T¥ 1 T¥2
r2
r1 Q
r2 – r1 1
T¥ 2
4pr1r2 k 4pr2 ho
(a) (b) Thermal circuit
T T¥ 1
Fig. 3.58
Q
r2 – r1 1
2 Given : A spherical metallic container filled with
4pkr1r2 4pr2 h
liquid nitrogen
(b)
d1 = 0.5 m or r1 = 0.25 m
Fig. 3.57. Sphere with insulation hfg = 2 × 105 J/kg,
The heat flow rate can be expressed as : r2 = 0.25 m + 25 mm = 0.275 m
T1 − T∞ k = 0.0017 W/m.K,
Q= ...(3.72)
(r2 − r1 ) 1 ho = 20 W/m2.K
+
4 π r1r2 k 4 π r22 h
ρ = 804 kg/m3, Example 3.41. A hollow sphere of inside radius 30 mm

and outside radius 50 mm is electrically heated at its
T∞ 1 = 77 K,
inner surface at a constant rate of 105 W/m2. The outer
surface is exposed to a fluid at 30°C, with heat transfer
T∞ 2 = 300 K.
coefficient of 170 W/m2.K. The thermal conductivity of
To find : the material is 20 W/m.K. Calculate inner and outer
(i) The heat transfer rate to the nitrogen. surface temperatures.
(ii) The mass rate of nitrogen boil off. Solution
Assumptions : Given : A hollow sphere
(i) Steady state conditions. One dimensional
heat transfer in radial direction. r1 = 30 mm = 0.03 m
(ii) Negligible resistance between container wall r2 = 50 mm = 0.05 m
and liquid nitrogen. q = 105 W/m2, T∞ = 30°C
h = 170 W/m2.K, k = 20 W/m.K.
(iv) Negligible radiation heat loss.
Analysis : (i) The thermal circuit involves a To find : Inner and outer surface temperatures
conduc-tion and convection resistance in series, therefore of sphere.
r2 − r1 Analysis : For hollow sphere, the individual ther-

Rsph = mal resistance Rsph and Rconv
4 πr1r2 k
r2 − r1 0.05 − 0.03
0.275 − 0.25 Rsph = =
= 4 πr1r2 k 4 π × 0.03 × 0.05 × 20
4 π × 0.25 × 0.275 × 0.0017
= 0.053 K/W
= 17.022 K/W
Air
1 1
Rconv = 2
=
4 πr2 ho 4 π × (0.275)2 × 20 r2
= 0.052 K/W r1
h
Total thermal resistance of series resistances ;
ΣRth = Rsph + Rconv T1
q
= 17.022 + 0.52 = 17.074 K/W T2
T¥
The rate of heat transfer to liquid nitrogen :
T1 T2 T¥
T∞ 2 − T∞ 1 300 − 77
Q= = Rsph Rconv
Q
ΣR th 17.074
Fig. 3.59
= 13.06 W. Ans.
(ii) The heat loss to nitrogen will also cause 1 1
Rconv = =
evaporation. 4 πr2 2 h 4 π × (0.05) 2 × 170
Thus, hfg
Q= m = 0.187 K/W
Q 13.06 These resistances are in series, therefore,
or =
m =
hfg 2 × 10 5 ΣRth = Rsph + Rconv
= 0.053 + 0.187 = 0.24 K/W
= 6.53 × 10–5 kg/s
The heat flow rate
= 0.235 kg/hr. Ans. Q = q (4πr12) = 105 × 4π × (0.03)2
or on volumetric basis = 1130.97 W

= m = 0.235 = 2.923 × 10–4 m3/hr Further, the heat flow rate by using thermal net-
V work ;
ρ 804
≈ 7 lit/day. Ans. T1 − T∞
Q=
ΣR th
or T1 = Q ΣRth + T∞ 40 × (0.04 − 0.032)

= 1130.97 × 0.24 + 30 =
4 π × 0.032 × 0.04 × (100 − 70)
= 301.5°C. Ans.
= 0.663 W/m.K. Ans.
Again for convection heat flow
(ii) Outside temperature of sphere,
Q = h(4πr22) (T2 – T∞)
or 1130.97 = 170 × 4π × (0.05)2 (T2 – 30) 4 πr4 r2 k (T4 − T2 )
Q=
or T2 = 211.76 + 30 = 241.76°C. Ans. r2 − r4
Example 3.42. A hollow spherical form is used to Q(r2 − r4 )
determine thermal conductivity of an insulating or T2 = T4 –
4 πr2r4 × k
material. The inner diameter is 50 mm and outer
diameter is 100 mm. A 40 W heater is placed inside and 40 × (0.05 − 0.04)
under steady state conditions, the temperature at 32 and = 70 −
4 π × 0.04 × 0.05 × 0.663
40 mm radii were found to be 100°C and 70°C,
respectively. Determine the thermal conductivity of the = 46°C. Ans.
material. Also calculate the outside temperature of (iii) Convection heat transfer coefficient
sphere. If surrounding air is at 30°C, calculate convec- Q = h (4πr22) (T2 – T∞)
tion heat transfer coefficient over the surface. Q
or h=
Solution 4 πr22 (T2 − T∞ )
Given : A hollow sphere as shown in Fig. 3.60.
d1 = 50 mm, r1 = 25 mm = 0.025 m 40
=
d2 = 100 mm, r2 = 50 mm = 0.05 m 4 π × (0.05)2 × (46 − 30 )
r3 = 32 mm = 0.032 m r4 = 40 mm = 0.04 m = 79.6 W/m2.K. Ans.
Q = 40 W T3 = 100°C
T4 = 70°C T∞ = 30°C. Example 3.43. The inside and outside surfaces of a
hollow sphere of radii r1 and r2 are maintained at
r2 = 0.05 m
constant temperatures T1 and T2, respectively. The
thermal conductivity of insulating material varies with
Air temperature as
k = ko (1 + αT + βT2)
r3
T¥ = 30°C where ko is constant.
Derive an expression for heat flow through the
T2
h=? sphere. (P.U., Nov. 1998)
r4
T3 Solution
Analysis : Consider an elemental spherical ring
T4 r1 = 0.025 m of thickness dr at radius, r as shown in Fig. 3.61. The
Fig. 3.60
temperature difference across this ring is dT, then
Fourier law
To find :
(i) Thermal conductivity of insulating material. r2
(ii) Outside temperature (T2) of sphere.
(iii) Convection heat transfer coefficient. r1
Analysis : (i) Under steady state conditions, the

heat transfer rate through hollow sphere
dr
4 πr3 r4 k (T3 − T4 )
Q=
r4 − r3 Fig. 3.61
Q (r4 − r3 ) dT
or k= Q = – kA
4 πr3 r4 (T3 − T4 ) dr
where A = 4πr2 T∞1 = 0°C, T∞2 = 22°C

k = ko (1 + αT + βT2)
h1 = 80 W/m2.K, hrad = 5.34 W/m2.K
dT
Using Q = – ko (1 + αT + βT2) 4πr2 h2 = 10 W/m2.K, hfg = 333.7 kJ/kg.
dr To find :
Q dr (a) Rate of heat transfer to iced water
or = – ko (1 + αT + βT2) dT
4π r 2 (b) Amount of ice melts in 24 hours.
Integrating both sides within limits
z z
Assumptions :
Q r2 dr T2
(i) Steady state conditions.
= − ko (1 + αT + βT 2 ) dT
4π r1 r2 T1
(ii) Heat transfer in radical direction only.
LM OP = − k LMT + α T + β T OP
Q 1
r2 2 3 T2
or
N Q
4π
−
r N 2 r1 3 Q
o
T1 Analysis : (a) The outer radius of spherical tank
Q L1 1O
d2 = d1 + 2t = 3 m + 2 × 0.02 = 3.04 m
or 4π M r − r P
N 1 2Q ∴ r2 = 1.52 m
Inner surface area of tank,
=
L α β
− k M( T − T ) + (T − T ) + (T − T )P
O2 2 3 3 A1 = πd12 = π × (3 m)2 = 28.27 m2
N
o 2
2
1
3
2
Q 1 2 1
Outer surface area of tank,
Q F r2 − r1 I A2 = πd22 = π × (3.04 m)2
or 4π G r r J
H 12 K = 29.03 m2
L α β
= − k (T − T ) M1 + (T + T ) + (T + T T 2
+ T2 2 )
OP The individual thermal resistances ;
o 2
N 2 1
3
1 2 1 1 2
Q Rconv, 1 =
1
=
1
= 4.421 × 10–4 K/W
h1A 1 80 × 28.27
4 π r1r2
or Q= ko (T1 − T2 )
r2 − r1 2
hrad = 5.34 W/m .K
× 1+
LM α β
(T1 + T2 ) + (T12 + T1T2 + T2 2 )
OP T¥1
N 2 3 Q h1
=
3
m 2
h2 = 10 W/m .K
It is the required expression. Ans. d1 Iced

water T¥2 = 22°C
Example 3.44. A 3 m ID spherical tank made of 2 cm
thick stainless steel (k = 15 W m.K) is used to store iced 2 cm
water at T∞1 = 0°C. The tank is located in a large room (a) Schematic of spherical tank located in a room
maintained at 22°C. The outer surface of the tank is black

Rconv, 2
and heat is convected and radiated on the outer surface
of the tank. The convection heat transfer coefficient at T¥ T¥
inner and outer surfaces of the tank are 80 W/m2.K and
1 2
10 W/m2.K, respectively. The radiation heat transfer Q Rconv, 1 Rsph Rrad

coefficient is 5.34 W/m2.K. Determine (a) rate of heat
transfer to iced water, (b) amount of ice melts during a (b) Equivalent thermal network
24 hours period. Fig. 3.62
The latent heat of fusion for ice at atmospheric
pressure is 333.7 kJ/kg. r2 − r1 1.52 − 1.5
Rsph = =
4 πr1r2 k 4 π × 1.52 × 1.5 × 15
Solution
= 4.653 × 10–5 K/W
Given : A spherical tank
1 1
d1 = 3 m, r1 = 1.5 m Rconv, 2 = =
thickness, t = 2 cm h2 A 2 10 × 29.03
k = 15 W/m.K = 3.444 × 10–3 K/W
1 1 r2 = r1 + 30 cm = 3.8 m
Rrad = =
hrad × A 2 5.34 × 29.03 k = 1.16 W/m.K
= 6.45 × 10–3 K/W T1 = 900°C
Equivalent resistance of parallel resistances T∞ = 30°C
Rconv, 2 and Rrad h = 15 W/m2.K.
1 1 1
= + 30 cm
R eq R conv, 2 R rad Chrome bricks
Air
1 1
= + = 445.3 T¥ = 30°C
3.444 × 10 −3 6.45 × 10 −3 r1
2
h = 15 W/m K
1
or Req = = 2.245 × 10–3 K/W
445.3 Fig. 3.63. Hemispherical top of klin.
Now all resistances are in series and total
To find :
resistance
(i) Outside dome temperature,
ΣRth = Rconv, 1 + Rsph + Req
= 4.421 × 10–4 + 4.653 × 10–5 (ii) Heat loss from hemispherical dome, and
+ 2.245 × 10–3 (iii) Heat loss from flat dome, and percentage
–3 change in heat loss.
= 2.734 × 10 K/W
The heat transfer rate to iced water Analysis : (i) Under steady state conditions, heat
loss from hemispherical dome.
T∞ 2 − T∞ 1 22 − 0
Q= = 1 4 πr1r2 k (T1 − T2 )
ΣR th 2.734 × 10 −3 Q1 = ×
2 r2 − r1
= 8047.1 W. Ans.
(b) The amount of ice melts to water during a = h(2πr22) (T2 – T∞)
period of 24 hours : r1 k (T1 − T2 )
Total heat transfer to iced water during 24 hours or = hr2 (T2 – T∞)
r2 − r1
period
U = (8047.1 J/s) × (24 × 3600 s) Using numerical values
= 695.27 × 106 J = 695270 kJ . × 1.16 × (900 − T2 )
35
and amount of ice melts
3.8 − 35
.
U 695270
mice = = = 2083.51 kg. Ans. = 15 × 3.8 × (T2 – 30)
hfg 333.7
or 213.68 – 0.237 T2
Example 3.45. A 7 m diameter vertical klin has a = T2 – 30
hemispherical dome at its top. The dome is made from
213.68 + 30
30 cm thick layer of chrome brick (k = 1.16 W/m.K). or T2 = = 196.92°C. Ans.
During an operation, its inside surface temperature is 1.237
900°C and outer surface is exposed to surrounding air (ii) Heat loss from hemisphere dome
at 30°C with heat transfer coefficient of 15 W/m2.K. 1 4 πr1r2 k (T1 − T2 )
Calculate the outside surface temperature of dome and Q1 = ×
2 r2 − r1
the heat loss from the klin.
Compare this heat loss with that would result from 2π × 3.5 × 3.8 × 1.16 × (900 − 196.92)
=
a flat dome made of same material and klin operating 3.8 − 3.5
under identical conditions. = 227.18 × 103 W = 227.18 kW. Ans.
Solution (iii) For flat top dome, L = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Given : A dome of a klin with kA (T1 − T2 )
Q2 = = hA(T2 – T∞)
d1 = 7 m, r1 = 3.5 m L
1.16 × (900 − T2 ) Q= m × hfg = (14 kg/h) × (214 kJ/kg)

= = 15 × (T2 – 30) = 2996 kJ/h = 832.2 W
0.3
or T2 = 208.3°C Length of the cylindrical portion of the tank
= Total length – 2
. 2 ) × (900 − 208.3)
1.16 × ( π × 35
and Q2 = × radius of hemispherical ends
0.3
= 102.93 × 103 W = 102.93 kW = L1 – 2r1 = 7 m – 2 × 0.7 m = 5.6 m.
Reduction in heat loss due to flat top dome This heat will be received from cylinder wall and
two hemispherical ends (1 sphere), therefore
227.18 − 102.93
× 100 Q = Qcyl + Qsphere
227.18
= 54.69%. Ans. 2πLk (To − Ti ) 4 πr1r2 k (To − Ti )
Example 3.46. A cylindrical liquid oxygen tank has a
=
Fr I
ln G J
2
+
r2 − r1
diameter of 1.4 m, 7 m long and has hemispherical ends.
The boiling point of liquid oxygen is –182°C and its latent
Hr K
1
heat of evaporation is 214 kJ/kg. The tank is insulated Using numerical values
in order to reduce the heat transfer to the tank in such a
way that in steady state, the rate of oxygen boil-off should R| U
not exceed 14 kg/h. Calculate the thermal conductivity | 4 π × 0.7 × 0.78 ||
832.2 = k l30 − (− 182)q S
IJ + 0.78 − 0.7 V|
2π × 5.6
of insulating material, if its 8 cm thick layer of insulation
|| ln FGH 00.78
is applied and its outside surface is maintained at 30°C.
Solution
T .7 K |W
Given : A cylindrical tank covered with or 832.2 = 212k × [325.15 + 85.76] = 87113 k
hemispherical end as shown in Fig. 3.64. 832.2
d1 = 1.4 m, r1 = 0.7 m or k= = 0.0095 W/m.K. Ans.
87113
r2 = 0.7 m + 0.08 = 0.78 m
Example 3.47. The two insulation materials are
= 14 kg/h,
m hfg = 214 kJ/kg purchased in powder form as A and B with thermal
Ti = – 182°C, To = 30°C, conductivities 0.005 and 0.035 W/m.K, respectively.
These materials was to apply over a 40 cm dia. sphere
L1 = 7 m. as inner layer 4 cm thick and outer layer 5 cm thick,
respectively. But due to lapse of attention, the material
8 cm B was applied as first layer and subsequently material
A as outer layer.
r1 Estimate its effect on conduction heat transfer.
r2 (M.U., May 2001)
Solution
L = 7 – 1.4 = 5.6 m
Given : Two layer insulation of a sphere
L1 = 7 m
kA = 0.005 W/m.K
Fig. 3.64. A cylindrical tank covered with spherical ends kB = 0.035 W/m.K
To find : Thermal conductivity (k) of insulating d1 = 40 cm, r1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
material. r2 = 20 cm + 4 cm = 24 cm = 0.24 m
Assumption : No convection at inner side of tank r3 = r2 + 5 cm = 29 cm = 0.29 m.
and tank inside surface temperature is at – 182°C.
To find : Effect of wrong arrangement of
Analysis : The rate of heat transfer to oxygen in
insulation.
steady state
Insulation A New radius of material B as r2B

4π 3
r1 VB = (r – r13)
3 2B
0.04425 × 3
Insulation B or r32B = + (0.2) 3 = 0.018565
4π
or r2B = 0.2648 m
0.0244 × 3
and r33A = + (0.2648)3 = 0.02439
r2 4π
r3
Sphere or r3A = 0.29 m.
(a) Schematic of insulation on sphere 0.2648 − 0.2
Now, R1′ =
T1 T2
4 π × 0.2 × 0.2648 × 0.035
Q
= 2.782 K/W
R1 R2
0.29 − 0.2648
(b) Thermal network R2′ =
Fig. 3.65
4 π × 0.2648 × 0.29 × 0.005
Analysis : The heat flow rate through composite = 5.225 K/W

sphere is expressed as : and heat loss rate
∆T
Q= ∆T ∆T
R1 + R2 Q2 = =
R 1 ′ + R 2 ′ 2.782 + 5.225
r2 − r1 r3 − r2
where, R1 = and R2 = = 0.125 (∆T) W
4 πk1r1r2 4 πr2 r3 k2
Rate of heat loss increases with wrong
For proposed case arrangement of insulation. Percentage increase in heat
k1 = kA, k2 = kB transfer.
0.125 − 0.0671
0.24 − 0.2 × 100 = 86.29%. Ans.
R1 = 0.0671
4 π × 0.2 × 0.24 × 0.005
= 13.263 K/W
0.29 − 0.24 3.8. SUMMARY
R2 =
4 π × 0.24 × 0.29 × 0.035
The electrical analogy between heat flow and current
= 1.633 K/W flow systems, implies
Then heat loss rate ∆V ∆T I Q, and Re Rth
∆T The one dimensional steady state heat transfer
Q1 = = 0.0671 (∆T) W through a simple or composite body exposed to convection
13.263 + 1.633
on its both sides to fluids at constant temperature T∞1
When material get interchanged, then radii will and T∞2 can be expressed as :
also change.
T∞ 1 − T∞ 2
Volume of material A, Q=
Σ R th
4π 3 4π where, ΣRth is total thermal resistance between two
VA = (r2 – r13) = × (0.243 – 0.23)
3 3 fluids. The elementary thermal resistance relations can
= 0.0244 m3 be expressed as follows :
Volume of material B, Conduction resistance of wall,
4π L
VB = (0.293 – 0.243) = 0.04425 m3 Rwall =
3 kA
Conduction resistance of hollow cylinder, ln (r2 /r1)

R cyl =
ln (r2 r1 ) 2πLk
Rcyl = 3. Show that the resistance offered by a hollow sphere
2π Lk of radii r1, r2 and constant thermal conductivity is
Conduction resistance of hollow sphere, given by
r – r1
r2 − r1 R sph = 2
Rsph = 4 πr1r2 k
4 πr1r2 k 4. What do you mean by mean thermal conductivity ?
Convection resistance, Derive an expression for mean thermal conductivity
of a hollow cylinder where
1 k = k0(1 + αT)
Rconv =
hA 5. What do you mean by critical radius of insulation ?
Radiation resistance, Explain it concept with help of material and surface
resistances.
1 6. A steam pipe is insulated to reduce the heat loss.
Rrad =
hr A However, the measurement reveals that the rate of
heat loss has increased instead of decreasing. Can
The total of resistances in series can be obtained you comment why ?
as : 7. Discuss overall heat transfer coefficient. Obtain an
ΣRth = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...... expression for overall heat transfer coefficient based
If resistances are parallel to each other, its inner diameter of a hollow cylinder ?
equivalent resistance is calculated as : 8. Discuss the effect of contact resistance on heat
transfer and temperature distribution.
1 1 1 R 1R 2 9. Discuss critical radius and economical thickness of
= + or Req =
R eq R 1 R 2 R1 + R2 insulation on cylinders.
10. Derive an expression for log mean area for hollow
The contact resistance at any interface can be
cylinders.
calculated as :
Temp. drop across contact surfaces PROBLEMS
Rcontact =
Heat flux
1. The wall of a building consists of 10 cm of brick
Tc1 − Tc2 [k = 0.69 W/(m°C)], 1.25 cm of Celotex [k = 0.048 W/(m°C)],
= 8 cm of glass wool [k = 0.038 W/(m°C)], and 1.25 cm of
q
asbestos cement board [k = 0.74 W/(m°C)]. If the
The temperature drop across any layer, ∆Ti = QRi. outside surface of the brick is at 5°C and the inside
Addition of insulation on cylinders and spheres, surface of the cement board is at 20°C. Calculate the
will increase the rate of heat transfer upto critical radius heat flow rate per square metre of wall surface.
defined as : [Ans. – 5.94 W/m2]
2. An iron plate 2.5 cm thick [k = 62 W/(m°C)] is in contact
k with asbestos insulation 1 cm thick [k = 0.2 W/(m°C)]
For cylinder rcr = on one side and exposed to hot gas with a heat transfer
h
coefficient of 200 W/(m2.°C) on the other surface. If
2k the outer surface of the asbestos is exposed to cool air
For sphere rcr =
h with a heat transfer coefficient of 40 W/(m2.°C),
For minimisation of heat loss with insulation ; calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U and
rinsulation >> rcr. the heat flow rate across the composite wall per square
metre of the surface for a ∆T of 200°C between the hot
gas and cool air. [Ans. 12.43 W/(m2.°C), 2.48 kW/m2]
REVIEW QUESTIONS 3. A container made of 2 cm thick iron plate
[k = 62 W/(m°C)] is insulated with a 1 cm thick asbes-
1. Show that the temperature profile for the heat tos layer [k = 0.1 W/(m°C)]. If the inner surface of the
conduction through a wall of constant thermal iron plate is exposed to hot gas at 530°C with a heat
conductivity is a straight line. transfer coefficient of 100 W/(m2.°C) and the outer
2. Prove that the thermal resistance offered by a hollow surface of the asbestos is in contact with cool air at
long cylinder of constant thermal conductivity is 30°C with a heat transfer coefficient of 20 W/(m2.°C),
given by calculate (a) the heat flow rate across the layers per
square metre of the surface area, and (b) the interface 9. A proposed self cleaning oven design involves use of a
temperature between the layers. composite window separating the oven cavity from the
[Ans. (a) 3119 W/(m2.°C), (b) 497.8°C] room air. The composite consists of two high
4. A composite slab is made of 75 mm thick layer of temperature plastics. The thickness of plastic exposed
material with thermal conductivity of 0.15 W/m.K to interior of the oven is twice than that of the face
and 0.597 m thick layer of material of thermal exposed to room air. The thermal conductivity of
conductivity of 1.7 W/m.K. The inner surface is interior plastic is 0.15 W/m.K and that of outer is
maintained at 1000°C while the outer surface was 0.08 W/m.K. During the self cleaning process, the oven
exposed to convection air at 30°C with convection enclosed air temperature is maintained at 430°C and
coefficient of 27 W/m2.K. The heat flow was measured the room air temperature is at 30°C. The inside
as 1 kW as against the calculated value of 1.092 kW. convection and radiation and outside convection
It is presumed that this may be due to contact coefficients are the same and equal to 25 W/m2.K.
resistance. Determine the contact resistance and the Calculate the minimum window thickness required
temperature drop at the interface. to ensure maximum temperature of 55°C at outer
[Ans. 0.082 K/W, 82°C] surface of window. [Ans. 0.0673 mm]
5. A double glazed window is made of 2 glass panes of 10. A composite wall separates combustion gases at 2600°C
6 mm thick each with an airgap of 6 mm between them. from a liquid coolant at 100°C, with gas and liquid-side
Assuming that the layer is stagnant and only convection coefficients of 50 and 1000 W/m2.K.
conduction is involved. Determine the thermal The wall is composed of a layer of beryllium oxide
resistance and the overall heat transfer coefficient, if (k = 272 W/m.K) on the gas side 10 mm thick and a
the inside surface is exposed to convection with slab of stainless steel (AISI 304) (k = 15 W/m.K) on
h = 1.5 W/m2.K. Compare the values with that of a the liquid side 20 mm thick. The contact resistance
single glass of 12 mm thickness. The conductivity of between the oxide and the steel is 0.05 m2.K/W. What
the glass = 1.4 W/m.K and that for air is 0.025 W/m.K. is the heat loss per unit surface area of the composite ?
[Ans. 0.915 m2.K/W, 1.092 W/m2.K, 0.67 m2.K/W] Sketch the temperature distribution from the gas to
6. A composite slab is made of 3 layers of thicknesses of the liquid. [Ans. 34544.6 W/m2]
28 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm with thermal conductivities 11. A wall is constructed of two layers of 1 cm thick plaster
of 1.7, kB and 9.5 W/m.K. The outside surface is board (k = 0.17 W/m.K) placed 12 cm apart. The space
exposed to air at 20°C with convection coefficient of between these two is filled with fibre glass insulation
15 W/m2.K and the inside surface is exposed to gases (k = 0.035 W/m.K). Determine (a) thermal resistance
at 1200°C with convection coefficient of 28 W/m2.K of the wall (b) R value of insulation (c) heat transfer
and the inside surface is at 1080°C. Determine the rate for temperature difference of 150°C.
unknown thermal conductivity, all surface [Ans. (a) 3.546 m2.K/W, (b) 3.546 m2.K/W,
temperatures, resistances of each layer and the overall (c) 42.3 W/m2]
heat transfer coefficient. Compare the temperature 12. The wall of a refrigerator is constructed to fibre glass
gradients in the three layers. insulation (k = 0.035 W/m.K), sandwiched between the
[Ans. KB = 1.46 W/m.K, 526.6°C, 297°C, two layers of 1 mm thick steel sheet (k = 15.1 W/m.K).
244°C, R = 0.035, 0.164, 0.068, 0.0158, The refrigerator space is maintained at 3°C, while the
0.067 m2.K/W, 2.84 W/m2.K] average kitchen temperature is 25°C. The average
7. A 2 kW heater element of area 0.04 m2 is protected inner and outer heat transfer coefficient are 4 W/m2.K
on the backside with insulation 50 mm thick of and 9 W/m2.K, respectively. It is observed that the
k = 1.4 W/m.K and on the front side by a plate condensation occurs at the outer surface of refrigerator
10 mm thick with thermal conductivity of 45 W/m.K. when its outer surface temperature drops below 20°C.
The backside is exposed to air at 5°C with convection Calculate the minimum thickness of insulation needed
coefficient of 10 W/m2.K and the front is exposed to to avoid condensation on the outer surface.
air at 15°C with convection coefficient including
[Ans. 13.22 mm]
radiation of 250 W/m2.K. Determine the heater
element temperature and the heatflow into the room 13. A 4 m high and 6 m wide wall consists of 18 cm × 30 cm
under steady conditions. [Ans. 190°C, 1753.1 W] cross-section horizontal bricks (k = 0.72 W/m.K)
separated by 3 cm thick plaster layer (k = 0.22 W/m.K).
8. To reduce frosting, it is desired to keep the outside
surface of a glazed window at 4°C. The outside air is There are also 2 cm thick plaster layers on each side of
at – 10°C and the convection coefficient is 60 W/m2.K. wall and 2 cm thick rigid foam (k = 0.026 W/m.K) on
In order to maintain the conditions, a uniform heat the inner side of the wall. The indoor and outdoor
flux is provided at the inner surface, which is in contact temperatures are 22°C and – 4°C and convection heat
with room air at 22°C with convection coefficient of transfer coefficients are 10 W/m2.K and 20 W/m2.K
12 W/m2.K. The glass is 7 mm thick and has a thermal respectively. Assuming one dimensional steady state
conductivity of 1.4 W/m.K. Determine the heating conditions. Calculate heat transfer rate the composite
required per m2 area. [Ans. 203.77 W/m2] wall. [Ans. 421.0 W]
14. A 10 cm thick wall is to be constructed with 2.5 m 21. A 6 cm OD, 2 cm thick copper hollow sphere
long wood studs (k = 0.11 W/m.K), that has a cross- [k = 386 W/(m°C)] is uniformly heated at the inner
section of 10 cm × 10 cm. At some point the builder surface at a rate of 150 W/m2. The outer surface is
has run out of those stud and started using pairs of cooled with air at 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient
2.5 m long wood stud with cross section of 5 cm × 10 cm of 10 W/(m2.°C). Calculate the temperature of the outer
nailed to each other instead. The manganese steel nails surface. [Ans. 21.7°C]
(k = 50 W/m.K) are 10 cm long and have dia of 0.4 cm. 22. A steel tube [k = 15 W/(m°C)], with an outside diameter
A total 50 nails are used to connect the two studs. The of 7.6 cm and a thickness of 1.3 cm is covered with an
temperature difference between inner and outer wall insulation material [k = 0.2 W/(m°C)] 2 cm thick. A
is 15°C. Assuming negligible thermal contact hot gas at 330°C with a heat transfer coefficient of
resistance between two layers. Calculate heat transfer 400 W/m2.°C flows inside the tube. The outer surface
rate (a) through a solid stud, (b) through stud pair with insulation is exposed to cooler air at 30°C with a heat
equal length and width nailed to each other, (c) also, transfer coefficient of 60 W/(m2.°C). Calculate the heat
determine the effective thermal conductivity of the loss from the tube to the air for a 10 m length of the
nailed stud pair. tube. [Ans. 7453 W]
[Ans. (a) 4.125 W, (b) 481.6 W, (c) 12.84 W/m.K] 23. Consider a brass tube [k = 115 W/(m°C)], with an
15. Consider a ski jacket is made of five layers of 0.1 mm outside radius of 4 cm and a thickness of 0.5 cm. The
thick synthetic fabric (k = 0.13 W/m.K) with 1.5 mm inside surface of the tube is kept at uniform
thick air space (k = 0.026 W/m.K) between the layers. temperature, and outside surface is covered with two
The surface area of the jacket is 1.1 m2. Calculate the layers of insulation each 1 cm thick, with thermal
rate of heat loss through the jacket for an average conductivities of 0.1 W/(m°C) and 0.05 W/(m°C)
temperature difference between inner surface of jacket respectively. Calculate the overall heat transfer
and surrounding air (h = 25 W/m2.K) is 33°C. coefficient based on the outside surface area of the
[Ans. 230.2 W] outer insulation. [Ans. 2.83 W/m2.°C]
24. Steam at 320°C flow in CI pipe (k = 80 W/m.K)
16. Consider a steel pipe [k = 10 W/(m°C)], with an inside
ID = 5 cm, OD = 5.5 cm. The pipe is covered with 3 cm
radius of 5 cm and an outside radius of 10 cm. The
thick glass wool insulation [k = 0.05 W/m.K]. Heat is
outer surface is to be insulated with fibre glass
lost to surroundings at 5°C by natural convection and
insulation [k = 0.05 W/(m°C)] to reduce the heat flow
radiation, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of
rate through the pipe wall by 50%. Determine the
18 W/m2.K. The heat transfer coefficient at inner
thickness of the fibre glass. [Ans. 0.05 cm]
surface of the pipe is 60 W/m2.K. Determine the rate
17. A metal pipe with an outside diameter (OD) of of heat loss from steam per metre length of pipe. Also
12 cm is covered with an insulation material calculate the temperature drop across pipe and
[k = 0.07 W/(m°C)] of 2.5 cm thick. If the outer pipe insulation. [Ans. Q = 120.7 W/m, ∆Tpipe = 0.02°C,
wall is at 100°C and the outer surface of the insulation
∆Tinsulation = 284°C]
is at 20°C, find the heat loss from the pipe per metre
25. A steel tube (k = 15 W/m.K) with 5 cm inner diameter
length. [Ans. 101 W/m length]
and 7.6 cm outer diameter is covered with an
18. Consider two stainless steel slabs [k = 20 W/(m°C)] insulation (k = 0.2 W/m.K), 0.2 cm thick. A hot gas at
with a thickness of 1 cm and 1.5 cm that are pressed 330°C flows through tube with hi = 400 W/m2.K. The
together with a pressure of 20 atm. The surfaces have outer surface of the insulation is exposed to air at 30°C
roughness of about 0.76 m µm. The outside surface of with ho = 60 W/m2.K. Calculate (a) the rate of heat loss
the blocks are at 100°C and 150°C. Calculate the heat from 10 m long tube, (b) temperature drop resulting
flow rate across the slabs and the temperature drop from each of thermal resistances.
at the interface. [Ans. 3.7°C]
[Ans. (a) 23.533 kW, (b) 37.45°C, 10.47°C,
19. A metal pipe of 10 cm OD is covered with a 2 cm thick 96°C and 156.06°C]
insulation [k = 0.07 W/(m°C)]. The heat loss from the 26. The inner and outer radii of a hollow cylinder are
pipe is 100 W per metre of length when the pipe surface 5 cm and 10 cm respectively. The inside surface is
is at 100°C. What is the temperature of the outer maintained at 300°C, while outside surface at 100°C.
surface of the insulation ? [Ans. 23.5°C] The thermal conductivity of the material varies with
20. A 5 cm OD and 0.5 cm thick copper pipe temperature as [k = 0.5(1 + 0.001 T) W/m.K], where T
[k = 386 W/(m°C)] has hot gas flowing inside at a in °C. Calculate the heat flow rate per metre length of
temperature of 200°C with a heat transfer coefficient the cylinder. [Ans. 1087.77 W/m]
of 30 W/(m2.°C). The outer surface dissipates heat by 27. A copper rod, 6 mm in diameter is heated by flow of
convection into the ambient air at 20°C with a an electric current. The surface of the rod is
heat transfer coefficient of 15 W/(m2.°C). Determine maintained at 200°C, while it dissipates heat by
the heat loss from the pipe per metre of length. convection, with h = 150 W/m2.K into an ambient at
[Ans. 261 W/m length] 25°C. If the rod is covered with 2 mm thick coating
(k = 0.75 W/m.K), will the heat loss from the rod loss from the tube with insulation to heat loss without
decrease or increase ? insulation for
[Ans. rcr = 5 mm, heat loss increases] (i) the thickness of insulation equal to the critical
28. A pipe of 60 mm dia. carries oil at 230°C, with heat thickness, and
transfer coefficient of 250 W/m2.K. The pipe is insulated (ii) the thickness of insulation 2.5 cm thicker than
with a material (k = 0.06 W/m.K). On the outer surface the critical thickness.
of insulation, a plastic coating (k = 1.6 W/m.K) 1 mm [Ans. 0.5 cm, (i) 1.067, (ii) 0.851]
thick is applied. Calculate the radial thickness of 34. A hollow sphere [k = 15 W/(m°C)], with an outside
insulation, which will reduce the outside temperature diameter of 8 cm and a thickness of 2 cm is covered
of coating to 50°C, when the ambient air temperature with an insulation material [k = 0.2 W/(m°C)] 2 cm
is 20°C with convective and radiative heat transfer thick. Inside the sphere energy is generated at a rate
coefficients of 6 and 8 W/m2.K, respectively. Calcu- of 3 × 105 W/m3. The temperature of the interface
late the percentage reduction in the heat loss with between the outer surface of the sphere and the
this thickness of insulation. [Ans. 20 mm, 75%] insulation is measured to be 300°C. Calculate the
29. The steam at 320°C flows in a steel tube (k = 15 W/m.K) outside surface temperature of the insulation material.
with inner and outer radii as 2.5 cm and 2.75 cm [Ans. 266.7°C]
respectively. The pipe is covered with 3 cm thick
35. Consider a steel sphere [k = 10 W/(m°C)], with an
glass wool insulation (k = 0.038 W/m.K). The heat is
inside radius of 5 cm and an outside radius of 10 cm.
lost to surrounding air at 20°C by natural convection
The outer surface is to be insulated with fibre glass
and radiation with a combined heat transfer coefficient
insulation [k = 0.05 W/(m°C)] to reduce the heat flow
of 15 W/m2.K. The heat transfer coefficient at inside
rate through the sphere by 50%. Determine the
surface of pipe is 80 W/m2.K. Calculate the heat loss
thickness of the fibre glass. [Ans. 0.05 cm]
from the steam per unit length of the pipe. Also
36. A hollow steel sphere (k = 10 W/m.K) has an inside
calculate the temperature drop across the pipe shell
radius of 10 cm and outside radius of 20 cm. The inside
and insulation. [Ans. 14.23 W/m]
surface is maintained at a uniform temperature of
30. The steam at 300°C is flowing through a steel pipe
230°C, while its outside surface dissipates heat by
(k = 15.1 W/m.K) with inner and outer radii as 4 cm
convection with h = 20 W/m.K, into an ambient air at
and 4.4 cm, respectively. The pipe is insulated with
30°C. Calculate the thickness of asbestos insulation
fibre glass (k = 0.035 W/m.K) and it is exposed in an
(k = 0.5 W/m.K) required to reduce the heat loss by
ambient at 15°C. The heat transfer coefficients on
50%. [Ans. 5.8 cm]
inner and outer side of the pipe is 150 and 25 W/m2.K
37. Estimate the rate of evaporation of liquid oxygen from
respectively. Calculate the rate of heat loss from steam
a spherical container with 1.8 m diameter, covered
per metre length of the pipe. What is the error involved
with an insulation of asbestos, 30 cm thick. The
in neglecting the thermal resistance of steel pipe in
temperature of inner and outer sphere surfaces are –
calculation ? [Ans. 115.1 W]
183°C and 0°C respectively. The boiling point of the
31. A 2 cm dia. electrical cable at 45°C is covered by 0.5 mm
oxygen is –183°C and its latent heat of evaporation is
thick plastic insulation (k = 0.13 W/m.K). The wire is 212.5 kJ/kg. The thermal conductivity of the insulation
exposed to an ambient at 10°C with h = 12 W/m2.K. is 0.157 and 0.125 W/m.K at 0°C and –185°C
Investigate if the plastic insulation on the cable will respectively. Assume that the thermal conductivity of
help or hurt the heat transfer from the wire ?
[Ans. rcr = 10.83 mm, it helps] the insulation varies as k = k0 + (k1 – k0)
LM T − T OP .
0
32. A typical domestic central heating installation NT − T Q
1 0
utilises 50 m long, 15 mm outer diameter copper pipe [Ans. 0.0055 kg/s]
(k = 400 W/m.K) with 1 mm wall thickness. It is used 38. An electrically heated sphere of 6 cm is exposed to an
to convey water at 70°C. Calculate the heat loss from ambient at 25°C with h = 20 W/m2.K. The surface of
this pipe with a 15 mm radial thickness of insulation the sphere is maintained at 125°C. Calculate the rate
(k = 0.05 W/m.K) and compare it to the value without of heat loss (a) when the sphere is uninsulated.
insulation. The ambient air temperature is 15°C and [Ans. 22.2 W and 44.4 W]
internal and external heat transfer coefficients are 39. A 5 mm dia. spherical ball at 50°C is covered by 1 mm
100 W/m2.K and 8 W/m2.K. [Ans. 600 W, 1037 W] thick plastic insulation (k = 0.13 W/m.K). The wall is
33. A tube with outer diameter of 2 cm is maintained at exposed to an ambient at 15°C with h = 20 W/m2°C.
uniform temperature and is covered with an Investigate, if the plastic insulation on the ball will
insulating layer (k = 0.18 W/m.K) in order to reduce help or hurt heat transfer from the ball ?
the heat loss. Heat is dissipated from the outer surface [Ans. rcr = 13 mm, it helps]
of insulation with h = 12 W/m2.K into an ambient at 40. A hollow spherical form is used to determine the
constant temperature. Determine the critical conductivity of a material. The inner diameter is 20 cm
thickness of insulation. Calculate the ratio of heat and the outer diameter is 50 cm. A 30 W heater is
placed inside and under steady conditions, the Calculate the heat lost per metre of pipe, if the steam
temperatures at 15 and 20 cm radii were found to be temperature is 300°C and air temperature is 50°C.
80 and 60°C. Determine the thermal conductivity of The thermal conductivity of two insulating materials
the material. Also find the outside temperature. If the are 0.17 and 0.093 W/m.K, respectively.
surrounding is at 30°C, determine the convection heat [Ans. 220.5 W/m]
transfer coefficient over the surface. Plot the 46. A pipe, 4 cm in outer diameter is maintained at
temperature along the radius. uniform temperature at T1 and is covered with an
[Ans. k = 0.198 W/m.K, To= 48°C, h = 2.12 W/m2.K] insulation (k = 0.20 W/m.K) in order to reduce the heat
41. A spherical container holding a cryogenic fluid at loss. The heat is dissipated from outer surface of
– 140°C and having an outer diameter of 0.4 m is insulation into an ambient at T∞ , with heat transfer
insulated with three layers each of 50 mm thick coefficient of 8 W/m2.K. Determine the thickness of
insulations of k1 = 0.02, k2 = 0.06 and k3 = 0.16 W/m.K insulation at which the heat dissipation rate would
(starting from inside). The outside is exposed to air at be the maximum. Calculate the ratio of the heat loss
30°C with h = 15 W/m2.K. Determine the heat gain from the outer surface of insulated pipe and that of
and the various surface temperatures. from bare pipe for
[Ans. 33.05W, – 8.5°C, 20.71°C, 28.54°C] (a) thickness of insulation equal to critical thickness.
42. A spherical electronic device of 10 mm dia generates (b) the thickness of insulation is 2 cm thicker than
1 W. It is exposed to air at 20°C with a convection the critical thickness.
coefficient of 20 W/m2.K. Find the surface temperature. [Ans. 5 mm (a) 1.022, (b) 0.911]
The heat transfer consultant advises to enclose it in a 47. A steel pipe (k = 35 W/m.K), with inner radius 25 mm
glass like material of k = 1.4 W/m.K, to a thickness to and outer radius 30 mm is insulated with 85%
obtain 50°C surface temperature. Calculate the magnesia insulation (k = 0.055 W/m.K). The
thickness of enclosure. temperature at the interface between pipe and
[Ans. Ts = 179.15°C, t = 50 mm] insulation is 300°C, while the temperature on outside
43. A layer of 50 mm thick firebrick (k = 0.72 W/m.K) surface of insulation must not exceed 70°C, with
is placed between two 8 mm thick steel plates permissible heat loss of 700 W/m. Calculate :
(k = 22 W/m.K). The faces of brick adjacent to the plates (i) The minimum thickness of insulation, and
are rough, having solid to solid contact over only 30% (ii) The temperature of inside surface of pipe.
of the total area, with the average height of asperties [Ans. (i) 8 mm, (ii) 300.58°C]
being 0.8 mm. If the surface temperature of steel plates 48. A copper pipe carrying the refrigerant at – 20°C is
are 100 and 400°C, calculate the rate of heat flow 10 mm in outer diameter and is exposed to ambient
per unit area. Assume cavity area is filled with air at 25°C with convective coefficient of 50 W/m2.K. It is
(k = 0.026 W/m.K) [Ans. 4024 W/m2] proposed to apply the insulation of material having
44. Find steady flow heat flux through a composite slab thermal conductivity of 0.5 W/m.K. Determine the
made of two materials A and B. Thermal conductivity thickness beyond which the heat gain will be reduced.
of two materials vary linearly with temperature as : Calculate the heat losses for 2.5 mm, 7.5 mm and
kA = 0.4 (1 + 0.008 T) 15 mm thick layer of insulation over 1 m length.
kB = 0.5 (1 + 0.001 T) [Ans. 5 mm, 81.3 W/m, 82.37 W/m and 74.95 W/m]
where T is temperature in deg. Celsius 49. An electric cable, 8 mm in diameter is covered by
The thickness : LA = 10 cm, LB = 5 cm. plastic sheathing (k = 0.18 W/m.K). The surface
The innerside temperature of slab A is 600°C and temperature of cable was observed as 50°C when it is
outside temperature of slab B is 30°C. exposed to air at 20°C with convective coefficient of
[Ans. q = 4.27 × 103 W/m2] 12.0 W/m2.K. Calculate :
45. A steam pipe is covered with two layers of insulation, (i) the thickness of insulation to keep the wire as
first layer being 3 cm thick and second 5 cm. The pipe cool as possible, and
is made of steel (k = 58 W/m.K) having ID of 160 mm (ii) surface temperature of insulated cable, if the
and OD of 170 mm. The inside and outside film intensity of current flowing the conductor remains
coefficients are 30 and 5.8 W/m2.K, respectively. unchanged. [Ans. (i) 11 mm, (ii) 38.57°C]
Steady State Conduction
with Heat Generation 4
4.1. The Plane Wall—Specified temperatures on both sides—Plane wall without heat generation—Plane wall with insulated and convective
boundaries—Plane wall exposed to convection environment on its both boundaries—The maximum temperature in the wall. 4.2. The
Cylinder—Solid cylinder with specified surface temperature—Solid cylinder exposed to convection environment. 4.3. Hollow Cylinder with
Heat Generation and Specified Surface Temperatures—Hollow cylinder insulated at its inner surface—The location of maximum temperature
in the cylinder—4.4. The Sphere—Solid sphere with convective boundary—Solid sphere with specified surface temperature—4.5. Summary—
Review Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.
Most of the engineering applications involve heat where C1 and C2 are constants of integration and can
generation in the solids, such as nuclear reactors, be determined according to boundary conditions. The
resistance heaters etc. In this chapter, we will consider solution of eqn. (4.3) gives temperature distribution and
one dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat heat transfer in a plane wall.
generation and determination of temperature distribu-
tion and heat flow in solids of simple shapes such as 4.1.1. Specified Temperatures on Both Sides
plane wall, a long cylinder and a sphere. Such type of Consider a plane wall of thickness L, its left face at
problems cannot be solved with electrical analogy x = 0 is maintained at temperature T1 and right face at
concept presented in previous chapter. x = L is at temperature T2 i.e.,
4.1. THE PLANE WALL

The one dimensional heat conduction eqn. (2.14) with
n = 0 and X = x T(x)
d dTRS UV
+
g ( x)
T1
dx dxT W k
=0
go
RS UV
Q
d dT g ( x)
or
dx dx T W
=–
k
...(4.1)
L
T2
The temperature distribution in the plane wall

can be determined by solving the above heat conduction
equation with prescribed boundary conditions.
Assuming thermal conductivity k and heat
generation rate [g(x) = go] are constants. Integrating
Fig. 4.1. Specified temperature on both faces
above equation with respect to x, we get
(i) The boundary condition at left face
dT g x
= – o + C1 ...(4.2) At x = 0 ; T(x) = T1
dx k
Integrating again w.r.t. to x, we get Substituting in eqn. (4.3), we get
g o (0) 2
g x2 T1 = – + C1(0) + C2
T(x) = – o + C1x + C2 ...(4.3) 2k
2k
100
STEADY STATE CONDUCTION WITH HEAT GENERATION 101
It gives C2 = T1 The heat transfer rate in the slab without heat

generation
(ii) Boundary condition at right face,
dT
At x = L ; T(x) = T2 Q = – kA
dx
Then eqn. (4.3) becomes
(T2 − T1 ) kA(T1 − T2 )
= – kA = ...(4.8)
g o L2 L L
T2 = – + C1L + T1 eqn. (4.8) is already obtained earlier as eqn. (1.9) with
2k
Fourier law of heat conduction
g o L2
or C1L = T2 – T1 + 4.1.3. Plane Wall With Insulated and Convective
2k
Boundaries
It gives
Consider a plane wall of thickness L, with heat
T2 − T1 g L generation go. The boundary at x = 0 is insulated and
C1 = + o ...(4.4)
L 2k that x = L dissipates heat by convection with heat
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in eqn. (4.3), transfer coefficient h into a fluid (ambient) at
we get temperature T∞.
go x 2 RST − T1 go L
+ 2 +
UV x + T The boundary conditions :
T(x) = –
2k T L 2k W 1 (i) At x = 0 ;
dT
Q=0
RS UV
or T(x) = –
go x 2
2k
+
x
L
g Lx
(T2 – T1) + o
2k
+ T1
or – kA
T W
dx x = 0
=0
Here neither thermal conductivity k, nor area of

go x x plane wall A may be zero, therefore,
or T(x) =
2k
(L – x) +
L
(T2 – T1) + T1 ...(4.5)
dT FG IJ
It is the equation for the temperature distribu- H K
dx x = 0
=0 ...(4.9)
tion in a plane wall with uniform heat generation.The (ii) At x = L
equation is quadratic thus the temperature distribution Heat conduction to right face = Heat convection
is parabolic in nature as shown in Fig. 4.1. from right face
4.1.2. Plane Wall Without Heat Generation dT RS UV
= hA (Tx = L – T∞)
If the wall experiences no heat generation, then go = 0
– kA
T
dx x = L W
and eqn. (4.5) reduces to
or –k
dT RS UV
= h (Tx = L – T∞) ...(4.10)
T(x) =
x
(T2 – T1) + T1 ...(4.6) T
dx x = L W
L
dT T2 − T1
and slope = ...(4.7)
dx L
T(x)
h
T1 Q
T¥
go W/m3
T(x) Insulated Convection
boundary
Q L
Environment
T2
L 0 x
Fig. 4.3. A plane wall insulated on one face and exposed to
convection environment on other face
Substituting first boundary condition in eqn. (4.2)
Fig. 4.2. Wall without heat generation
The eqn. (4.6) represents one dimensional steady RS dT UV g o (0)
state, temperature distribution in plane wall without T dx W x=0
=–
k
+ C1 = 0
heat generation. Temperature distribution in plane wall It gives C1 = 0

without heat generation is shown in Fig. 4.2.
Using eqns. (4.2) and (4.3) with second boundary (Wall temperature is maximum, thus tempera-
condition, we have ture gradient is zero at the centre)
–k −
RS go L UV = h R|S− g L
o
2
+ 0 + C2 − T∞
U|V 1
and at any boundary surface i.e., at x = L.
T k W T| 2k W| Heat conduction to the surface
2
go L g L2 = Heat convection from the surface

or =– o + C2 – T∞
h 2k
g L2 or – kA
LM dT OP = hA [Tx = L/2 – T∞]
It gives C2 = o
2k
g L
+ o + T∞
h
...(4.11) N dx Q x = L /2
Substituting the value of C1 and C2 in eqn. (4.3), or

F dT IJ
–kG = h (Tx = L/2 – T∞)
we get H dx K x = L /2
go (L2 − x 2 ) g L Using temperature gradient in plane wall given

T(x) = + o + T∞ ...(4.12) by eqn. (4.2), and applying first boundary condition
2k h
and the slope dT g x
= − o + C1
LM =0
OP
dT( x)
dx
=– o
g x
k
...(4.13) dx k N
x= 0 Q
It gives C1 = 0.
and heat transfer rate at any section
Using second boundary condition with C1 = 0
dT g x
= – kA − o
RS UV LMR| g x U|V OP
Q(x) = – kA = goAx
T W LM go x OP 2
MNST|− 2k
dx k –k − =h o
+ C2 − T∞
...(4.14) N k Q x = L/2 W| x = L/2
PQ
2
Note: The eqns. (4.2) and (4.3) are used to obtain go L g L
temperature distribution and heat transfer in a plane wall or =– o + C2 – T∞
2h 8k
according to prescribed boundary conditions. With other
combinations of boundary conditions, the above two g L2 g L
It gives C2 = o + o + T∞ ...(4.15)
equations can easily be worked out. 8k 2h
and the temperature distribution in the wall
4.1.4. Plane Wall Exposed to Convection Environment on go x 2 g L2 g L
its Both Boundaries T(x) = – + o + o + T∞ ...(4.16)
2k 8k 2h
The plane wall exposed to convection environment at The maximum temperature in the wall
T∞ and heat transfer coefficient h on its both sides is i.e., at x = 0
shown in Fig. 4.4.
go L2 g L
Tmax = + o + T∞ ...(4.17)
8k 2h
T(x) go Note: The students can also perform the exercise for
T¥ T¥
same problem by measuring x from left face of the wall
and using same boundary conditions at
Ts Ts
x=
1
L,
dT
=0 and x = L, – k
FG dT IJ = h(T – T ).
q(x) q(x)
2 dx H dx K ∞
4.1.5. The Maximum Temperature in the Wall

h h The location of maximum temperature in the wall can
be obtained by equating eqn. (4.2) to zero, which gives
the location xcr of maximum temperature. Using this
1
L
1
L value of xcr in eqn. (4.3), the maximum temperature can
2 2
0 x be obtained.
For the plane wall shown in Fig. 4.3, the slope
Fig. 4.4. Plane wall with convective boundaries
dT/dx given by eqn. (4.13) is equated to zero, which gives
Due to symmetry in temperature field, its half the location of maximum temperature as xcr = 0 and
portion can be analysed with boundary conditions as maximum temperature is expressed as
dT go L2 g L
At x = 0, =0 Tmax = T(xcr = 0) = + o + T∞ ...(4.18)
dx 2k h
Example 4.1. A plane wall (k = 45 W/m.K), 10 cm thick, Then temperature distribution takes the form
has heat generation at a uniform rate of 8 × 106 W/m3.
go x 2 g Lx
The two sides of the wall are maintained at 180°C and T(x) = − + o
2k 2k
120°C. Neglect end effects; calculate
x
(i) temperature distribution across the plate, + (T2 – T1) + T1 ...(ii)
L
(ii) position and magnitude of maximum
Using numerical values,
temperature,
(iii) the heat flow rate from each surface of the 8 × 10 6 × x 2
T(x) = −
wall. 2 × 45
Solution 8 × 10 6 × 0.1 x x
+ + (120 − 180) + 180
Given : A wall with uniform heat generation 2 × 45 0.1
k = 45 W/m.K, L = 10 cm = 0.1 m = – 88888.89x2 + 8288.89x + 180 ...(iii)
It is the required expression. Ans.
go = 8 × 106 W/m3
(ii) Position and magnitude of maximum
T1 = 180°C, T2 = 120°C.
temperature :
Differentiating eqn. (iii) w.r.t. x, and equating it
Tmax to zero.
T1 dT
= – 2 × 88888.89x + 8288.89 = 0
dx
g0 T2 It gives xcr = 0.0466 m
k and Tmax = – 88888.89 × (0.0466)2 + 8288.89
xc
× (0.0466) + 180
= 373.02°C. Ans.
L (iii) Heat flow rate from each face :
0 x
Temperature gradient
Fig. 4.5. A plane wall
dT
To find : = – 2 × 88888.89 x + 8288.89
dx
(i) Temperature distribution. = – 177777.78 x + 8288.89
(ii) Position and magnitude of maximum (a) Heat flow rate per m2 at left face (x = 0)
temperature.
(iii) Heat flow rate from each face. FG dT IJ
Analysis : (i) Temperature distribution in the qx = 0 = – k H dx K x=0
= – 45 × 8288.89
plane wall
= – 373 × 103 W/m2
g x2
T(x) = − o + C1x + C2 ...(i) = 373 kW/m2 (towards left out).
2k
Ans.
Subjected to boundary conditions
At x = 0, T = T1 (b) Heat flow rate per m2 at right face
It gives C2 = T1 FG dT IJ
At x = L, T = T2 qx = L = – k H dx K x=L
2
go L = – 45 × [– 177777.78 × 0.1 + 8288.89]
T2 = – + C1L + T1
2k = 427 × 103 W/m2
(T − T1 ) g o L ≈ 427 kW/m2 (From right face).
or C1 = 2 +
Ans.
L 2k
Example 4.2. A plane wall of thickness 0.1 m and At x = L ;

thermal conductivity 25 W/m.K having uniform
–k −
RS go L UV = h R|S− g L
o
2 U|V
volumetric heat generation of 0.3 MW/m3, is insulated
on one side, while other side is exposed to a fluid at 92°C. T k W |T 2k + C 2 − T∞
|W
The convection heat transfer coefficient between plane goL g L2
wall and fluid is 500 W/m2.K. Determine the maximum It gives C2 = + o + T∞
h 2k
temperature in the plane wall. And the temperature distribution as obtained by
Solution eqn. (4.12) ;
Given : A plane wall with heat generation and go (L2 − x 2 ) g L
insulated on its one face T(x) = + o + T∞ ...(ii)
2k h
L = 0.1, k = 25 W/m.K, The location of maximum temperature :
go = 0.3 MW/m3 = 0.3 × 106 W/m3 Differentiating eqn. (ii) w.r.t. x and equating it
T∞ = 92°C, h = 500 W/m2.K to zero
The boundary conditions dT g x
dT = – o cr = 0
(i) At x = 0, = 0 (For insulated boundary) dx k
dx
RS UV
dT
which gives, xcr = 0
(ii) At x = L, – k dx
T Wx=L
= h (Tx = L – T∞) Hence the maximum temperature will occur at
the left face
(For convective boundary)
To find : The maximum temperature in the wall. The magnitude of maximum temperature
Assumptions : g o L2 g L
Tmax = + o + T∞
(i) One dimensional steady state conduction in 2k h
x direction.
0.3 × 10 6 × (0.1) 2 0.3 × 10 6 × (0.1)
(ii) Uniform heat generation rate g(x) = go or Tmax = + + 92
2 × 25 500
(constant).
= 212°C. Ans.
Example 4.3. An amount of chicken in the form of a
rectangular block, 25 mm thick is roasted in a microwave
heating system. The centre temperature of the chicken
block is 100°C, when surrounding temperature is 30°C.
The heat transfer coefficient between the chicken block
and air is 15 W/m2.K. The thermal conductivity of the
Insulated chicken can be taken as 1 W/m.K. Calculate microwave
surface
heating capacity during steady state operation.
3
go = 0.3 MW/m
2
k = 25 W/m.K h = 500 W/m . K
Solution
0.1 m T¥ = 92°C Given : A rectangular block (slab) of chicken
L = 25 mm = 0.025 m,
k = 1 W/m.K
Fig. 4.6. Plane wall for example 4.2
h = 15 W/m2.K,
Tc = 100°C, T∞ = 30°C.
plane wall is given by
To find : Heating capacity of microwave heater.
g x2
T(x) = – o + C1x + C2 ...(i) Analysis : The centre line temperature will be
2k maximum temperature in the slab, and it is given by
dT( x) g x eqn. (4.17)
and = – o + C1
dx k
gL gL2
At x = 0 ; Tmax = Tc = + + T∞
2h 8k
dT
=0 g FL + L I + T
2
It gives
dx
C1 = 0
=
2 GH h 4kJK ∞
100°C =
g LM (0.025 m) + (0.025 m) OP 2 (iv) Heat generation in wall, if any.
2 N (15 W/m .K) 4 × (1 W/m.K) Q
2
x=0
Analysis : (i) Temperature at the left surface i.e.,
+ 30°C
2 × (100 – 30) = g × 1.823 × 10–3 T1 = 600 + 2500 × (0) – 12,000 × (0)2
or g = 76800 W/m3 = 76.8 kW/m3. Ans. = 600°C. Ans.
Example 4.4. The steady state temperature distribution Temperature at the right face i.e., x = L = 0.3 m.
in a 0.3 m thick plane wall is given by T2 = 600 + 2500 × (0.3) – 12000 × (0.3)2
T(x) = 600 + 2500x – 12,000x2 = 270°C. Ans.
where T is in °C and x in metres measured from left Average temperature of the wall
z
surface of the wall. One dimensional steady state heat
conduction occurs in the wall along x direction. The 1 L
Tav = T( x) dx
thermal conductivity of the wall material is 23.5 W/m.K. L 0
(i) What are the surface temperatures and

average temperature of the wall ?
(ii) Calculate the maximum temperature in the
=
1
0.3
× z0
0.3
(600 + 2500x – 12000x2) dx
wall and its location.

=
1 LM
600 × 0.3 + 2500 ×
(0.3) 2
− 12000 ×
(0.3) 3 OP
(iii) Calculate the heat fluxes at its surfaces.
(iv) Do you think that there is any heat generation
0.3 N 2 3 Q
in the wall ? If so, what is the average volumetric rate of = 615°C. Ans.
heat generation ? (ii) Location of maximum temperature
Solution dT
= 2500 – 24000xcr = 0
Given : Temperature distribution in a plane wall dx
as 2500
or xcr = = 0.104 m from left. Ans.
T(x) = 600 + 2500x – 12,000x2 24000
Maximum temperature i.e., at x = xcr
with k = 23.5 W/m.K, L = 0.3 m.
Tmax = 600 + 2500
T × (0.104) – 12000 × (0.104)2
= 730.2°C. Ans.
T(x)
(iii) Heat fluxes at any face
dT
q(x) = – k
dx
dT
where = 2500 – 24000x
dx
0 x Heat flux at left face, (x = 0)
k = 23.5 W/m.K
FG dT IJ
L = 0.3 m qx = 0 = – k H dx K x=0
Fig. 4.7. Schematic for example 4.4 = – 23.5 × [2500 – 24000 × (0)]
To find : = – 58,750 W/m2 (towards left out).
(i) Surface temperatures, and average tempera- Ans.
ture of wall, Heat flux at right face, (x = 0.3 m)
(ii) Location and magnitude of maximum qx = L = – 23.5 × [2500 – 24000 × (0.3)]
temperature,
= 110450 W/m2 (towards right out).
(iii) Heat fluxes at the surfaces, and
Ans.
(iv) Since heat is coming out both the surfaces of Analysis : The temperature distribution in a plane
wall. This means, there must be heat source within the wall with uniform heat generation rate go ;
wall, the amount of heat generation
go 2
qg = 110450 – (– 58750) T(x) = − x + C1x + C2
2k
= 169200 W/m2. Ans.
dT g
Example 4.5. A rectangular copper bar 80 mm × 6 mm and = – o x + C1
in cross-section (k = 370 W/m.K) is insulated at top, dx k
bottom and left faces. It is observed that when a current Using boundary condition at left (insulated) face
of 8000 A is passed through the conductor, the bare face i.e.,
has a constant temperature of 50°C. If the resistivity of At x = 0,
the copper is 2 × 10–8 Ωm, calculate
(i) The maximum temperature in bar and its dT
=0
location, dx
(ii) Temperature at the centre of the bar.
FG dT IJ go × 0
Solution H dx K x=0
=0= −
k
+ C1
Given : A rectangular copper bar insulated at its
three faces as shown in Fig. 4.8 It gives C1 = 0
Ac = 80 mm × 6 mm With boundary condition at x = L, T = T2
T2 = Tx = L = 50°C g o L2
T2 = – + C2
L = 6 mm = 0.006 m 2k
FG dT IJ It gives
g o L2
C2 = T2 +
H dx K x=0
=0 2k
and the temperature distribution in copper bar
k = 370 W/m.K go
(L2 – x2) + T2
T(x) =
I = 8000 A 2k
ρ = 2 × 10–8 Ωm. The location of maximum temperature can be
obtained by differentiating above equation w.r.t. x and
Insulated face equating it to zero.
dT g x
Bare = – o cr = 0
face dx k
at 50°C
It gives xcr = 0.
The maximum temperature will occur at left
80 mm
(insulated) face of the bar. Ans.
Heat generation rate
F ρL I
Copper
GH A JK
bar
k = 370 W/m.K Qg = I2Re = I2
c
and heat generation per unit volume
F I = FG I IJ
6 mm
2
Qg I2 ρL
Fig. 4.8. A wall covered on three sides go =
V
=
A cL A c
GH JK H A K c
×ρ
To find : (i) Tmax and its location
(ii) Temperature at centre. F 8000 IJ × 2 × 10
=G
2
H 0.08 × 0.006 K
–8
Assumptions :
(i) Steady state conditions, = 5.55 × 106 W/m3.
(ii) Left face is perfectly insulated, and the maximum temperature (at x = 0)
(iii) Heat transfer in axial direction only.
5.55 × 10 6 The boundary conditions

Tmax = × (0.006)2 + 50 At x = 0, T = T1 = 150°C
2 × 370
= 0.27 + 50 = 50.27°C. Ans. At x = L = 300 mm, T = T2 = 100°C
Temperature at the centre of bar, (at x = 0.003 m) ; Qg Qg 150
and go = = =
5.55 × 10 6 V π π
Tc = [(0.006)2 – (0.003)2] + 50 d2 × L × (0.025) 2 × (0.3)
2 × 370 4 4
= 7500 × 2.7 × 10–5 + 50 = 1.018 × 106 W/m3
= 50.2°C. Ans. Using first boundary condition, we get
C2 = T1 = 150°C
Example 4.6. Two large steel plates at temperature of
150°C and 100°C are separated by a copper rod and at right end i.e., x = L
bk = 390 W /m.K g, 300 mm long and 25 mm in diameter. 100 = –

1.018 × 10 6
× (0.3)2 +
The rod is welded to each plate. The rod is insulated on 2 × 390
C1 × 0.3 + 150
its lateral surface, so heat can only flow axially. The
100 + 117.53 − 150
current flows through the rod, generating heat energy at or C1 = = 225.01°C/m
the rate of 150 W. Find the maximum temperature in 0.3
∴ 2
T(x) = – 1305.88x + 225.01x + 150
the rod and heat flux at ends of the rod.
For location of maximum temperature
Solution
dT
Given : The two large plates separated by a copper = – 2 × 1305.88xc + 225.01 = 0
dx
rod.
or xcr = 0.08618 m = 86.18 mm from left
T1 = 150°C, T2 = 100°C
The maximum temperature in the rod
k = 390 W/m.K, L = 300 mm = 0.3 m Tmax = – 1305.88 × (0.08618)2 + 225.01
d = 25 mm = 0.025 m, Qg = 150 W. × 0.08618 + 150
Insulation = – 9.7 + 19.39 + 150 = 159.7°C. Ans.
Steel rod (ii) Heat flux towards left end
FG dT IJ
d = 25 mm
qx = 0 = k
H dx K x=0
= k × [– 2 × 1305.88x + 225.01]x = 0
0 x
L = 300 mm
= 390 × 225.01 = 87753.9 W/m2
T1 = 150°C T2 = 100°C ≈ 87.754 kW/m2. Ans.
Fig. 4.9. Schematic for example 4.6 FG dT IJ
To find :
and qx = L = – k
H dx K x=L
(i) Maximum temperature in the rod, and = – 390 × [– 2 × 1305.88 × (0.3) + 225.01]
(ii) Heat flux at two ends of the rod. = 217822.02 W/m2
Analysis : (i) The rod is insulated on its lateral ≈ 217.822 kW/m2. Ans.
surface, therefore, the heat flows axially, the Check : Total heat transfer rate,
temperature distribution in the rod can be expressed as
FG π d IJ (q
H4 K
2
Q= x=0 + qx = L )
g x2
T(x) = – o + C1x + C2
2k = (π/4) × (0.025)2 × (87753.9
where go is the uniform volumetric heat generation rate + 217822.02)
per unit volume. = 150 W.
Example 4.7. The heat generation rate in a plane wall, LM

go e − γL
− L + C2
OP
insulated at its left face and maintained at a uniform
temperature T2 on right face is given as
T2 =
MN
kγ − γ PQ
g(x) = goe–γx W/m3
It gives C2 = T2 +
LM
go e − γL
+L
OP
where go and γ are constants and x is measured from left
face.
kγ γ MN PQ
Develop an expression for temperature distribution LM
g o e − γx OP
g e − γL
−x + o + L + T2
LM OP
in the plane wall, and deduce the expression for
temperature of the insulated surface.
∴ T(x) =
kγ − γMN kγ γ PQ MN PQ
Solution go go
or T(x) = 2
e − γL − e − γx + [L − x] + T2
Given : The heat generation rate in the wall as kγ kγ
g(x) = goe–γx W/m3 It is the required expression. Ans.
Subjected to boundary conditions (ii) Temperature at insulated surface i.e., x = 0
dT go go L
At x = 0, (insulated face), =0 Tx = 0 = 2
e − γL − 1 + + T2 . Ans.
dx kγ kγ
At x = L, (specified temperature), T = T2.
To find : Example 4.8. Two ends of circular rod of length 2L,
perfectly insulated on its lateral surface are held at same
(i) An expression for temperature distribution,
temperature T0. The left half of rod has uniform heat
T(x), and
generation at the rate of go W/m3, while right half portion
(ii) Temperature of insulated surface. has no heat generation. Thermal conductivity of the rod
Analysis : (i) Governing differential equation in material is constant (independent of temperature). In
steady state steady state conditions
(a) Develop the expressions for the temperature
d2T g ( x)
2
+ =0 distribution in the left and right portion of the end.
dx k
(b) Find the location of maximum temperature.
d2Tg o e − γx
or =– Solution
dx 2 k
Given :
Integrating with respect to x,
dT g e − γx 1 L L
=– o + C1 T0 T0
dx
3
k (– γ ) Left end go W/m Right end
where C1 is constant of integration.
Using first boundary condition i.e., at x = 0, Fig. 4.10. Schematic for example 4.8
dT
=0 Analysis : (a) The governing equation in left half
dx of the rod.
dT FG IJ go e − γ × 0 d 2 TL ( x)
H K
dx x = 0 =
k γ
+ C1 = 0
dx
go
k 2
=0 +
go and temperature distribution in left portion of rod

It gives C1 = –
kγ go x 2
TL(x) = − + C1x + C2 ...(i)
dT go e −γx g g 2k
− γx
∴ = – o = o [e − 1] The boundary condition
dx kγ k γ k γ
At x = 0, TL(x) = T0,
Integrating again with respect to x It gives C2 = T0
go LM e
− γx OP
− x + C2
go x 2
T(x) =
kγ MN − γ PQ Hence TL(x) = −
2k
+ C1x + T0 ...(ii)
where C2 is constant of integration. The governing differential equation in right

portion of the rod is reduced to
Using second boundary condition, i.e., at
x = L, T = T2
d 2 TR ( x) (b) The location of maximum temperature, the

=0 left portion will have maximum temperature, therefore,
dx 2
and temperature distribution, differentiating equation (vii) w.r.t. x and equating it to
zero.
TR(x) = C3x + C4 ...(iii)
With boundary condition
At x = 2L, TR(x) = T0 dTL ( x) g x 3 go L
=− o + =0
It gives C4 = T0 – 2LC3 dx k 4k
Hence TR(x) = C3(x – 2L) + T0 ...(iv) 3
or x = L . Ans.
Due to symmetry, the temperature at mid-point 4
At x = L, TR(x) = TL(x) Example 4.9. A plane wall is composite of two materials
Therefore, equating eqns. (ii) and (iv), A and B. The wall of material A has a uniform heat
LM− g x
o
2
+ C1 x + T0
OP LM
= C3 ( x − 2L) + T0
OP generation of 2.5 × 106 W/m3. Its thermal conductivity
MN 2k PQ x=L MN PQ x=L
is 110 W/m.K and it is 60 mm thick. The wall of
material B has no heat generation and its thermal
go L 2 conductivity is 150 W/m.K and its thickness is 20 mm.
− + C1L + T0 = – C3L + T0 The inner surface of material A is well insulated, while
2k
the outer surface of material of B is cooled by water
g L
or C1 + C3 = o ...(v) stream at 30°C with convection coefficient of
2k 1000 W/m2.K. For steady state conditions :
Also at section x = L.
(i) Sketch the temperature distribution in the
Heat transfer rate from left = Heat flow rate to composite wall.
right
(ii) Determine the temperatures of insulated
QL = QR
surface of A and cooled surface of B.
LM dT (x) OP
L
=
LM dT ( x) OP
R Solution
or
N dx Q x=L N dx Q x=L
Given : A composite wall of material A and B ;
go L gA = 2.5 × 106 W/m3
or − + C1 = C3
k kA = 110 W/m.K
goL LA = 60 mm = 0.06 m
or C1 – C3 = ...(vi)
k gB = 0
Adding eqns. (v) and (vi), we get kB = 150 W/m.K
3 goL LB = 20 mm = 0.02 m
2C1 =
2k T∞ = 30°C
3 goL
It gives C1 = h = 1000 W/m2.K
4k
Subtracting eqns. (v) and (vi), we get Water
T1
g L
2C3 = − o
3
gA = 2.5 × 10 W/m
2k T2
T¥ = 30°C
kA = 110 W/m.K
go L T3
6
or C3 = −
4k gB = 0 2
h = 1000 W/m . K
Substituting the values of C1 and C3 in eqns. (ii) kB = 150
and (iv), respectively, we get W/m. K
LB
LA
g x 2 3g o L
TL(x) = − o + x + T0 ...(vii)
2k 4k x
g oL Fig. 4.11. Schematic of composite wall for example 4.19
and TR(x) = − (x – 2L) + T0. Ans.
4k
To find : qL B
(i) Temperature distribution in the composite. or T2 = k + T3
B
(ii) Temperature of insulated surface of A and
150 × 10 3 × 0.02
cooled surface of material B. = + 180 = 200°C
150
Assumptions :
Now temperature distribution in material A
(i) Steady state heat conduction in axial direction
only, gA x 2
TA(x) = − + C1x + C2
(ii) Negligible contact resistance at interface. 2 kA
(iii) Constant properties. Subjected boundary conditions :
Analysis : (i) (a) The temperature distribution in dT
material A is given as At x = 0, =0
dx
gA x 2
TA(x) = − + C1x + C2 It gives C1 = 0
2 kA
and at x = LA, T = T2
It is parabolic temperature distribution in
material A as shown in Fig. 4.11 and it is subjected to g A L 2A
boundary conditions or T2 = − + C2
2kA
dT
At x = 0, the slope =0 gA L 2A
dx It gives C2 = T2 +
and at x = LA, TA(x) = T2 2kA
(b) The temperature distribution in material B is gA
Then TA(x) = ( 2 – x2) + T2
given as 2kA L A
TB(x) = C3x + C4
2.5 × 10 6
It is a linear distribution between temperatures = (0.062 – x2) + 200
2 × 110
T2 and T3.
= 11363.63 × (0.062 – x2) + 200.
(c) Large gradient near wall B due to water
cooling. The inner surface temperature of material A,
(ii) The heat flux in wall material A can be (x = 0)
calculated as T1 = 11363.63 × (0.06)2 + 200
q = gALA = 2.5 × 106 × 0.06 = 240.9°C. Ans.
= 150 × 103 W/m2 Example 4.10. A plane wall is a composite of three
Since inner surface of material A is well insulated materials A, B, and C. The wall of material A has a heat
and hence under steady state, this heat must be generation at the rate of 2 × 106 W/m3. The thermal
dissipated from outer surface of material B to water conductivity of wall A is 190 W/m.K, while its thickness
stream is 50 mm.
Thus q = h (T3 – T∞) The wall materials of B and C do not have heat
generation with
q
or T3 = + T∞ kB = 150 W/m.K, LB = 30 mm.
h
kC = 50 W/m.K., LC = 15 mm.
150 × 10 3
= + 30 = 180°C The inner surface of material A is well insulated,
1000 while outer surface of material C is cooled by water
It is the temperature of cooled surface of material stream at T∞ = 50°C with convection coefficient h =
B. Ans. 2000 W/m2.K.
The temperature T2 at interface of two material (i) Sketch the temperature distribution in the
can be calculated as composite under steady state conditions.
kB (T2 − T3 ) (ii) Determine the temperature of insulated
q= surface and cooled surface. (N.M.U., Nov. 1996)
LB
Solution (c) The material B and C will have the linear slope,
Given : 106
gA = 2 × W/m3, [Fig. 4.12(a)] since their temperature distribution can
be expressed as
LA = 50 mm = 0.05 m
T(x) = C3x + C4. …(ii)
kA = 190 W/m.K.,
(d) The slope changes as kB/kC = 3 at the interface
gB = gC = 0 of materials B and C.
kB = 150 W/m.K, (e) Large gradient near the wall surface of C due
LB = 30 mm = 0.03 m to water cooling.
kC = 50 W/m.K, The temperature distribution is shown in
LC = 15 mm = 0.015 m Fig. 4.12(a).
T∞ = 50°C, (ii) Temperature of cooled (right) surface :
The heat flux in wall A can be calculated as
h = 2000 W/m2.K.
q = gA LA = 2 × 106 × 0.05
To find :
(i) Sketch the temperature distribution in the = 1 × 105 W/m2.
composite wall. Since the inner side of material A is insulated,
(ii) The temperature of cooled surface. hence under steady state conditions, this heat must be
dissipated from outer surface of material C to water
(iii) Temperature of insulated surface.
stream.
Assumptions :
Therefore, q = h(T4 – T∞)
(i) Steady state heat conduction in axial direction
only. 1 × 10 5
It gives T4 = + 50 = 100°C. Ans.
(ii) Negligible contact resistance at interfaces. 2000
(iii) Inner surface of material A is adiabatic. (iii) Temperature of insulated surface :
(iv) Constant properties. The temperature at the interface of wall A and B
Analysis : (i) The temperature distribution in can be calculated by resistance analogy as :
composite wall. T2 − T4
q=
LB LC
+
kB kC
T2 − 100
A B C or 1 × 105 =
0.03 0.015
T1 +
150 50
kA kB kC or T2 = 1 × 105 × 5 × 10–4 + 100 = 150°C
T2 T3 T4
T3 T2 Q
LB LC
T4 h kB kC
T¥ Fig. 4.12 (b)
LA LB LC Now considering eqn. (i) for temperature
distribution TA(x), with boundary conditions.
Fig. 4.12. (a) Schematic and temperature The boundary condition at left face of wall A
distribution in the composite dT
At x = 0 ; =0
(a) The wall material A has a parabolic distribu- dx
tion, since its temperature distribution is given by It gives C1 = 0
gA x 2 The boundary condition at right face of wall A
TA(x) = − + C1x + C2 ...(i)
2k At x = LA, T = T2 = 150°C
(b) Since inner surface of material A is insulated Using in eqn. (i),
dT 2 × 10 6 × (0.05) 2
i.e., slope = 0 at the inner surface. 150 = − + C2
dx 2 × 190
It gives C2 = 163.15°C To find:

and the temperature distribution in wall A is (a) Sketch of temperature distribution in the
wall.
2 × 10 6 x 2
TA(x) = − + 163.15 (b) Temperature of wall at its inside and outside
2 × 190 surfaces.
The temperature at the insulated face of wall A
(c) Value of heat flux required to maintain
at x = 0 T(x = 0) = 163.15°C. Ans. adiabatc condition at the left face.
Example 4.11. Air inside a chamber at 50°C is heated (d) Temperature of left surface, when go = 0 and
convectively with convective coefficient of 20 W/m2.K by qo is kept constant as in above case.
a 200 mm thick wall having thermal conductivity of Assumptions:
4 W/m.K. It has uniform heat generation of 1000 W/m3. 1. Steady-state one-dimensional heat conduction.
Its other side is exposed to an ambient 25°C with 2. Heat generated in the strip heater does not
convection coefficient of 5 W/m2.K. In order to prevent contribute to heat generation in the wall.
the heat loss from the outside surface of the wall, a very 3. Constant properties
thin strip heater is placed on the outer wall to provide a
Analysis: (a) The one-dimensional heat
uniform heat flux qo.
conduction with internal heat generation is given by
(a) Sketch the temperature distribution in the wall
on T–x coordinates for condition, where no heat generated go x 2
T(x) = − + C1x + C2 …(i)
within the wall is lost to outside of the chamber. 2k
(b) What are the temperatures of inside and dT
outside surfaces for condition of part (a). and the slope = 0 for left insulated surface. The
dx
(c) Determine the value of heat flux qo that must temperature distribution is parabolic in the wall as
be supplied by the strip heater, so that the heat generated shown in Fig. 4.13(b).
within the wall is transferred to inside of the chamber.
T(x)
(d) If the heat generated within the wall is
switched off, while the heat flux qo to the strip heater
remains constant. What would be the steady state
temperature of outer wall surface?
Solution
T¥
Given: A wall with internal heat generation and 2
T¥
insulated outer surface as shown in Fig. 4.13(a). 1
Strip heater L X
qo Fig. 4.13(b)
Adiabatic
surface
(b) Temperature of left and right surfaces. The
boundary conditions
3 dT
go = 1000 W/m (i) At left face (at x = 0) ; =0
k = 4 W/m.K dx
 dT 
2 2 (ii) At right face ; − k   = h[Tx=L – T∞2 ]
h1 = 5 W/m .K h2 = 20 W/m .K  dx x = L
T¥ = 25°C T¥ = 50°C
1 2 The differential of eqn. (i)
L = 200 mm dT g x
= – o + C1 …(ii)
dx k
x
Using first boundary condition in eqn. (ii), we get
Fig. 4.13(a). Schematic for example 4.11
C1 = 0
Using second boundary condition 4.2. THE CYLINDER

 g L  2
 g L
−k  − o  = h2  − o + C2 − T∞2  For steady state heat conduction in the cylinders,
 k   2k  rewriting the eqn. (2.15),
go L2 go L 1 d
r
RS
dT
+
g(r ) UV
=0
It gives C2 =
2k
+
h2
+ T∞2
r dr T
dr k W
Then the temperature distribution in the wall is where k is treated constant and using g(r) = go, (uniform
given by heat generation), then above
Expression may be written as
go (L2 − x 2 ) go L
T(x) =
2k
+
h2
+ T∞2 …(iii) d dT RS g r UV
Using the numerical values in eqn. (iii), it results
dr
r
dr T
=– o
k W ...(4.19)
into Integrating with respect to r on both sides, we

get
T(x) = – 125x2 + 65°C
The temperature at left surface
dT g r2
r =– o + C1
T(x = 0) = T1 = 65°C. Ans. dr 2k
The temperature at right surface dT g r C1
or =– o + ..(4.20)
T (x = L) = T2 = – 125 × (0.2)2 + 65 dr 2k r
= 60°C. Ans. Integrating again, with respect to r, we get
(c) Heat flux supplied to strip heater is equal to go r 2
T(r) = – + C1 ln(r) + C2 ...(4.21)
heat convection rate per unit area to outside 4k
surroundings, therefore, where C1 and C2 are constants of integration and can
be evaluated according to boundary conditions.
qo = h1(T1 – T∞1 )
4.2.1. Solid Cylinder with Specified Surface Temperature
= 5 × (65 – 25) = 200 W. Ans.
Consider a long solid cylinder with uniform heat gen-
(d) When heat generation is switched off, the eration go as shown in Fig. 4.14. Its outer surface is main-
situation can be represented by thermal network as tained at temperature Ts. Then boundary conditions
shown in Fig. 4.13(c) (B.C.) are :
qo (i) Due to symmetry of the solid, the centre line
T2 temperature of the solid cylinder must be constant and
T¥
1
T¥
2
thus temperature gradient must be zero.
qA qB
1 L 1
h1 k h2
k
Fig. 4.13(c) ro go
and the heat flux generated is sum of heat flux flow on
two sides of the wall Ts
T1 − T∞1 (T1 + T∞2 ) Fig. 4.14. Solid cylinder
qo = qA + qB = +
1 L 1
+ RS dT UV = 0
h1 k h2 At r = 0 ;
T dr W
RS dT UV = 0
or 200 =
T1 − 25
1
T − 50
+ 1
0.2 1
or
T dr W r =0
...[4.22(a)]
+ (ii) At r = ro, T = Ts ...[4.22(b)]
5 4 20
Substituting first B.C. into eqn. (4.20), we get
= 15 T1 – 625
RS dT UV g o (0) C1
or T1 = 55°C. Ans.
T dr W r =0
=–
2k
+
0
=0
It gives C1 = 0 It gives C1 = 0
Now using second B.C. into eqn. (4.21), we get At outer surface i.e., at r = ro.
g o ro 2 Rate of heat conduction to outer surface = Rate
Ts = – + C2 of heat convection from outer surface
4k
g r2 FG dT IJ
It gives C2 = Ts + o o
4k
– kA
H dr K r = ro
= hA ( Tr = ro – T∞) ...(4.28)
Therefore, the temperature distribution in solid

L g r OP LMR| g r 2 U|V OP
– k M−
MNS|T− 4k
cylinder is o
PQ
o
go
or
N 2k Q r = ro
=h + C2
|W r = ro
− T∞
T(r) = (r 2 – r2) + Ts
4k o g o ro g r 2
g o ro 2 R|S1 − r 2 U|V or
2h
= – o o – T∞ + C2
4k
or T(r) – Ts =
4k |T r o
2
|W ...(4.23)
It gives
g r2 g r
C2 = o o + o o + T∞ ...(ii)
Temperature at centre of cylinder is 4k 2h
Using in eqn. (i), we get temperature distribution
g o ro 2 as
Tc – Ts = ...(4.24)
4k go g o ro
Dividing eqn. (4.23) by eqn. (4.24), we get T(r) =(r 2 – r2) + + T∞
4k o 2h
temperature distribution in non-dimensional form. g g o ro
or T(r) – T∞ = o (ro2 – r2) + ...(4.29)
T(r) − Ts r2 4k 2h
=1– 2 ...(4.25) The surface temperature
Tc − Ts ro
Heat transfer rate : g o ro
Ts = T∞ + ...(4.30)
The heat transfer rate Q(r) at any radius in the 2h
cylinder can be evaluated by using eqn. (4.23), in Fourier The maximum temperature occurs at the centre
equation. and the temperature at the centre i.e., at r = 0
dT go ro 2 g o ro
Q(r) = – kA Tc – T∞ = + ...(4.31)
dr 4k 2h
where, A = 2πrL
dT g r
and =– o ...(4.26) 4.3. HOLLOW CYLINDER WITH HEAT
dr 2k
go r FG IJ GENERATION AND SPECIFIED SURFACE
Then Q(r) = – kA −
2k H K TEMPERATURES
g o rA 2πrLrg o Consider a hollow cylinder as shown in Fig. 4.15, sub-
= =
2 2 jected to boundary conditions :
or 2
Q(r) = πr L go ...(4.27) At r = ri, T = T1
4.2.2. Solid Cylinder Exposed to Convection Environment and at r = ro, T = T2
Consider a long solid cylinder with uniform heat Eqn. (4.21) for temperature distribution gives
generation go W/m3. Its outer surface is exposed to an g o ri 2
ambient at T∞ with heat transfer coefficient h. The T1 = – + C1 ln (ri) + C2 ...(i)
4k
temperature distribution is given by eqn. (4.21)
g r2
go r 2 T2 = – o o + C1 ln (ro) + C2 ...(ii)
T(r) = – + C1 ln (r) + C2 ...(i) 4k
4k
and temperature gradient Solving for constants C1 and C2, eqn. (i)
– eqn. (ii)
dT g r C
=– o + 1 ri F I
dr 2k r
Boundary conditions imposed on cylinder T1 – T2 =
go
4k
(ro2 – ri2) + C1 ln
ro
GH JK
dT g
at r = 0, =0 (T1 − T2 ) − o (ro 2 − ri 2 )
dr 4 k
or C1 =
(for solid cylinder due to symmetry) ln (ri /ro )
1 RS g (r UV RS dT UV
(2) At r = ro, – k
T dr W = h{T(ro) – T∞}
2
or C1 = o
− ri 2 ) + (T2 − T1 )
ln (ro /ri ) T 4k o
W r = ro
The relation for temperature distribution in
cylinder is given by eqn. (4.21)
go W/m
3
go r 2
T(r) = – + C1 ln(r) + C2
ro 4k
dT g r C1
and =– o +
ri T1 dr 2k r
T2 Using boundary condition at r = ri
L
RS dT UV = – g r o i +
C1
=0 ...(4.33)
Fig. 4.15. Hollow cylinder with specified temperatures
T dr W 2k ri
g o ri 2
Using in eqn. (ii), we get It gives, C1 = ...(4.34)
2k
g o ro 2 ln (ro ) dT g r g r2
C2 = T2 + – Now, =– o + o i
4k ln (ro / ri ) dr 2k 2 kr
LM g (r
o 2
− ri 2 ) + (T2 − T1 )
OP Using it with boundary condition at r = ro
×
N 4k o
Q R|S go r go ri 2 U|V
T| W|
g o ro 2
ln (1 / ro ) –k − +
= + 2k 2kr
r = ro
4k ln (ro / ri )
LM g (r OP |RS go r2
g r
+ o i ln (r) + C2 − T∞
2
|UV
×
N 4k
o
o
2
− ri 2 ) + (T2 − T1 ) + T2
Q
=h −
|T 4k 2k |W r = ro
Substituting C1 and C2 in eqn. (4.21), we get tem- 2 2 2
g o ro g r g r g o ri
perature distribution as or – o i =– o o + ln (ro) + C2 – T∞
2h 2 h ro 4k 2k
g ln (r / ro )
T(r) = o (ro2 – r2) + g o ro 2 g r2 g r g r2
4k ln (ro / ri ) or C2 = – o i + o o – o i ln (ro) + T∞
LM g (r
o 2
− ri 2 ) + (T2 − T1 ) + T ...(4.32)
OP 4k 2ro h 2h 2k
×
N 4k o 2
Q Introducing the C1 and C2 in eqn. (4.21)
...(4.35)
4.3.1. Hollow Cylinder Insulated at its Inner Surface

go r 2 g r2 g r2
Consider a hollow cylinder, insulated at its inner sur- T(r) = – + o i ln (r) + o o
face (r = ri) has internal heat generation and dissipates 4k 2k 4k
2 2
heat from its outer surface (r = ro) to convection envi- g r g r g r
– o i – o i ln (ro) + o o + T∞
ronment at temperature T∞ with convection coefficient 2ro h 2k 2h
h as shown in Fig. 4.16.
g o ro 2 R|S1 − r 2 U|V + g r 2 F rI
or T(r) – T∞ =
4k |T r o
2
|W 2k
o i
ln GH r JK
o
Insulation g o ro  ri2 
+  1 −  ...(4.36)
2h  ro2 
ri
ro Note : These are some cases, we have discussed as
examples, but the heat conduction problems with heat
generation are worked out according to prescribed
h boundary condition within the problem. As the boundary
T¥ condition changes, the equations for temperature
distribution and heat transfer rate take some new form.
Fig. 4.16. Hollow cylinder insulated on its inner surface Therefore, the resulting equations for temperature distri-
The boundary conditions are : bution obtained above cannot be used as standard
RS dT UV relations. The students are advised to proceed always with

basic equations.
(1) At r = ri,
T dr W r = ri
=0
4.3.2. The Location of Maximum Temperature in the (iii) Temperature gradient at 25 mm radius.
Cylinder (iv) Heat flux at the surface.
The location of maximum temperature in cylinder of Solution
given boundary conditions can be obtained by applying Given : A solid cylinder with heat generation
condition of maxima i.e., differentiating the relation for d = 100 mm
temperature distribution T(r) with respect to directional ro = 50 mm = 0.05 m
coordinate, r and equating it to zero.
r = 25 mm = 0.025 m
dT(r) go = 7.0 × 106 W/m3
For cylinder, =0 ...(4.37)
dr k = 190 W/m.K
We get the location rcr, where temperature would Ts = 100°C.
be maximum. Hence the maximum temperature Tmax
can be obtained by using this value of rcr in equation of
temperature distribution T(r).
.K
Example 4.12. A 2 kW resistance heater wire W/m 3
90
(k = 15 W/m.K) has its diameter 4 mm and length 0.5 m, =1 6 /m
k
10 W
×
is used to boil water. If the outer surface of the wire is ro 7.0
go =
105°C. Calculate the centre line temperature of wire.
Solution
Given : Qg = 2 kW = 2000 W,
k = 15 W/m.K Ts
d = 4 mm or r = 2 mm = 0.002 m, Fig. 4.17. Solid cylinder

L = 0.5 m To find :
Ts = 105°C. (i) Centre line temperature of cylinder.
To find : Centre temperature of water. (ii) Temperature at mid radius (r = 0.025 m)
Analysis : The uniform heat generation per unit (iii) Temperature gradient at r = 0.025 m.
volume (iv) Heat flux at outer surface.
Qg Qg Analysis : The solid cylinder is with specified
go = = 2 surface temperature; the temperature distribution in
V
πr L
2000 W cylinder is given by
=
π × (0.002 m) 2 × (0.5 m) go r 2
T(r) = –+ C1 ln (r) + C2
= 0.318 × 109 W/m3 4k
Then the centre line temperature of solid cylin- Subjected to boundary conditions
der, eqn. (4.27) dT
At r = 0, =0
g o ro 2 dr
Tc = Ts + It gives C1 = 0
4k
Further at r = ro, T = Ts
(0.318 × 10 9 W/m 3 ) × (0.002 m) 2
= 105°C + g o ro 2
4 × (15 W/m.K) Thus Ts = – + C2
4k
= 126.2°C. Ans.
Example 4.13. A solid cylinder, 100 mm in diameter g o ro 2
or C2 = Ts +
generating heat at a uniform rate of 7 × 106 W/m3. The 4k
thermal conductivity of solid is 190 W/m.K and its This temperature distributions obtained is as
surface temperature is maintained at 100°C. Calculate already given by eqn. (4.23)
(i) Temperature at the centre of cylinder. go
(ii) Temperature at the distance 25 mm from the T(r) = (ro2 – r2) + Ts ...(i)
4k
centre.
(i) Temperature at the centre, (r = 0)
g
Tc = o ro2 + Ts /m.K
4k 0W 3
k=1 5
W/m
7.0 × 10 6 × (0.05) 2 0.3 × 10
= + 100 go =
4 × 190 ro
= 123°C. Ans. .K
2
0 W/m
(ii) Temperature at a distance of 25 mm from h=
6
C
50°
centre T¥ =
7.0 × 10 6 Fig. 4.18. Nuclear fuel rod exposed to coolant

T= [(0.05)2 – (0.025)2] + 100
4 × 190 To find :
= 117.27°C. Ans. (i) Centre temperature of the rod.
(iii) Temperature gradient at radius of 25 mm
(ii) Temperature at the outer surface of the rod.
Differentiating eqn. (i) w.r.t. r
Assumptions :
dT g r
=– o (i) Steady state conditions.
dr 2k
at r = 0.025 m (ii) Heat conduction in radial direction only.
dT 6
7 × 10 × 0.025 (iii) Constant properties.
dr =–
r =0.025 m 2 × 190 Analysis : (i) Temperature at the centre :
= – 460.5°C/m. Ans. Using eqn. (4.32) for solid cylinder exposed to con-
(iv) Heat flux at outer surface : vection environment
The temperature gradient at r = ro g o (ro 2 − r 2 ) go ro
T(r) – T∞ = +
LM dT OP g o ro 7 × 10 6 × (0.05)
4k 2h
N dr Q r = ro
=–
2k
=–
2 × 190
At centre, i.e., r = 0
go ro 2 g o ro
= 921.05°C/m Tc = T∞ + +
4k 2h
LM dT OP 0.3 × 105 × (0.5 )2
Heat flux qr = ro = – k
N dr Q r = ro = 50 +
4 × 10
= – 190 × 921.05
0.3 × 105 × 0.5
= 175 × 103 W/m2 +
2 × 60
= 175 kW/m2. Ans.
= 50 + 187.5 + 125 = 362.5°C. Ans.
Example 4.14. A long rod of radius 50 cm with thermal
(ii) Temperature at the outer surface.
conductivity of 10 W/m.K contains radioactive material,
which generates heat uniformly within the cylinder at a At r = ro
rate of 0.3 × 105 W/m3. The rod is cooled by convection g r
Ts = T∞ + o o
from its cylindrical surface at T∞ = 50°C with a heat 2h
transfer coefficient of 60 W/m2.K. Determine the 0.3 × 10 5 × 0.5
temperature at the centre and outer surface of the cylin- = 50 +
2 × 60
drical rod. (J.N.T.U., May 2004)
= 175°C. Ans.
Solution
Given : A nuclear reactor in form of a long, solid Example 4.15. Heat is generated in a 2 mm diameter
cylinder electric resistance wire (k = 10 W/m.K) uniformly at
the rate of 5 kW/m length. Calculate the temperature
ro = 50 cm = 0.5 m
difference between centre line and the surface of the wire.
k = 10 W/m.K
Solution
go = 0.3 × 105 W/m3
Given : An electric resistance wire
T∞ = 50°C
d = 2 mm = 0.002 m
h = 60 W/m2.K
or ro = 0.001 m 1
ke = = 1.25 × 104 (Ω cm)–1,
k = 10 W/m.K ρ
Q/L = 5 kW/m. Ts = 400°C
d = 20 mm = 20 × 10–3 m
d = 2 mm
or ro = 10 × 10–3 m
Tc
Boundary conditions,
k = 10 W/m.K
Ts dT
Q (i) At r = 0, =0 ∵ Solid cylinder, due to
dr
Fig. 4.19. Schematic for example 4.15 symmetry
To find : Temperature difference between centre (ii) At r = ro, T = Ts = 400°C.
line and surface of the wire. To find : Centre temperature of the rod.
Analysis : The wire is treated as long solid cylin- Assumption : Steady state heat conduction in
der, and the temperature distribution is given by radial direction only.
go r 2 Analysis : Since stainless steel rod can be treated
T(r) = – + C1 ln (r) + C2 as solid cylinder and its surface temperature is specified,
4k
Subjected to boundary conditions thus eqn. (4.27) can be used for temperature distribution
at the centre
dT
At r = 0, =0
dr g oro2
Tc – Ts =
(for solid cylinder due to symmetry) 4k
At r = ro, T = Ts Qg I2 R e
(because Ts – Tc is to be calculated) where go = =
V A cL
RS UV = FG I IJ × FG 1 IJ
Q 1 3
5 × 10 2
with go = × = I2 ρL
T W HA K Hk K
L Ac π = ×
× (0.002)2 A cL Ac c e
4
= 1.591 × 109 W/m3 R
=S
1000 UV × F 1 × 10 Ωm I
2 –2
Using boundary conditions, we get temperature

distribution as in eqn. (4.26) T (π/4) × (20 × 10 ) W GH 1.25 × 10 JK
–3 2 4
= 8.1 × 106 W/m3

g
∴ T(r) – Ts = o (ro2 – r2) The temperature at the centre of the rod
4k
And at centre i.e., r = 0 8.1 × 10 6 × (10 × 10 –3 ) 2
Tc = 400 +
go 2 4 × 20
Tc – Ts = r
4k o = 400 + 10.13 = 410.13°C
9 2
1.591 × 10 × (0.001) or Tc = Tmax = 410.13°C. Ans.
=
4 × 10
Example 4.17. A nichrome wire having a resistivity of
= 39.7°C. Ans.
110 µΩ cm is to be used as heating element. The wire
Example 4.16. A stainless steel rod 20 mm diameter is diameter is 2 mm and other design features are
carrying an electric current of 1000 Amp. The thermal Current, I = 25 A,
and electrical conductivities are 20 W/m.K and
1.25 × 104 (Ω cm)–1. What is the temperature at the centre Ambient temperature, T∞ = 20°C
of the rod, if its surface temperature should not exceed knichrome = 17.5 W/m.K,
400°C ? Convection coefficient, h = 46.5 W/m2.K
Solution Calculate the heat loss from one metre long heater
Given : I = 1000 Amp, and also the temperature at the surface and centre line
k = 20 W/m.K of nichrome wire. (N.M.U., Dec. 2002)
Solution
go r 2
Given : A nichrome wire heating element T(r) = – + C1ln (r) + C2 ...(i)
4k
ρ = 110 µΩ cm = 110 × 10–8 Ωm, Subjected to boundary conditions
d = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m, At the centre of wire,
or ro = 1 × 10–3 m RS dT UV
I = 25 A, T dr W r =0
=0
h = 46.5 W/m2.K and at r = ro

k = 17.5 W/m.K, FG dT IJ
T∞ = 20°C,
–k
H dr K r = ro
= h (Tr = ro – T∞)
L = 1 m. We get the temperature distribution in the wire

as obtained by eqn. (4.32)
1m go g r
T(r) – T∞ = (ro2 – r2) + o o
4k 2h
ro Qg 218.83
where go = =
T¥ = 20°C V ( π / 4) × (2 × 10 −3 )2 × 1
2
h = 46.5 W/m .K = 69.655 × 106 W/m3
Fig. 4.20. Nichrome wire Substituting the values for temperature distribu-
To find : tion,
(i) Heat flow rate from 1 m long wire. 69.655 × 10 6
T(r) – 20 = × [(1 × 10–3)2 – r2]
(ii) Temperature at the surface of wire. 4 × 17.5
(iii) Temperature at the centre line of wire. 69.655 × 10 6 × (1 × 10 −3 )
+
Assumptions : 2 × 46.5
(i) Steady state conditions. T(r) = 995071.42 [(1 × 10–3)2 – r2] + 769
(ii) Heat transfer in radial direction only. Temperature at the surface (r = ro)
(iii) Constant properties. Ts = 769°C. Ans.
Analysis : (i) Heat flow rate : The resistance per (iii) Temperature at the centre (r = 0)
metre length of wire Tc = 995071.42 (1 × 10–3)2 + 769
−8
ρL (110 × 10 Ωm) × (1 m) = 770°C. Ans.
Re = =
Ac (π / 4) × (2 × 10 −3 m) 2
Example 4.18. (a) Prove that the maximum temperature
= 0.35 Ω/m at the centre of wire, carrying electrical current is given
The heat generated by relation
Qg = I2Re = (25 A)2 × (0.35 Ω/m) J2 2
Tmax = Ts + ro
= 218.83 W/m. 4kke
Under steady state conditions, heat generation where Ts = surface temperature,
rate is always equal to heat dissipation rate from the J = current density,
wire k = thermal conductivity of wire material,
Qg = Q = 218.83 W/m. Ans. ke = electrical conductivity,
(ii) Temperature at the surface of wire : ro = radius of wire.
The temperature distribution in the wire (a long (b) A 3 mm dia. copper wire 10 m long is carrying
solid cylinder) can be expressed as electric current and has a surface temperature of 30°C.
The thermal and electrical conductivities of copper are or ro = 0.0015 m

390 W/m.K and 5.15 × 107 (Ωm)–1, respectively. L = 10 m,
Calculate the voltage drop, if the temperature rise at the Ts = 30°C
wire axis must not exceed 18°C.
k = 390 W/m.K
(N.M.U., Dec. 2002 ; M.U., May 1998) ke = 5.15 × 107 (Ωm)–1
Solution ∆T = T max – Ts = 18°C.
(a) The temperature distribution in a wire (a long To find : Voltage drop across the wire.
solid cylinder) is given by eqn. (4.24) Analysis : The current density, eqn. (iv)
go r 2 4kke
T(r) = – + C1 ln (r) + C2 ...(i) J2 = (Tmax – Ts) ×
4k ro 2
Wire is a solid cylinder, thus
18 × 4 × 390 × 5.15 × 10 7
dT =
At r = 0, =0 (0.0015)2
dr
It gives, C1 = 0 = 6.427 × 1017
or J = 8.017 × 108 A/m2
g r2
Then T(r) = – o + C2 I = J × Ac = 8.017 × 108 × (π/4) × (0.003)2
4k
Given that at r = ro, T = Ts = 5666.87 A
Voltage drop
g o ro 2 L
∴ Ts = – + C2
4k ∆V = IRe = I
A c ke
g r
or C2 = Ts + o o (5666.87) × 10
4k =
(π / 4) × (0.003) 2 × 5.15 × 107
Then temperature distribution
= 155.67 V. Ans.
go (ro 2 − r 2 )
T(r) = + Ts ...(ii) Example 4.19. Calculate the maximum current that a
4k
2 mm bare aluminium (k = 210 W/m.K) wire can carry
For maximum temperature occurs in the wire at
r=0 without exceeding a temperature of 225°C, when exposed
in an ambient at 25°C with heat transfer coefficient of
g o ro 2 10 W/m2.K. Take electrical resistance of aluminium wire
Tmax = + Ts ...(iii)
4k as 0.037 Ω/m.
The heat generation in the wire,
Solution
ρL I2L 1
Qg = I2Re = I2 = × Given : An electric wire exposed to ambient air
Ac Ac ke
d = 2 mm = 0.002 m,
Heat generation per unit volume,
or ro = 0.001 m
Qg FILI× 1
2
go =
V
= GH A k JK A L
c e c
k = 210 W/m.K,
Tmax = 225°C
FII 2
1 J2
T∞ = 25°C,
= GH A JK
c
×
ke
=
ke
h = 10 W/m2.K,
Re = 0.037 Ω/m.
where J = I/A, current density.
To find : Maximum current carrying capacity of
Using in eqn. (iii), we get
conductor.
J 2 ro 2 Analysis : Wire is a solid cylinder and exposed to
Tmax = + Ts (Proved) ...(iv)
4 kke convection environment thus the temperature
(b) Given d = 3 mm = 3 × 10–3 m, distribution is given by eqn. (4.33)
go g r
T(r) = (r 2 – r2) + o o + T∞
4k o 2h
r1
Location of maximum temperature Insulated
dT g r surface
= – o cr = 0 r2
dr 2k
or rcr = 0
Then for Tmax, Fig. 4.21. Hollow cylinder, insulated at its outer surface
go g × 0.001 (ii) Heat conduction in radial direction only.
225 = × (0.001)2 + o + 25
4 × 210 2 × 10 (iii) Constant properties.
or 200 = go (1.19 × 10–9 + 5 × 10–5) Analysis : (i) The heat generation in the tube wall
or go = 4 × 106 W/m3 ρL
Qg = I2Re = I2
Heat flow rate. (π 4)(d2 2 − d12 )
FG π d IJ (250)2 × 85 × 10 −8 × L
H4 K
2
Q = go × V = go × ×L =
( π 4) × (8 2 − 7.6 2 ) × 10 −6
= 4 × 106 × (π/4) × (0.002)2 × 1
= 10.839 × 103 L W/m.
= 12.56 W/m
and Q = I2 R e The volumetric heat generation rate
12.56 Qg Qg
= 339.62
or I2 =
0.037
go =
V
=
FG π IJ (d
H 4K
2
or I = 18.42 A. Ans. 2 − d12 ) × L
Example 4.20. A thin hollow stainless steel tube with 10.839 × 10 3 L

=
ID = 7.6 mm and O.D. = 8 mm is heated with a current
FG π IJ × (8
H 4K − 7.6 2 ) × 10 −6 × L
2
250 A intensity. The outer surface of the tube is insulated
and all the heat generated in the tube wall is transferred
through its inner surface. The specific resistance and = 2.211 × 109 W/m3. Ans.
thermal conductivity of steel are 85 µΩ cm and 18.6 W/m.K, (ii) The temperature distribution in the tube
respectively. go r 2
T(r) = − + C1 ln(r) + C2
Calculate : 4k
(i) Volumetric rate of heat generation in the tube. dT
(a) At r = r2 ; =0
(ii) Temperature drop across the wall. dr
RS dT UV =−
g o r2 C 1
+ =0
Solution
Given : A stainless steel, hollow tube with
or T dr W r = r2 2k r2
It gives
d1 = 7.6 mm, or r1 = 3.8 × 10–3 m
d2 = 8 mm or r2 = 4 × 10–3 m gor2 2 2.211 × 10 9 × (4 × 10 −3 )2
C1 = = = 951
I = 250 A, ρ = 85 × 10–8 Ωm 2k 2 × 18.6
k = 18.6 W/m.K
go r 2
Boundary condition Then T(r) = − + 951 × ln (r) + C 2
4k
dT (b) At r = r1,
At r = r2, =0
dr T = T1 (say)
To find :
go r12
(i) Volumetric heat generation rate in the tube. T1 = − + 951 × ln (r1 ) + C 2
4k
(ii) Temperature drop across the tube wall.
Assumptions : 2.211 × 10 9 × (3.8 × 10 −3 ) 2
or C2 =
(i) Steady state conditions with uniform heat 4 × 18.6
generation go W/m3. – 951 × ln (3.8 × 10–3) + T1
It gives C2 = 5728.8 + T1 Subjected to boundary conditions

The temperature distribution dT
At r = r1, =0
dr
2.211 × 10 9 2 and at r = r1, T = T1
T(r) = – r + 951 × ln (r)
4 × 18.6 Using first condition
+ 5728.8 + T1
T(r) – T1 = – 29.718 × 106 r2 + 951
dT LM
= −
go r C1
+
OP =0
× ln (r) + 5728.8
dr r = r1 N 2k r Q r = r1
Temperature drop (T2 – T1) across the wall go r12

or C1 =
Tr = r2 − T1 = − 29.718 × 106 × (4 × 10 –3 ) 2 + 951 2k
× ln (4 × 10–3) + 5728.8 go r 2 go r12

and T(r) = − + ln (r) + C2
= 2.40°C. Ans. 4k 2k
Using second boundary condition,
Example 4.21. A chemical reaction takes place in a at r = r1, T = T1
packed bed (k = 0.6 W/m.K) between two coaxial
cylinders with radii 15 mm and 45 mm. The inner go r12 g o r12
T1 = − + ln (r1) + C2
surface is at 580°C and is insulated. Assuming the 4k 2k
reaction rate of 0.55 MW/m3 in reactor volume. Calculate go r12 g o r12
the temperature at the outer surface of the reactor. It gives C2 = T1 + − ln (r1)
4k 2k
(P.U., Nov. 2001) Then temperature distribution becomes
Solution go g r2
(r12 − r 2 ) + o 1 ln
r FG IJ
Given : A chemical reactor in form of hollow
cylinder
T(r) =
4k 2k r1
+ T1
H K
The temperature at outer surface i.e., r = r2
r1 = 15 mm = 0.015 m
go 2 g r2 r
(r1 − r22 ) + o 1 ln 2 + T1
FG IJ
r2 = 45 mm = 0.045 m
k = 0.6 W/m.K
T2 =
4k 2k r1 H K
T1 = 580°C 0.55 × 10 6
= (0.015 2 − 0.045 2 )
FG dT IJ 4 × 0.6
FG IJ
H dr K r = r1
= 0 (insulated inner surface)
+
0.55 × 10 6
× (0.015)2 ln
45
+ 580
H K
2 × 0.6 15
go = 0.55 MW/m3 = 0.55 × 106 W/m3.
= – 412.5 + 113.29 + 580
= 280.79°C. Ans.
go Example 4.22. (a) A cable of radius r1 and resistance
r2 Re(Ω/m) and carrying a current I (A) is surrounded by
an insulator of radius r2 and thermal conductivity k. The
T1
r1 k external heat transfer coefficient and air temperature are
h and T∞ , respectively. Derive an expression for the tem-
perature distribution in the insulator.
(b) A 1 mm dia. copper wire of resistance 0.02 Ω/m
Fig. 4.22. Two coaxial cylinders, with is surrounded by a 2.3 mm dia. Plastic coating of
insulated inner surface
k = 0.2 W/m.K. The outside surface of the coating is
To find : Outer surface temperature of the reactor. cooled by air, where the convective heat transfer
Analysis : The temperature distribution in the coefficient is 16 W/m2.K. Determine the maximum
cylinder current that the wire can carry, if the surface to air
temperature difference should not exceed 35°C. What is
go r 2 the temperature rise of copper wire above ambient
T(r) = − + C1 ln (r) + C2
4k temperature ? (Jiwaji Univ., Dec. 2001)
Solution (b) Given :

(a) Given : An electrical cable with insulation. d1 = 1 mm
To find : Temperature distribution in an or r1 = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m
insulator. d2 = 2.3 mm,
or r2 = 1.15 mm = 0.00115 m
insulator (a hollow cylinder) is given by eqn. (4.24).
Re = 0.02 Ω/m
go r 2
T(r) = − + C1 ln(r) + C2 k = 0.2 W/m.K
4k
h = 16 W/m2.K,
But there is no heat generation in the insulator,
thus T2 – T∞ = 35°C.
T(r) = C1 ln(r) + C2 ...(i) To find :
(i) Maximum current in the wire,
dT C 1
and = ...(ii) (ii) Temperature rise of copper wire above
dr r
Subjected to boundary conditions ambient temperature i.e., (T1 – T∞).
(i) At r = r1 Analysis : (i) Maximum current in the wire :
Heat generated in cable/m = Heat conducted into Using eqn. (v) with r = r2, (at outer surface of
insulator/m insulator)
dT FG IJ dT FG IJ FI R I RS 1 UV + T
i.e., I2Re = – kA
dr H K
= – k (2πr1 × 1)
dr H K T2 =
2
GH 2π e
JK T r h W
FC I
∞
2
= – k(2πr ) G J 1
or I 2Re
Hr K1
1
or T2 – T∞ =
I2R e
I2R e 2πr2 h
It gives C1 = – ...(iii)
2πk 2πr2 h (T2 − T∞ )
(ii) At r = r2 or I2 =
Re
Heat generated in the cable/m or heat conducted
through insulator/m
2π × (0.00115 m) × (16 W / m 2 . K ) × (35° C)
= Heat convected into ambient/m =
(0.02 Ω / m)
i.e., I2Re = hA (Tr = r2 − T∞ )
= 202.318
= (2 π r2 × 1) h (Tr = r2 − T∞ ) or I = 14.22 A
or I2Re = 2πr2 h −
LM I2R e
ln(r2 ) + C 2 − T∞
OP (Maximum current in wire). Ans.
MN 2πk PQ (ii) Temperature rise of copper wire above

ambient temperature :
I2R e I2R e At outer surface of copper wire i.e., r = r1, T = T1
It gives C2 = + ln(r2 ) + T∞ ...(iv)
2πr2 h 2πk
T1 =
I2R e RS ln (r /r ) + 1 UV + T
2 1
Substituting C1 and C2 in eqn. (i), 2π T k r hW 2
∞
I2R e I2R e I2R e

T(r) = − ln(r) + ln(r2 ) + + T∞ (14.22)2 × 0.02
2πk 2πk 2πr2 h or T1 – T∞ =
2π
I2R e r FG IJ
I2R e
=
2πk
ln 2 +
r H K
2πr2 h
+ T∞
LM ln FG 0.00115 IJ OP
×M
H 0.0005 K
FI R I RS ln (r /r) + 1 UV + T MM 0.2 + 0.00115 × 16 PPP
2
1
= GH 2π e
JK T k r h W
2
∞ ...(v)
It is required expression for temperature

2
N Q
distribution in the insulator. Ans. = 37.68°C. Ans.
Example 4.23. A long hollow cylinder has inner and Further at r = 0.15 m, T = 50°C, applying, we get
outer radii as 5 cm and 15 cm respectively. It generates
1000 × (0.15) 2
the heat at the rate of 1 kW/m3. The thermal conductivity 50 = − + 10 × ln (0.15) + C2
of cylinder material is 0.5 W/m.K. If the maximum tem- 4 × 0.5
perature occurs at radius of 10 cm and temperature of It gives C2 = 80.22
outer surface is 50°C. Find Substituting C1 and C2 in eqn. (i) for tempera-
(i) Temperature at inner surface, ture distribution
(ii) Maximum temperature in the cylinder. 1000r 2
T(r) = − + 10 ln (r) + 80.22
(P.U., Nov. 1993) 4 × 0.5
Solution or T(r) = – 500 r2 + 10 ln (r) + 80.22
Given : r1 = 5 cm = 0.05 m, (i) The temperature at inner surface i.e.,
r2 = 15 cm = 0.15 m at r1 = 0.05 m
rcr = 10 cm = 0.1 m,
Tr = r1 = – 500 × (0.05)2 + 10
go = 1 kW/m3 = 1000 W/m3
k = 0.5 W/m.K, × ln (0.05) + 80.22
T(r = r2) = 50°C. = 49°C. Ans.
To find : (ii) Maximum temperature in the cylinder i.e.,
(i) Temperature at inner surface, at r = 0.1 m
(ii) Maximum temperature in the cylinder. Tmax = – 500 × (0.1)2 + 10 ln (0.1) + 80.22
Assumptions : = 52.2°C. Ans.
(i) Steady state heat conduction in radial Example 4.24. In a cylindrical fuel element for a gas
direction only. cooled nuclear reactor, the energy generation can be
(ii) Uniform heat generation per unit volume, approximated by
go W/m3. R| F r I 2 U|
(iii) Constant properties. g(r) = go S|1 − GH r JK V| W/m 3
Analysis : The temperature distribution in the T o

W
cylinder where ro is the radius of the fuel element and go is
constant. The outer surface is maintained at constant
go r 2 temperature Ts.
T(r) = − + C1 ln(r) + C2 ...(i)
4k
(a) For the radius of 1 cm, thermal conductivity
dT(r) g r C
With slope =− o + 1 ...(ii) of 10 W/m.K and go = 1.6 × 108 W/m3. Calculate the
dr 2k r temperature drop from centre line to surface.
Ts (b) If the heat removal rate from the outer surface
of nuclear reactor 1.6 × 105 W/m2, what would be the
r1 temperature drop from centre to surface?
Solution
Given : A nuclear fuel rod with heat generation
rate of
r2
R| F r I 2 U|
Fig. 4.23. Hollow cylinder
g(r) = go S|1 − GH r JK V| W/m
3
Since, the location of maximum temperature is

given, therefore, applying condition of maxima, i.e.,
T o
W
(a) go = 1.6 × 108 W/m3, ro = 1 cm = 0.01 m,
dT g r C k = 10 W/m.K.
= − o cr + 1 = 0
dr 2k rcr (b) q = 1.6 × 105 W/m2.
1000 × 0.1 C1 To find :
or − + =0
2 × 0.5 0.1 (i) Temperature drop from centre to surface for
It gives C1 = 10 given go = 1.6 × 108 W/m3.
(ii) Temperature drop from centre to surface for Using the boundary condition at the surface,
q = 1.6 × 105 W/m2. (ii) At r = ro ; T = Ts
Then, Ts = −
go R|S r
o
2
ro 4 U|V + C
k |T 4 −
16 ro 2
|W 2
ro h 3 go ro2
It gives C2 = Ts +
16 k
Substituting C1 and C2, the temperature distri-
T¥ bution becomes
Ts go R|S r 2
r4 U|V
3 go ro2
T(r) = −
k |T 4 −
16 ro 2
+
16 k |W+ Ts
The maximum temperature occurs at the centre

Fig. 4.24. A solid nuclear fuel rod as a solid cylinder (at r = 0), we get
Assumptions :
3 go ro2
(i) Steady state conditions with constant Tmax = Tc = + Ts
16 k
properties.
Temperature drop from centre line to surface
3 go ro2
Analysis : (a) The governing differential equation Tc – Ts =
for cylinder 16 k
Using numerical values in above equation
1 d RS
dT
+
g (r) UV
=0
r dr
r
drT k W 3 1.6 × 10 8 × (0.01) 2
Using g(r) = go [1 – (r/ro)2] Tc – Ts = ×
16 10
d RS UV
dT g r r LM F I 2 OP = 300°C. Ans.
Then dr
r
T W
dr
= − o 1−
k ro MN GH JK PQ (b) For heat removal rate q = 1.6 × 105 W/m2
The heat removal rate can be expressed as
d R dT U LMr − r OP
z
3
or Sr V = − gk
dr T dr W
o
MN r PQ 2
o
Q = 2πro L q =
ro
g(r) (2πrL) dr
0
Integrating with respect to r
RS dT UV = − gR|S r − r U|V + C
o
2 4
roq = z
0
ro LM F r I OP rdr
MN GH r JK PQ
go 1 −
2
r
T dr W k |T 2 4r |W
o
2 1
LMr − r OP dr
z
o 3
g R| r r U| C
ro
= go
or
dT
dr
=− S
k |T 2 4 r |W
− V+ r
o
3
2
1 0 MN r PQ o
2
Integrating again, we get

o
or roq = go
LM r − r OP = g r
o
2
o
4
o o
2
go R|S r − r
2 4 U|V + C MN 2 4r PQ 4 o
2
T(r) = −
k |T 4 16r o
2
|W 1 ln(r) + C2
or
g r
q= o o
4
4q 4 × 1.6 × 10 5
Subject to boundary conditions or go = = = 6.4 × 107 W/m3
ro 0.01
dT Then temperature drop from centre to surface
(i) At the centre, r = 0 ; = 0,
dr
It gives C1 = 0 3 go ro 2
Tc – Ts =
Now, the temperature distribution becomes, 16 k
go |RS r
2
r4 |UV =
3
16
×
6.4 × 107 × (0.01) 2
T(r) = −
k |T 4 −
16 ro 2
+ C2
|W = 120°C. Ans.
10
Example 4.25. Consider a thorium (k = 54 W/m.K) fuel Rearranging the above equation, assuming
rod, 20 mm in diameter, has a thin aluminium uniform heat generation go and constant thermal
(k = 237 W/m.K) cladding 2 mm in thickness. The conductivity k ;
aluminium looses its mechanical strength above d LM
r2
dT(r) OP
g r2
temperature 427°C. If the rod is exposed to a fluid at
90°C with h = 6000 W/m2.K. Is the system safe, if the
dr N dr
=– o
Q
k
heat generation rate in the thorium rod is 4 × 108 W/m3 ? Integrating it with respect to r, we get
Solution dT(r) g r3
r2 =– o + C1
Given : A nuclear fuel rod contains thorium dr 3k
d = 20 mm, ro = 0.01 m dT(r) g r C
or = – o + 21 ...(4.38)
go = 4 × 108 W/m3, rcl = 0.012 m dr 3k r
T∞ = 90°C, h = 6000 W/m2.K Integrating further, we get
kcl = 237 W/m.K Ts, f = 427°C
go r 2 C1
kf = 54 W/m.K T(r) = –
– + C2 ...(4.39)
6k r
To find : Feasibility of system for its safety.
where C1 and C2 are constants of integration and are
Analysis : The total amount of heat generated per
evaluated according to boundary conditions.
unit length in the rod
Q = go (π ro2 × 1 m) 4.4.1. Solid Sphere with Convective Boundary
= 4 × 108 × π × (0.01)2 × 1 Consider a solid sphere exposed to an ambient at
= 125.663 × 103 W/m temperature, T∞ with convection coefficient, h as shown
in Fig. 4.25. The boundary condition at the centre can
This heat must be dissipated across the
be defined as in solid cylinder as :
aluminium cladding, therefore, for surface temperature
of fuel rod ro
2π L(Ts, f − T∞ ) h
Q=
FG r IJ
cl
ln
Hr K +
o 1
T¥
kcl rcl h
Fig. 4.25. Solid sphere with convection environment
2π × 1 × (Ts, f − 90)
125.663 × 103 =
F 0.012 IJ
ln G
At r = 0 ; T(r) = finite
H 0.01 K + 1 Thus
dT(r)
=0
237 0.012 × 6000 dr
Substituting in equation (4.38), we get
125.663 × 10 3 C1 = 0
or Ts, f = 90 + × 0.01466
2π
= 383.1°C dT(r) g r
Hence =– o ...(4.40)
It is the surface temperature of fuel rod, on which dr 3k
the aluminium coating is applied, it is well below the And the boundary condition at outer surface :
working temperature of aluminium thus it is safe. Ans. RS dT(r) UV = h[T(r) – T ]
At r = ro ; –k
T dr W ∞
4.4. THE SPHERE dT(r)

Substituting the values of and T(r) at r = ro
The one dimensional steady state temperature distri- dr
bution T(r) in a sphere in which energy is generated at from the equations (4.40) and (4.39), respectively, we
a rate of g(r) W/m3 is given by Poisson’s equation (2.16) get
1 d
r2
LM
dT(r) g ( r) OP RS g o ro UV = h |RS− g r
o o
2
|UV
2
r dr drN +
k
=0
Q –k −
T 3k W |T 6k + C 2 − T∞
|W
g o ro g r2 (i) Develop an expression for one dimensional

It gives C2 = + o o + T∞ ...(4.41) steady state temperature distribution in the sphere.
3h 6k
Using the values of C1 and C2 in eqn. (4.39), we (ii) Develop an expression for radial heat flow rate
get temperature distribution in solid sphere, exposed to through the hollow sphere.
convection environment at outer surface (iii) Develop an expression for thermal resistance
of hollow sphere.
go g r
T(r) = (ro2 – r2) + o o + T∞ ...(4.42) Solution
6k 3h
(i) The governing differential equation (Poisson
4.4.2. Solid Sphere with Specified Surface Temperature equation),
If the outer surface of a solid sphere is subjected to
constant temperature Ts as shown in Fig. 4.26, then 1 d
r2
LM
dT(r) g ( r)OP
boundary conditions become. 2
r dr Ndr
+
k Q
=0
Ts
Here no heat generated in the solid i.e.,
ro g(r) = 0
T2
T1
Fig. 4.26. Solid sphere with specified temperature r1

at outer surface
r2
dT
(i) At centre, r = 0 ; =0
dr
and (ii) At surface r = ro ; T = Ts Fig. 4.27. A hollow sphere subjected fixed temperatures
T1 at inner surface and T2 at outer surface
The first boundary condition gives
Then the above equation is reduced to
C1 = 0
and with second boundary condition in eqn. (4.39) 1 d
r2
LM
dT(r) OP
g r 2
2
r dr dr N =0
Q ...(i)
Ts = – o o + C2
6k Subjected to the boundary conditions
g o ro 2 (i) At r = r1, T = T1
It gives C2 = Ts +
6k (ii) At r = r2, T = T2
Substituting C1 and C2 in eqn. (4.39), we get The first and second integration of differential
go eqn. (i) gives
T(r) = (r 2 – r2) + Ts ...(4.43)
6k o dT C
The other boundary conditions may be used as = 21
dr r
explained in case of cylinder and plane wall.
C1
Once the temperature distribution T(r) is known, T(r) = – + C2
the heat flux q(r), anywhere in the sphere can be r
determined as Applying the boundary conditions
dT(r) C1
q(r) = – k W/m2. ...(4.44) T1 = – + C2
dr r1
Example 4.26. The inner and outer surface of hollow
C1
sphere are maintained at temperature T1 and T2, respec- T2 = – + C2
tively. The inner and outer radii are r1 and r2, respec- r2
tively. The thermal conductivity k of the sphere material Solution of these two simultaneous equations
is constant. leads to
r1r2 (ii) Temperature at radius 3 cm.

C1 = – (T1 – T2)
r2 − r1
r2 T2 − r1T2
C2 =
r2 − r1
ro
Then the temperature distribution T(r) becomes, h
r1r2 (T1 − T2 ) r2 T2 − r1T1 go

T(r) = + k
r (r2 − r1 ) r2 − r1 T¥
r1r2 T1 − r1r2 T2 + rr2 T2 − rr1T1

=
r(r2 − r1 )
r1 (r2 − r ) T1 + r2 (r − r1 ) T2 Fig. 4.28. Solid sphere for example 4.27
=
r(r2 − r1 )
Assumptions :
r1 (r2 − r) r2 (r − r1 ) (i) Steady state conditions.
or T(r) = T + T .
r (r2 − r1 ) 1 r (r2 − r1 ) 2 (ii) Heat conduction in radial direction only.
Ans. (iii) Negligible radiation.
(ii) The heat flow rate (iv) Constant properties.
RS L dT(r) OUV Analysis : (i) The temperature distribution in solid
T MN dr PQW
Q = 4πr2 − k
sphere exposed to convective boundary is given by
eqn. (4.52)
L C OP = – 4ππkC .
= 4πr M− k ×
2 1
Ans. go g r
N rQ 2 1 T(r) =
6k o
(r 2 – r2) + o o + T∞
3h
(iii)
L r r (T − T ) OP
Q = – 4π k M− 1 2 1 2
Differentiating w.r.t. r and equating to zero, we
N r −r Q 2 1
get rcr = 0
Thus the maximum temperature occurs at the
4πk r1r2 (T1 − T2 ) centre. Ans.
or Q= . Ans.
r2 − r1 Maximum temperature
Example 4.27. A solid sphere (k = 39 W/m.K) 10 cm
5 × 10 6 × (0.05) 2
in diameter generates heat at a uniform rate of Tmax = Tc =
5 × 106 W/m3. The outer surface of sphere is exposed to 6 × 39
an ambient at 50°C with heat transfer coefficient of
5 × 10 6 × (0.05)
400 W/m2.K. Calculate : + + 50
3 × 400
(i) Maximum temperature in solid and its
= 311.75°C. Ans.
location
(ii) Temperature at radius 0.03 m
(ii) Temperature at the radius of 3 cm.
5 × 106
Solution T= (0.052 – 0.032)
6 × 39
Given : A solid sphere with heat generation and
exposed to an ambient 5 × 106
+
× 0.05 + 50
k = 39 W/m.K 3 × 400
d = 10 cm, ro = 5 cm = 0.05 m = 292.52°C. Ans.
go = 5 × 106 W/m3 Example 4.28. During the ripening process of oranges,
T∞ = 50°C the energy released is estimated as 563 W/m3. If the
h = 400 W/m2.K orange is assumed to be homogeneous sphere with
r = 0.03 m k = 0.15 W/m.K. Compute the temperature at the centre
To find : of orange and the heat flow from the outer surface.
Assume a diameter of 8 cm and outer surface temperature
(i) Location and magnitude of maximum
of 2°C. (P.U., Dec. 2009)
temperature in the sphere.
Solution (ii) Heat flow

Given : Orange as sphere
d = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Q= z0
4 πg o
ro
g o A(r) dr = g o 4 π z
0
ro
r 2 dr
or r = 4 × 10–2
= (ro3 – 0)
go = 563 W/m3, 3
k = 0.15 W/m.K 4 π × 563
Q= × (4 × 10–2)3
Ts = 2°C. 3
Fig. 4.29. Orange = 0.1509 W. Ans.
To find :
(i) Centre temperature of orange. Example 4.29. A solid sphere of radius ro is generating
heat uniformly at the rate of go W/m3. The thermal
(ii) Heat flow rate from outer surface of orange conductivity of solid is given by
Assumptions : k = ko (1 + αT)
(i) Steady state conduction in radial direction Assuming surrounding temperature as T∞ and
only. heat transfer coefficient as h, prove that the temperature
(ii) Uniform heat generation as go, W/m3. distribution in sphere is given by
go ro 2 LM F I OP F g r
2
IJ 2
MN GH JK PQ + GH 3h
1 r 1
K
o o
Analysis : (i) The temperature distribution in a T=– ± 1− + T∞ +
α 3αko ro α
sphere with uniform heat generation is given by
eqn. (4.49) (P.U.P., May 1996)
2
go r C1 Solution
T(r) = – – + C2
6k r Given : (i) The relation for thermal conductivity
where C1 and C2 are constants of integration and can of solid sphere
be obtained from boundary conditions. k = ko (1 + αT)
(a) The boundary condition at the centre (ii) Heat generation rate = go
(iii) Heat transfer coefficient =h
dT
At r = 0, =0 (iv) Ambient temperature = T∞.
dr
Boundary conditions :
It gives C1 = 0
dT
(b) The boundary condition at the surface At r = 0, =0
dr
At r = ro, T = Ts dT FG IJ
g o ro 2
At r = ro, –k
dr r = ro H K
= h [Tr = ro − T∞ ] .
Ts = – + C2
6k
g o ro 2
or C2 = Ts + ro h
6k go T¥
Substituting the values in order to evaluate C2
563 × (4 × 10 −2 ) 2
or C2 = 2 + =2+1=3
6 × 0.15
Using the values of C1 and C2 for temperature Fig. 4.30
distribution in orange Analysis : The governing differential equation
2 with variable thermal conductivity and constant heat
go r
T(r) = – +3 generation rate go can be written as
6k
1 d dT FG IJ + g
And temperature at the centre (r = 0)
Tc = T(r = 0) = 3°C. Ans. r 2 dr
r2k
dr H K o =0
d dT FG IJ g o ro 2 R| F r IU| 2
or r2k
H
= – gor2
K or T+
αT 2
= S|1 − GH r JK
V|
dr dr 2 6 ko
T W o
Integrating with respect to r, we get
R
|F g r + T IJ + α FG g r + T IJ U|V
+ SG
2
|TH 3h K 2 H 3h K |W
o o o o
dT g r3 ∞ ∞
r2k =− o + C1
dr 3
Applying boundary condition at the centre i.e., g r L F rI O 2
M 1− G J P
2
2T o o
3k α M
N H r K PQ
or 2
T + =
dT α
At r = 0 ; =0 o o
dr
It gives, C1 = 0 R| 2 F g r + T I + F g r + T I + 1 − 1 U|
+S G
2
|T α H 3h JK GH 3h JK α α V|W
o o o o
with using C1 = 0, we get ∞ ∞ 2 2
g r R| F r I U|
dT g r3 2
r2k =– o 2
dr 3
2T
S1− G J V
o o
T H r K |W
2
T + =
α 3k α | o
dT g r o
or k
dr
=– o
3
...(i)
R|F g r + T + 1 I − 1 U| 2
+ SG J α V|
|TH 3h αK
o o
Using k = ko(1 + αT)
W
∞ 2
R U
S1 − FGH rr IJK |V|
dT g r
g r |
2
ko(1 + αT) =– o 2T o o
2
dr 3 2
T + –
3k α |
g o rdr
α
T o
W o
Rearranging ko(1 + αT)dT = –
3
–G
F g r + T + 1 IJ + 1 = 0 2
H 3h αK
o o
∞ 2
Integrating both sides, we get α
F T + αT I = – g r
2 2 It is quadratic equation and its root for T are
ko GH 2 JK 6
o
+ C2 ...(ii)
R| F I U| 2
4T2 4 g oro 2
Now using the boundary condition + S| GH JK V|
1−
r
dT FG IJ −
2
±
α 2 3αko
Tro
W
At r = ro ; –k
dr r = ro H K
= h(Tr = ro − T∞ ) α
4 F g r + T + 1 IJ
+4G o o
2
g r T=
−
α2 H 3h αK
∞
Using eqn. (i) we get o o = h (Tr = ro − T∞ ) 2 ×1

3
g o ro 1 g o ro2 R| F I U| 2
or Tr = ro =
3h
+ T∞ ...(iii) or T=– ± 1−
r
S| GH JK V|
Substituting the value of Tr = ro in eqn. (ii), at r = ro
α 3αk o ro
T W
R|F g r U| Fg r
+G
1 IJ 2
S|GH 3h IJ α FG g r IJ 2
V| H 3h
o o
+ T∞ +
α2 K
K H 3h K
o o o o
ko + T∞ + + T∞
T 2 W Proved.
2
g o ro Example 4.30. A hollow sphere of 12 cm inner diameter
=– + C2
6 and 21 cm outer diameter is made of a material
R|F g r IJ FG g r IJ 2 U| + g r 2 (k = 30 W/m.K), in which heat is generated uniformly
or C2 = ko S|GH 3ho o
+ T∞ +
K
α
H 3h
o o
+ T∞
K V| 6 o o
at a rate of 5 × 106 W/m3. The inside surface is insulated
T 2 W and outside surface is maintained at 360°C. Calculate
...(iv) the maximum temperature in the solid.
Substituting the value of C2 in eqn. (ii)
Solution
RST + αT UV g r
2
o
2
g r2 Given : A hollow sphere with uniform heat
+ o o
ko
T 2 W =– 6 6 generation
R|F g r IJ FG g r IJ 2 U| d1 = 12 cm or r1 = 6 cm = 0.06 m
+ k SG V|
α
|TH 3h K H 3h K
o o o o d2 = 21 cm or r2 = 10.5 cm = 0.105 m
+ T∞ + + T∞
o 2 W k = 30 W/m.K, go = 5 × 106 W/m3
FG dT IJ It gives rcr = r1(at inner surface)

H dr K r = r1
= 0, T2 = 360°C. Then the maximum temperature in the sphere
go g r3
(r22 – r12) + o 1
FG 1 − 1 IJ + T
T2
Tmax =
6k 3k Hr r K
2 1
2
r1 5 × 10 6
r2 Insulation = (0.1052 – 0.062)
6 × 30
5 × 10 6 × (0.06) 3 1 FG1 IJ
+
3 × 30
−
H
0.105 0.06
+ 360 K
= 206.25 – 85.71 + 360
Fig. 4.31 = 480.53°C. Ans.
To find : The maximum temperature in sphere.
Analysis : The temperature distribution in a 4.5. SUMMARY
sphere with uniform heat generation
The general one dimensional heat conduction equation
go r 2 C1
T(r) = – – + C2 with heat generation in steady state conditions in
6k r
cartesian coordinate is
Subjected to boundary conditions
d dTFG IJ g ( x)
(i) At r = r1 ;
dT
dr
=0 dx dx H K +
k
=0
(ii) At r = r2, ; T = T2 It is also called one dimensional Poisson equation.

If heat generation rate g(x) (= go) is uniform, then its
Using first condition
solution for temperature distribution in the plane wall
FG dT IJ LM go r C1 OP
H dr K r = r1
= −
N 3k
+ 2
r Q r = r1
=0
is
go x 2
T(x) = – + C1 x + C2
go r13 2k
It gives C1 =
3k For cylindrical coordinate system, the one
And at r = r2 ; dimensional Poisson equation is
go r22 g r3 1 d dTFG g (r )IJ
T2 = –
6k
– o 1 + C2
3kr2 r dr
r
dr H
+
k K
=0
The temperature distribution with uniform heat
go r22 go r13
It gives C2 = T2 + + generation go is
6k 3kr2
go r 2
Then temperature distribution in hollow sphere T(r) = – + C1 ln (r) + C2
4k
go r 2 1 g r3 g r2 For spherical coordinate system, the one
T(r) = − – × o1 + o2
6k r 3k 6k dimensional Poisson equation is
go r13 1 d dT FG g (r) IJ
+
3kr2
+ T2
r 2 dr
r2
dr
+
H k
=0
K
go g r3 1 − 1
(r22 – r2) + o 1
LM OP The temperature distribution for g(r) = go
6k
=
3k r2 r
+ T2
N Q T(r) = –
go r 2
–
C1
+ C2
The position of maximum temperature in the solid 6k r
can be obtained by The C1 and C2 are constants of integration and
dT are evaluated according to boundary conditions imposed
=0 on the solid.
dr
dT 2 go rcr g r3 F 1 I =0 The location of maximum temperature in any
or
dr
= –
6k
+ o1
3k GH r JKcr
2
solid can be obtained by applying the condition of
maxima i.e.,
dT dT is exposed to coolant at temperature T∞ with

or =0
dr dx convective heat transfer coefficient of h.
It gives location of maximum temperature xcr or (a) Derive an expression for temperature distribution
rcr and Tf(r) and Tcl(r) in the fuel rod and cladding,
respectively.
Tmax = T(rcr or xcr).
(b) Consider a uranium oxide fuel rod for which
k f = 2W/m.K, r o = 6 mm, k cl = 25 W/m.K,
REVIEW QUESTIONS
rcl = 9 mm, go = 2 × 108 W/m3, h = 2000 W/m2.K,
1. What is heat generation ? What do you mean by and T∞ = 300 K,
uniform heat generation ? Give some examples. What would be the maximum temperature in the fuel
2. Consider uniform heat generation in a cylinder and rod ? [Ans. 1031.2°C]
a sphere of equal radius made of same material in 9. A hollow cylindrical conductor of constant thermal
the same environment. Which geometry will have a conductivity k, with inside radius r1, outside radius
higher temperature at its centre ? Why ? r2 is perfectly insulated at its outside radius and held
3. Show that for a plane wall of thickness 2L with at temperature T1 by a coolant at inside surface.
uniform heat generation go per unit volume, the Electrical energy is generated within the conductor
temperature at the mid plane is given by at a uniform rate of go W/m3. If the steady state
conditions prevail and temperature distribution is
goL2 radial only, derive an expression for temperature as
Tc = Ts
2k a function of radius, r.
where Ts = surface temperature on either side. 10. The heat generation rate per unit volume in a long
4. Develop an expression for the steady state cylinder of radius ro is given as
temperature distribution in slab of thickness L, when g(r) = a + br
the boundary surface at x = 0 is kept insulated and where a and b are constants and r is any radius. The
the boundary surface at x = L is kept at zero cylinder is exposed to a medium temperature T∞ with
temperature. The thermal conductivity of the wall k heat transfer coefficient h. Derive an expression for
is constant and within the wall energy is generated steady state temperature distribution in the solid
at the rate of g(x) = gox2 W/m3. [Ans. goL4/12k] cylinder.
5. Show that the maximum temperature in a cylindrical
rod with heat generation go W/m3 is given by PROBLEMS
Tmax g o ro FG 2 + hr IJ
o 1. Consider a slab 0.1 m thick, with its left face insulated
T∞
=1+
4 hT∞ H kK and the right boundary surface dissipates heat by
convection with a heat transfer coefficient of
where ro = outer radius of cylinder, T∞ = ambient
200 W/m2.K into an ambient air at 150°C. The
temperature, h = convection heat transfer coefficient. thermal conductivity of the wall is 10 W/m.K and
6. Derive an expression for temperature distribution within the wall the energy is generated at a constant
during steady state heat conduction in a solid sphere rate of 106 W/m3. Determine the boundary surface
with internal heat generation and exposed to temperatures. [Ans. 1150°C, 650°C]
convection environment. 2. A long cylindrical rod of radius 5 cm and k = 20 W/m.K
7. Heat is generated uniformly at the rate of go W/m3, contains radioactive material which generated energy
in a fuel rod of nuclear reactor. The rod has a long uniformly within the cylinder at a constant rate of
2 × 105 W/m3. The rod is cooled by convection from
hollow cylindrical shape with its inner and outer
its cylindrical surface into an ambient at 20°C with h
surface temperatures of T1 and T2, respectively. = 50 W/m2.K. Determine the temperature at the
Derive an expression for temperature distribution. centre and the outer surface of this cylindrical rod.
8. A nuclear reactor fuel element consists of a solid [Ans. 126.3°C, 120°C]
cylindrical rod of radius ro and thermal conductivity
3. An electric resistance wire of radius 1 mm with
kf . The fuel rod is cladded with a material having thermal conductivity of 25 W/m.K is heated by
thermal conductivity kcl and its outer radius is rcl. passage of an electric current, which generates
Consider steady state conditions, with uniform heat heat within the wire at the constant rate of
generation within the fuel as go W/m3, outer surface 2 × 109 W/m3. Determine the centre line temperature
rise above the surface temperature of the wire, if its 9. A chemical reaction is being carried out at constant
outer surface is maintained at constant temperature. pressure in a packed bed between two coaxial cylinders
[Ans. 20°C] with radii 1.14 cm and 1.27 cm. The entire inner wall
is at a uniform temperature of 500°C and there is
4. An electric current of 500 A flows through a stainless
almost no heat transfer through this surface.
steel conductor of 5 mm diameter, that has an electric
resistance Re = 5 × 10–4 Ω/m. Energy is generated as The reaction releases heat at a uniform rate of
result of passage of electric current and that is 560 kW/m3 throughout the reactor. The effective
dissipated by convection into an ambient at 0°C thermal conductivity of the packed bed may be taken
with convection coefficient of 50 W/m2. K. The thermal as 0.525 W/m.K. What is the temperature of the outer
conductivity of the conductor is 60 W/m.K. Calculate wall ? [Ans. 499°C]
the centre and surface temperature of the cable.
10. In an experiment to determine the thermal
[Ans. 159.32°C,159.15°C] conductivity of an insulating material, a thick layer
5. Heat is generated at the constant rate of 2 × 108 W/m3 of same is provided over a long copper tube inside
in a copper sphere (k = 386 W/m.K) of 1 cm radius. which is, a current carrying conductor. The
The sphere is cooled by convection from its outer temperature at two points A and B inside the
surface into an ambient at 10°C with a convection insulation layer at radial distances of 2 cm and 6 cm
coefficient of 2000 W/m2.K. Determine the surface and
from the centre of the tube are measured as 115°C
centre temperature of the sphere.
and 42°C respectively. If the current flowing through
[Ans. 343.3°C, 352°C] the electric conductor is 10 A and its resistance is
6. Consider a composite wall consists of three layers A, 2 Ω/m, determine the thermal conductivity of the
B and C. The outer surfaces are exposed to a fluid at insulating material. Neglect the heat loss from the
25°C with convection coefficient of 1000 W/m2. K. The end faces. [Ans. k = 0.48 W/m.K]
middle wall layer B experiences uniform heat
generation gB W/m3, while there is no heat generation 11. A copper cable (k = 395 W/m.K) 30 mm in diameter
in wall layer A and C. The temperature at inner carries a current of 300 A, when exposed to air at 30°C
surface of layer A and at outer surface of C are 260°C with convection coefficient of 20 W/m2.K. The cable
and 210°C, respectively and thicknesses and thermal resistance is 5 × 10–3 Ω/m. Determine the surface and
conductivity of the three layers are : centre temperature of the cable.
kA = 25 W/m.K LA = 30 mm [Ans. Ts = 268.73°C, Tc = 268.82°C]
kB = 15 W/m.K LB = 60 mm 12. It is proposed to heat the window glass planes in a
kC = 50 W/m.K LC = 20 mm living space at 26°C. A company offers resistance
(a) Assume negligible contact resistance at the embedded glasses with uniform heat generation. The
interfaces, determine the volumetric heat gen- outside is at –15°C, and the convection coefficient on
eration gB. the outside is 20 W/m2.K. The pane is 8 mm thick and
has a conductivity of 1.4 W/m.K. What should be heat
(b) Sketch the temperature distribution in the
composite. [Ans. (a) gB = 3.083 × 106 W/m3] generation rate if the inside surface temperature is
equal to the room temperature ?
7. A 1.2 m thick slab of poured concrete (k =
[Ans. go = 97 kW/m3]
1.148 W/m.K) with both of side surfaces maintained
at a temperature of 20°C. During its curing, the chemical 13. A 3 mm diameter stainless wire, one metre long has a
energy is released at a rate of 80 W/m3. Presuming that voltage of 100 V impressed on it. The outer surface of
the temperature does not vary with time, calculate the the wire is maintained at 100°C. Calculate the centre
maximum temperature of the concrete. temperature of the wire. Take ρ = 10 µΩ-cm and
What maximum thickness of concrete can be poured k = 20 W/m.K.
without causing temperature gradient to exceed 8.5°C If the heated wire is submerged in a fluid maintained
per metre any where in the slab ? at 50°C find the heat transfer coefficient on the surface
[Ans. 29.73°C, 0.314 m] of the wire for above given conditions.
8. A semiconductor material (k = 2 W/m.K) of electrical [Ans. 128°C and 149.55 W/m2.K]
resistivity ρ = 2 × 105 Ωm is used to fabricate a
14. In construction of a bridge concrete columns cylindrical
cylindrical rod 10 mm in diameter and 40 mm long.
The longitudinal surface of the rod is well insulated in shape and 0.75 m in diameter are erected by pouring
while the ends are maintained at temperatures of concrete in a short time. The hydration of concrete
100°C and 0°C. If the rod carries a current of 10 A, results in uniform heat generation of 0.8 W/kg. The
what is the mid point temperature? What is the heat outside surface temperature is 55°C. Thermal
transfer rate at the each end of the rod ? conductivity of concrete = 0.95 W/mk.
[Ans. 82.03°C, – 0.116 W, 0.992 W] Density of concrete = 2305 kg/m3.
Determine temperature at the centre of the cylinder is exposed to an ambient air at 20°C and the associate
and at a distance of 0.2 m, 0.3 m, and 0.35 m from the convection current is 25 W/m2.K. What are surface
centre. (N.M.U., May 2004) and centre line temperature of copper cable ?
[Ans. 123.24°C, 103.83°C, 79.57°C, 63.79°C] [Ans. Ts = 179.15°C, Tc = 179.22°C]
15. The heat is generated uniformly in a steel plate 21. A long cylindrical fuel element 25 mm in diameter in
(k = 20 W/m.K), 1 cm thick is at the rate of a nuclear reactor has energy generation at a uniform
500 MW/m3. If the two sides of the plate are rate of 7 × 108 W/m3. It is wrapped in a thin aluminium
maintained at 100°C and 200°C, respectively. cladding (k = 237 W/m.K). The coolant is circulated
Calculate the temperature at the centre of the plate. around it at uniform temperature of 95°C with
Also calculate the location and magnitude of maxi- h = 7000 W/m2.K. Is this proposal satisfactory ?
mum temperature in the plate. Take melting point of nuclear fuel as 1750°C and
[Ans. 462.5°C, 5.4 mm from left, 464.5°C] working temperature of aluminium up to 450°C.
16. A plane wall (k = 12 W/m.K) 7.5 cm thick generates kfuel, rod = 54 W/m.K.
heat internally at the rate of 105 W/m3. One side of
[Ans. Ts = 407.5°C, which is safe even
the wall is insulated and other side is exposed to an
with thin aluminium cladding]
environment at 90°C with h = 500 W/m2.K. Calculate
the maximum temperature in the wall. 22. An electric heater of 30 kW is to be designed from a
steel wire (k = 15 W/m.K) having an electrical resis-
[Ans. Tmax = 128.4°C]
tivity of 1 × 10–8 Ωm. The operating temperature of
17. A nuclear reactor has a flat plate fuel element 10 mm the steel should not be more than 1200°C. The
thick. The element is cladded on its both faces with
minimum expected value of heat transfer coefficient
aluminium plate 2 mm in thickness. The rate of heat
at outer surface of wire is 1500 W/m2.K and the
generation with the fuel element is 4 × 104 W/kg of
maximum ambient temperature is 60°C. Show that
uranium. Calculate the temperature at the outer
the expected temperature drop between the centre
surface of the aluminium and at the interface of the
and surface of the wire is independent of the wire
uranium-aluminium and at the centre of the fuel
element. The coolant circulates around the diameter. Then calculate the wire diameter and
aluminium cladding is at 120°C with heat transfer current required. [Ans. 6.49 mm, 9962.89 A]
coefficient of 28000 W/m2.K. 23. An internally cooled copper conductor of 2 cm outer
Take radius and 0.75 cm inner radius carries a current
density (I/Ac) of 5000 Amp/cm2. A constant
Thermal conductivity of the uranium = 24.4 W/m.K., temperature of 70°C is maintained at inner surface
Thermal conductivity of aluminium = 206 W/m.K. and there is no heat transfer through insulation
[Ans. 150°C, 223.4°C, 611°C] surrounding copper conductor. Derive an expression
for temperature distribution through copper
18. A 10 kW heater using nichrome wire (k = 17.5 W/m.K)
conductor.
is to be designed. The maximum operating tempera-
ture is 1650 K, other design criteria are Calculate the maximum temperature of copper
conductor and the radius at which it occurs. Also
h = 850 W/m2.K T∞ = 370 K
calculate the internal heat transfer rate and check
ρ = 110 µΩ cm. Power available = 12 V this equals the total energy generated in the
What size of wire is required, if the heater is 0.6 m conductor.
long ? [Ans. 2.6 mm] Take
19. An electrical conductor of copper with a diameter of
For copper, k = 380 W/m.K
1 mm is covered with a plastic insulation of thickness
1 mm. The temperature of its surroundings is 20°C. ρ = 2 × 10–8 Ω cm
Find the maximum current carried by conductor so [Ans. 845°C, at r = 2 cm, – 5368 W/m]
that no part of plastic is above 80°C 24. A hollow cylindrical conductor (k = 17.5 W/m.K) with
kcopper = 400 W/m.K, kplastic = 0.5 W/m.K, h = 8 W/m2.K, r1 = 0.6 cm and r2 = 0.75 cm is insulated at its outer
specific electric resistance of copper = 3 × 10–8 ohm-m. surface, while its inner surface is maintained at
(N.M.U., May 2004) 37.5°C by circulating cooling fluid. The electrical
[Ans. I = 10.76 A] resistance per metre is 2.5 × 102 ohms. Calculate the
maximum allowable current, if the temperature is
20. A copper cable (k = 380 W/m.K) 25 mm in diameter not to exceed 48.5°C anywhere in the conductor.
has an electrical resistance of 0.005 Ω/m and it is used
[Ans. 317.4 Amp.]
to carry an electrical current of 250 Amps. The cable
25. A nuclear fuel element is in the form of a hollow (iv) Compute the heat transferred from each surface.
cylinder insulated at inner surface. Its inner and outer
radii are 5 cm and 10 cm, respectively. The outer go x2
[Ans. (i) T(x) = − + 11.76x + 41.76, (ii) 42°C,
surface gives heat to the fluid at 50°C, where the unit 2k
surface conductance is 100 W/m2.K. The thermal (iii) 41.63°C, 41.76°C, 39.11°C, (iv) – 235.2 W/m2
conductivity of the material is 50 W/m2.K. Find the and 764.8 W/m2]
rate of heat generation so that the maximum
temperature in the system will not exceed 200°C. REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
[Ans. 379.57 kW/m3]
1. H.S. Carslaw and J.C. Jaeger, “Conduction of Heat
26. A solid sphere of radius 5 cm and thermal conductivity
Transfer in Solids”, Oxford University Press, London,
of 20 W/m.K is heated uniformly throughout its
1986.
volume at the rate of 2 × 106 W/m3, and heat is
2. F Krieth and M.S. Bohn, “Principles of Heat Transfer”,
dissipated by convection to ambient air at 25°C with 5th ed., PWS Pub. Company, 1997.
convection coefficient of 100 W/m2.K. Determine the
3. P.J. Schneider, “Conduction Heat Transfer”, Addison-
steady state temperature at the centre and the outer
Wesley, Cambrige, MA, 1955.
surface of the sphere. [Ans. 400°C, 358.33°C]
4. V.S. Arpaci, “Conduction Heat Transfer”, 2/e, Addison-
27. A metal rod 6 mm in diameter and 1 m long runs Wesley, Reading, MA, 1966.
between two large bus bars. The rod is insulated on 5. J.P. Holman, “Heat Transfer”, 7th ed. McGraw Hill,
its lateral surface against the flow of heat and elec- New York, 1990.
tric current. The bus bars are at 20°C. What is the 6. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, “Introduction to Heat
maximum current, the rod can carry if its tempera- Transfer”, 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, 1990.
ture is not to exceed 150°C at any point? Assume 7. M.N. Ozisik, “Heat Transfer—A Basic Approach”,
resistivity of rod material is 1.7 × 10–6 Ω cm and ther- McGraw Hill, New York, 1985.
mal conductivity is 300 W/m.K. [Ans. 121.12 Amp] 8. B.V. Karlekar, and R.M. Desmond, “Heat Transfer”
28. In a thick infinite slab of thickness 20 cm, the Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1989.
temperature of the fluid on one side is 30°C and 9. Vijay Gupta, “Elements of Heat and Mass Transfer”,
20°C on other side. The heat transfer coefficient New Age (I), New Delhi, 1995.
on the hot side is 20 W/m2.K and on the cold side 10. Vedat S. Arpaci, “Conduction Heat Transfer”,
is 40 W/m2.K, the conductivity of the slab material Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, New York,
1966.
is 20 W/m.K. The heat generated in the slab at a uni-
form rate of 5 kW/m3 ; 11. Donatello Annaratone, “Engineering Heat Transfer”,
Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New
(i) Derive an expression for temperature York, 2010.
distribution in the slab. 12. J.R. Welty, C.E. Wicks, R.E. Wilson, G.L. Rorrer,
(ii) Find the maximum temperature in the slab and “Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass
its location. Transfer”, 5th Edition, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 2008.
(iii) Find the temperature at the centre of the slab
13. William S. Janna, “Engineering Heat Transfer”, 2nd
and at its two surfaces. edition, CRC Press, New York, 2000.
Heat Transfer from
Extended Surfaces 5
5.1. Types of Fins. 5.2. Fin Selection and Applications. 5.3. Governing Equation. 5.4. Fin Performance—Fin effectiveness—Fin
efficiency—Overall fin effectiveness—Area weighted fin efficiency. 5.5. Approximate Solution of Fin: Concept of Corrected Fin Length.
5.6. Error in Temperature Measurement by Thermometers. 5.7. Design Considerations for Fins—Space considerations : Condition for
use of fins—Weight consideration. 5.8. Summary—Review Questions—Problems.
The term ‘extended surface’ is commonly used in Longitudinal Fin : It is a straight rectangular
reference to a solid that experiences energy transfer by fin attached to a plane wall. It may be of uniform cross-
conduction and convection between its boundary and sectional area, or its cross-sectional area may vary along
surroundings. A temperature gradient in x direction
its length to form a triangular, parabolic or trapezoidal
sustains heat transfer by conduction internally, at the
same time, there is heat dissipation by convection into shape.
an ambient at T∞ from its surface at temperature Ts, Annular Fin : An annular fin is a fin that is
given as circumferentially attached to a cylinder and its
Q = h As (Ts – T∞) cross-section varies with radius from centre line of
where h = convection heat transfer coefficient, cylinder.
and As = heat transfer area of a surface.
When the temperatures Ts and T∞ are fixed by Spine : In contrast, a pin fin, or spine is an
design considerations, there are only two ways to extended surface of circular cross-section whose
increase the heat transfer rate : (i) to increase the diameter is much smaller than its length. The pin fins
convection coefficient h, or (ii) to increase the surface may also be of uniform or non-uniform cross-section.
area A. In the situations, in which an increase in h is
not practical or economical, the heat transfer rate can
be improved by increasing surface area.
For heat transfer from a hot liquid to a gas,
through a wall, the value of heat transfer coefficient on
the gas side is usually very less compared to that for
liquid side (hgas << hliquid). To compensate low heat
transfer coefficient, the surface area on the gas side may (a) (b)
be extended for a given temperature difference between
surface and its surroundings. These extended surfaces
are called fins. The fins are normally thin strips of highly
conducting metals such as aluminium, copper, brass etc.
The fins enhance the heat transfer rate from a surface
by exposing larger surface area to convection.
(c) (d)
5.1. TYPES OF FINS
Fig. 5.1. (a) Longitudinal fins ; (b) Cylindrical tube with
The fins are designed and manufactured in many shapes fins of rectangular profile ; (c) Longitudinal fin of trapezoi-
and forms, some of them are shown in Fig. 5.1 and dal profile ; (d) Longitudinal fin of parabolic profile.
Fig. 5.2.
136
HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACES 137
To derive an equation for temperature distri-

bution, we make an energy balance for a differential
element of a fin made of a material of uniform thermal
conductivity k.
The rate of heat conduction into the element
(a) (b) = The rate of heat conduction out the
element + The rate of heat convection
from the element surface
The rate of heat conduction into the element is
given by
dT( x)
(c) (d) (e) Q(x) = – kAc ...(5.1)
dx
Fig. 5.2. Annular fins and spines ; (a) Cylindrical tube
with annular fin of rectangular profile ;
(b) Cylindrical tube with annular fin of
truncated conical profile ; (c) Cylindrical Temperature = T(x)
pin fin ; (d) Truncated conical spine ; Perimeter P = 2(w + t)
(e) Parabolic spine. Cross-sectional area Ac = wt
Qconv
5.2. FIN SELECTION AND APPLICATIONS Base t

at T0
Generally, the fins are used on the surfaces where the w
heat transfer coefficient is very low. For example, in a
Qx Q(x+dx)
car radiator the outer surface of the tubes is finned Q0
because the heat transfer coefficient for air at the outer h T¥
x
surface is much smaller than that of water flow inside dx
the tubes. Similarly, the electrical transformers and the
motors in which the generated heat is dissipated to air L
by providing fins on its outer surface. The fins are also
provided on cylinder and cylinder head of an air cooled (a)
I.C. engine and large variety of the heat exchangers. Temperature = T(x)
Perimeter, P = pd
The selection of fins is made on the basis of 2
Cross-sectional area, Ac = (p/4)d
thermal performance and cost. The selection of suitable
fin geometry requires a compromise among the cost,
weight, available space, pressure drop of heat transfer
fluid and heat transfer characteristics of the extended
x
surface.
It should be noted that the fins of triangular and Base at T0
x dx
parabolic profiles contain less material and are more L
efficient than the fins of rectangular profiles and thus (b)
are more suitable for applications that require minimum Fig. 5.3. Nomenclature for the derivation of
weight such as space applications. one dimensional governing fin equation
The rate of heat conduction out the element
5.3. GOVERNING EQUATION d
Q(x + dx) = Q(x) + [Q(x)] dx ...(5.2)
Consider the surface of a plane wall at temperature T0, dx
exposed to an ambient at T∞. Let us consider a fin has a The rate of heat convection from the element
constant cross-section area Ac, and length L, attached surface of perimeter P ;
to the surface as shown in Fig. 5.3. In order to determine Qconv = hdAs [T(x) – T∞] ...(5.3)
temperature distribution and heat flow through a fin,
where dAs is surface area of differential element.
the energy balance on the fin is required.
Substituting these quantities in energy balance ; On integration, ln θ = mx + B

d or θ = emx eB = C2 emx ...(5.10)
Q(x) = Q(x) + [Q(x)] dx + hdAs [T(x) – T∞]
dx where C2 is a constant of integration.
LMd OP
dT Therefore, from eqns. (5.9) and (5.10), the general
0=
Ndx
− kAc
Q
dx
dx + hdAs [T(x) – T∞]
solution to temperature distribution is
d F dT I h dA θ(x) = C1e–mx + C2 emx ...(5.11)
or
dx
G
H A
dx K
c J − k dx [T(x) – T ] = 0
s
∞ ...(5.4)
where the constants C1 and C2 of integration are
Assuming the cross-section area Ac, perimeter P, evaluated from the boundary conditions specified for the
heat transfer coefficient h, thermal conductivity of fin fin. One such condition may be specified in terms of
material k as constants. Using element surface area dAs temperature T0 at the base of fin i.e.,
= Pdx, then At x = 0 θ0 = T0 – T∞
FG
d dT( x) hPdx IJ
dx dxH −
kA c dxK[T( x) − T∞ ] = 0 Substituting, we get
θ0 = C1 + C2 ...(5.12)
d 2 T( x) hP The second boundary condition, specified at the
or 2
− [T(x) – T∞] = 0 ...(5.5)
dx k Ac fin tip, the free end of fin, that may correspond to any of
Let θ(x) = T(x) – T∞ ...(5.6) four different physical situations given below :
dP Case 1. The fin is very long, and the tempera-
and m2 = ...(5.7)
kA c ture at the fin tip approaches that of the surrounding
Substituting, in eqn. (5.5), we get fluid.
Case 2. The finite long fin and with negligible
d 2 θ( x)
– m2θ = 0 ...(5.8) heat loss from fin tip.
dx 2
Case 3. Finite long fin with convection heat loss
It is a linear homogeneous, second order differen-
from its fin tip.
tial equation. It can be solved by using operator D,
Case 4. The finite long fin with specified tempera-
(D2 – m2) θ = 0
ture at its fin tip.
or (D – m) (D + m) θ = 0
Case 1. The boundary condition at fin tip for very
Either (D – m) θ = 0
long fin is shown in Fig. 5.4.
or (D + m) θ = 0
At x → ∞; θ(x) = T(x) – T∞ → 0
If (D + m) θ = 0
dθ
= – mθ
dx
Q0 x ¥
dθ
or = – mdx
θ
On integration,
ln θ = – mx + A T
or θ= e–mx eA = C1 e–mx ...(5.9) T0
T(x)
where C1 is a constant of integration.
If (D – m) θ = 0
dθ T¥ T¥
= mθ
dx 0
x
x
dθ
or = mdx
θ Fig. 5.4. Infinite long fin
Substituting in eqn. (5.11), we get

C2 = 0
Qfin = z ∞
h(Pdx) (T(x) – T∞)
z
0
Using it in the eqn. (5.12), we get ∞

or Qfin = hP (T0 – T∞) e–mx dx ...(5.15)
C1 = θ0
z
0
and θ(x) = T(x) – T∞ = θ0 e–mx ∞

= hP (T0 – T∞) e–mx dx
Thus, the temperature distribution in infinite long 0
fin yields to FG 1 IJ
θ( x) T( x) − T∞
= = e–mx ...(5.13)
= hP (T0 – T∞) × −
H m K
(e–m × ∞ – e–m × 0)
θ0 T0 − T∞ (− 1)
= hP (T0 – T∞) ×
The dependence of dimensionless temperature −m
T − T∞ = hPkA (T0 – T∞)
along the fin length for different values of m is
T0 − T∞ same as eqn. (5.14).
shown in Fig. 5.5. The plot indicates : Case 2. A fin is usually very thin and long enough
(i) as the value of m increases the dimensionless so that the heat loss from the fin tip may be assumed
temperature falls, the fin temperature drops. negligible. The boundary condition for such finite long
fin, at its tip is :
LM dθ OP
N dx Q x=L
=0
m1 < m2 < m3 (Tip may be treated as adiabatic)

T – T¥
T0 – T¥ m1
h T¥ dT
m2 T0 =0
dx x=L
m3
0 Q0
x
Fig. 5.5. Temperature distribution in an infinite long fin L
(ii) as the length of fin approaches infinity, all

the curves approach. T
T0
T − T∞
= 0 (asymptotically)
T0 − T∞ T(x)
The Heat transfer rate :
The total heat transfer rate by fin = Heat
TL
conduction rate into the fin at its base (x = 0) T¥
Qfin = Qx = 0 0 x
LM dT OP = − kA LM dθ OP
N dx Q N dx Q
= – kAc c
Fig. 5.6. Finite long fin insulated at free end
x=0 x=0 Substituting in eqn. (5.11), we get
LM(T − T ) d (e − mx O
)P
d
= – kAc
N0 ∞
dx Q x=0 dx
(C1 e–mx + C2 emx)x = L = 0
= – kAc (T0 – T∞) (– m) e–m×0 or C1 e–mL – C2emL = 0 ...(5.16)

= kAc m(T0 – T∞) e mL
Substituting C1 = C2 in eqn. (5.12), we get
= h Pk A c (T0 – T∞) ...(5.14) e − mL
The heat flow rate from a fin can also be obtained
by calculating the convection heat transfer from the fin θ0 = C2
e mL
+ C2 = C2
LM e mL
+ e − mL OP
surface to the surrounding fluid e − mL
N e − mL
Q
θ 0 e − mL LM dθ OP
It gives C2 =
(emL
+e − mL
)
...(5.17) or –k
N dx Q x=L
= hθx = L ...(5.22)
and C1 = θ0 – C2 Substituting the values from eqn. (5.11), we get

LM
= θ0 1 −
e − mL OP – km[– C1e–mL + C2emL] = h[C1e–mL + C2emL]
Rearranging as,
N e
mL
mL
+e − mL
Q C1e–mL – C2emL =
h
[C1e–mL + C2emL]
θ0 e mk
It gives C1 = ...(5.18)
e + e − mL
mL Substituting C1 from eqn. (5.12), in terms of C2
Using the value of C1 and C2 in eqn. (5.11), we and θ0,
get θ0e–mL – C2e–mL – C2emL
h
θ( x) T( x) − T∞ e m(L − x) + e − m(L − x) = [θ e–mL – C2e–mL + C2emL]
= = ...(5.19) mk 0
θ0 T0 − T∞ e mL + e − mL RS
or C2 e mL + e − mL +
h
[ e mL − e − mL ] UV
In terms of hyperbolic functions T mk W
θ( x) T( x) − T∞ cosh { m(L − x)} − mL LM
h − mL OP
θ0
=
T0 − T∞
=
cosh mL
...(5.20) = θ0 e −
N
mk
e
Q
It is the equation for the temperature distribution θ 0 e − mL − LM
h − mL OP
in finite long fin, insulated at its free end. or C2 =
mk Ne
Q
h
The fin heat transfer rate from the fin base : e mL + e − mL + [ e mL − e − mL ]
mk
LM dθ OP ...(5.23)
Qfin = Qx = 0 = – kAc
N dx Q Similarly, we get
x=0
θ0 emL +LM h mL OP
or Qfin = – kAc (T0 – T∞)
sinh (mL)
cosh (mL)
(– m)
C1 =
N mk
e
Q
h mL
emL + e− mL + [ e − e− mL ]
= hPkA c (T0 – T∞) tanh (mL) ...(5.21) mk
...(5.24)
Case 3. The finite long fin with convection heat
loss from its free end, Substituting C1 and C2 in eqn. (5.11), we get
h m( L − x ) h − m( L − x )
e m (L − x) +
e + e − m( L − x ) − e
θ( x) mk mk
=
θ0 h
hAc(TL – T¥) e mL + e − mL + [ e mL − e − mL ]
Q0 Qcond mk
It may be rearranged and expressed in terms of
L hyperbolic functions as
θ( x) T( x ) − T∞
=
T θ0 T0 − T∞
T0 FG h IJ sinh {m (L − x )}
T(x) cosh {m ( L − x )} +
H mk K
=
cosh (mL ) + G
F h IJ sinh (mL)
q = T(x) –T¥ H mk K
T¥ ...(5.25)
0 x The total heat transfer from fin
Fig. 5.7. Finite long fin with convection heat LM dθ OP
transfer from its free end
Q0 = Qfin = – kAc
N dx Q x=0
The boundary condition can be obtained by energy sinh (mL) + (h/mk) cosh (mL)
balance at fin tip. = hPkA c (T0 – T∞)
cosh (mL) + (h/mk) sinh (mL)
dT LM OP
– kAc
dx x = LN Q
= hAc[T(x = L) – T∞] ...(5.26)
Case 4. The boundary condition for finite long At base of fin, i.e., at x = 0
fin with specified temperature at its free end.
LM dT OP LM dθ OP
At x = L ; θL = TL – T∞
Substituting in eqn. (5.11)
Qx = 0 = – kAc
N dx Q x=0
= – kAc
N dx Q x=0
Using eqn. (5.29) and differentiating it, with
θL = C1e–mL + C2emL ...(5.27) respect to x,
Qx = 0 = – kAc (T0 – T∞)
T0
T¥ h
TL LM sinh m (L − x) + T − T L ∞
sinh mx
OP
×
d
dx M
M T −T
sinh mL
0 ∞ PP
L MN PQ x=0
kA c ( T0 − T∞ )
=−
sinh mL
LM OP
T0
T(x) TL − T∞
× cosh m ( L − x ) ( − m ) + T − T cosh mx (m )
N 0 ∞ Q x=0
q = T(x) – T¥
=−
kA c × (− m) (T0 − T∞ ) LM
T − T∞
cosh mL − L
OP
T¥ sinh mL N
T0 − T∞ Q
0 x LM cosh mL – F T − T I OP
Fig. 5.8. Finite long fin with specified GH T − T JK P L ∞
–T ) M
temperature at its free end
MM sinh mL PP
0 ∞
or Qx = 0 = hPkA c (T0 ∞
Using the C1 in terms of C2 and θ0 from eqn. (5.12)
θL = (θ0 – C2)e–mL + C2emL MN PQ
= θ0e–mL + C2[emL – e–mL] ...(5.30)
− mL
θL − θ0 e The heat leaving the base surface at x = 0 will
It gives C2 = not be totally convected to surrounding medium, but
e mL − e − mL
some heat will also reach to the surface at x = L.
θ L − θ 0 e − mL
And C1 = θ0 – The rate of heat dissipation to surrounding fluid
e mL − e − mL
can be worked out from relation
It gives C1 =
e mL − e − mL
θ 0 e mL − θ L
Substituting C1 and C2 in eqn. (5.11), we get Using eqn. (5.29), we get

Qfin =
z0
L
hPdx (T − T∞ )
m (L − x) − m( L − x) mx − mx
θ0 [ e −e ] + θ L (e −e ) Qfin = hP (T0 – T∞)
θ(x) =
e mL − e− mL F sinh m (L − x) + T − T sinh mx I
GG
z JJ dx
L ∞
...(5.28) L T −T
× 0 ∞
or in terms of hyperbolic functions ;
θ( x) T − T∞
GGH
0 sinh mL JJK
z
=
θ0 T0 − T∞
hP (T − T ) F sinh m(L − x) + T − T sinh mxI dx
FT IJ GH JK
L
0 ∞ L ∞
=
sinh m {( L − x )} + G L − T∞ sinh mL T −T
HT K
sinh mx 0 0 ∞
− T∞
hP (T − T ) L cosh m (L − x) F T − T I cosh mx O
0 L
=
sinh (mL) = 0
sinh mL MN
M− m + GH T − T JK m PP
∞ L ∞
...(5.29)
The heat conduction to fin at the base surface :
Q 0 ∞ 0
hP (T0 − T∞ )
The heat conduction rate at any section is given =
by m sinh mL
dT LMF T − T∞IJ OP
MNGH T
Q = – kAc L
dx ×
0 − T∞ K
(cosh mL − 1) − (1 − cosh mL )
PQ
= hP kA c Qinfinite fin = hP kA c (T0 – T∞)
L (T
×M
L − T∞ ) (cosh mL − 1) + ( T0 − T∞ ) (cosh mL − 1) OP where P = πd = π × (0.025 m) = 0.0785 m
N sinh mL Q Ac =
π 2 π
4
d =   × (0.025 m)2
4
(cosh mL − 1)
or Qfin = hP kA c [(TL – T∞) + (T0 – T∞)] = 4.908 × 10–4 m2
sinh mL
...(5.31) ∴ Qinfinite fin = 10 × 0.0785 × 380 × 4.908 × 10 −4
The heat conducted to other surface at x = L × (120 – 25)
Qx = L = Qx = 0 – Qfin ...(5.32) = 36.35 W. Ans.
For fins of non-uniform cross-section, the solution (ii) From an infinite log fin TL = T∞, and no heat
is quite complex. The solution for triangular and transfer from its free end. Therefore,
parabolic fins are presented in section 5.5, but the Qinfinite fin = Qinsulated tip fin
approximate solution to these fins in graphical form is Thus hP kA c (T0 – T∞)
presented in Fig. 5.26. The interested students can also
refer Schneider [1] and Arpaci [2]. = hP kA c (T0 – T∞) tanh mL
Example 5.1. A very long 25 mm diameter copper The equivalent result is obtained if
(k = 380 W/m.K) rod extends from a surface at 120°C. tanh(mL) ≥ 0.99
The temperature of surrounding air is 25°C and the heat mL = 2.646
transfer coefficient over the rod is 10 W/m2.K. Calculate: hP
(i) Heat loss from the rod, Here m=
kA c
(ii) How long the rod should be in order to be
10 × 0.0785
considered infinite ? (Shivaji University, Nov. 2002) =
380 × 4.908 × 10 −4
Solution = 2.052
Given : A very long (infinite long) copper rod as a 2.646
fin : ∴ L= = 1.29 m. Ans.
2.052
d = 25 mm = 0.025 m, k = 380 W/m.K Example 5.2. One end of a long rod 3 cm in diameter is
T0 = 120°C, T∞ = 25°C inserted into a furnace with the outer end projecting into
h = 10 W/m2.K the outside air. Once the steady state is reached the
temperature of the rod is measured at two points, 15 cm
apart and found to be 140°C and 100°C, when the
atmospheric air is at 30°C with convection coefficient of
20 W/m2.K. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the rod
material. (P.U., May 1992)
T0 = 120°C d = 25 mm Solution
Given : One end of the long rod inserted into a
k = 380 W/m.K
furnace ;
d = 3 cm = 0.03 m, L = 15 cm = 0.15 m,
2 T0 = 140°C, T∞ = 30°C,
h = 10 W/m . K
TL = 100°C, h = 20 W/m2.K.
T¥ = 25°C
Furnace
Fig. 5.9. A very long rod extends from a surface. 2
h = 20 W/m .K, T¥ = 30°C
To find : T0 TL d = 3 cm
(i) The heat loss from infinite long fin.
(ii) Length of rod as infinite long fin.
Analysis : (i) The heat loss from infinite long fin, 15 cm
eqn. (5.14) Fig. 5.10. Schematic for example 5.2
To find : The thermal conductivity of the rod (ii) One dimensional conduction along the rod.
material. (iii) Constant properties.
Assumptions : (iv) No internal heat generation.
(i) Steady state conditions. (v) Infinite long fin.
(ii) One dimensional conduction along the rod. Analysis : For infinite long fin, the temperature
(iii) Constant properties. distribution is given by eqn. (5.13)
(iv) No internal heat generation. T( x) − T∞
= e–mx
(v) Infinite long fin. T0 − T∞
Analysis : For infinite long fin, the temperature For rod A, at x1
distribution is given by eqn. (5.13) TA − T∞ −m x
T( x) − T∞ = e A 1
= e–mx T0 − T∞
T0 − T∞
The starting point, or mAx1 = – ln
LM 75 − 25 OP = 0.405 ...(i)
at x = 0, T0 = 140°C N 100 − 25 Q
and at x = L = 0.15 m, TL = 100°C Similarly for rod B at x1
100 − 30 mBx1 = – ln
LM T − T OP
B ∞
Thus
140 − 30
= e–m × 0.15
NT − T Q
0 ∞
It gives m = 3.013
= – ln M
L 60 − 25 OP = 0.762 ...(ii)
We have m=
hP
kA c
N 100 − 25 Q
Dividing eqn. (i) by eqn. (ii)
20 × (π × 0.03) mA kB 0.405
Thus = 3.013 = =
k × {(π/4) × (0.03) 2 } mB kA 0.762
It gives k = 293.74 W/m.K. Ans. LM 0.405 OP 2
Example 5.3. The two long rods A and B, equivalent in

or kB = 200 ×
N 0.762 Q
every respect except that one is fabricated from material = 56.5 W/m.K. Ans.
of known thermal conductivity of kA while other of
Example 5.4. It is required to heat the oil to 300°C for
material of unknown thermal conductivity kB, are
frying purpose. A long laddle is used in a frying pan.
attached to a surface of fixed temperature T0 , and are
The section of the laddle is 5 mm × 18 mm. The
exposed to a fluid at T∞ , with convection coefficient h.
surrounding air is at 30°C. The thermal conductivity
These rods are instrumented with thermocouples to
of the material is 205 W/m.K. If the temperature at a
measure the temperature at a fixed distance x1 from the
distance of 380 mm from the oil should not exceed 40°C,
heat source. If the standard material is of aluminium
determine convective heat transfer coefficient.
kA = 200 W/m.K and measurements reveal TA = 75°C
(N.M.U., Dec. 2002)
and TB = 60°C at x1 when T0 is 100°C and T∞ is 25°C.
What is the thermal conductivity of the test material ? Solution
(N.M.U., May 1999) Given : The long handle of a laddle as shown in
Fig. 5.11.
Solution
T0 = 300°C
Given : Two long similar rods.
Ac = 5 mm × 18 mm = 90 mm2
kA = 200 W/m.K, x = x1,
= 90 × 10–6 m2
TA = 75°C, T0 = 100°C,
P = 2(w + t) = 2 × (18 + 5)
TB = 60°C, T∞ = 25°C.
= 46 mm = 0.046 m
To find : The thermal conductivity of the test
T∞ = 30°C
material B.
k = 205 W/m.K
Assumptions :
x = 380 mm = 0.38 m
T(x) = 40°C.
Solution
Given : Two similar long rods as infinite long fins.
t = 5 mm
Air k1 = 85 W/m.K
k2 = 375 W/m.K
w = 18 mm T¥ = 30°C x1 = 105 mm = 0.105 m
Cross-section of T1 = 120°C.
the handle Oil at
300°C 105 mm T1 Brass rod
1
Laddle
h T¥
Fig. 5.11. Schematic for example 5.4 Furnace
To find : The heat transfer coefficient. 2

Assumptions : x2
T1
(i) Steady state conditions. Copper rod
(ii) Long handle is treated as infinite long fin. Fig. 5.12. Schematic for example 5.5
(iii) Oil temperature as base temperature of fin.
To find : The distance x2 from furnace of copper
(iv) Constant properties. rod, where temperature of 120°C will reach.
Analysis : As the long handle may be treated as
Analysis : The long rods are treated as infinite
an infinite long fin, the temperature distribution is given
long fins. For infinite long fin, the temperature
by eqn. (5.13)
distribution
T(x) − T∞ T − T∞
= e–mx = e–mx
T0 − T∞ T0 − T∞
40 − 30 T1 − T∞ −m x
or = e–0.38 m For brass rod = e 11 ...(i)
300 − 30 T0 − T∞
T1 − T∞
F 10 IJ = – 0.38 m
ln G
For copper rod
T0 − T∞
= e − m2 x2 ...(ii)
or
H 270 K Equating eqns. (i) and (ii), we get
It gives m = 8.673 m1 × 105 = m2 x2
and m is expressed as m1
or x2 = × 105
hP m2
m=
kA c hP/k1A c k2
= × 105 = × 105
hP/k2 A c k1
m 2 kA c
It gives h= 375
P = × 105 = 220.5 mm. Ans.
85
( 8.673) 2 × 205 × 90 × 10 − 6
= Example 5.6. Three rods of copper, aluminium and
0.046
= 30.17 W/m2.K. Ans. stainless steel are coated with wax all around and are
dipped vertically in a water bath at 85°C. The length of
Example 5.5. Two long rods of the same diameter, one each rod projecting outside the bath is 300 mm. Diameter
made of brass (k = 85 W/m.K) and the other made of of each rod is 20 mm and length is 400 mm. Convective
copper (k = 375 W/m.K) have one of their ends inserted heat transfer coefficient at the surface of each rod is
into a furnace. Both the rods are exposed to same 11 W/m2.K.
environment. At a distance of 105 mm away from the Thermal conductivity of
furnace, the temperature of brass rod is 120°C. At what (i) Copper rod = 380 W/mK
distance from the furnace, the same temperature would (ii) Aluminium rod = 206 W/mK
be reached in the copper rod ? (I.E.S., 1993) (iii) Steel rod = 17 W/mK
Calculate the ratio of lenghts of rod up to which Example 5.7. An electric motor is to be connected
wax melting occurs due to transfer of heat. by a horizontal steel shaft (k = 42.56 W/m.K), 25 mm in
(N.M.U., May 2004) diameter to an impeller of a pump, circulating liquid
Solution metal at a temperature of 540°C. If the temperature of
Given : The rods identical in length and cross- electric motor is limited to a maximum value of 52°C
section, coated with wax with the ambient air at 27°C and heat transfer coefficient
T0 = 85°C, L = 300 mm, of 40.7 W/m2.K, what length of shaft should be specified
d = 20 mm, h = 11 W/m2.K, between the motor and pump ?
kcu = 380 W/m.K, kAl = 206 W/m.K, Solution
kst = 17 W/m.K. Given : A horizontal steel shaft as a fin.
To find : Ratio of lengths of rods at which wax k = 42.56 W/m.K, d = 25 mm = 0.025 m,
melts.
T0 = 540°C, TL = 52°C,
Assumptions :
T∞ = 27°C, h = 40.7 W/m2.K.
(i) Steady state condition.
(ii) Since diameter of rods is small as compared To find : The length of steel shaft
to length, thus treating infinite long fin. Steel shaft
(iii) Constant properties. Pump
circulating Electric
Analysis : For long rod (infinite long fins), the liquid metal motor
air at 27°C
temperature distribution is given as at 540°C
T( x) − T∞
= e − mx
T0 − T∞ Fig. 5.13. Schematic for example 5.7
For melting of wax along the rod of three different Assumptions :
materials, let us assume x1, x2 and x3 are lengths for
copper, aluminium and steel rods, respectively up to (i) Steady state conditions
which wax melts at temperature T (say). Then (ii) Since one end of shaft is connected to electric
T − T∞ motor, thus assuming, no heat loss from the fin tip.
For copper rod, = e − m1 x1 ...(i)
T0 − T∞ (iii) Constant properties.
For aluminium rod, Analysis : The diameter of fin is very small and
T − T∞ hence treating fin of insulated tip.
= e − m2 x2 ...(ii)
T0 − T∞ π 2 π
Ac = d = × (0.025)2 = 4.90 × 10–4 m2
T − T∞ 4 4
For steel rod, = e − m3 x3 ...(iii)
T0 − T∞ P = πd = 0.025 π m
Since L.H.S. and base e on R.H.S. are same in all
three equations thus hP 40.7 × 0.025 π
m= =
m1x1 = m2x2 = m3x3 kA c 42.56 × 4.90 × 10 − 4
hP hP hP = 12.37 m
or x1 = x2 = x3
kcu A c kAl A c kst A c The temperature distribution in the fin at x = L
x1 x2 x3 TL − T∞ 1
or = = =
kcu kAl kst T0 − T∞ cosh mL
Thus x1 kcu 380 52 − 27 1

= = = 4.727 =
x3 kst 17 540 − 27 cosh mL
x2 kAl 206 or cosh mL = 20.52
and = = = 3.481
x3 kst 17 or mL = 3.714
Thus x1 : x2 : x3 = 4.727 : 3.481 : 1. Ans. or L = 0.3 m = 30 cm. Ans.
Example 5.8. Consider a stainless steel spoon 15 × 0.024

(k = 15.1 W/m.K), partially immersed in the boiling ∴ m= = 34.52 m–1
15.1 × 0.2 × 10 − 4
water at 95°C in a kitchen at 25°C. The handle of the
spoon has a cross-section 0.2 cm × 1 cm and it extends mL = 34.52 × 0.18 = 6.21
18 cm in the air from the free surface of the water. If the cosh mL = 250.0
heat transfer coefficient on the exposed surface of the
spoon is 15 W/m2.K, calculate the temperature difference 95 − 25
Then TL – T∞ = = 0.2799 ≈ 0.28°C
across the exposed surface of the spoon handle. State your 250
assumptions, if any. (Shivaji University, 2008) or TL = 25 + 0.28 = 25.28°C,
Solution Thus T0 – TL = 95 – 25.28 = 69.72°C. Ans.
Given : The handle of a stainless steel spoon :
k = 15.1 W/m.K, T0 = 95°C, Example 5.9. The handle of a saucepan, 30 cm long
T∞ = 25°C, Ac = 0.2 cm × 1 cm, and 2 cm in diameter is partially immersed in boiling
L = 18 cm = 0.18 m, h = 15 W/m2.K. water at 100°C. The average unit conductance over the
handle surface is 7.35 W/m2.K in the kitchen air at 24°C.
Spoon The cook is likely to grasp the last 10 cm of the handle
Air at 25°C
and hence, the temperature of this portion should not
exceed 32°C. What should be the material conductivity
t = 0.2 cm
of handle ? The handle may be treated as a fin of
cm
insulated tip. (N.M.U., May 2002)

18
w = 1 cm
Solution
Boiling Cross-section of
water spoon handle Given : The handle of a saucepan :
at 95°C L = 30 cm = 0.3 m, d = 2 cm = 0.02 m,
Fig. 5.14. Schematic for example 5.8 h = 7.35 W/m2.K,
To find : The temperature difference across x = L – 10 cm = 20 cm = 0.2 m,
exposed surface of handle.
T0 = 100°C, T∞ = 24°C,
Assumptions :
T(x) = 32°C.
2. The handle of spoon is thin and heat loss from
its free end be negligible. 10 cm
3. No heat radiation. d = 2 cm
4. Constant cross-section of handle.
T = 32°C
30 cm
Analysis : The temperature distribution for Cross-section

insulated tip fin is given by eqn. (5.20) of handle
T − T∞ cosh m (L − x)
=
T0 − T∞ cosh mL
For temperature difference across the exposed
surface of spoon handle i.e., x = L ;
TL − T∞ 1
= Boiling water at 100°C
T0 − T∞ cosh mL
hP
where m = To find : Thermal conductivity of handle material.
kA c
Analysis : Since handle is treated as a fin of
P = 2(w + t) = 2(1 cm + 0.2 cm) insulated tip, hence, the temperature distribution in the
= 2.4 cm = 0.024 m fin.
Ac = wt = 1 cm × 0.2 cm T( x) − T∞ cosh m (L − x)
=
= 0.2 cm2 = 0.2 × 10–4 m2 T0 − T∞ cosh mL
Using numerical values 3

32 − 24 cosh m (0.3 − 0.2) = × (5 × 10–3)2 = 1.0825 × 10–5 m2
= 4
100 − 24 cosh m (0.3) Perimeter,
cosh (0.1 m) P = 3a = 3 × 5 × 10–3 = 0.015 m
or 0.10526 =
cosh (0.3 m) hP 90 × 0.015
By trial and error : m = 11.71 m= =
kA c 54 × 1.0825 × 10 −5
For a circular handle = 48.06 m –1
π 2 π The heat transfer rate from infinite long fin

Ac = d = × (0.02)2
4 4 Q fin = hPkA c (T0 – T∞)
P = πd = (π × 0.02)
= 90 × 0.015 × 54 × 1.0825 × 10 − 5
hP
and m= × (400 – 50)
kA c
= 9.82 W. Ans.
7.35 × (π × 0.02)
or (11.71)2 = Note: The students can also solve this example by
k × (π/4) × (0.02) 2 assuming insulated tip fin or with corrected length
0.4618 approximation. The result does not change in either case.
It gives k=
(11.71) 2 × 3.141 × 10 −4 Example 5.11. Calculate the temperature distribution,
= 10.72 W/m.K. Ans. temperature at the middle and rate of heat flow at the
It must be stainless steel. root of a turbine blade with 80 mm long, 600 mm2 in
cross-section and 150 mm in perimeter. The blade is
Example 5.10. A steel fin (k = 54 W/m.K) with a cross- made of stainless steel (k = 23.3 W/m.K) and is exposed
section of an equilateral triangle, 5 mm in side is 80 mm to steam at 1000°C, while its root is maintained at 600°C.
long. It is attached to a plane wall maintained at 400°C. The heat transfer coefficient between the blade surface
The ambient air temperature is 50°C and unit surface and steam is 500 W/m2.K.
conductance is 90 W/m2.K. Calculate the heat dissipa-
Solution
tion rate from the rod.
Given : A turbine blade as a fin
Solution
Ac = 600 mm2, L = 80 mm,
Given : A finite long fin with an equilateral
triangle cross-section. P = 150 mm, k = 23.3 W/m.K,
side a = 5 mm, L = 80 mm, T0 = 600°C, T∞ = 1000°C,
2
h = 500 W/m .K.
k = 54 W/m.K, T0 = 400°C,
T∞ = 50°C, h = 90 W/m2.K.
Steam
T¥ = 50°C
T0 = 400°C
T¥ = 1000°C
a a L = 80 mm
a = 5 mm T0 = 600°C
80 mm
Rotor
Fig. 5.16. Schematic of a triangular fin
To find : The heat dissipation rate from the fin.

2
h = 500 W/m .K
Assumptions :
2. Length of fin is very large in comparison to its
cross-section, thus treating fin as infinite long fin.
Analysis : For triangular fin
Cross-sectional area, To find :
(i) Temperature distribution in the turbine blade.
1 1 3
Ac = base × height = a × a (ii) Temperature at the middle of blade, and
2 2 2
(iii) The heat flow at root of the blade.
Assumptions : Example 5.12. The handle of a ladle used for pouring

1. Steady state conditions. molten metal at 327°C is 30 cm long and is made of
2. Finite long fin with convection heat transfer 2.5 cm × 1.5 cm mild steel bar stock (k = 43 W/m.K). In
from its tip. order to reduce the grip temperature it is proposed to
3. Constant properties. make a hollow handle of mild steel plate 0.15 cm thick
Analysis : (i) For given turbine blade to the same rectangular shape. If the surface heat transfer
Ac = 600 mm2 = 600 × 10–6 m2 coefficient is 14.5 W/m2.K and the ambient temperature
P = 150 mm = 0.15 m is at 27°C, estimate the reduction in the temperature of
grip. Neglect the heat transfer from inner surface of the
L = 80 mm = 0.08 m
hollow shape. (N.M.U., Nov. 1999)
hP 500 × 0.15
m= = = 73.245 Solution
kA c 23.3 × 600 × 10 − 6
Given : A handle of ladle as a finite long fin
mL = 73.245 × 0.08 = 5.86
T0 = 327°C, T∞ = 27°C,
h 500
= = 3.662 k = 43 W/m.K, h = 14.5 W/m2.K,
mk 73.245 × 23.3
L = 30 cm, w = 2.5 cm,
The temperature distribution in finite long fin
with convective tip H = 1.5 cm,
h Ac = 2.5 × 1.5 cm2 (solid handle),
cosh m (L − x) + sinh m (L − x)
T − T∞ mk t = 0.15 cm thick.
=
T0 − T∞ h To find : The reduction in temperature of grip.
cosh mL + sinh mL
mk
cosh [73.245 × (0.08 − x)]
T( x ) − 1000 + 3.662 sinh [73.245 × (0.08 − x)] 2.5 cm
=
600 − 1000 cosh (5.86) + 3.662 × sinh (5.86)
− 400 × [cosh (5.86 − 73.245 x ) L = 30 cm 1.5 cm
+ 3.662 sinh (5.86 − 73.245 x )]

or T(x) – 1000 = Solid
817.534
T(x) – 1000 = – 0.489 [cosh (5.86 – 73.245 x)
+ 3.662 sinh (5.86 – 73.245 x)] 0.15 cm
It is the required expression for temperature
distribution. Ans. Laddle Hollow
(ii) Temperature at the middle of blade i.e., Fig. 5.18. Cross-section of handle
x = 40 mm = 0.04 m
Assumptions :
Tmiddle = 1000 – 0.489 [cosh (5.86 – 73.245 × 0.04)
1. Steady state one dimensional conduction
+ 3.662 sinh (5.86 – 73.245 × 0.04)]
along the handle.
= 1000 – 0.489 [43.591] = 978.68°C. Ans.
(iii) The heat transfer rate from fin
3. No internal heat generation.
h
sinh mL + cosh mL 4. Assuming no heat loss from end face of handle
mk
Qfin = hPkA c (T0 – T∞) × h due to grip cover.
cosh mL + sinh mL
mk Analysis : Case 1. Solid handle
= 500 × 0.15 × 23.3 × 600 × 10 − 6 × (600 – 1000) Ac = wH
= 2.5 × 10–2 × 1.5 × 10–2
sinh (5.86) + 3.662 × cosh (5.86)
× = 3.75 × 10–4 m2
cosh (5.86) + 3.662 × sinh (5.86)
P = 2(w + H)
= – 409.58 W. Ans.
= 2(2.5 × 10–2 + 1.5 ×10–2) = 0.08 m
(Heat transfer towards centre)
TL = 227°C, T∞ = 27°C,
hP 14.5 × 0.08
m= = h = 5 W/m2.K, k = 45 W/m.K.
kA c 43 × 3.75 × 10 − 4
TL = 227°C
= 8.48 m–1
mL = 8.48 × 0.3 = 2.544 2
T0 = 127°C T¥ = 27°C, h = 5 W/m .K
The temperature at the grip of handle can be
calculated by relation
T( x = L) − T∞ 1 100 cm
=
T0 − T∞ cosh (mL)
TL − 27 1 Fig. 5.19. Schematic for example 5.13

= = 0.1561 To find :
327 − 27 cosh (2.544)
or TL = 27 + 300 × 0.1561 = 73.84°C (i) The minimum temperature.
Case 2. When steel plate is used in a hollow (ii) Heat loss at two ends.
handle. Analysis : (i) In steady state the temperature
Ac, H = 2Ht + 2 (w – 2t) t distribution in the finite long fin,
= 2 × (1.5 × 10– 2 × 0.15 × 10–2) TL − T∞
sinh (mx) + sinh {m (L − x)}
+ 2 × (2.5 – 2 × 0.15) × 10–2 × 0.15 × 10–2 T − T∞ T0 − T∞ ...(i)
=
= 1.11 × 10–4 m2 T0 − T∞ sinh (mL)
P = 0.08 m and L = 30.0 cm
hP 5 × 2 × 10 − 2
where, m = = = 3.33
hP 14.5 × 0.08 kA c 45 × 2 × 10 − 4
m= = = 15.59 m–1
kA c, H 43 × 1.11 × 10 − 4
For location of minimum temperature, differen-
mL = 15.59 × 0.3 = 4.677 tiating equation (i) w.r.t. x and equating it to zero.
The temperature at the grip handle R| T L − T∞
cosh mx (m)
U|
TL, H − 27 1 |S T 0 − T∞ |V
–T )× | || = 0
= = 0.0186 dT + cosh [m( L − x )]( − m)
327 − 27 cosh (4.677) = (T0
TL, H = 32.58
dx ∞
|T sinh (mL)
W
The reduction in temperature or (TL – T∞) cosh mx = (T0 – T∞) cosh m(L – x)
= TL – TL, H or (227 – 27) × cosh (3.33x) = (127 – 27)
= 73.84 – 32.58 = 41.25°C. Ans. × cosh [3.33(1 – x)]
Example 5.13. Two ends of a fin of the cross-sectional Le

2× M
3.33 x
+ e − 3.33 x OP = LM e 3.33(1 − x )
+ e − 3.33(1 − x ) OP
area 2 cm2, perimeter 2 cm, 100 cm long are maintained
at 127°C and 227°C, respectively. It losses heat from the
or
MN 2 PQ MN 2 PQ
surface due to natural convection to surroundings at 27°C or 2e3.33x + 2e–3.33x = e3.33 × e–3.33x + e–3.33 × e3.33x
with heat transfer coefficient of 5 W/m2.K. Thermal or 25.94 e–3.33x – 1.964e3.333x = 0
conductivity of fin material is 45 W/m.K. Find the It gives, x = 0.3875 m
minimum temperature in the fin and its location. Also
The minimum temperature
calculate the heat conducted from each end.
(P.U. and N.M.U.) 227 − 27
× sinh (3.33 × 0.3875)
Solution 127 − 27
Given : Finite long fin with specified temperature T(x ) − 27 + sinh [3.33(1 − 0.3875)]
= = 0.5109
at two ends. 127 − 27 sinh (3.333 × 1)
Ac = 2 cm2, P = 2 cm,
or T(x) = 27 + 100 × 0.5109 = 78.1°C. Ans.
L = 100 cm, T0 = 127°C,
Alternatively : The minimum temperature can Assumption : Steady state heat conduction along
also be calculated by assuming two fins with insulated the rod.
tip. Analysis : Considering finite long fin with
(T0 − T∞ ) specified temperature at its free end as shown in
From left face, T(x) = + T∞ Fig. 5.20 (a).
cosh mL
RS∵
T( x) − T∞
=
1 UV Ac =
π 2 π
d = × (6 × 10–3)2
T T0 − T∞ cosh mL W 4 4
From right face, = 2.827 × 10–5 m2
TL − T∞ P = πd = π × 6 × 10–3 = 0.0188 m
T(L – x) = + T∞
cosh m(L − x) hP 30 × 0.0188
m= =
Equating T(x) = T(L – x), we get kA c 330 × 2.827 × 10 −5
x = 0.3875 m.
= 7.785 m
T(x) = T(L – x) = 78.1°C. Ans.
(ii) The heat conducted from left end d = 6 mm
TL = 100°C
QL = hPkA c (T0 – T∞) tanh (mx) 2
h = 30 W/m .K
= 5 × 2 × 10 −2 × 45 × 2 × 10 −4 T¥ = 30°C
T0 = 100°C
× (127 – 27) × tanh (3.33 × 0.3875)
x
= 2.578 W. Ans. 25 cm
The heat loss from right end
Fig. 5.20. (a) Schematic for example 5.14
QR = hPkA c (TL – T∞) tanh m (L – x)
= 5 × 2 × 10 − 2 × 45 × 2 × 10 − 4
25 cm 25 cm
100°C 100°C
× (227 – 27) × tanh [3.33 × (1 – 0.3875)] TL
= 5.8 W. Ans. Fig. 5.20. (b) Alternative arrangement
Example 5.14. The both ends of a 6 mm diameter copper (i) The temperature distribution in the fin
rod (U-shaped) having k = 330 W/m.K are rigidly
connected to a vertical wall as shown in Fig. 5.20 (a). LM θ OP sinh (mx) + sinh {m(L − x)}
L
=N Q
The wall temperature is constant at 100°C. The developed T( x) − T∞ θ0
length of the rod is 50 cm and is exposed to air at 30°C. T0 − T∞ sinh (mL)
The combined convective and radiative heat transfer
coefficient is 30 W/m2.K. Calculate : The temperature at the centre of fin i.e., At
x = 25 cm,
(i) The temperature at the centre of the rod.
Due to symmetry θL = θ0
(ii) Heat transfer by the rod.
(P.U., Nov. 1996 ; N.M.U., Nov. 2000) sinh (7.785 × 0.25)
Solution Tc − 30 + sinh {7.785 ( 0.5 − 0.25)}
Thus =
100 − 30 sinh (7.785 × 0.5)
Given : U-shaped circular fin.
= 0.28
d = 6 mm, L = 50 cm,
or Tc = 30 + 70 × 0.28
k = 330 W/m.K, T0 = 100°C,
= 49.6°C. Ans.
T∞ = 30°C, TL = 100°C,
Alternatively : At the centre of fin, temperature
h = 30 W/m2.K.
would be constant due to symmetry.
To find : The temperature of U-shaped fin can also be
(i) The temperature at the centre of the fin. obtained by considering two insulated tip fins, 25 cm
(ii) The heat transfer rate. long each, as shown in Fig. 5.20 (b).
Tc − T∞ 1
= hP 20 × 0.015 π
T0 − T∞ cosh (mL) m= =
kA c 380 × 1.767 × 10 − 4
Tc = 49.6°C. Ans.
(ii) The heat transfer rate from the fin : = 3.746 m–1
Considering two fins of 25 cm long each with mL = 3.746 × 0.3 = 1.124
insulated tip. (i) The heat dissipated to air from fin is given by
eqn. (5.31)
Q = 2 hPkA c (T0 – T∞) tanh (mL)
RS cosh mL − 1UV
= 2 30 × 0.0188 × 330 × 2.827 × 10 − 5
× (100 – 30) × tanh (7.785 × 0.25)
Qfin = hPkA [(TL – T∞) + (T0 – T∞)]
T sinh mL W
= 20 × 0.015π × 380 × 1.767 × 10 –4
= 9.76 W. Ans.
cosh (1.124) − 1
Example 5.15. One end of a copper rod (k = 380 W/m.K), × [(100 – 40) + (300 – 40)]
300 mm long is connected to a wall which is maintained sinh (1.124)
at 300°C. The other end is firmly connected to other wall = 0.2515 × 320 × 0.5094 = 41.0 W. Ans.
at 100°C. The air is blown across the rod so that the heat (ii) The heat conduction rate to fin from surface
transfer coefficient of 20 W/m2.K is maintained. The at x = 0, eqn. (5.30)
diameter of the rod is 15 mm and temperature of air is FG TL − T∞ IJ
40°C. Determine :
(i) Net heat transfer rate to air, Qx = 0 = hPkA c (T0 – T∞) ×
cosh mL −
HT 0 − T∞ K
sinh mL
(ii) The heat conducted to other end which is at
100°C. (M.U., Nov. 1999) Qx = 0 = 20 × 0.015π × 380 × 1.767 × 10 −4 × (300 – 40)
Solution FG 100 − 40 IJ
Given : A copper rod as fin with specified
×
cosh (1.124) −
H 300 − 40 K
temperature at its two ends. sinh (1.124)
k = 380 W, L = 300 mm = 0.3 m, = 0.2515 × 260 × 1.0684 = 69.88 W.
T0 = 300°C, TL = 100°C, The heat reaches to other end at 100°C
2
h = 20 W/m .K, d = 15 mm = 0.015 m, = Qx=0 – Qfin = 69.88 – 41.0
T∞ = 40°C. = 28.87 W. Ans.
Wall - 1 d = 15 mm Wall - 2 5.4. FIN PERFORMANCE

TL = 100°C
T0 = 300°C The fins are used to increase the heat transfer rate from
a surface by increasing the effective surface area. The
use of fins on a surface cannot be recommended unless
T¥ = 40°C
2 the increase in heat transfer justifies the added cost and
h = 20 W/m .K
complexity associated with fins. However, the fin itself
L = 300 mm puts a conduction resistance to heat transfer from
x
original surface. For this reason, there is no assurance
that the heat transfer rate will be increased through
Fig. 5.21. Schematic for example 5.15 the use of fins. A parameter called as fin effectiveness,
To find : justifies the use of fins, if its value is greater than unity.
(i) Net heat transfer rate to air, 5.4.1. Fin Effectiveness
(ii) Heat conduction rate to wall at 100°C. The fin effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the fin
Analysis : For the copper rod as a fin heat transfer rate to that of which would occur from the
π 2 π surface on which the fin was attached, therefore,
Ac = d = × (0.015)2 Heat transfer rate with
4 4
= 1.767 × 10–4 m2 fin from base area Q fin
εfin = = ...(5.33)
P = πd = 0.015 π m Heat transfer rate from Q no fin
base area without fin
5.4.2. Fin Efficiency

T0 Qfin
T0 Consider a fin of uniform cross-sectional area, made of
Qno fin
constant thermal conductivity material as shown in
Ac Qfin
efin = ——–
Fig. 5.23. The heat flows from the surface to the fin by
Ac Qno fin conduction and from the fin to the surrounding medium
Fig. 5.22. Effectiveness of a fin by convection. The convection from the fin surface causes
Some observations with use of fins are : gradually temperature drop along the fin length.
(i) An effectiveness εfin = 1, indicates that the
addition of fins to the surface does not affect T0 T(x)
the heat transfer rate at all.
(ii) An effectiveness εfin < 1, indicates that the
fin actually acts as insulation and decreasing
the heat transfer rate from the surface. It may DT = T(x) – T¥
occur, if fin of low thermal conductivity
materials is used. T¥
(iii) An effectiveness εfin > 1, indicates that fins 0

L
x
are increasing the heat transfer rate from the
surface. h T¥
However, the use of fins cannot be justified unless T0
εfin is more than 5. For an infinite long fin of uniform
cross-section, using eqn. (5.14) to obtain the fin
effectiveness. L
Q fin hPkA c (T0 − T∞ ) Fig. 5.23. Temperature of a fin drops gradually
εfin = =
Q no fin hA c (T0 − T∞ ) along the fin
F kP I
=G
1/2 In the limiting case of zero thermal resistance
εfin
H hA JK c
...(5.34) (k → ∞), the temperature of fin along its length will be
uniform at the base temperature T0. The heat transfer
where Ac is cross-sectional area of fin.
from such an ideal fin will be maximum and can be
We can conclude from the fin effectiveness
expressed as
eqn. (5.34) for consideration in design and selection of
the fins : Qideal = hAfin (T0 – T∞) ...(5.35)
1. The fin effectiveness can be increased by choice The area Afin represent total surface area of the
of a material of higher thermal conductivity. fins. For a fin of uniform cross-section,
Therefore, the fins are usually made from metals, Afin = Alateral + Atip = Alateral + Ac
with copper, aluminium and iron. But aluminium
Usually Ac << Alateral
is the best choice due to its low cost and weight
and its resistance to corrosion. ∴ Afin ≈ Alateral ≈ PL
2. The fin effectiveness is also enhanced by increas- However, in actual practice, the temperature
ing the ratio of perimeter to cross-sectional area drops along the fin length and the resulting heat
of the fin (P/Ac). For this-reason, aluminium or dissipation from the fin will be less due to decreasing
copper thin fins, or slender pin fins, closely temperature difference T(x) – T∞ towards the fin tip. A
spaced are preferred in most engineering parameter called the fin efficiency, evaluates the thermal
applications. performance of a fin and is defined as
3. The use of fins can be better justified under con- Actual heat transfer rate from fin
ditions for which the convection heat transfer co- ηfin =
Ideal heat transfer rate from fin, if entire
efficient is small. Therefore, fins are placed on a
fin surface were at fin base temperature T0
surface on gas side, where the heat transfer is
by natural convection instead of forced Q fin
convection. = ...(5.36)
Q ideal
If the fin efficiency is known, the heat transfer Q total h (A unfin + ηfin A fin ) (T0 − T∞ )
or εfin overall = =
rate Qfin through the fin is determined as Q no fins h A no fin (T0 − T∞ )
Qfin = ηfin Qideal = ηfin hAfin (T0 – T∞) ...(5.41)
or Qfin ≈ ηfin h PL (T0 – T∞) ...(5.37)
The fin efficiency for earlier defined fin geometrics
are given below :
(i) The fin efficiency of infinite long fin :
Ano fin = w × H
hPkA c (T0 − T∞ ) kA c 1 1 Aunfin = w H – Nfin wt
ηfin = = × = nf
in t
hPL (T0 − T∞ ) hP L mL Au A Afin » Nfin × 2(w + t) × L
H fin
...(5.38) w
(ii) The fin efficiency for insulated fin tip : L
hPkA c ( T0 − T∞ ) tanh ( mL )
ηfin =
hPL (T0 − T∞ ) Fig. 5.25. Various surface areas associated
with rectangular fins
tanh (mL ) where Ano fin = area of the surface, when there are no
= ...(5.39)
mL fins,
(iii) Similarly for finite long fin with convection Afin = total surface area of all fins,
heat transfer at the fin tip :
Aunfin = area of the unfinned portion of the
h surface,
sinh (mL) + cosh (mL)
mk
ηfin = ...(5.40) ηfin = fin efficiency.
mL
The fin efficiency relations are developed for fins The overall fin effectiveness depends on the fin
of various profiles. These are plotted in Fig. 5.24 for density (number of fins per unit length), as well as the
fins of plane surfaces with insulated tip. effectiveness of individual fins. The overall effectiveness
is a better measure of the performance of a finned surface
1.0 than the effectiveness of the individual fins.
0.8 5.4.4. Area Weighted Fin Efficiency

In practical applications, a finned heat transfer surface
tanh (mL)
0.6 hfin = is composed of the fin surfaces and the unfinned por-
mL
tion. Therefore, total heat transfer
0.4 Qtotal fin = Qfin + Qunfin
= ηfin hAfin (T0 – T∞)
0.2 + (Atotal – Afin) h(T0 – T∞) ...(5.42)
where Afin = heat transfer (surface) area of all (Nfin) fins
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 Atotal = total heat transfer area = Afin + Aunfin
LÖh/kt We can also define area weighted fin efficiency or
Fig. 5.24. Fin efficiency for insulated tip fin total fin efficiency which evaluates the thermal
performance of the finned surface and defined as
5.4.3. Overall Fin Effectiveness
The total heat transfer rate
The overall fin effectiveness for a finned surface can be
defined as from finned surface
ηtotal fin =
The heat which would be transferred
Total heat transfer rate from
the finned surface if the total area was maintained
εfin overall =
Heat transfer rate from the base at base temperature T0
surface if there were no fins
ηfin h A fin (T0 − T∞ ) presents the efficiency for annular or circular fins of
rectangular profile. These results are presented in terms
+ (A total − A fin ) h (T0 − T∞ )
= of corrected length Lc and profile area. The maximum
h A total (T0 − T∞ ) heat transfer rate from rectangular, triangular and
A fin parabolic fins is
=1– (1 – ηfin) ...(5.43) Qmax = hPLc (T0 – T∞) ...(5.47)
A total
100
Lc = L
5.5. APPROXIMATE SOLUTION OF FIN: y~x
2
Ap = Lt/3
CONCEPT OF CORRECTED FIN LENGTH 80
y
Fin efficiency hfin, %

X
The solution in case of fin of finite length, losing heat by L
t/2
60
convection from its free end (actual case) is very tedious.
Lc = L + t/2
In order to avoid complex calculations, the heat loss from Ap = Lct
the fin tip can be approximated by increasing the fin 40
y~x
t/2
length by δ (friction length) and assuming the fin of y
L
insulated tip. 20
x
In this approach, the solution for finite long fin t/2 Lc = L
Ap = Lt/2
with convection heat loss from its tip can be L
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
approximated by the expressions for finite long fin, 3/2 1/2
Lc (h/kAp)
insulated at its tip, when length of fin L is replaced by
corrected length Lc. The resulting error from this Fig. 5.26. Efficiency of straight fins (rectangular, triangular
approximation will be less than 8%, when and parabolic profiles) (from Gardner)
ht
≤ 1/4 ...(5.44) 100
2k
Corrected length, Lc = L + δ ...(5.45)
80
where δ is called friction length of fin and is calculated
Fin efficiency hfin, %
as 1
r2c
r1
60
A 2
δ= c ...(5.46)
P 5 3
For rectangular or square fin 40
Ac = w × t t r2c = r2 + t/2
P ≈ 2w Lc = L + t/2
20 L AP = Lc × t
w×t t r1
then, δ= = Afin = 2p(r 22 – r 12 ) + 2pr2t
2w 2 r2
For circular fin, pin fin, 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
3/2 1/2
2 Lc (h/kAP)
(π/4) d d r
δ= = =
πd 4 2 Fig. 5.27. Efficiency of circular fins of rectangular profile
It is often convenient to use the profile area of (from Gardner)
fin Ap
For circumferential fins of constant thickness
For a rectangular fin, Ap = Lt
For a triangular fin, Ap = Lt/2 Qmax = 2πh (r2c2 – r12) (T0 – T∞) ...(5.48)
For a parabolic fin, Ap = Lt/3
The triangular and parabolic fins contains less
The fin efficiency relations are developed for fins
material and are more efficient than the fins of
of various profiles and are plotted in Fig. 5.26 for fins
on a plane surface and of three common profiles: rectangular profile, and thus they are more suitable
rectangular fin of uniform cross-section, and triangular for applications that require minimum weight such as
and parabolic fins of non-uniform cross-section. Fig. 5.27 space applications.
Example 5.16. An aluminium alloy fin (k = 200 W/m.K), Example 5.17. It is better to use 10 fins of 5 cm length
3.5 mm thick and 2.5 cm long protrudes from a wall. than 5 fins of 10 cm length. State and prove correctness
The base is at 420°C and ambient air temperature is of the statement. Take properties as follows :
30°C. The heat transfer coefficient may be taken as Diameter of fin = 10 mm
11 W/m2.K. Find the heat loss and fin efficiency, if the Thermal conductivity = 45 W/m.K
heat loss from fin tip is negligible. Heat transfer coefficient = 95 W/m2.K.
(P.U., May 2012)
Solution
Solution
Given : A rectangular fin
Given : Two arrangement of fins with
L = 2.5 cm, T∞ = 30°C,
d = 10 mm,
t = 3.5 mm, h = 11 W/m2.K,
k = 45 W/m.K, h = 95 W/m2.K
T0 = 420°C, k = 200 W/m.K.
Arrangement 1 : L1 = 5 cm, Nfin = 10
2
h = 11 W/m .K Arrangement 2 : L2 = 10 cm, Nfin = 5
T¥ = 30°C
Insulated To find : Better arrangement.
Tip
Analysis : The length of fin in either case is much
larger than its diameter, therefore, assuming negligible
t = 3.5 mm
heat loss from fin tip. For a fin
w π 2 π
Ac = d = × (0.01)2 = 78.54 × 10–6 m2
T0 4 4
= 420°C P = πd = π × 0.01 = 0.01 π m
hP 95 × 0.01 π
L = 2.5 cm m= = = 29.06
kA c 45 × 78.54 × 10 − 6
Fig. 5.28 For arrangement 1 :
mL1 = 29.06 × 0.05 = 1.453
To find :
tanh (mL1) = 0.896
(i) Heat transfer rate from fin surface.
The fin efficiency
(ii) Fin efficiency.
Assumptions : tanh mL 1 0.896
ηfin = = = 61.68%
1. Steady state conditions. mL 1 1.453
2. One dimensional conduction along the rod. The heat transfer rate from 10 fins
3. Constant properties. Qfin = Nfin hPkA c (T0 – T∞) tanh (mL1)
5. The width of fin is 1 m. = 10 × 95 × 0.01 × π × 45 × 78.54 × 10 −6
Analysis : (i) The heat transfer rate × (T0 – T∞) × 0.896
Qfin = hPkA c (T0 – T∞) tanh (mL) = 9.2 (T0 – T∞) Watts.
For arrangement 2 : 5 fins 10 cm long
hP
where, mL = L mL2 = 29.06 × 0.1 = 2.906
kA c tanh (mL2) = 0.994
and P = 2w = 2 m
tanh mL 0.994
Ac = w × t = 1 × 3.5 × 10–3 m2 ηfin = = = 34.2%
mL 2.906
11 × 2 and heat transfer rate with this arrangement
mL = 2.5 × 10–2 × = 0.14
200 × 3.5 × 10 − 3
Qfin = 5 × 95 × 0.01 π × 45 × 78.54 × 10 − 6
Qfin = 11 × 2 × 200 × 3.5 × 10 − 3
× (420 – 30) × tanh (0.14) × (T0 – T∞) × 0.994
= 213 W. Ans. = 5.10 (T0 – T∞) Watts.
(ii) The fin efficiency Comment : The fin efficiency and heat transfer
tanh mL tanh (0.14) rate, both are much less in second arrangement of fins,
ηfin = =
mL 0.14 i.e., 5 fin, 10 cm long in comparison to arrangement of
= 99.35%. Ans. 10 fins, 5 cm long. The heat dissipation decreases along
the length of the fin. The short fins are always effective. Analysis : (i) The corrected length of fin
Therefore, large number of short fins should be installed d
on a surface to increase the heat transfer rate. Lc = L + = 120 mm + 2.5 mm
4
Example 5.18. Three identical straight fins, 10 mm in = 122.5 m
diameter and 120 mm long are exposed to an ambient P = πd = π × 0.01 = 0.01 π
with convective heat transfer coefficient of 32 W/m2.K.
Compare their efficiency and relative heat flow π π
Ac = × d2 = × (0.01)2
performance. The three fin materials and their thermal 4 4
conductivities are : = 78.53 × 10–6 m2
Copper : 380 W/m.K
Aluminium : 210 W/m.K hP 32 × 0.01 π 113.13
m= = −6
=
Mild steel : 45 W/m.K. kA c k × 78.53 × 10 k
Solution
113.13
Given : Three identical circular fins For copper fin m1 = = 5.804
d = 10 mm, L = 120 mm, 380
h = 32 W/m2.K, k1 = 380 W/m.K, m1Lc = 5.803 × 0.1225 = 0.711
k2 = 210 W/m.K, k3 = 45 W/m.K. Fin efficiency
tanh (mL c ) tanh (0.711)
=
2
h = 32 W/m .K d = 10 mm ηfin =
mL c 0.711
T0 Copper
= 0.86 = 86%
T¥ d = 10 mm (ii) Heat dissipation rate for copper fin
Mild steel
Qfin = h P k A c (T0 – T∞) tanh mLc
L = 120 mm d = 10 mm
Aluminium
= 32 × 0.01π × 380 × 78.53 × 10−6
× (T0 – T∞) tanh (0.711)
Fig. 5.29 = 0.106 (T0 – T∞) Watts
To find : The calculated values of all materials are
(i) Efficiency of each fin tabulated below.
(ii) Relative heat dissipation rate.
Material m mL tanh m ηfin Qfin for (T0 – T∞) Relative heat dissipation
with respect to copper fin
Copper 5.804 0.711 0.611 86% 0.106 100

Aluminium 7.807 0.956 0.742 77.6% 0.0956 90.2%
Mild steel 16.865 2.066 0.968 46.8% 0.0577 54.5%
The heat dissipation rate by mild steel fin is least, proposed to install aluminium (k = 190 W/m.K) square
the fin efficiency of mild steel fin is also low, due to its fins 0.6 mm side, 10 mm long, to provide additional cool-
low value of thermal conductivity. The efficiency of ing. Find the number of fins required. Assume no heat
copper fin is highest. The fin efficiency with same loss from the tip of fins. (P.U., May 1989)
material can also improved, if the fins are made short. Solution
Example 5.19. An electronic semiconductor device has Given : Square fins with insulated tip
a rating of 60 mW. In order to keep its proper operation, Qunfin = 20 mW, Qtotal = 60 mW,
the inside temperature should not exceed 70°C. The device
T0 = 70°C, T∞ = 40°C,
can dissipate about 20 mW of heat on its own when placed
2
h = 12.5 W/m .K, k = 190 W/m.K,
in an environment at 40°C with heat transfer coefficient
of 12.5 W/m2.K. To avoid overheating of the device, it is t = 0.6 mm, L = 10 mm.
To find : The number of fins. t

12 such fin
Assumptions :
1. Steady state conditions, one dimensional heat
conduction along the rod.
2. Constant properties. 1m

Analysis : The net heat to be dissipated by fins
To find : The heat transfer rate from surface.
Qfin = Qtotal – Qunfin = 60 – 20
Analysis : The fin is of finite length, it will
= 40 mW = 40 × 10–3 W
dissipate heat by convection from its tip. Therefore,
Cross-section area of square fin using corrected length.
Ac = (0.6 × 10–3)2 = 3.6 × 10–7 m2
t 0.75 × 10 −3
Perimeter of square fin Lc = L + = 2.5 × 10–2 +
2 2
P = 4t = 4 × 0.6 × 10–3
= 0.025375 m
= 2.4 × 10–3 m
P = 2w = 2 m
hP Ac = w × t
mL = L kA c = 1 × 0.75 × 10–3 = 0.75 × 10–3 m2
12.5 × 2.4 × 10 − 3 hP
= 10 × 10–3 × mLc = Lc
190 × 3.6 × 10 − 7 kA c
= 0.209 23.3 × 2
The heat transfer rate ; = 0.025375 × = 0.73
75 × 0.75 × 10 − 3
Qfin = Nfin hPkA c (T0 – T∞) tanh mL The heat transfer rate from fins surface
Using the values, Qfin = Nfin hPkA c (T0 – T∞) tanh (mLc)
40 × 10–3 = Nfin 12.5 × 2.4 × 10 − 3 × 190 × 3.6 × 10 − 7

= 12 × 23.3 × 2 × 75 × 0.75 × 10 –3
× (150 – 40) × tanh (0.73)
× (70 – 40) × tanh (0.209)
= 1332 W
or Number of fins
The heat transfer rate from unfinned (base) area
40 × 10 − 3 Qunfin = hAunfin(T0 – T∞)
Nfin = = 4.518 ≈ 5 fins. Ans.
8.853 × 10 − 3 = h(πdw – 12 × Ac)(T0 – T∞)
Example 5.20. A 1 m long, 5 cm diameter, cylinder = 23.3 × (π × 0.05 × 1 – 12 × 0.75
placed in an atmosphere of 40°C is provided with × 10–3) × (150 – 40)
12 longitudinal straight fins (k = 75 W/m.K), 0.75 mm = 379.5 W
thick. The fins protrudes 2.5 cm from the cylinder surface. Hence the total heat transfer
The heat transfer coefficient is 23.3 W/m2.K. Calculate
= Qunfin + Qfin
the rate of heat transfer, if the surface temperature of
cylinder is at 150°C. (P.U., Dec. 2008) = 379.5 + 1332 = 1711.5 W. Ans.
Solution Example 5.21. The cylinder barrel of a motorcycle is
Given : A cylinder with longitudinal fins constructed of aluminium alloy (k = 186 W/m.K),
w = 1 m, d = 5 cm = 0.05 m, 0.15 m high and 50 mm in diameter. Under typical
operating conditions, the outer surface of the cylinder is
T∞ = 40°C, Nfin = 12, at a temperature of 500 K and is exposed to the ambient
h = 23.3 W/m2.K, air at 300 K with convection coefficient of 50 W/m2.K.
t = 0.75 mm = 0.75 × 10–3 m, Annular fins of rectangular profiles are typically added
to increase the heat transfer rate to the surroundings.
L = 2.5 cm = 2.5 × 10– 2 m, Assume that the five such fins, 6 mm thick, 20 mm long
T0 = 150°C, k = 75 W/m.K. and equally spaced are added. What is the increase in
heat transfer rate due to addition of fins ? Take fin The total heat transfer rate from fins surface
efficiency as 0.95. Qfin = ηfin × h Afin (T0 – T∞)
(Anna University, April 1999 ; N.M.U., Nov. 1996) = 0.95 × (50 W/m2.K) × (0.0527 m2)
Solution × (500 – 300)(K)
Given : Annular fins of rectangular profile, around = 500.65 W
a cylinder The heat transfer rate from unfinned portion of
k = 186 W/m.K, H = 0.15 m, cylinder :
d = 50 mm or r1 = 25 mm, Unfinned area,
T0 = 500 K, T∞ = 300 K, Aunfin = Cylinder surface area – No. of fins
2
h = 50 W/m .K, Nfin = 5, × Cross-section area of a fin
t = 6 mm, L = r2 – r1 = 20 mm, = 2πr1H – Nfin × 2πr1t
ηfin = 0.95. = 2π × 0.025 × (0.15 m – 5 × 0.006 m)
= 0.01885 m2
To find : Increase in heat transfer rate due to
addition of fins on cylinder surface. The heat transfer rate from unfinned portion
Schematic : Qunfin = hAunfin (T0 – T∞)
= (50 W/m2.K) × (0.01885 m2)
× (500 – 300)(K)
= 188.5 W
Total heat transfer rate from finned surface
T0 = 500 K
Air T¥ = 300 K Qtotal fin = Qfin + Qunfin
H = 0.15 m 2 = 500.65 + 188.5 = 689.15 W
h = 50 W/m .K
t = 6 mm Heat transfer rate from corresponding cylinder
without any fin
Qno fin = hAno fin (T0 – T∞)
= h(2π r1H) (T0 – T∞)
r1 = 25 mm = (50 W/m2.K) × (2π × 0.025 m × 0.15 m)
L = 20 mm
× (500 – 300) (K)
r2 = 45 mm
= 235.62
Fig. 5.31. Schematic of motorcycle barrel
Increase in the heat transfer rate
Assumptions : = Qtotal fin – Qno fin
(i) Steady state one dimensional conduction in = 689.15 – 235.62 = 453.53 W. Ans.
radial direction only. Comment : The overall effectiveness of finned
(ii) Constant properties. surface
(iii) No internal heat generation. Q total fin
εfin = = 2.925
(iv) Uniform convection coefficient over entire Q no fin
outer surface. % increase in heat transfer
(v) Negligible radiation exchange from fin 689.15 − 235.62
= = 192.5%. Ans.
surface. 235.62
Analysis : The finite long fins are used on Example 5.22. Steam in a heating system flows through
cylinder, thus corrected radius tubes whose outer diameter is 3 cm and whose walls
r2c = r2 + t/2 = 45 + 3 = 48 mm = 0.048 m are maintained at a temperature of 120°C. Circular
aluminium fins [k = 180 W/(m.K)] of outer diameter 6 cm
The fins are exposed on two sides to air, the
and constant thickness t = 2 mm are attached to the tube,
surface area of all fins
as shown in Fig. 5.32. The space between the fins is 3 mm,
Afin = 2π (r2c2 – r12) × Nfin and thus there are 200 fins per metre length of the tube.
= 2π × (0.0482 – 0.0252) × 5 = 0.0527 m2 Heat is transferred to the surrounding air at T∞ = 25°C,
with a combined heat transfer coefficient of The heat transfer rate from fins
h = 60 W/(m2.K). Determine the increase in heat transfer Qfin = ηfin × Qideal = ηfin × h Afin (T0 – T∞)
rate from the tube per metre of its length as a result of = 0.95 × 60 × 0.925 × (120 – 25)
adding fins. Also calculate fin effectiveness.
= 5008.25 W
Solution Unfinned area of the tube
Given : A tube with annular fins : Aunfin = Pipe surface area – No. of fin
d1 = 3 cm, r1 = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m, × Cross-section area of a fin
d2 = 6 cm, r2 = 3 cm = 0.03 m, = 2πr1H – Nfin × 2π r1t
T0 = 120°C, k = 180 W/m.K, = 2πr1 (H – Nfin t)
t = 2 mm = 0.002 m, S = 3 mm, = 2π × 0.015 × (1 m – 200 × 0.002)
Nfin = 200 /m, T∞ = 25°C, = 0.0565 m2
2
h = 60 W/m .K, H = 1 m. Heat transfer rate from unfinned portion of
r1 tube
r2
Qunfin = h Aunfin (T0 – T∞)
= 60 × 0.0565 × (120 – 25)
T¥ = 25°C
2 = 322.32 W
T0 h = 60 W/m .K
The total heat transfer rate from finned tube
t = 2 mm Qtotal fin = Qfin + Qunfin
S = 3 mm = 5008.25 + 322.32
Fin
= 5330.57 W
In case, if there are no fins on pipe, then,
Fig. 5.32 Area of bare pipe surface,
To find : (i) Increase in heat transfer rate from Ano fin = 2πr1H = 2π × 0.015 × 1
the tube per metre length. = 0.0942 m2
(ii) Fin effectiveness. Heat transfer rate from tube bare area
Analysis : (i) The finite long fins, with convection Qno fin = h Ano fin (T0 – T∞)
at its free end, thus using corrected length of fin = 60 × 0.0942 × (120 – 25)
r2c = r2 + t/2 = 0.03 + 0.002/2 = 0.031 m = 537.21 W
L = r2 – r1 = 0.03 – 0.015 = 0.015 m Therefore, increase in heat transfer rate from 1 m
0.002 long tube as a result of addition of fins
Lc = L + t/2 = 0.015 + = 0.016 m
2 = Qtotal fin – Qno fin
Ap = Lct = 0.016 × 2 × 10–3 = 5330.57 – 537.21
= 3.2 × 10–5 m2 = 4793.35 W. Ans.
F I 1/ 2 (ii) Fin effectiveness.
Lc3/2 (h/kAp)1/2 = (0.016)3/2 × GH 180 × 360.2 × 10 JK
−5 Q total fin 5330.57
=
εfin = = 9.1
= 0.2065 Q no fin 537.21
r2 c 0.031 % increase in heat transfer
= = 2.067
r1 0.015 (5330.57 − 537.21)
= = 892.2%. Ans.
From Fig. 5.27, the efficiency of annular fin 537.21
ηfin = 0.95 Example 5.23. Copper plates fins of rectangular cross-
Surface area of fins section, 1 mm thick, 10 mm long and thermal
= Nfin × 2π (r2c2 – r12) conductivity as 380 W/m.K are attached to a plane wall
maintained at a temperature of 230°C. The fins dissipate
= 200 × 2π × (0.0312 – 0.0152)
heat by convection into an ambient at 30°C with a heat
= 0.925 m2
transfer coefficient of 40 W/m2.K. Fins are spaced at

40 × 2
8 mm. Assume negligible heat loss from the fin tip. = × 10 × 10–3 = 0.145
Calculate : 380 × 1 × 10 − 3
(i) Fin efficiency, The fin efficiency for insulated tip fin is given
by
(ii) Area weighted fin efficiency,
tanh mL
(iii) The total heat transfer rate per m2 of plane ηfin =
wall surface, mL
(iv) The heat transfer rate from the plane wall if tanh (0.145)
= = 0.993
there were no fins attached. (N.M.U., Nov. 1994) 0.145
Solution = 99.3%. Ans.
Given : Finite long fin with insulated tip : (ii) Area weighted fin efficiency :
t = 1 mm, T0 = 230°C, Since the considered plate is 1 m × 1 m in size
and fin spacing is 8 mm. The number of fins
L = 10 mm, T∞ = 30°C,
k = 380 W/m.K, h = 40 W/m2.K, 1000 mm
Nfin = = 125 fins/metre
S = 8 mm. 8 mm
To find : The total fin surface area,
(i) ηfin, fin efficiency, Afin = No. of fins (Nfin)
(ii) ηtotal, area weighted fin efficiency, × Surface area of a fin (PL)
(iii) Heat transfer rate from finned surface, Afin = 125 × (2 sides × 1 m × 0.01 m)
(iv) Heat transfer rate from base surface. = 2.5 m2
Assumptions : The unfinned portion,
Aunfin = Plate area – Area where fins are
1. Steady state one dimensional heat conduc-
tion. attached (Nfin × Ac)
2. Constant properties. = 1 m – 125 × 1 × 10–3
2
3. No internal heat generation. = 0.875 m2

4. The plate size of 1 m × 1 m. Total heat transfer area,
Atotal = Afin + Aunfin
L = 10 mm
Atotal = 2.5 + 0.875 = 3.375 m2
t = 1 mm
230°C The area weighted fin efficiency or total fin
w=1m efficiency
A fin
S = 8 mm ηtotal = 1 – (1 – ηfin)
A total
2.5
125 such fins =1– (1 − 0.993)
3.375
= 0.9948 = 99.48%. Ans.
2
h = 40 W/m .K
T¥ = 30°C
(iii) Total heat transfer rate per m2 of plane wall
Fig. 5.33. A section of the plane wall surface
Qtotal = Qfin + Qunfin
Analysis : (i) Fin efficiency :
Ac = w × t = (1 m) × (1 × 10–3 m) = Nfin × hPkA c (T0 – T∞) tanh (mL)
= 1 × 10–3 m2 + h Aunfin (T0 – T∞)
P ≈ 2w = 2 × 1 m = 2 m = 125 × 40 × 2 × 380 × 1 × 10 − 3
× (230 – 30) × tan (0.145) + 40
hP
mL = ×L × 0.875 × (230 – 30)
kA c
= 26848 W/m2 = 26.84 kW/m2. Ans.
Alternatively, air at
Qtotal = Qfin + Qunfin 25°C
= ηfin Qideal + Qunfin m
m
= ηfinh Afin (T0 – T∞) + hAunfin(T0 – T∞) 3
= (ηfinAfin + Aunfin) h(T0 – T∞)

= (0.993 × 2.5 + 0.875) × 40 × (230 – 30) 12 mm
= 26.86 kW/m2. Ans. mm
50
(iv) The heat transfer if there were no fins 70 m
m
attached
Qno fin = hAno fin(∆T)
Fig. 5.34. Aluminium heat sink
= (40 W/m2.K) × (1 m2) × (230 – 30)(K)
= 8000 K/m2 = 8 kW/m2. Ans. Analysis : (i) The total heat flow from the heat
sink = Heat transfer from unfinned portion of the base
Example 5.24. An aluminium heat sink for electronics + Heat flow through the fins
components has a base of length 50 mm and width
Qtotal = Qunfin + Qfin
70 mm. The eight aluminium (k = 180 W/m.K) fins are
attached in such a way that their width is 70 mm. The Heat transfer rate from unfinned portion of base
fins are 12 mm long, and 3 mm thick. The fins cooled by Qunfin = hAunfin (T0 – T∞)
air at 25°C with a convective heat transfer coefficient of
where Aunfin = w (H – Nfint)
h = 10 W/m2.K. Assuming that the same value of heat
transfer coefficient acts on the tip of the fins as along the = (70 × 10–3 m) × (50 – 8 × 3) × 10–3
rest of the external surface, determine : = 1.82 × 10–3 m2
(i) the heat flow through the heat sink for a base Then
temperature of 50°C,
(ii) the fin effectiveness, Qunfin = 10 × 1.82 × 10–3 × (50 – 25)
(iii) the fin efficiency, = 0.455 W
(iv) the length of the fin such that the heat flow is Heat transfer rate through fins (of finite long
95% of the heat flow for an infinite long fin, convecting heat from their tips)
(v) the percentage increase in heat transfer with
fins. (P.U., May 2008) Qfin = N fin h Pk A c ( T0 − T∞ )
Solution
Given : Finite long fins h
sinh mL + cosh mL
T0 = 50°C, T∞ = 25°C, × mk
h
2
h = 10 W/m .K, Nfin = 8 fins, cosh mL + sinh mL
mk
k = 180 W/m.K, t = 3 mm,
L = 12 mm, w = 70 mm, where, Ac = w × t
H = 50 mm. = (70 × 10–3) × (3 × 10–3)
To find : = 2.1 × 10–4 m2
(i) Total heat flow from the finned surface, Qtotal. P = 2(w + t) = 2 × (70 + 3) × 10–3
(ii) Fin effectiveness, εfin. = 0.146 m
(iii) Fin efficiency, ηfin.
hP
(iv) The length of the fin, so that the heat flow is m=
95% of the infinite long fin. kA c
(v) Percentage increase in heat transfer with fins.
10 × 0146
.
Assumptions : = −4
= 6.2148 m −1
180 × 21
. × 10
2. Constant properties. mL = 6.2148 × (12 × 10–3) = 0.074578
3. Uniform spacing of fins. cosh mL = 1.00278
sinh mL = 0.07465 tanh mL ≥ 0.95

h 10 mL ≥ 1.83
= = 8.94 × 10–3 or L ≥ 0.295
mk 6.2148 × 180
= 295 mm. Ans.
T0 – T∞ = 50 – 25 = 25°C
(v) Heat transfer from heat sink, if there were
and h P k A c = 10 × 0.146 × 180 × 2.1 × 10 −4 no fins attached
= 0.235 W/K Qno fin = hAno fin (T0 – T∞)
∴ Qfin = 8 × 0.235 × 25 where Ano fin = (70 × 10–3) × (50 × 10–3)
(0.07465 + 8.94 × 10 −3 × 1.00278) = 3.5 × 10–3 m2
× ∴ Qno fin = 10 × 3.5 × 10–3 × (50 – 25)
(1.00278 + 8.94 × 10 −3 × 0.07465)
= 0.875 W
= 3.916 W
% increase in heat transfer after fin addition
Total heat transfer
Q total − Q no fin 4.4 − 0.875
Qtotal = 0.455 + 3.916 = 4.4 W. Ans. = = × 100
Q no fin 0.875
(ii) Effectiveness of the fin
= 405%. Ans.
Heat transfer rate with fin
εfin = Example 5.25. A hot surface at 100°C is to be cooled by
Heat transfer rate from the surface
on which fin was attached (w × t ) attaching 3 cm long, 0.25 cm diameter aluminium fins
(k = 237 W/m.K) to it, with a centre to centre distance of
Q fin for 1 fin
= 0.6 cm. The temperature of surrounding air is 30°C and
h A c (T0 − T∞ ) heat transfer coefficient on surface is 35 W/m2.K.
(3.916 / 8) Calculate the rate of heat transfer from the surface for a
= 1 m × 1 m section of the plate. Also determine the overall
10 × 2.1 × 10 − 4 × (50 − 25)
effectiveness of the fins.
= 9.32. Ans.
Solution
(iii) Fin efficiency
Actual heat transfer Given : A hot surface attached with pin fins.
rate from fin surface T0 = 100°C, L = 3 cm = 0.03 m,
ηfin =
Heat transfer rate from the d = 0.25 cm = 0.25 × 10–2 m,
fin, if its entire surface is k = 237 W/m.K, S = 0.6 cm,
maintained at base temperature
T∞ = 30°C, h = 35 W/m2.K.
Q fin for 1 fin
= L = 3 cm
hA fin (T0 − T∞ ) Surface at 100°C
where, Afin = PL + Ac = 0.146 × 12 × 10–3 + 2.1 × 10–4

= 1.962 × 10–3 m d = 0.25 cm
(3.916/8)
1m
∴ ηfin =
10 × 1.962 × 10 − 3 × (50 − 25)
= 0.998 = 99.8%. Ans. S = 0.6 cm
(iv) For heat flow within 95% of infinite long fin
RS h cosh mLUV
sinh mL +
T mk W ≥ 0.95 T¥ = 30°C
R U
1m 2
h = 35 W/m .K
cosh mL + S sinh mL V
h
T mk W Fig. 5.35. Schematic for example 5.25
To find :
h
∵ < < < 1.0, therefore, above equation (i) Heat transfer rate from 1 m2 finned surface,
mk
approximated as (ii) Overall fin effectiveness.
Assumptions : Total heat transfer from finner surface/m2

(i) Steady state conditions. Qtotal fin = Qfin + Qunfin
(ii) Finite long fin, but L >> d, hence assuming = 15.046 × 103 + 2114.6
insulated tip.
= 17.16 × 103 W. Ans.
(iii) Uniform heat transfer coefficient on fins as
well as on base surface. (ii) Overall effectiveness
(iv) Constant properties. Q total fin Q total fin
εoverall = =
Analysis : (i) Heat transfer rate from finned Q no fin h (1 m 2 ) (T0 − T∞ )
surface :
17.16 × 10 3
= = 7.0. Ans.
w 100 cm 35 × 1 × (100 − 35)
No. of fins in a row = = = 166.67
S 0.6 cm
≈ 167 Example 5.26. In a transfer type heat exchanger, heat
is transferred from hot water at 90°C on one side of the
Similarly the no. of fins in the column
metal partition wall to cold air at 25°C on the other side.
100 Thickness of the metal wall is 1 cm and its conductivity
= = 167
0.6 is 20 W/m.K. If the metal wall is 1 m2, find the rate of
These fins are in matrix of n × n, thus heat transfer if heat transfer coefficient on water and
Total no. of fins in air side are 100 and 10 W/m2.K, respectively.
Nfin = 167 × 167 = 27,889 fins/m2 It is proposed to increase the heat transfer rate by
providing fins on one side. On which side the fins should
For a fin
be provided to get maximum heat transfer rate ? If
π 2 π 500 fins of 6 mm diameter and 30 mm long are provided.
Ac = d = × (0.25 × 10–2 m)2 Find the maximum heat transfer rate achieved. Assume
4 4
that the fins have insulated ends.
= 4.9087 × 10–6 m2
Solution
P = πd = π × 0.25 × 10–2
Given : Partition wall of a heat exchanger.
= 7.8539 × 10–3 m
Tw = 90°C, Ta = 25°C,
−3
hP 35 × 7.8539 × 10 δ = 1 cm = 0.01 m, k = 20 W/m.K,
m= =
kA c 237 × 4.9087 × 10 − 6 hw = 100 W/m2.K,
= 15.37 ha = 10 W/m2.K, Nfin = 500,
The heat transfer rate from all fins d = 6 mm = 6 × 10–3 m, A = 1 m2,
L = 30 mm = 0.03 m.
Qfin = Nfin hPkA c (T0 – T∞) tanh mL
To find :
= 27,889 × 35 × 7.8539 × 10 − 3 (i) Heat transfer rate without fins.
× 237 × 4.9087 × 10 − 6 (ii) Justified of fins attachment side.
× (100 – 30) × tanh (15.37 × 0.03) (iii) Heat transfer rate when fins attached on
surface.
= 15.046 × 103 W
Assumptions :
The heat transfer from unfinned portion
Aunfin = 1 m2 – Nfin × Ac
= 1 m2 – 27,889 × 4.9087 × 10–6 2. One dimensional heat transfer.
= 0.863 m2 3. Constant properties.
Qunfin = h Aunfin × (T0 – T∞) Analysis : (i) Heat transfer rate when one side is
= 35 × 0.863 × (100 – 30) exposed to water and other side to air, (No fins on any
= 2114.6 W surface) using electrical analogy.
(∆T) overall 90 − 25
Qno fin = =
1 δ 1 1 0.01 1
+ + + +
hw A kA ha A 100 × 1 20 × 1 (0.985 + 0.9107 × 0.2827) × 10
90 − 25
or = = 714.83 W. Ans.
1 0.01 1
+ +
100 × 1 20 × 1 10 × 1 Example 5.27. Air and water are flowing on two sides of
= 588.23 W. Ans. a mild steel wall (k = 52 W/m.K). The heat transfer
(ii) Fins are always provided on side of wall, where coefficients on air and water sides are,
heat transfer coefficient is low, hence, use of fins on air
ha = 11.4 W/m2.K and hw = 256 W/m2.K.
side will maximise the heat transfer rate. Ans.
(iii) When fins are provided on air side : It is proposed to increase the heat transfer rate by
adding rectangular mild steel fins of the following
π π features :
Ac =   d2 =   × (6.0 × 10–3)2
4
  4
Fin thickness = 0.13 cm, Fin height = 2.5 cm,
= 2.827 × 10–5 m2
Fin spacing = 1.3 cm.
P = πd = π × 6 × 10–3 = 0.0188 m
What percentage increase in the heat transfer rate
hP
mL = L can be realised by adding fins on
kA c
(i) Air side only.
10 × 0.0188
= × 0.03 = 0.547 (ii) Water side only.
20 × 2.827 × 10 −5
(iii) Fins on both sides.
The fin efficiency
tanh mL tanh (0.547) Solution
ηfin = = = 0.9107
mL 0.547 Given : The mild steel wall with proposed finite
The surface area of fins long rectangular fins
Afin = NfinPL k = 52 W/m.K, ha = 11.4 W/m2.K,
= 500 × 0.0188 × 0.03
hw = 256 W/m2.K, t = 0.13 cm,
= 0.2827 m2
Unfinned area of wall L = 2.5 cm, S = 1.3 cm.
Aunfin = 1 m2 – area occupied by fins To find : The percentage increase in the heat
= 1 m2 – NfinAc transfer rate, when
= 1 m2 – 500 × 2.827 × 10–5 m2 (i) Fins are added on air side.
= 0.985 (ii) Fins are added on water side.
Total heat transfer rate of fins (iii) Fins are added on both sides.
Qtotal = Qunfin + ηfinQideal
Assumptions :
= haAunfin (T0 – Ta) + ηfin ha Afin (T0 – T∞)
= (Aunfin + ηfin Afin) ha (T0 – T∞)
2. Negligible thermal resistance offered by wall
T0 − T∞ thickness.
or Qtotal =
1
3. No radiation from fins.
( A unfin + ηfin A fin ) ha
Since all resistances are still in series,
5. Wall size 1 m × 1 m or Aw = 1 m2.
Hence
(∆T) overall Analysis : The heat transfer rate through mild
Q= steel wall, without fins
ΣR th
Tw − Ta
∆T
or Q= Qno fin =
1 1
1 δ 1 +
+ + ha A w hw A w
hw A kA ( A unfin + ηfin A fin ) ha
∆T ∆T
= = 10.91 ∆T =
1 1 1 1
+ +
11.4 × 1 256 × 1 256 × 1 11.4 × (0.9 + 0.932 × 3.95)
= 43.38 ∆T
For fins and finned surface :
The percentage increase in heat transfer rate with
Ac = w × t fins on air side
= 1 × 0.13 × 10–2
Q fin, a − Q no fin
= 1.3 × 10–3 m2 = × 100
Q no fin
P = 2w = 2 m,
Lc = L + (t/2) 43.38 − 10.91
= × 100
= 2.5 + (0.13/2) = 2.565 cm. 10.91
The number of fins/m, = 298%. Ans.
1m 100 cm (ii) The heat transfer with fins on water side (two
Nfin = = = 77 fins/m parallel resistances on water side)
S 1.3 cm
Fins surface area, hw P 256 × 2
mw = =
Afin = NfinPLc kA c 52 × 1.3 × 10 −3
= 77 × 2 × 2.565 × 10–2
= 87.03 m–1
= 3.95 m2/m2 of wall
Unfinned (bare) area, tanh (mw L c )
ηfin, w =
Aunfin = 1 m2 – Nfin Ac mw L c
= 1 – 77 × 1.3 × 10–3
tanh (87.03 × 2.565 × 10 −2 )
= 0.9 m2/m2 of wall area =
87.03 × 2.565 × 10 −2
(i) Heat transfer rate with fins on air side.
= 0.438
ha P 11.4 × 2
ma = = ∆T
kA c 52 × 0.13 × 10 − 2 Qfin, w =
R air + R w finned
= 18.37 m–1
tanh (ma L c ) ∆T
ηfin, a = =
1 1
ma L c +
ha A w hw ( A unfin + ηfin, w A fin )
tanh (18.37 × 2.565 × 10 −2 )
= = 0.932
18.37 × 2.565 × 10 −2 ∆T
= 1 1
Since two resistances act parallel on air side, +
hence equivalent resistance, 11.4 × 1 256 × ( 0.9 + 0.438 × 3.95)
1 1 1 = 11.21 ∆T
= + The percentage increase in heat transfer
R a finned R1 R2
= ha Aunfin + ha ηfin, a Afin Q fin, w − Q w
= × 100
Qw
1
or Ra finned =
ha (A unfin + ηfin, a A fin ) 11.21 − 10.91
= × 100
Then 10.91
= 2.75%. Ans.
∆T (iii) Heat transfer with fins on both sides
Qfin, a =
R water + R a finned Qfin, both
∆T ∆T
= =
1 1 1 1
+ +
hw A w ha ( A unfin + ηfin, a A fin ) ha ( A unfin + ηfin, a A fin ) hw ( A unfin + ηfin, w A fin )
Assumptions :
∆T
= (i) Steady state conduction in axial direction
1 1
+ only.
11.4 × (0.9 + 0.932 × 3.95) 256 × (0.9 + 0.438 × 3.95)
(ii) Even though the fin of composite material,
= 48.46 ∆T the temperature at any cross-section in the fin is
The percentage increase in heat transfer uniform.
48.46 − 10.91 (iii) No contact resistance at interface of two
= × 100 = 345%. Ans. materials.
10.91
(iv) No heat generation within the fin.
Comment :
(v) Temperature at free end of fin approaches to
(i) The addition of fins on air side is very effective T∞ .
due to its low value of heat transfer coefficient. Analysis : (i) Consider a differential element of
(ii) The addition of fins on water sides is not composite fin of thickness dx at a distance x from the
effective thus cannot be justified. base.
(iii) The addition of fins on both sides has only Heat conducted into element by both fins
marginal effect due to addition of material resistance Q1x + Q2x
on both sides. It is not practicable. Heat conducted out the element
Example 5.28. A composite fin consists of a cylindrical = Q1(x + dx) + Q2 (x + dx)
rod (k = 15 W/m.K) 3 mm in diameter and 100 mm Heat dissipation by convection from outer surface
long. It is uniformly covered with another material element
(k = 45 W/m.K) forming outer diameter 10 mm and Qconv = h (Pdx) (T – T∞),
100 mm long. It is exposed into an ambient with where P = πd2 = π × 0.01 = 0.01π m
h = 12 W/m2.K. For steady state conditions, the energy balance
(i) Derive an expression for the efficiency of this yields
fin and its value for given data. Q1x + Q2x = Q1(x + dx) + Q2(x + dx) + h (Pdx) (T – T∞)
(ii) Calculate effectiveness of the composite fin. d
Assume heat coduction in axial direction only and or Q1x + Q2x = Q1x + (Q1x) dx + Q2x
dx
tip of fin as insulated.
d
Solution +
(Q ) dx + hP dx (T – T∞)
dx 2x
Given : A composite fin as shown in Fig. 5.36. d FG dT d IJ dT FG IJ
k1 = 15 W/m.K, k2 = 45 W/m.K,
or
dx H
− k1A 1
dx
dx +
dx K− k2 A 2
dx
dx
H K
d1 = 3 mm, d2 = 10 mm, + hP dx (T – T∞) = 0
L = 100 mm, h = 12 W/m2.K. Since the cross-section areas and thermal
conductivities are constant. Thus,
T0 h, T¥
d2T d2T
– k1A1 − k2 A 2 + hP (T – T∞) = 0
2
k2 2 dx dx 2
k1 1 d1 d2
d2T
or (k1A1 + k2A2) – hP (T – T∞) = 0
k2 2 dx 2
0 x dx Introducing θ = T – T∞, then
L
d 2θ hP
2
− θ=0
dx k1A 1 + k2 A 2
Fig. 5.36. Bimetallic fin
hP
To find : Using m2 =
k1A 1 + k2 A 2
(i) An expression for fin efficiency and its calcu-
lation. d 2θ
Then – m2θ = 0
(ii) Fin effectiveness. dx 2
It is the second order differential equation for The heat transfer rate from corresponding base
composite fin and its solution is surface, without any fin.
θ = C1e–mx + C2emx. Qno fin = hAno fin (T0 – T∞)
Cross-sectional areas : = h × (π/4) × d22 × (T0 – T∞)
π 2 π = 12 × (π/4) × (0.01)2 × (T0 – T∞)
A1 = d = × (0.003)2
4 1 4 = 0.0009425 (T0 – T∞)
= 7.0686 × 10–6 m2 0.0285
π εfin = = 30.24. Ans.
π 0.0009425
A2 = (d22 – d12) = × (0.012 – 0.0032)
4 4
= 7.147 × 10–5 m2 5.6. ERROR IN TEMPERATURE
For insulated tip fin, the efficiency is given by MEASUREMENT BY THERMOMETERS
tanh mL
ηfin = The temperature of fluid flowing through a duct is
mL measured by thermometer, placed in thermometer
hP pocket as shown in Fig. 5.37. The thermometer pocket
where m=
k1A 1 + k2 A 2 or thermometer well is a small tube welded radially into
the duct or pipe. The pocket is filled with some liquid of
12 × 0.01π
= low specific heat and thermometer is dipped in this
15 × 7.0686 × 10 −6 + 45 × 7.147 liquid. The heat is transferred to the fluid in the pocket
× 10 −5 and its temperature is recorded by thermometer.
= 10.652 As the wall of duct or pipe is at the temperature
less than that of fluid flowing within, the heat will flow
tanh (10.652 × 0.1)
ηfin = from bottom of the pocket towards the wall of duct or
10.652 × 0.1 pipe. Therefore, the temperature measured by
= 0.7394 = 73.94%. Ans. thermometer will not be the true temperature. The error
(ii) Fin effectiveness included can be calculated by assuming pocket as a fin
Q fin (spine) protruded from the wall of the duct in which the
εfin = fluid is flowing.
Q no fin
Considering duct wall at temperature T0,
Qfin = Qinner fin + Qouter fin temperature recorded by thermometer TL, flowing fluid
temperature T∞, convection coefficient of h, pocket
(T0 − T∞ )
Qinner fin = k1A1 thermal conductivity k, diameter d and its thickness t.
L Then, for such spine (at x = L).
15 × 7.0686 × 10 −6 (T0 − T∞ )
= Thermometer
0.1
= 0.00106 (T0 – T∞)
TL
Qouter fin = hPk2 A 2 (T0 – T∞) tanh mL
hP Pipe wall
where m= Thermometer t Oil
at T0
kA 2 pocket
12 × 0.01 π
= = 10.826
45 × 7.147 × 10 −5
h L
Then Fluid
12 × 0.01π × 45 × 7.147 × 10 −5
T¥
Qouter fin =
d
× (T0 – T∞) tanh (10.826 × 0.1)
= 0.0276(T0 – T∞)
Fig. 5.37. Thermometer in a thermometer pocket
Qfin = 0.00106 (T0 – T∞) + 0.0276 (T0 – T∞)
TL − T∞ 1
= 0.0285 (T0 – T∞) = ...(5.49)
T0 − T∞ cosh mL + (h/mk) sinh mL
The quantity (h/mk) sinh mL is very small, thus or 150 – T∞ = 16.9 – 0.211 T∞
can be neglected and the temperature distribution is or 0.789 T∞ = 133.09
approximated as
TL − T∞ 1
= Thermometer
T0 − T∞ cosh mL
hP hπd h TL = 150°C
where m= = =
kA c kπdt kt
Pipe wall
Thermometer 2 mm Oil
1 1 kt pocket
at T0 = 80°C
The error (T∞ – TL) ∝ ∝
cosh (mL) L h
The error in temperature measurement by
thermometer can be reduced by : 10 cm
2
(i) Choosing the thermometer pocket material of 40 W/m .K
T¥
moderate thermal conductivity such as steel.
d
(ii) Keeping thermometer pocket thickness t as
small as possible.
(iii) Keeping the length of the thermometer pocket Fig. 5.38. Schematic for example 5.29
large.
True temperature, T∞ = 168.68°C
(iv) Maintaining the heat transfer coefficient large.
168.68 − 150
Example 5.29. The temperature of hot gas flowing Percentage error = × 100
through a pipe is measured by a mercury thermometer 168.68
inserted in an oil well made of steel (k = 40 W/m.K). The = 11.01%. Ans.
thermometer reads the temperature at the end of the well
Example 5.30. A thermometer pocket, 2.2 cm in
which is lower than the gas temperature due to transfer
diameter, 0.5 mm thick is made of steel (k = 27 W/m.K)
of heat along the well. Calculate percentage error in
and it is used to measure the temperature of steam
temperature measurement, if thermometer reads 150°C.
flowing through a pipe. Calculate the minimum length
The temperature of the pipe wall is 80°C. The well is
of the pocket so that the error is less than 0.5% of applied
10 cm long, 2 mm thick. Take h = 40 W/m2.K.
temperature difference. Take steam at 250°C and
Solution h = 98 W/m2.K.
Given : Thermometer well as spine Solution
k = 40 W/m.K, TL = 150°C, Given : Thermometer well as hollow spine.
T0 = 80°C, L = 10 cm, k = 27 W/m.K, T∞ = 250°C,
t = 2 mm, h = 40 W/m2.K. h = 98 W/m2.K, d = 2.2 cm,
To find : The percentage error in measured t = 0.5 mm,
temperature. error = 0.5% of applied temperature difference.
Assumptions : To find : Length of thermometer pocket.
Assumptions :
1. Steady state heat conduction along spine.
1. Steady state heat conduction along spine.
2. Insulated spine tip.
2. Insulated tip spine.
Analysis :
Analysis : The given error
hP h 40 0.5
m= = = = × Applied temperature difference
kA c kt 40 × 2 × 10 −3 100
= 22.36 m–1 TL − T∞ 0.5 1
mL = 22.36 × 0.1 = 2.236 or = =
T0 − T∞ 100 cosh mL
The temperature at x = L
TL − T∞ 1 or cosh mL = 200 or mL = 6
=
T0 − T∞ cosh mL h 98
or L =6 or L =6
150 − T∞ 1 kt 27 × 0.5 × 10 −3
= = 0.211
80 − T∞ cosh (2.236) or L = 70.42 mm. Ans.
Example 5.31. The steam at 300°C is passing through a The permissible error = 1.8%
steel tube. A thermometer pocket of steel (k = 45 W/m.K) of T∞ – TL = 0.018 T∞
inside diameter 14 mm, and 1 mm thick is used to
or TL = (1 – 0.018) T∞
measure the temperature. Calculate the length of
thermometer pocket needed to measure the temperature = 0.982 T∞ = 0.982 × 300
within 1.8% permissible error. The diameter of steam = 294.6
tube is 95 mm. Take heat transfer coefficient as 93 W/m2.K And hence
and tube wall temperature as 100°C.
294.6 − 300 1
=
Solution 100 − 300 cosh mL
Given : The temperature measurement by or cosh mL = 37.037 or mL = 4.305
thermometer in a pocket.
4.305
T∞ = 300°C, k = 45 W/m.K, or L= = 0.0917 m
46.9
di = 14 mm, t = 1 mm, = 91.78 mm. Ans.
ε = 1.8%, T0 = 100°C,
Example 5.32. The temperature of a gas stream is
h = 93 W/m2.K. measured by using two thermocouples attached to a tube
of perimeter 50 mm and cross-sectional area 25 mm2.
The tube 250 mm long and is mounted normal to the
duct wall. If the thermocouples are attached to the tube
at 125 mm and 250 mm from the duct wall and indicate
the tube wall temperatures of 350°C and 390°C
T0 = 100°C respectively. Calculate the gas temperature and the duct
wall temperature.
The heat transfer coefficient between tube wall and
t Steam
T¥ = 300°C
gas stream is 5 W/m2.K and thermal conductivity of tube
material is 45 W/m.K. Neglect any heat transfer into
exposed end of tube.
L
Solution
2
h = 93 W/m .K
Given : Temperature measurement of a gas
stream.
P = 50 mm, Ac = 25 mm2,
L = 250 mm = 0.25 m,
To find : The length of the pocket.
x1 = 125 mm, T1 = 350°C,
Analysis : Thermometer pocket is treated as fin
of insulated tip. The temperature at x = L is given by x2 = 250 mm, T2 = 390°C,
2
h = 5 W/m .K, k = 45 W/m.K.
TL − T∞ 1
= To find :
T0 − T∞ cosh mL
(i) Gas stream temperature
hP (ii) Duct wall temperature.
where m=
kA c Analysis : The thermometer tube is assumed as
do = di + 2t = 14 + 2 × 1 insulated tip fin, and temperature distribution is given
= 16 mm = 0.016 m by
P = πdo T − T∞ cosh mL (L − x)
= π × 0.016 = 0.0502 m =
T0 − T∞ cosh mL
Ac = π/4 (do2 – d12)
= π/4 × (0.0162 – 0.0142)
hP 5 × 50 × 10 −3
= 4.712 × 10–5 where m= =
kA c 45 × 25 × 10 −6
93 × 0.0502
m= = 46.9 m–1 = 14.90 m–1
45 × 4.712 × 10 −5
Using the data at x = x1, T = T1 With regard to limiting condition of fin length,
when heat transfer does not increase with an increase
350 − T∞ cosh [14.90 × (0.25 − 0.125)]
= = 0.158 in the length of fin can be recognised by
T0 − T∞ cosh (14.90 × 0.25)
dQ fin
or 350 – T∞ = 0.158 T0 – 0.158 T∞ =0
dL
or 0.158 T0 = 350 – 0.8412 T∞ For the fins loosing heat by convection at its tip,
or T0 = 6.297 × (350 – 0.8412 T∞) ...(i) the rate of heat transfer is given by eqn. (5.26)
Using data at x = x2 = L, T = T2 h
sinh (mL) + cosh (mL)
390 − T∞ 1 1 mk
= = Qfin = h P k A c (T0 – T∞) × h
T0 − T∞ cosh mL cosh (14.90 × 0.25) cosh mL + sinh mL
mk
= 0.0481
h
or 0.0481 T0 = 390 – (1 – 0.0481) T∞ tanh (mL) +
= h P k A c (T0 – T∞) × mk ...(5.50)
or 0.0481 ×6.297 × (350 – 0.8412 T∞) = 390 – 0.952 T∞ h
1+ tanh (mL)
or 0.6972 T∞ = 284 mk
Gas stream temperature Treating k, h, P, Ac (T0 – T∞) and m as constant
quantities and differentiating above equation with
T∞ = 407.33°C. Ans.
respect to fin length L and equating it to zero;
and duct wall temperature
dQ fin
T0 = 6.297 (350 – 0.8412 × 407.33) = h P k A c (T0 – T∞)
dL
= 46.3°C. Ans.
LM
× d tanh (mL) + h/mk
OP =0
N
dL 1 + (h/mk) tan mL Q
5.7. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR FINS
or LM h OP
tanh (mL) × m sec2 h (mL)
The following factors should be considered for optimum N 1+
mk Q
design of fins : LM FG h IJ OP × h m sec
1. Cost. – tanh mL +
N H mkK Q mk 2 h mL = 0
2. Manufacturing difficulties. The simplification of this equation leads to
3. Pressure drop caused by fluid friction on fins.
4. Space consideration e.g., length of fins. h2
1– = 0 or mk = h
5. Weight consideration. m 2 k2
A design of fins should be considered ideal kP kP
(optimum), when the fins require less cost and easy to or = 1 or =1 ...(5.51)
hA c hA c
manufacture. They offer minimum resistance to fluid
flow and are light in weight. Introducing P ≈ 2w, and Ac = wt
5.7.1. Space Considerations : Condition for use of Fins 2k 1 t/2

=1 or = ...(5.52)
An important consideration in the design of finned ht h k
surfaces is the selection of proper fin length L. Normally, The term 1/h represents an external (convection)
it is understood that, longer the fin, the larger the heat t/2
thermal resistance and represents internal
transfer area and thus the higher the rate of heat k
dissipation from the fin surface. But at the same time, (conduction) thermal resistance of a plane wall of
with long fins, the weight, cost, and fluid friction thickness one half of a fin thickness.
increase. Therefore, increasing the length beyond a The ratio of conduction resistance to convection
certain value cannot be justified unless the added resistance is known as the Biot number, explained in
benefits outweigh the increased cost. Further, the fin Chapter 6, that is
efficiency decreases with increasing fin length because h(t /2)
decrease in temperature along the fin length. The fin Bi = ...(5.53)
k
length that causes the fin efficiency to drop below 60% We can draw the following conclusion with the
cannot be justified economically and should not be used. help of eqns. (5.52) and (5.53)
1. After attachment of fins to a surface, if external as compared with the rate of heat dissipation with
thermal resistance is equal to internal thermal increase in parameter 2k/ht. Therefore, the use of shorter
resistance as in eqn. (5.52), i.e., fins of higher conducting materials is more effective than
1 t/2 longer fins. However, as the fins become shorter, the
= heat flow becomes two dimensional and therefore, result
h k
h differs from that obtained from eqn. (5.51). Fig. 5.40(b)
or Bi = 1 i.e., =1 shows the variation of heat dissipation rate Qfin with
mk
Then eqn. (5.50) for fin heat transfer rate yields respect to fin length L for given values of parameter
to 2k 2k dQ fin
. It indicates that as → 1, the → 0 and the
Qfin = hAc (T0 – T∞) ht ht dL
which represents the heat transfer rate from primary fin becomes ineffective.
(root) surface without any fin. It suggests that as long
as h/mk = 1, the heat transfer rate from the primary
surface will not change by attaching fins as shown in 100
Fig. 5.40(a).
50
Q Qfin 2k
5 ht
Bi < 1 (h < mk) 2

1
Qno fin Bi = 1 (mk = h)
L
Bi > 1 (h > mk) Fig. 5.40. (b) Variation of heat transfer rate with fin length
5.7.2. Weight Consideration

Bi The weight of the fin is very important, when designing
Fig. 5.40. (a) The fin heat transfer rate as a the fins for automobiles and aircrafts. In such problems,
function of Biot number. the maximum heat transfer rate is required with least
2. When internal resistance of fin is greater than amount of weight of heat exhanger. For a given weight,
the external resistance i.e., the maximum heat dissipation is required.
t /2 1 h Weight of one fin = Length × width × thickness
> or Bi > 1 or >1 × density of material
k h mk
The addition of fins (secondary surface) on the =L×w×t×ρ
primary surface will reduce the heat transfer rate or For given dimensions, the length L of the fin is
the fins will act as insulating medium on the surface. It fixed, whereas the width w and thickness t of the fin
may happen when value of h is very high as for flowing are optimised to get maximum heat flow.
liquids, and during change of phase. Therefore, the fins If the heat loss from the tip is neglected
are not used on liquid side and on evaporating and
condensing surfaces. Qfin = h P k A c (T0 – T∞) tanh mL
3. When internal resistance of fin is less than the = mkAc (T0 – T∞) tanh mL
external resistance i.e.,
h 2h
t /2 1 Introducing m = and Ap = Lt, profile area
< or Bi < 1 or <1 kt
k h mk
The use of fins will increase the heat transfer from Then
the primary surface. In actual practice, the use of fins
F 2h A p I
can only be justified, when the parameter
2k
ht
has a value Qfin =
2h
kt
× k × (wt) (T0 – T∞) tanh GH kt
×
t JK
equal to or exceeding five.
2k 1 F 2h A p I
ht
≥ 5 or Bi ≤
5
...(5.54) or Qfin = (2kh)1/2 t1/2w (T0 – T∞) tanh GH k
× 3/ 2
t
JK
Further, it should be noted that the rate of heat
dissipation beyond a certain length of fin is quite less ...(5.55)
For given profile area Ap, the heat transfer, Q 16 64

will be maximum, when or 4mL + (mL) 3 + (mL)5 + ... = 12 mL
6 120
dQ fin
= (2kh)1/2 w(T0 – T∞) Discarding higher order terms, we have
dt
R| F 2h A p I U|V = 0 2 2
×
d 1/2
S|
t tanh GH × 3/ 2 JK W| 1+ (mL) 2 + (mL)4 = 3
dt T k t 3 15
Differentiating by parts or 15 + 10(mL)2 + 2(mL)4 = 45
FG 1 t IJ tanh FG 2h A p I
JK
or (mL)4 + 5(mL)2 – 15 = 0
H2 K H
− 1/ 2
× 3/ 2
k t
− 5 ± 52 + 4 × 1 × 15
t1/ 2
2h 3 FG IJ or (mL)2 = = 2.1
+
F 2h A p I× k
× Ap × − t − 5 / 2 = 0
2 H K 2×1
cosh 2 GH k
× 3/ 2
t
JK or mL = 1.452
F 2h A p 3 Ap I 2h
or
1
2
×
1
t
tanh GH k
× 3/ 2 − × 2
t 2 t
JK or
kt
× L = 1.452 or L = 1.452
kt
2h
2h 1 L 2k
×
k
×
F 2h A p I =0 or
t/2
= 1.452
ht
...(5.59)
cosh 2
GH k
× 3/ 2
t
JK It is the condition for maximum heat flow for a
F 2h A p I given weight of fin, giving the optimum ratio of fin height
or tanh GH k
× 3/ 2
t
JK and half the fin thickness.
Further for insulated fin tip, the temperature
3A p 2h 1 ratio at its tip is given by eqn. (5.20)
=
t 3/ 2
×
k
×
F 2h A p I ...(5.56)
cosh 2
GH k
× 3/ 2
t
JK T − T∞
=
θ
=
1
T0 − T∞ θ 0 cosh mL
2h
Using Ap = Lt and m = , we get θ0
kt or θ= = 0.453 θ0 ...(5.60)
1 cosh (1.452)
tanh mL = 3 mL ×
cosh 2 (mL) and fin effectiveness for insulated tip fin
sinh mL 3 mL
or = Q fin
cosh mL cosh 2 (mL) εfin insulated tip =
or sinh (mL) cosh mL = 3 mL ....(5.57) Q no fin
sinh (2 mL)
or = 3 mL h P k A c θ 0 tanh mL
2 =
h (wt) θ 0
e 2 mL − e − 2 mL
or = 6 mL ...(5.58)
2
F 1 + 2 mL + 4 (mL) + 8 (mL) + 16 (mL) + ... +I FG 2k IJ 1/2
or GH
2
JK
3 4 =
H ht K tanh (mL)
2! 3! 4!
F1 − 2 (mL) + 4 (mL) I F 2k I
=G J
1/2
GG 2! JJ
2
H ht K × tanh (1.452)
–
GG 8 (mL) 16 (mL )
− ... +J
J = 12 mL
3 4 FG 2k IJ 1/2
H −
3!
+
4! K
εfin, insulated tip = 0.896
H ht K ...(5.61)
This equation determines the heat flow increase

16 (mL) 3 64 (mL) 5 through a wall as a result of addition of fin.
or 4 mL + + + ... = 12 mL
3! 5!
Example 5.33. The 4 mm thick fins of mild steel are (ii) The boiling water temperature is 100°C.
used to transfer heat from water to air. Decide the utility (iii) Constant properties.
of fin on either side. The heat transfer coefficient of air is Analysis : The corrected length of fin
80 W/m2.K, while that for water is 5600 W/m2.K. Take P = πd = π × (0.008) m
thermal conductivity of mild steel as 45 W/m.K. π 2 π
Ac = d = × (0.008 m)2
Solution 4 4
Given : The mild steel fin fins : hP 4000 × π × (0.008)
m= = = 343
t = 4 mm = 4 × 10–3 m, h1 = 80 W/m2.K,
kA c 17 × (π/4) × (0.008) 2
The heat transfer rate by fin
h2 = 5600 W/m2.K, k = 45 W/m.K.
To find : The utility of fin on either side. Qfin = hPkAc (T0 – T∞)
2k π
Analysis : The condition for use of fins is ≥5 = 4000 × π × (0.008) × 17 × × (0.008) 2 × (T0 – T∞)
ht 4
(i) For air, h1 = 80 W/m2.K = 0.293 (T0 – T∞) W
2 × 45 The heat transfer rate from root surface, before
= 281.25 ≥ 5
80 × 4 × 10 −3 fin attachment
The fins can be used on air side, they will enhance Qno fin = hAc (T0 – T∞)
the heat transfer rate on this side. Ans. = 4000 × (π/4) × (0.008)2 × (T0 – T∞)
(ii) For water, h2 = 5600 W/m2.K = 0.201 (T0 – T∞) W
2k 2 × 45 % increase in heat transfer

= = 4.01
ht 5600 × 4 × 10 −3 Q fin − Q no fin 0.293 − 0.201
× 100 = × 100 = 45.8%
which is less than 5 and hence the use of fins on water Q no fin 0.201
side will not serve the purpose, they are installed
The use of fin increases the heat dissipation by
for. Ans.
45.8% but use of fin is not justified, because condition
Example 5.34. A steel fin having 8 mm diameter and for used
100 mm long is exposed to boiling water having
convective heat transfer coefficient of 4000 W/m2.K. The 2k 2k 2 × 17
= = ≤ 5 is not satisfied. Ans.
thermal conductivity of steel can be taken as 17 W/m.K. ht h(d/4) 4000 × 0.002
Show by calculation how much heat dissipation is If material of thermal conductivity,
achieved and is it advisable to use the fin ? How the heat k2 = 45 W/m.K used, then
dissipation performance change, if a material with
thermal conductivity of 45 W/m.K is used ? All other hP 4h 4 × 4000
m= = = = 210.8
conditions are same. kA c kd 45 × 0.008
Solution
Qfin = 4000 × π × 0.008 × 45 × (π/4) × (0.008) 2
Given : A finite long fin
d = 8 mm = 0.008 m, L = 100 mm = 0.1 m, × (T0 – T∞)
h = 4000 W/m2.K, k1 = 17 W/m.K, = 0.476 (T0 – T∞) W
k2 = 45 W/m.K. % increase in heat transfer
To find : 0.476 − 0.201
= × 100
(i) Validity of fin attachment. 0.201
(ii) Change in performance if k2 = 45 W/m.K, = 137.2%. Ans.
instead of k1 = 17 W/m.K. 2k 2 × 45
Assumptions : and = = 11.25 > 5
ht 4000 × 0.002
(i) The diameter of the fin is very less compared Thus, the use of fins of mild steel is justified on
to its length, thus treating infinite long fin. the surface.
5.8. SUMMARY thereby the heat dissipation rate by convection. The

addition of fins is justified when the value of heat
A fin is normally a thin strip of metal. The finned transfer coefficient is low. The temperature distribution
surfaces are commonly used to increase the heat and heat transfer for fins of uniform cross-section are
dissipation rate. Fins increase the exposure area, tabulated below.
TABLE 5.1. Temperature distribution and heat loss for fins of uniform cross-section
Case Tip condition at x = L Temperature distribution θ/θ0 = Fin heat transfer Qfin =
A Infinite long fin e–mx M

cosh m(L − x)
B Insulated tip M tanh mL
cosh mL
cosh m(L − x) + (h mk) sinh m(L − x) sinh mL + (h m k) cosh mL

C Convection heat transfer at tip M
cosh mL + (h mk) sinh mL cosh mL + (h m k) sinh mL
(θL θ0 ) sinh mx + sinh m(L − x) cosh m(L − 1)

D Prescribed temperature M (θL θ0 + 1)
sinh mL sinh mL
where, m2 = hP/(kAc) θ0 = T0 – T∞, θ = T – T∞ M= h PkA c (T0 − T∞ )
Thermometer pocket accommodates thermo- Q fin Actual heat transfer rate from a fin
ηfin = =
meter, in a small tube welded radially to duct. The Q ideal Ideal heat transfer rate from a fin,
thermometer pocket is considered as a fin with insulated if entire fin surface was at base
tip and recorded temperature is approximated as
temperature T0
TL − T∞ 1 If fin efficiency is known, the heat transfer rate
=
T0 − T∞ cosh mL Qfin from a fin can be obtained as
Installation of fin is justified by a term called fin Qfin = ηfin × Qideal = ηfin hAfin (T0 – T∞)
effectiveness, defined as The total fin efficiency evaluates the thermal
performance of the finned surface. It is expressed as
Q fin Q fin
εfin = = Total heat transfer rate from
Q no fin hA c (T0 − T∞ )
the finned surface
ηtotal fin =
The heat transfer rate with The heat transfer rate which would be
fin from base area A c possible, if total finned surface were
= maintained at base temperature T0
Heat transfer rate without fin
from the surface of area A c Q fin + Q unfin
=
h A total (T0 − T∞ )
The overall effectiveness for the finned surface is
defined as where Atotal = Afin + Aunfin
The analysis of fin with convection at its tip is
Heat transfer rate from finned surface tidious. The solution to such fins can be approximated
εfin overall =
Heat transfer rate from same by expressions for finite long insulated tip fin by
surface, if there were no fins considering corrected length Lc of fin
Ac
Q Q + Q unfin Lc = L +
= total fin = fin P
Q no fin Q no fin
The use of fin is justified when
The fin efficiency is used to evaluate the thermal 2k
performance of a fin. It is defined as ≥5
ht
REVIEW QUESTIONS PROBLEMS

1. Why extended surfaces are most commonly used ? 1. A long rod 6.5 mm in diameter is exposed to an
2. A fin attached to a surface shows an effectiveness of environment at 27°C. The base temperature of the
0.9. Do you think the heat transfer rate from the rod is 150°C. The heat transfer coefficient between
surface has increased or decreased with addition of the rod and environment is 30 W/m2.K. Calculate the
heat loss by the rod. [Ans. 753.5 W/m]
fins ? Comment.
2. One half of a long rod, 25 mm in diameter, was
3. Define fin effectiveness. When the use of fins is not inserted into a furnace, while the other half was
justified. projecting into air at 27°C. After steady state had been
4. Explain the criteria of selection of fins. reached, the temperature at two points 76 mm apart
5. What is the difference between fin effectiveness and were measured and found to be 126°C and 91°C
fin efficiency ? respectively. The heat transfer coefficient was
estimated to be 22.7 W/m2.K. Calculate thermal
6. How does overall effectiveness of a finned surface
conductivity of the rod material.[Ans. 110.2 W/m.K]
differ from the effectiveness of a single fin ?
3. A long brass rod (k = 104 W/m.K), 25 mm in diameter
7. If a thin and long fin, insulated at its tip is used, is heated by inserting its one end into a furnace, while
show that the heat transfer from the fin is given by remaining portion is projected into an ambient at
25°C. During steady state, the measurements of
Qfin = hPkA c (T0 – T∞) tanh mL.
temperature at two points 10 cm apart reveal 155°C
8. How is thermal performance of a fin measured ? and 101°C respectively. Calculate the effective heat
Define fin efficiency. transfer coefficient. [Ans. 12.6 W/m2.K]
9. Two pin fins are identical except that the diameter 4. Consider two long, slender rods A and B of the same
of one is twice that of other. For which fin will diameter but different materials. One end of the each
rod is attached to a base surface temperature at
(a) fin effectiveness (b) fin efficiency be higher ?
100°C, while the surface of the rods are exposed to
10. Under what situations does the fin efficiency become an ambient air at 20°C. By traversing the length of
100% ? the each rod with a thermocouple, it was observed that
11. What types of boundary conditions are used for the temperature of rods were equal at the position
various types of fins ? xA = 0.15 m and xB = 0.075 m, where x is measured
from the base surface. If the thermal conductivity of
12. State the various assumptions made in the formation the rod A is known to be kA = 70 W/m.K, determine
of energy equation for one dimensional heat the value of kB for rod B. [Ans. 17.5 W/m.K]
dissipation from an extended surface. 5. A very long copper rod (k = 372 W/m.K), 25 mm in
13. Give a few specific examples of use of fins. diameter has maintained its one end at 100°C. The
14. What would be the nature of temperature rod is exposed to a fluid at 40°C with h = 3.5 W/m2.K.
distribution in a fin, if thermal conductivity of fin Calculate the heat lost by the rod. [Ans. 13.44 W]
material is very high ? 6. A long stainless steel rod (k = 16 W/m.K) has a square
cross-section 12.5 cm × 12.5 cm and has one end
15. Show that the fin efficiency for a rectangular fin is
maintained at 250°C. It is exposed into a fluid at 90°C
given by with h = 40 W/m2.K. Calculate the heat lost by the
tanh [2 hL2c kt]1/ 2 rod. [Ans. 357.77 W]
ηfin =
[2 hL2c kt]1/ 2 7. A rectangular copper fin has one end maintained at
200°C, while remainder of the fin surface is exposed to
where Lc = corrected length = L + t/2 or Ac . convective environment at 25°C with h = 35 W/m2.K.
L+
P If the thermal conductivity of the copper is
16. Show that the total heat transfer rate from a fin wall 386 W/m.K, determine the heat lost by fin per unit
is given by depth. The length of the fin is 5 cm and thickness is
Q = h [Atotal – (1 – ηfin) Afin] (T0 – T∞) 4 mm. Assume the fin tip to be insulated.
where Atotal = total area of fin and unfinned [Ans. 612.41 W]
surfaces. 8. An aluminium fin (k = 204 W/m.K), 18 mm thick
and 16 cm long has a base temperature of 300°C.
Afin = area of the finned surface.
The ambient temperature is 20°C, with convection
ηfin = fin efficiency. heat transfer coefficient of 30 W/m2.K. Determine
17. Explain the situation, when addition of fins to a the fin efficiency and heat lost from the fin per unit
surface is not useful. depth. [Ans. 2681.27 W]
9. A brass rod (k = 100 W/m.K), 100 mm long and (a) What is the heat loss from the fin ?
5 mm in diameter extends horizontally from a casting (b) If 200 such fins are spaced at 5 mm increments
at 200°C. The rod is in an environment at 20°C and along the tube length, what is the heat loss per
convection coefficient of 30 W/m2.K. What is the metre of the tube length ?
temperature of the rod 25 mm, 50 mm and 100 mm
from the casting ? (P.U., Dec. 1994) [Ans. (a) 12.97 W, (b) 2948.73 W]
16. Annular aluminium fins (k = 212 W/m.K) 2 mm thick
[Ans. 92.1°C, 91.99°C, 91.88°C]
and 15 mm long are installed on an aluminium tube,
10. An aluminium rod (k = 200 W/m.K), 2.5 cm in 30 mm diameter. If the tube wall is at 100°C and
diameter, 15 cm long protrudes from a wall, which the adjoining fluid is at 25°C with h = 75 W/m2.K.
is maintained at 260°C. The rod is exposed to an What is the rate of heat transfer from a fin ?
environment at 16°C with convection coefficient of
[Ans. 25 W]
15 W/m2.K. Calculate the efficiency and heat lost by
the rod. [Ans. Q = 78.5 W] 17. Circumferential fin of rectangular cross-section,
37 mm in outer diameter and 3 mm thick is attached
11. A cylindrical rod 2 cm in diameter and 20 cm long
to a 25 mm diameter tube. The fin is constructed of
protrudes from a heat source at 300°C into air at
mild steel (k = 45 W/m.K). The air circulated over the
40°C. The heat transfer coefficient is 5 W/m2.K on
fin with a heat transfer coefficient of 28.4 W/m2.K. If
all exposed surface. Neglecting the radial variation
of temperature and heat lost from the tip, find the the temperature of the base of the fin and air are
temperature at the fin tip. 260°C, and 38°C, respectively. Calculate the heat
Find the temperature at the fin tip and at the mid- transfer rate from the fin. [Ans. 50 W]
point along the rod made of borosilicate glass 18. Circular aluminium fins of constant rectangular
(k = 1.09 W/m.K). Also determine fin efficiency. profile are attached to an aluminium tube of 50 mm
[Ans. 41.23°C, 52.7°C, 16.5%] outer diameter and having a surface temperature of
12. A 2 cm diameter glass rod (k = 0.8 W/m.K) is 6 cm 180°C. Fin thickness t = 1 mm, L = 15 mm,
long. It has base temperature at 120°C and is exposed k = 200 W/m.K. The fin is exposed to an ambient at
to air at 20°C. The temperature at the tip of the rod 30°C with heat transfer coefficient of 80 W/m2.K.
is measured as 35°C. What is the convection heat Find the fin efficiency and heat transfer from each
transfer coefficient ? How much heat is lost by the fin. (Anna University, Dec. 1999)
rod ? [Ans. 6.32 W/m2.K, 1.0 W] [Ans. ηfin = 0.93, Qfin = 68.36 W]
13. A straight rectangular fin (k = 55 W/m.K), 1.4 mm
LM F h I = 0.3, r
Hint. L G
H kA JK
thick and 35 mm long is exposed to air at 20°C with 3/2
h = 50 W/m2.K. Calculate the maximum possible heat
loss for a base temperature of 150°C. What is actual
MN c
p r
2c
1
≈ 1.6 , ηfin = 93%,
heat loss for this base temperature ? 

Qfin = ηfin × h × 2π (r 22c − r 12) ( T0 − T∞ ) = 68.36 W 
[Ans. 487.7 W, 309.6 W] 
19. The aluminium fins (k = 206 W/m.K) are installed
14. The copper fins are installed on an I.C. engine
on an electronic device 1 m wide and 1 m tall. The
cylinder. The inner and outer radii of fins are 50 mm
and 62.5 mm, respectively. The cylinder wall and fins are rectangular in cross-section, 2.5 cm long and
ambient temperature are 180°C and 36°C, 0.25 cm thick. There are 100 fins per metre. The
respectively. The thermal conductivity and density convection heat transfer coefficient is 35 W/m2.K.
of copper are 384 W/m.K and 8800 kg/m3, respectively. Calculate the percentage increase in heat transfer
The heat transfer coefficient over the fins surface is with finned wall in comparison with base wall.
70 W/m2.K. If the fins are designed to obtain [Ans. 483%]
maximum heat transfer rate for a given mass,
20. Heat is transferred from water to air through a brass
calculate :
wall (k = 84 W/m.K). The addition of rectangular brass
(a) rate of heat transfer per fin,
fins 0.08 cm thick and 2.5 cm long, spaced 1.25 cm
(b) saving in mass in kg/fin if aluminium was used in
apart is suggested. Assuming water side heat
place of copper.
transfer coefficient is 170 W/m2.K and that of on air
For aluminium take k = 203.5 W/m.K,
side is 17 W/m2.K. Compare the heat transfer rate
ρ = 2670 kg/m3.
achieved by adding fins to (a) water side, (b) air side
[Ans. (a) 55.5 W/fin, (b) 42.7% saving in mass]
and (c) both sides. Neglect temperature drop through
15. An annular aluminium fin (k = 210 W/m.K) is
attached to a circular tube having an outside the wall. [Ans. (a) 6.55%, (b) 247%, (c) 340%]
diameter of 25 mm and a surface temperature of 21. A 3 mm thick aluminium plate (k = 210 W/m.K) has
250°C. The fin is 1 mm thick and 10 mm long. The fin rectangular fins 1.6 mm × 6 mm on a side spaced
is exposed in an ambient at 25°C with h = 25 W/m2.K. 6 mm apart. The finned side is in contact of air at
38°C with h = 28.4 W/m2.K. On the unfinned side, 27. An aluminium fin (k = 210 W/m.K), 1.6 mm thick is
water flows at 93°C with h = 283.7 W/m2.K. placed on a circular tube with 2.54 cm OD. The fin is
Calculate : 6.4 mm long. The tube wall is maintained at 150°C,
while the ambient is at 20°C with convective
(a) the efficiency of fins,
coefficient of 25 W/m2.K. Calculate the heat lost by
(b) rate of heat transfer per unit area of the wall,
fin. [Ans. 6.8 W]
(c) comment on the result, if water and air sides are
28. A thermometer well 22 cm in diameter and 0.5 mm
interchanged.
thick is made of steel (k = 27 W/m.K) and it is to be
[Ans. (a) 99.7%, (b) 3598.4 W, (c) Heat transfer used to measure the temperature of steam flowing
is reduced by 46.4%, if water and air through a pipe. Calculate the minimum length of
sides are interchanged] well so that the error is less than 0.5% of the
22. One end of a 30 cm long steel rod (k = 25 W/m.K) difference between pipe well and the fluid
is connected to a wall at 204°C. The other end is temperature. Take steam temperature as 250°C and
connected to other wall at 93°C. The air is blown h = 98 W/m2.K. [Ans. L = 1.7 cm]
across the rod with h = 17 W/m2.K. The diameter of 29. Thin fins of brass (k = 101 W/m.K) are welded
the rod is 5 cm and air temperature is 30°C, what is longitudinally on a 4 cm brass cylinder, which stands
the net rate of heat dissipation to air ? vertically and is surrounded by air at 20°C. The heat
[Ans. 190.25 W] transfer coefficient from the metal surface to the air
23. The both ends of a 0.5 cm diameter copper U-shaped is 20 W/m2.K. If 20 uniformly spaced fins are used,
rod (k = 386 W/m.K) are rigidly fixed to a vertical each 0.8 mm thick and extending 1 cm from the
wall. The temperature of the wall is maintained cylinder surface, calculate the heat transfer from the
cylinder to the air, when the cylinder surface is
at 90°C. The developed length of the rod is 60 cm
maintained at 200°C. [Ans. 1866.22 W]
and it is exposed in air at 30°C with h = 34 W/m2.K.
30. An oil-filled thermometer well made of a steel tube
(a) Calculate the temperature at the mid-point of the
(k = 55.8 W/m.K), 120 mm long and 1.5 mm thick is
rod
installed in a tube through which air is flowing. The
(b) Heat transfer rate from the rod. temperature of the air stream is measured with the
[Ans. (a) 39.6°C, (b) 7.53 W] help of a thermometer placed in the well. The surface
24. A circular fin of a rectangular profile is used on a heat transfer coefficient from the air to the well is
30 cm diameter tube, maintained at 100°C. The 23.3 W/m2.K and the temperature recorded by the
outside diameter of the fin is 50 cm and the fin thermometer is 88°C. Estimate the measurement
thickness is 1.0 mm. The environment air error and the percentage error if the temperature at
temperature is 30°C with h = 50 W/m2.K. Calculate the base of the well is 40°C. [Ans. 17.4°C, 16.5%]
thermal conductivity of the material for fin efficiency 31. A turbine blade 6.25 cm long, 4.5 cm2 in cross-section,
of 60%. [Ans. 1.8 W/m.K] 12 cm in perimeter is made of steel (k = 26.16 W/m.K).
25. The steam in a heating system flows through a tube, The root temperature is 500°C. The blade is exposed
5 cm in outer diameter whose outer surface is to steam at 800°C with convection coefficient of
maintained at 180°C. The circular aluminium fins 465 W/m2.K. Calculate the temperature and rate of
(k = 186 W/m.K) of outer diameter 6 cm and of heat flow at the root of the blade. [Ans. 243 W]
constant thickness of 1 mm are attached to the tube 32. A straight triangular fin of steel (k = 30 W/m.K) is
with a spacing 3 mm and thus 250 fins per metre attached to a plane wall maintained at 460°C.
length of the tube. The heat is transferred to The fin thickness is 6.4 mm and it is 25 mm
surrounding air at 25°C with h = 40 W/m2.K. long. It is exposed into a fluid at 90°C with
Calculate the increase in heat transfer rate from the h = 28 W/m2.K. Calculate the heat loss from the
tube per metre as a result of adding fins. fin. [Ans. 2950 W]
[Ans. 2750 W] 33. A straight rectangular fin 2.0 cm thick and 14 cm
26. The temperature of air in a reservoir is measured long is constructed of steel (k = 45 W/m.K) and placed
with the aid of a mercury in a glass thermometer on a wall at 200°C, exposed to air at 15°C with
placed in a protective steel well filled with oil. The h = 20 W/m2.K. Calculate heat lost from the fin per
thermometer indicates the temperature at the end unit depth. [Ans. 845.4 W]
of the well as 84°C. The well is 12 cm long, its 34. A 1 cm diameter steel rod (k = 20 W/m.K) is 20 cm
thickness is 1.5 mm and thermal conductivity of the long. Its one end is maintained at 50°C while other
well material is 55.8 W/m.K. Assume heat transfer at 100°C. It is exposed to convection environment at
coefficient between well and air is 23.5 W/m2.K. 20°C with h = 85 W/m2.K. Calculate the temperature
Calculate the error in temperature measurement, if at the centre of the rod. [Ans. 21.8°C]
the base of the well is at 40°C. Also calculate the 35. A straight fin (k = 23 W/m.K) with triangular profile
true temperature. [Ans. 16°C, 100°C] has a length of 5 cm and thickness of 4 mm. The fin
is exposed to a fluid at 40°C with h = 20 W/m2.K. steel (k = 60 W/m.K) and number of fins are installed
The base of the fin is maintained at 200°C. Calculate to dissipate 400 W of heat into an ambient air, where
the heat loss per unit depth of the fin. the unit surface conductance is 10 W/m2.K. Each fin
[Ans. 214.16 W] is to sum the entire length of the motor casing. Each
36. Aluminium fins (k = 200 W/m.K) of rectangular fin is 8 mm thick and 10 mm long. Calculate the
profile are attached on a plane wall with 5 mm number of fins required to maintain the temperature
spacing (200 fin per metre width). The fins are 1 mm difference between casing and surrounding air of
thick, 10 mm long. The wall is maintained at 30°C. [Ans. 117 Fins]
temperature of 200°C and the fins dissipate heat by 42. A carbon steel pipe (k = 45 W/m.K), 78 mm in inner
convection into the ambient air at 40°C with diameter and 5.5 mm thick has eight longitudinal
h = 50 W/m2.K. Determine : (a) the fin efficiency, fins 1.5 mm thick. Each fin extends 30 mm from the
(b) the area weighted fin efficiency, (c) the heat loss pipe wall. If the wall temperature, ambient
per square metre of the wall. [Ans. (c) 37.8 kW/m2] temperature and surface heat transfer coefficient are
37. A 1.6 mm diameter stainless steel rod (k = 22 W/m.K) 150°C, 28°C and 75 W/m2.K, respectively. Calculate
protrudes from a wall maintained at 80°C. The rod the percentage increase in heat transfer rate for the
is 12.5 mm long and exposed into a fluid at 25°C finned tube over the plain tube. [Ans. 104.45%]
with h = 570 W/m2.K. Calculate the temperature at 43. A copper pipe 100 mm in outer diameter is provided
the tip of the rod. Repeat the calculation with with circular aluminium fins (k = 230 W/m.K) to
h = 20 W/m2.K and h = 1200 W/m2.K. Comment on increase the heat transfer rate. The height of the fin
result. [Ans. 29.12°C, 71.02°C, 25.93°C] is 80 mm and it is 4 mm thick. The temperature at
38. Two 30 cm long and 0.4 cm thick cast iron outer surface of copper pipe is 300°C and the
(k = 52 W/m.K) steam pipes of outer diameter 10 cm temperature of surrounding air is 38°C. The heat
are connected each other through two 1 cm thick transfer coefficient over the fin surface is 40 W/m2.K.
flanges of outer diameter 20 cm. The steam flows Calculate :
inside the tube at an average temperature of 200°C (i) Rate of heat loss from the fin,
with h = 180 W/m2.K. The outer of the pipe is exposed (ii) The efficiency of fin,
to air at 8°C with h = 25 W/m2.K. (iii) The fin effectiveness.
(a) Disregarding the flanges, calculate the average [Ans. (i) 776.34 W, (ii) 79%, (iii) 58.95]
outer surface temperature of pipe.
44. Hot oil in a rectangular tank (1 m × 1 m on a side) is
(b) Using this temperature for the base of the flanges
exposed to surrounding air at 24°C. The temperature
and treating the flanges as fins, calculate the fin
of the tank wall is 110°C. In order to increase the
efficiency and the rate of heat transfer from the
heat dissipation, it is proposed to attach straight
flanges. [Ans. (a) 174.53°C, (b) 0.93%, 207.4 W]
rectangular fins to the tank surface. As a result the
39. A very long rod, 25 mm in diameter, has one end heat dissipation rate increases by 70% and tank
maintained at 100°C. The surface of the rod is surface temperature drops to 91°C. The fins are
exposed to ambient air at 25°C with convection 5 mm thick and are spaced 100 mm apart (centre to
coefficient of 10 W/m2.K. centre distance). The thermal conductivity of tank
(i) What are the heat losses from the rods, con- and fin material is 230 W/m.K and heat transfer
structed of pure copper (k = 398 W/m.K) and coefficient over fins is 42 W/m2.K. Heat loss from
stainless steel (k = 14 W/m.K) ? the fin tip may be neglected. Calculate the minimum
(ii) Estimate how long the rods must be to be height of the fins. [Ans. 68.48 mm]
considered infinite. (P.U., Nov. 2003) 45. A 1.25 cm diameter 15 cm long iron rod
[Ans. (i) Qcu = 29.37 W, Q55 = 5.51 W, (k = 40 W/m.K) protrudes out from a heat source at
(ii) Lcu = 1.32 m, L55 = 0.247 m] 130°C into an ambient at 20°C with convection
40. Two rods A and B of equal diameter and equal length, coefficient of 20 W/m2.K.
but of different materials are used as fins. The both Determine :
rods are attached to a plain wall maintained at (i) Temperature distribution in the rod,
160°C, while they are exposed to air at 30°C. The
(ii) Temperature at the free end,
end temperature of rod A is 100°C, while that of the
(iii) Heat flow out the source,
rod B is 80°C.
(iv) Heat flow rate at the free end.
If the thermal conductivity of rod A is 380 W/m.K,
[Ans. (ii) TL = 51.1°C, (iii) 6.54 W, (iv) 76.33 mW]
calculate the thermal conductivity of rod B. This fin
can be assumed as short with end insulated. 46. Pin fin are provided to increase the heat transfer
rate from a hot surface. Which of the following
[Ans. 221.94 W/m.K]
arrangement will give higher heat transfer rate :
41. An electric motor casing has a diameter of 0.36 m (i) 6 fins of 10 cm length or (ii) 12 fins of 5 cm length.
and length of 0.4 m. The casing is made from cast For analysis, use fin with insulated tip condition.
Take kfin = 200 W/m°C, h = 20 W/m2°C, cross-section 3. Kraus D.A., Aziz A and Welty J., “Extended Surface
area of fin = 2 cm2 perimeter = 4 cm, fin base temp Heat Transfer”, Wiley Inc. New York 2001.
= 230°C, surrounding air temp = 30°C.
4. Serth Robert W, Process “Heat Transfer-Principles
(P.U. May 2013)
and Applications”, Elsevier Science & Technology
[Ans. (i) ηfin = 48.2%, Qfin = 207 W, (ii) ηfin = 76.1%, Books, 2007.
Qfin = 327 W. Shorter fins are effective]
5. Frank Kreith, Raj M. Manglik, Mark S. Bohn,
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING “Principles of Heat Transfer”, 7th edition, Cengage
Learning, 2011.
1. Arpaci Vedat S. “Conduction Heat Transfer”, 6. Incropera Frank. P. And DeWitt David. P.,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Reading, MA, “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer”, 5th ed
1966.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2002.
2. Schneider P.J. “Conduction Heat Transfer”,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Reading, MA, 7. Kern Donald Q, and Kraus A.D., “Extended Surface
1955. Heat Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1972.
Transient Heat Conduction 6
6.1. Approximate Solution—Systems with negligible internal resistance : lumped system analysis—Dimensionless quantities—Thermal
time constant and response of thermocouple—The lumped system analysis for mixed boundary conditions—The validity of lumped system
analysis. 6.2. Analytical Solution—Criteria for neglecting internal temperature gradients—Infinite cylinder and sphere with convective
boundaries—One term approximation. 6.3. Transient Temperature Charts : Heisler and Gröber Charts—Transient temperature charts
for slab—Transient temperature charts for long cylinder and sphere. 6.4. Transient Heat Conduction in Semi Infinite Solids—Penetration
depth and penetration time. 6.5. Transient Heat Conduction in Multidimensional Systems. 6.6. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—
References and Suggested Reading.
When the heat energy is being added or removed to or 4. Product solution,

from a body, its energy content (internal energy) 5. Graphical solution,
changes, resulting into change in its temperature at each 6. Numerical technique.
point within the body over the time. During this
To determine the time dependence of temperature
transient period, the temperature becomes function of
distribution within a solid during transient process, we
time as well as direction in the body. The conduction
shall begin by solving the problems that can be simplified
occurred during this period is called transient (unsteady
by considering the temperature in the solid is only
state) conduction. Therefore, in unsteady state
function of time and uniform throughout the system at
T = f(x, t) any instant. In subsequent sections of this chapter, we
= Function of direction and time shall consider the problems of unsteady state, when
During transient heat conduction, the energy temperature varies with time as well as it penetrates
balance on a body yields to the interior of the bodies.
The net rate of heat transfer with the body
= Net rate of internal energy 6.1. APPROXIMATE SOLUTION
change of the body.
In many engineering applications, the heat 6.1.1. Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance :
transferred is transient. The heat treatment process, Lumped System Analysis
like quenching, annealing, normalising etc. are processes If the physical size of the body is very small, the
of unsteady state heat flow. temperature gradient exists in the body is negligible.
The unsteady heat flow is also involved, when the The small body can be assumed at uniform temperature
system undergoes a transition from one steady state to throughout at any time. The analysis of the unsteady
another, involving periodic variation in heat flow and heat transfer with negligible temperature gradients is
temperature, e.g., the periodic heat flow in a building called the lumped system analysis.
between day and night.
Consider a solid of volume V, surface area As,
The analysis of heat transfer during unsteady thermal conductivity k, density ρ, specific heat C and
state can be possible by
initially at uniform temperature Ti is suddenly
1. Approximation, immersed in a well stirred fluid, kept at uniform
2. Analytical method, temperature T∞. The heat is dissipated by convection into
3. Use of transient temperature charts, a fluid from its surface, with convection coefficient h.
180
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION 181
In absence of any temperature gradient in solid, or P = ln(θi)

the energy balance for element is : Substituting in eqn. (6.2), we get
The rate of heat flow out the solid through the
boundary surface(s) hA s
ln(θ) = – t + ln(θi)
= The rate of decrease of internal ρVC
energy of the solid F θ I = – hA t
or hAs(T – T∞) = – mC
dT
...(6.1)
or ln GH θ JK ρVC
i
s
dt
where, m = ρV, mass of the body
or
θ R hA t UV
= exp S− s
and T = f(t), a function of time. θ i T ρVC W
Ti
or
θ
=
T − T∞
= exp −
hA s t RS UV ...(6.3)
Solid
θi Ti − T∞ ρVC T W
Eout = Qconv The eqn. (6.3) is plotted in Fig. 6.2 for different
hA s
values of and the observations are :
ρVC
T(t) E¢st
(1) The eqn. (6.3) can be used to determine the
T¥ < Ti
time t required for solid to reach some temperature T.
(2) The temperature of a body approaches the
ambient temperature T∞ exponentially. The
Fig. 6.1. Solid suddenly exposed to convection temperature of body changes rapidly at the beginning
environment at T∞
(due to large temperature difference), but slow down
The initial temperature of solid Ti (Fig. 6.1) is
hA s
greater than ambient fluid temperature, T∞, the later on. The large value of indicates that the body
eqn. (6.1) leads to, ρVC
will approach the ambient temperature in a short time.
dT
hAs(T – T∞) = – ρVC
dt
T
Introducing the temperature difference as
θ = T – T∞ ia l
nt
ne
dθ dT o
p g
and = Ex atin
dt dt he
dθ
Thus hAsθ = – ρVC Ex
dt c o pon
o l i en
Rearranging, we have n g tia
l
dθ hA s
=– dt
θ ρVC
t
Integrating both sides, we get
Fig. 6.2. Transient heating and cooling
hA s
ln(θ) = – t+P ...(6.2) The lumped system analysis is analogous to the
ρVC
voltage decay that occurs when a capacitor is discharged
where P is constant of integration and can be evaluated
through a resistor in an electrical R–C circuit. The
from initial condition.
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 6.3. In this network,
At t = 0, T = Ti and θ(t = 0) = θi = Ti – T∞ the capacitor is initially charged to some potential Ti by
Applying in eqn. (6.2) closing the switch S. When switch is opened, the energy
ln(θi) = P + 0 stored in the capacitor is discharged through convection
1 or ∆U = hAs
resistance . The analogy between thermal system
hA s
F
(Ti – T∞) − ρVC
I R|Sexp FG − hA t IJ − 1U|V
and electrical system is apparent.
GH
hA sJK |T H ρVC K |W s
1
where, Rth = , thermal resistance to convection
hA s
R F hA t I − 1U|V
∆U = – ρVC(T – T ) |Sexp G −
|T H ρVC JK |W
s
heat transfer i ∞
Cth = ρVC, thermal capacitance (stored internal
energy). (Joules) ...(6.7)
t³0
Thus the heat transfered during a time period is
S
equal to decrease in internal energy.
t<0
Cth = rVC 6.1.2. Dimensionless Quantities
qi = (Ti – T¥) Rth = 1
hAs hA s
The exponent quantity in eqn. (6.3) may be
ρVC
q=0
expressed as
hA s t FG IJ FG kt IJ FG A δ IJ
hδ
H K H ρCδ K H V K
s
Fig. 6.3. Equivalent thermal (R–C) circuit for lumped = 2
ρVC k
capacity method
The instantaneous rate of cooling can be obtained F hδ I F αt I F A δ IJ
=G JG JG
H k K Hδ K H V K
s
by differentiating eqn. (6.3) with respect to time t, 2
dT hA s R|S hA s t FG IJ U|V b°C/sg = Bi Fo GF ...(6.8)
dt
= (Ti − T∞ ) −
ρVC |T
exp −
ρVC H K |W where, Bi =
hδ
, Biot number, a dimensionless
k
...(6.4) number.
The instantaneous rate of heat transfer Q(t) from
a solid can be calculated as αt
Fo = , Fourier number, a dimensionless
Q(t) = hAs[T – T∞] δ2
number.
dT
= – mC ...(6.5) A sδ
dt and GF = , Geometrical factor, a dimensionless
V
Using the quantity [T – T∞] from eqn. (6.3), we
quantity.
get
The geometrical factor GF is considered to be
L hA t OP (Watts)
Q(t) = hA (T – T ) exp M− s unity for calculation of characteristic length δ of the solid
s i
N ρVC Q ∞ as
...(6.6) V
δ= ...(6.9)
The total quantity of heat transferred during the As
time t is equal to change in internal energy (∆U) of the
solid. It can be calculated by integrating eqn. (6.6) with Then the temperature distribution eqn. (6.3)
respect to time t within limits 0 to t within the solid can be expressed as
∆U = z
0
t
Q(t) dt
T − T∞
Ti − T∞
= exp −
RS
ht
T
ρδC
UV
W
...(6.10)
= hAs (Ti – T∞) z R|S|T

0
t FG
H
exp −
hA s t
ρVC
IJ U|V dt
K |W
For certain common body shapes, and their
characteristic length δ is shown in Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1. The characteristic length δ of common geometry exposed to convection environment.
Sr. Geometry Schematic Volume Surface Characteristic Equation

No. V Area As Length δ number
1 Infinite plate
of thickness L Initially
A
at Ti
A AL L
exposed on both O AL 2A δ= = …(6.11)
2A 2
sides
L
2 Short cylinder
exposed to ro L
πro2L 2πro2 + 2πroL δ= …(6.12)
environment r0 2(ro + L)
L
>D
ro D
3 Long cylinder r0 L> πro2L ≈2πroL δ≈ = …(6.13)
2 4
ro
4 Solid sphere 4 3 4πro2 ro D …(6.14)
πro δ≈ =
3 3 6
L L
5 Cube L3 6L2 δ≈ …(6.15)
6
L
L
Biot Number This criteria indicates that the internal resistance

It is defined as ratio of internal resistance of the of the solid to heat flow is very small in comparison to
solid to heat flow to convection resistance at the surfaces. convection resistance to heat flow at the surfaces.
Internal resistance to heat flow Fourier Number
Bi =
Convection resistance to heat flow It signifies the degree of penetration of heating
δ hA hδ or cooling effect through the solid. It is defined as the
= × = ...(6.16) ratio of the rate of heat conduction to the rate of the
kA 1 k
thermal energy storage in the solid. It is denoted by Fo
It can also be interpreted as the ratio of heat
and expressed as
transfer coefficient to the internal specific conductance
of the solid. The Biot number is required to determine kA( ∆T)/δ kAt k t αt
Fo = = = =
the validity of the lumped heat capacity approach. The ρVC( ∆T)/t ρ( Aδ)Cδ ρC δ 2
δ2
lumped system analysis can only be applied when ...(6.17)
Bi ≤ 0.1
6.1.3. Thermal Time Constant and Response of Using time constant, the temperature distribu-
Thermocouple tion in the solids can be expressed as
F hA t IJ is a T − T∞ RS
hA st UV t FG IJ
In eqn. (6.3) the exponent quantity G
H ρVC K
s
Ti − T∞
= exp −
T
ρVC
= exp −
W τ H K ...(6.20)
dimensionless quantity and the quantity G

F ρVC IJ has 6.1.4. The Lumped System Analysis for Mixed Boundary
H hA K s
Conditions
Consider a slab of thickness L, initially at uniform
the dimension of time and therefore, it is called the time temperature Ti (t = 0). For the value of t > 0, the surface
constant of the system. It is denoted by τ, and is given at x = 0 is subjected to constant heat flux q and the
as surface at x = L dissipates heat by convection into an
ρVC ambient at T∞ with a convection coefficient h as shown
τ = hA ...(6.18)
s in Fig. 6.5.
The temperature difference between a solid and The energy balance for the slab at t > 0
a fluid must decay exponentially to zero as time
dT
approaches infinity. The response of thermocouple Aq – hA(T – T∞) = ρVC ...(6.21)
is defined as the time taken by thermocouple to indicate dt
dT
the source temperature. At the end of one time constant, or Aq – hA(T – T∞) = ρ(AL)C
the temperature difference between system (T) and dt
source (T∞) is dT
or q – h(T – T∞) = ρLC
T − T∞ dt
= exp (– 1) = 0.368 ...(6.19) q h dT
Ti − T∞ or – (T – T∞) =
ρCL ρCL dt
1
Introducing θ = T – T∞
VC q
= = RthCth
hAs N=
ρCL
i Ti – T
T – T
h
and M=
ρCL
=
Then the above equation is changed to

0.368 dθ
N – Mθ =
dt
dθ
or + Mθ = N
dt
0 1 2 3 4
Convection
Fig. 6.4. Transient temperature response of lumped Heat flux boundary
systems corresponding to different time constants τ q h
Thus the temperature difference is reduced by T = f(t)
63.2% (= 1 – 0.368) after one time constant and the time T¥
required by thermocouple to indicate the temperature
63.2% of the initial temperature difference is called the L
sensitivity of thermocouple.
For rapid response of thermocouple, the quantity
FG hA IJ
s
Fig. 6.5. Slab with mixed boundaries
H ρVC K should be large to make the exponential term The solution to this equation is the sum of homo-
geneous and particular solutions as
least. The low value of the time constant is desirable. It θ = D exp (– Mt) + θp ...(6.22)
can be achieved for a thermocouple by where D is the constant of integration and θp is the
1. Decreasing the wire diameter. particular solution. The particular solution is
2. Using the light metals of low density and low
specific heat. N
θp =
3. Increasing the heat transfer coefficient. M
N exposed to convection environment at T∞(< T1). Thus

Then θ = D exp (– Mt) + ...(6.23) the temperature of this surface will be some intermedi-
M
Using the initial condition ate temperature say T2, then energy balance on the wall
At t = 0, θ = θi = Ti – T∞ yields to
N kA
Hence θi = D + (T1 – T2) = hA(T2 – T∞)
M L
N On rearrangement, we get Biot number as
It gives D = θi – ...(6.24) defined by eqn. (6.16)
M
Substituting the value in eqn. (6.23), T1 − T2 (L/kA) hL
Bi = = =
RS
θ = θi −
N UV N T2 − T∞ (1/hA ) k
T M
= θi exp (– Mt)
W
exp (– Mt) +
M T
N
+ {1 – exp (– Mt)} Qcond Qconv
M
Bi << 1
N q ρCL q
But = × = T1 T2
M ρCL h h Bi = 1
q
Hence θ = θi exp (– Mt) + {1 – exp (– Mt)} T2
h
...(6.25)
The steady state temperature of the slab can be Bi >> 1 T2
obtained by setting t → ∞ T h
q
θ(∞) = (T – T∞) = ...(6.26) L
h x
Since the exponential term exp(– Mt) becomes Fig. 6.6. Effect of Biot number on steady-state temperature
zero for t → ∞. distribution in a plane wall with surface convection
6.1.5. The Validity of Lumped System Analysis The Biot number is a measure of the temperature
The analysis of transient heat conduction problems drop in the solid relative to the temperature difference
becomes very easy by using the lumped heat capacity between surface and its ambient. The Fig. 6.6 illustrates,
method due to its simplicity. Hence, it is necessary to for Bi << 1, the temperature distribution in a solid is
specify its limits between which it may be used with uniform at any time during a transient process.
reasonable accuracy. If Bi << 1, the resistance to conduction with the
To develop an appropriate criterion, consider solid is much less than the resistance to convection across
steady state heat conduction through a plane wall of the fluid boundary layer.
area A, thickness L as shown in Fig. 6.6. One surface of Now consider a plane wall as shown in Fig. 6.7,
the wall is maintained at temperature, T1 and other is which is initially at uniform temperature Ti. It is suddenly
T(x, 0) = Ti T(x, 0) = Ti
T, h
t
T, h T T T T
–L L –L L –L L
–L L Bi << 1 Bi = 1 Bi >> 1
x T = f(x, t) T = f(x, t)
T = f(t)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.7. Transient temperature distributions for different Biot numbers

in a plane wall symmetrically cooled by convection
exposed for convection cooling in a fluid at T∞. The To find : Time required to cool the plate to 50°C, if
temperature variation with position is a strong function (i) Finite long plate size 40 cm × 30 cm,
of Biot number and three conditions are shown on Fig. 6.7. (ii) Infinite long plate.
For Bi << 1, [Fig. 6.7 (a)], the temperature gradient in the Assumptions :
solid is small and T(x, t) ≈ T(t) i.e., the solid temperature
1. The effect of edges of plate for cooling.
remains uniform within the body. For moderate to large
2. Internal temperature gradients are negligible.
value of Biot number, the temperature gradients within
the solid are considerable and hence T = T(x, t). For 3. No radiation heat exchange.
Bi >> 1, the temperature difference across the solid is much 4. Constant properties.
larger than that between the surface and the fluid. Analysis : (i) The characteristic length of finite
We can conclude by emphasizing the importance long plate (as shown in Fig. 6.8)
of Biot number in transient heat conduction. Hence, with Volume of plate
δ=
each problem, at very first, one should calculate the Biot Exposed area of plate
number. If the following condition is satisfied 0.4 × 0.3 × 0.003
=
hδ (2 × 0.4 + 2 × 0.3) × 0.003 + 2 × 0.3 × 0.4
Bi = ≤ 0.1 ...(6.27)
k = 1.474 × 10–3 m
the error associated with using the lumped system The Biot number
analysis will be small.
hδ 28 × 1.474 × 10 −3
Example 6.1. In a quenching process, a copper plate of Bi = = = 1.072 × 10–4
k 385
3 mm thick is heated upto 350°C and then suddenly, it which is much smaller than 0.1, thus the lumped system
is dropped into a water bath at 25°C. Calculate the time analysis can be applied with reasonable accuracy. Using
required for the plate to reach the temperature of 50°C. eqn. (6.10) ;
The heat transfer coefficient on the surface of the plate is
28 W/m2.K. The plate dimensions may be taken as length T − T∞
= exp −
ht RS UV
40 cm and width 30 cm. Ti − T∞ ρCδ T W
Also calculate the time required for infinite long Using numerical values.
plate to cool to 50°C. Other parameters remain same. 50 − 25
= exp −
RS 28t UV
Take the properties of copper as 350 − 25 T
8800 × 380 × 1.474 × 10 −3 W
C = 380 J/kg.K, ρ = 8800 kg/m3,
8800 × 380 × 1.474 × 10 −3 FG IJ
25
Solution
k = 385 W/m.K. (J.N.T.U., May 2004) or t=–
28
× ln
325H K
= 451.5 s = 7.52 min. Ans.
Given : The quenching of a copper plate in water
(ii) Characteristic length of infinite long plate
bath. eqn. (6.11)
Size = 40 cm × 30 cm, L = 3 mm, L
Ti = 350°C, T∞ = 25°C, δ= = 0.0015 m
2
T = 50°C, h = 28 W/m2.K, hδ 28 × 0.0015
C = 380 J/kg.K, ρ = 8800 kg/m3, Bi = = . × 10 −4
= 109
k 385
k = 385 W/m.K. which is much less than 0.1, therefore, using lumped
system analysis.
30 c
m
50 − 25
= exp −
LM 28t OP
N Q
Water
350 − 25 8800 × 380 × 0.0015
T¥ = 25°C or t = 459.5 s = 7.65 min. Ans.
2 Example 6.2. A solid steel ball 5 cm in diameter and
40 cm
Ti = 350°C h = 28 W/m .K
initially at 450°C is quenched in a controlled
environment at 90°C with convection coefficient of
115 W/m2.K. Determine the time taken by centre to reach
a temperature of 150°C. Take thermophysical properties
as
3 mm
C = 420 J/kg.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3,

Fig. 6.8. Schematic of plate in example 6.1 k = 46 W/m.K. (P.U., May 2002)
Solution Ti = 60°C, T∞ = 600°C,

Given : A solid steel ball quenching with L = 10 mm, t = 1, 5, 20 and 100 s.
T = 150°C, T∞ = 90°C, To find : Temperature attained by compressor
Ti = 450°C, h = 115 W/m2.K, blade after 1, 5, 20 and 100 seconds.
C = 420 J/kg.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3, Assumptions: 1. Compressor blade as an infinite
k = 46 W/m.K, D = 5 cm = 0.05 m. wall.
2. Negligible internal temperature gradient
3. No. radiation heat exchange.
D = 5 cm
Steel ball 4. Constant properties.
Analysis : The characteristic length of blade
L 10
Fig. 6.9. Schematic for example 6.2 δ=
= = 5 mm = 5 × 10–3 m
2 2
To find : Time required by steel ball to reach 150°C. The Biot number
Assumptions :
hδ 500 × 5 × 10 −3
Bi = = = 0.1
k 25
2. No radiation heat exchange.
Hence it is possible to use the low Biot number
approximation
Analysis : The characteristic length of the steel ball
V D 0.05  0.05 
T − T∞ FG
ht IJ
δ=
As 6
= =
6
m = 
 6 
 m Ti − T∞
= exp –
H
ρδC K
The Biot number After 1 s
FG IJ T − 600 F 500 × 1 I
Bi =
hδ
k
=
(115 W/m 2 . K)
(46 W/m.K)
×
0.05
6 H K
m = 0.0208 60 − 600
= exp − GH
4500 × 5 × 10 −3 × 520
JK
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat capacity or T = 600 + (– 540) × exp (– 0.0427)
system analysis may be applied. = 600 – 540 × 0.9581 = 82.6°C. Ans.
Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution similarly the temperature after
T − T∞
= exp −
RSht UV t T
Ti − T∞ T
ρδC W 5s
20 s
163.9°C
370.3°C
Substituting the values 100 s 592.5°C. Ans.
150 − 90
= exp −
RS 115 × 6t UV Example 6.4. A long thin glass walled, 0.3 cm diameter,
450 − 90 T8000 × 0.05 × 420 W mercury thermometer is placed in a stream of air with
convection coefficient of 60 W/m2.K for measuring
or ln (60/360) = – (690/168000)t
transient temperature of air. Consider cylindrical
or t = 440.35 s = 7.34 min. Ans.
thermometer bulb consists of mercury only. For which
Example 6.3. A titanium alloy blade of an axial k = 8.9 W/m.K and α = 0.016 m2/h
compressor for which k = 25 W/m.K, ρ = 4500 kg/m3 and
Calculate the time constant and time required for
C = 520 J/kg.K is initially at 60°C. The effective thickness
the temperature change to reach half of its initial value.
of the blade is 10 mm and it is exposed to gas stream at
600°C, the blade experiences a heat transfer coefficient Solution
of 500 W/m2.K. Use low Biot number approximation to Given : A long cylindrical thermometer bulb of
estimate the temperature of blade after 1, 5, 20 and 100 s. mercury with
(N.M.U., May 2002) D = 0.3 cm = 0.003 m, h = 60 W/m2.K,
Solution k = 8.9 W/m.K,
Given : A titanium alloy blade of compressor with α = 0.016 m2/h = 4.444 × 10–6 m2/s
k = 25 W/m.K, ρ = 4500 kg/m3, T − T∞
C = 520 J/kg.K, h = 500 W/m2.K, = 0.5.
Ti − T∞
(ii) The time required to reach the temperature

change to half of its initial value
Using the relation
T − T∞
= exp −
ht RS
= exp
UV  t
− τ
Ti − T∞ ρδC T W  
Given that
The final temperature change = (1/2) × Initial
D = 0.3 cm temperature change
or T – T∞ = 0.5 × (Ti – T∞)
Using the time constant in eqn. (6.20), as
0.5 = exp − t RS UV
25 T W
or t = – 25 × ln(0.5) = 17.32 s. Ans.
Example 6.5. A steel ball of 50 mm diameter and at 900°C
2
h = 60 W/m .K temperature is placed in still air at temperature of 30°C.
Calculate the initial rate of cooling of ball in °C/min. Take
h = 30 W/m2.K and thermophysical properties of steel as
ρ = 7800 kg/m3,C = 2 kJ/kg.K
To find :
Neglect internal thermal resistance.
(i) Time constant.
(V.T.U., July 2002)
(ii) Time required for temperature change to
reach half of initial temperature change. Solution
Assumptions : Given : A steel ball exposed to air
1. Glass thermometer as infinite long D = 50 mm = 0.05 m,
thermometer.
Ti = 900°C,
2. Internal temperature gradients are
negligible. T∞ = 30°C,
3. No radiation heat exchange. h = 30 W/m2.K,
4. Constant properties. C = 2 kJ/kg.K = 2000 J/kg.K,
Analysis : (i) The characteristic length of the ρ = 7800 kg/m3,
cylindrical thermometer
t = 0 (for initial cooling).
V D 0.003
δ= = = = 7.5 × 10–4 m
As 4 4
Biot number h = 30 W/m .K
2
D
−4 =
hδ 60 × 7.5 × 10 50
Bi = = = 5.056 × 10–3 m
k 8.9 m T¥ = 30°C
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat capacity
system analysis may be applied.
Using the eqn. (6.18) for time constant
ρVC kδ Fig. 6.11. Schematic for example 6.5
τ= =
hA s αh To find : The initial rate of cooling of ball in °C/min.
−4
8.9 × 7.5 × 10 Analysis : The instantaneous cooling rate can be
= = 25 s. Ans. obtained by using eqn. (6.4)
4.444 × 10 −6 × 60
k k dT hA s |RS
hA s t FG IJ |UV
∴ α=
ρC
or ρC =
α
. dt
= (Ti – T∞) −
ρVC
exp −
|T
ρVC H K |W
For sphere : Analysis : The characteristic length of the body

As 1 6 6 V πro 2 L
= = = = 120 δ= =
V δ D 0.05 As 2π ro L + 2πro 2
Using numerical values,
dT π × (0.15 m) 2 × (1.7 m)
= (900 – 30) =
dt 2π × (0.15 m) × (1.7 m) + 2π × (0.15 m) 2
RS 30 × 120 FG 30 × 120 × 0 IJ UV = 0.0689 m
× −
|T 7800 × 2000 H
× exp −
7800 × 2000 K |W Biot number
= 870 × (– 2.3077 × 1) = 0.2°C/s hδ (8 W/m 2 .K) × (0.0689 m)

Bi = = = 0.092
= 12°C/min. Ans. k (6.08 W/m.K)
Example 6.6. A person is found dead at 5 p.m. in a The Biot number is less than 0.1, therefore, the
room where temperature is 20°C. The temperature of the lumped system analysis is applicable.
body is measured to be 25°C when found, and the heat Using eqn. (6.10),
transfer coefficient is estimated to be 8 W/m2.K. Modelling
the human body a 30 cm diameter, 1.70 m long cylinder,
T − T∞ RS UV
= exp −
ht
calculate actual time of death of the person. Take Ti − T∞ T W
ρδC
thermophysical properties of the body :
k = 6.08 W/m.K, ρ = 900 kg/m3,
25 − 20 L
= exp M –
8×t OP
C = 4000 J/kg.K. (N.M.U., Dec. 2002)
37 − 20 N 900 × 0.0689 × 4000 Q
Solution F 5I
ln G J = – 3.225 × 10 t
Given : The dead body of a person as a cylinder
or
H 17 K –5
T∞ = 20°C, k = 6.08 W/m.K or t = 37,943 s = 10.54 h. Ans.
T = 25°C, ρ = 900 kg/m3 Example 6.7. A bearing piece in the form of half of
a hollow cylinder of 60 mm ID, 90 mm OD and
h = 8 W/m2.K, C = 4000 J/kg.K
100 mm long is to be cooled to –100°C from 30°C
D = 30 cm = 0.3 m or ro = 0.15 m using a cryogenic gas at –150°C with a convective heat
L = 1.70 m. transfer coefficient of 70 W/m2.K. Determine the time
required. Take properties of bearing material as
C = 444 J/kg.K, ρ = 8900 kg/m3,
k = 17.2 W/m.K.
Solution
Given : A piece of bearing as half of hollow cylinder
with
D1 = 60 mm or r1 = 0.03 m
D2 = 90 mm or r2 = 0.045 m
L = 100 mm = 0.1 m, Ti = 30°C
T∞ = – 150°C, T = – 100°C
Fig. 6.12. Schematic of a dead body
C = 444 J/kg.K, ρ = 8900 kg/m3
To find : Actual time of death of the person.
k = 17.2 W/m.K, h = 70 W/m2.K.
Assumptions :
To find : Time required to reach – 100°C.
1. Healthy person, thus body temperature of
37°C at the time of death. Assumptions :
2. Uniform heat transfer coefficient on entire 1. Internal temperature gradients are negligible.
surface of body. 2. No radiation heat exchange.
3. No radiation heat transfer. 3. Constant properties.
Solution
L Given : A thermocouple junction in form of a
sphere with
r2 r1 C = 0.35 kJ/kg.K = 350 J/kg.K,
h = 250 W/m2.K
k = 25 W/m.K,
Fig. 6.13. Schematic of half portion of a bearing ρ = 9000 kg/m3
Analysis : The characteristic length of the T – T∞ = (1 – 0.95) (Ti – T∞),
cylinder.
t = 3 s.
The volume of bearing piece,
V = (1/2) × π(r22 – r12) L
= (1/2) × π{(0.045)2 – (0.03)2} × 0.1
= 1.766 × 10–4 m Thermo-
couple
Surface area of the bearing, wire
As = (Front + back + lateral Gas
+ longitudinal) area 2
h = 250 W/m .K
Spherical
D junction
= 2 × (1/2)π (r2 – r12) + πL(r1 + r2)
2
+ 2 × L × (r2 – r1)
=π× (0.0452
– 0.032)
+ π × 0.1 Fig. 6.14. Thermocouple junction for example 6.8
× (0.03 + 0.045) + 2 × 0.1 × (0.045 – 0.03) To find : Diameter of the junction to indicate 95%
= 3.53 × 10–3 + 0.0235 + 3 × 10–3 of applied temperature difference.
= 0.03003 m2 Assumptions :
V 1.766 × 10 −4 1. Internal temperature gradients are negligible.
δ= =
As 0.03003 2. No radiation heat exchange.
= 5.872 × 10–3 m 3. Constant properties.
Biot number,
Analysis : The characteristic length of the
hδ 70 × 5.872 × 10 −3 thermocouple junction
Bi = = = 0.0239
k 17.2 V D
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat capacity δ= =
As 6
system analysis may be applied. Using eqn. (6.10) for
temperature distribution Using the relation,
T − T∞ RS UV ht T − T∞
= exp −
htRS UV
Ti − T∞
= exp −
T W ρδC Ti − T∞ ρδC T W
Substituting the values where,
− 100 − (− 150) R
= exp S –
70t UV The applied (initial) temperature difference
30 − (− 150) T 8900 × 5.872 × 10 −3
× 444 W = Ti – T∞
Thermocouple measure 95% of applied tempera-
or t = 424.6 s. Ans.
ture (Ti – T∞), then
Example 6.8. A thermocouple is used to measure the
The remaining temperature difference
temperature in a gas stream. The junction may be
(T – T∞) = 0.05 × (Ti – T∞)
approximated as a sphere with thermal conductivity of Hence,
25 W/m.K, density 9000 kg/m3, and specific heat
0.35 kJ/kg. K. The heat transfer coefficient between the T − T∞
= 0.05 = exp −
ht RS UV
junction and the gas is 250 W/m2.K. Calculate the Ti − T∞ ρδC T W
diameter of the junction, if thermocouple should measure
95 per cent of the applied temperature difference in 3 s. = exp −
RS 250 × 3 UV
T 9000 × 350 × (D / 6) W
or ln (0.5) = – 0.001428/D Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution

or D = 4.768 × 10–4 m T − T∞
= exp −
RS
ht UV
= 0.4768 mm. Ans.
Checking the validity of the relation applied above
Ti − T∞ T
ρδC W
The Biot number Substituting the numerical values
hδ 250 × 4.7687 × 10 −4 100 − 30

= exp −
RS 60t UV
Bi =
k
=
6 × 25 350 − 30 T
2700 × 0.0269 × 900 W
= 7.9 × 10–4
FG 70 IJ = – 60 t
system analysis is valid.
or ln
H 320 K 65367
or t = 1655 s = 27.6 min. Ans.
Example 6.9. An aluminium sphere weighing 6 kg and
initially at temperature of 350°C is suddenly immersed Example 6.10. A thermocouple junction is in the form
in a fluid at 30°C with convection coefficient of of a 4 mm diameter sphere. The properties of the mate-
60 W/m2.K. Estimate the time required to cool the sphere rial are C = 420 J/kg.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m.K,
to 100°C. Take thermophysical properties as unit surface conductance h = 40 W/m2.K. The junction is
C = 900 J/kg.K, ρ = 2700 kg/m3, initially at 40°C is inserted in a stream of hot air at
k = 205 W/m.K. (P.U., May 1999) 300°C. Find :
(i) Time constant.
Solution (ii) Thermocouple is taken out from the hot air
Given : An aluminium sphere with after 10 seconds and is kept in still air at 30°C. Assuming
m = 6 kg, C = 900 J/kg.K, the heat transfer coefficient in still air as 10 W/m2.K,
ρ = 2700 kg/m3, k = 205 W/m.K, find the temperature attained by junction 20 seconds
after removing it from hot air stream.
Ti = 350°C, T∞ = 30°C,
(P.U.P., Dec. 2008)
T = 100°C, h = 60 W/m2.K.
To find : Time required to reach 100°C. Solution
Given : A thermocouple junction in the form of
2 sphere with
h = 60 W/m .K
m = 6 kg
T¥ = 30°C
D = 4 mm = 4 × 10–3 m, C = 420 J/kg.K,
ρ = 8000 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m.K,
Fig. 6.15. Sphere for example 6.9 Ti = 40°C,
Assumptions :
(a) T∞ 1 = 300°C for t = 10 s with h1 = 40 W/m2.K.
2. No radiation heat exchange. (b) T∞ 2 = 30°C for t = 20 s with h2 = 10 W/m2.K.
D = 4 mm
Analysis : The volume of sphere C
4 πro 3
k
m 6 h
V= = =
3 ρ 2700 T¥
Ti
or ro = 0.0809 m
The characteristic length of the sphere Fig. 6.16 (a) Thermocouple junction
V r 0.0809 m To find :
δ= = o =
As 3 3 (i) Time constant.
= 0.0269 m (ii) Temperature attained by thermocouple after
Biot number
10 s, when placed in stream of hot air at T∞ 1 = 300°C.
hδ 60 × 0.0269
Bi = = = 7.89 × 10–3 (iii) Temperature attained by thermocouple,
k 205
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat capacity taken out from hot air and placed in still air at 30°C for
system analysis may be applied. 20 s.
Assumptions : T
1. Internal temperature gradients are negligible. T1

T2 = 30°C

T2
Analysis : The characteristic length of the sphere
V D 0.004
δ= = = 10 s 20 s t
As 6 6
Fig. 6.16 (c)
= 6.667 × 10–4 m
The Biot number T2 − T∞ 2 RS h t UV
= exp − 2 2
Bi =
h1δ
=
40 × 6.667 × 10 −4
T1 − T∞ 2 T ρCδ W
k
= 6.667 × 10–4
40
T − 30
2 R
= exp S–
10 × 20 UV
which is less than 0.1, thus the lumped system analysis
82.52 − 30 T 8000 × 420 × 6.667 × 10 W −4
is applicable with reasonable accuracy. = 0.9145

(i) Using eqn. (6.18) for time constant or T2 = 30 + 52.52 × 0.9145 = 78°C. Ans.
ρδC 8000 × 6.667 × 10 −4 × 420 Example 6.11. A thermocouple junction may be
τ= =
h1 40 approximated as a sphere, is to be used for temperature
= 56 s. Ans. measurement in a gas stream with convection coefficient of
400 W/m2.K. The thermophysical properties of the junction
(ii) When the junction is exposed to hot air stream are k = 20 W/m.K, C = 400 J/kg.K, ρ = 8500 kg/m3.
at 300°C. Temperature attained by junction after 10 s.
Using eqn. (6.20) (a) Determine the diameter needed for the ther-
mocouple junction to have a time constant of 1 s. If the
T1 − T∞
1
RS
= exp −
UV
h1t1
= exp
 t1 
− τ 
junction is initially at 25°C and placed in a gas stream
Ti − T∞
1
T ρδC W   at 200°C. How long it will take for the junction to reach
199°C ?
T (b) If the duct wall temperature is 400°C and the
emissivity of the thermocouple bead is 0.9, calculate
T1 = 300°C steady state temperature of the junction. Also calculate
the time for junction temperature to increase from an
T1
initial condition of 25°C to a temperature that is within
1°C of its steady state value.
40°C Solution
Given : A thermocouple junction in the form of
10 s t sphere with
Fig. 6.16 (b) (a) T = 199°C, T∞ = 200°C,
Using the time constant in above equation τ = 1 s, Ti = 25°C = 298 K.
T1 − 300
= exp −
10 RS UV (b) ε = 0.9, Tsurr = 400°C = 673 K.
40 − 300 56 T
= 0.83646
W
or T1 = 300 – 260 × 0.83646 Thermocouple leads
= 82.52°C. Ans.
Junction
(iii) Now the junction is taken out from hot air
k = 20 W/m.K
stream and placed in stream of still air at 30°C. The
2
h = 400 W/m .K C = 400 J/kg.K
temperature after 20 s. T¥ = 200°C = 8500 kg/m
3
The initial temperature for this case would be

82.52°C. Hence using the relation for temperature Fig. 6.17. Thermocouple junction.
distribution, as
To find : Part (b) :

Part (a) (i) For steady state conditions, the energy balance
(i) Diameter of junction for time constant of 1 s. on the thermocouple junction.
(ii) Time required by thermocouple to reach Rate of energy input = Rate of energy dissipation
199°C. 4
As εσ( (Tsurr − T 4 ) = hAs(T – T∞)
Part (b) 4
or ε σ (Tsurr − T 4 ) – h(T – T∞) = 0
(i) Steady state temperature of the junction.
Substituting numerical values
(ii) Time required for thermocouple junction to
reach a temperature that is within 1°C of its steady 0.9 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (6734 – T4) – 400 × (T – 473) = 0
state value. 10468.5 – 5.103 × 10–8 T4 – 400T + 189200 = 0
Assumptions : or 5.103 × 10–8 T4 + 400T – 199668.5 = 0
1. Internal temperature gradients are Using Newton Raphson’s iterative technique for
negligible. the solution of this non-linear equation.
F(T) = 5.103 × 10–8 T4 + 400T – 199668.5 = 0
2. No radiation heat exchange for part (a) and
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4 for part (b) of the problem. F′(T) = 1.5309 × 10–7 T3 + 400
Assuming initial guess T1 = 485 K, then
F(Ti )
Analysis : Part (a) Ti+1 = Ti –
F ′(Ti )
(i) Using eqn. (6.18) for time constant
After two iterations, we get a stable value of
ρVC ρro C T = 491.71 K = 218.71°C. Ans.
τ= =
hA s 3h It is the steady state temperature of thermo-
(1 s) × 3 × (400 W / m 2 .K) couple.
or ro = (ii) The temperature to be recorded by thermo-
(8500 kg / m 3 ) × (400 J / kg.K)
couple be
= 3.529 × 10–4 m T = 218.71 – 1 = 217.71°C
or Diameter, D = 2ro = 7.06 × 10–4 m T∞ = 200°C, Ti = 25°C
= 0.706 mm. Ans. Then the energy balance on thermocouple
Checking the validity for the use of lumped junction
system analysis Rate of energy radiated in – Rate of energy
convected out
Biot number,
= Rate of change of internal energy
hδ hr 400 × 3.529 × 10 −4 E ′in − E ′out = E st
′
Bi = = o =
k 3k 3 × 20 4 dT
= 2.35 × 10–3 [εσ( Tsurr – T4) – h(T – T∞)] As = ρVC
dt
which is much less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat [0.9 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (6734 – 490.714)]
capacity system analysis is suitable for approximation. – 400 × (490.71 – 473) × 4π × ro2
(ii) Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution 4π 2 dT
= 8500 × ro × (3.529 × 10 − 4 ) × 400 ×
T − T∞
= exp −
RS
3ht UV 3
Its solution gives t = 4.9 s. Ans.
dt
Ti − T∞ T
ρro C W Example 6.12. An egg with mean diameter of 4 cm is
Substituting the numerical values initially at 25°C. It is placed in boiling water for 4 min
and found to be consumer’s taste. For how long should a
199 − 200
= exp −
RS 3 × 400t UV similar egg for same consumer be boiled when taken from
25 − 200 T
8500 × 3.529 × 10 −4 × 400 W refrigerator at 2°C. Use lumped system analysis and take
thermophysical properties of egg as
FG 1 IJ = – 3 t k = 12 W/m.K, h = 125 W/m2.K,
or ln
H 175 K 2.99965 C = 2000 J/kg.K
It gives t = 5.2 s. Ans. and ρ = 1250 kg/m3. (P.U., Nov. 1997)
Solution bearing production requires that 75% of initial thermal

Given : An egg as sphere energy content of balls above –15°C be removed. How
D = 4 cm = 0.04 m long the balls should be placed in the chamber ? Take
(i) Ti = 25°C h = 100 W/m2.K, k = 46 W/m.K,
t1 = 4 min = 240 s Sp. gravity = 7.8, C = 420 J/kg.K.
(ii) Ti = 2°C Solution
k = 12 W/m.K, h = 125 W/m2.K Given : Steel balls of bearings with
C = 2000 J/kg.K, ρ = 1250 kg/m3. D = 1 cm, Sp. gr. = 7.8,
h = 100 W/m2.K C = 420 J/kg.K,
2
h = 125 W/m .K T∞ = – 20°C, Ti = 400°C
k = 46 W/m.K
Energy to be removed = 75% of initial energy
Egg
content above – 15°C.
Ti
To find : Time required during 75% of initial
energy removal.
T¥ = 100°C Assumptions :
Fig. 6.18. Boiling of an egg
To find : Time required for egg at 2°C to be boiled
to consumer’s taste.
Analysis : The radius of steel balls,
Assumptions : ro = D/2 = 0.5 cm = 0.005 m
(i) Egg as a sphere. The density of steel,
(ii) Negligible internal temperature gradients. ρ = Sp. gr. × 1000 kg/m3
(iii) Constant properties. = 7.8 × 1000 = 7800 kg/m3
(iv) Boiling temperature of water as 100°C. r
The characteristics length of steel balls, δ = o
Analysis : The characteristic length of egg 3
Biot number
D 0.04 0.02
= δ= = m hδ 100 × 0.005
6 6 3 Bi = = = 3.623 × 10–3
k 3 × 46
The temperature distribution, using lumped sys-
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat
tem analysis,
capacity system analysis can be reasonably used for
T − T∞ ht FG IJ approximation.
Ti − T∞
= exp −
ρδC H K Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution
Temperature of consumer’s taste T − T∞ RS
= exp −
3ht UV
T − 100 FG
125 × 240 × 3 IJ Ti − T∞ T ρro C W
25 − 100
= exp −
H
1250 × 0.02 × 2000 K Here, Initial energy content of balls above – 15°C
= mC(Ti + 15)
or T = 100 – 75 × 0.1653 = 87.6°C
Energy of balls (above –15°C) is to be removed
When egg is taken from refrigerator at
= 75% of initial energy content
Ti = 2°C and T = 87.6°C
= 0.75 × mC(Ti + 15)
87.6 − 100 FG
125 × 3 t IJ The remaining energy (above – 15°C) content of
2 − 100
= exp −
H
1250 × 0.02 × 2000 K balls,
FG 12.4 IJ = – 375 t mC(T + 15) = 0.25 × mC(Ti + 15)
or ln
H 98 K 50000 Hence
(T + 15)
= 0.25
or t = 275.6 s = 4.6 min. Ans. (Ti + 15)
Example 6.13. It is proposed to quench the steel balls of = exp −

RS 3 × 100 × t UV
bearings, 1 cm in diameter, initially at 400°C is placed T
7800 × 420 × 0.005 W
in a cold chamber maintained at – 20°C. The steel balls t = ln(0.25) × (– 54.6)
pass through the chamber on a conveyor belt. Optimum = 75.7 s. Ans.
Example 6.14. A cylindrical stainless steel ingot

(k = 45 W/m.K), 15 cm in diameter and 40 cm long
850 − 1300
= exp −
RS
0.46 × 10 −5 × 100t UV
passes through a treatment furnace, which is 6 m in 100 − 1300 45 × 0.0315 T W
length. The temperature of furnace gas is 1300°C. The or t = – (3081.52) × ln(0.375) = 3022 s
initial ingot temperature is 100°C. The combined The velocity of ingot through the furnace
radiant and convective heat transfer coefficient is L furnace 6m
100 W/m2.K. Calculate the maximum speed with which u= =
time required 3022 s
the ingot should pass through the furnace, if it must
= 1.985 mm/s. Ans.
attain a temperature of 850°C.
Take α = 0.46 × 10–5 m2/s. (N.M.U., Nov. 1999) Example 6.15. A mild steel sphere of 15 mm in diameter
initially at 625°C is exposed to a current of air at 25°C
Solution with convection coefficient of 120 W/m2.K. Calculate :
Given : A cylindrical stainless ingot with (i) Time required to cool the sphere to 100°C.
D = 15 cm = 0.15 m, L = 40 cm = 0.4 m, (ii) Initial rate of cooling in °C/s.
2
h = 100 W/m .K, k = 45 W/m.K, (iii) Instantaneous heat transfer rate at the end of
Ti = 100°C, T∞ = 1300°C, one minute after the start of cooling.
T = 850°C, Lfurnace = 6 m, (iv) Total energy transferred during first one
α = 0.46 × 10–5 m2/s. minute.
To find : The maximum speed of ingot through Take properties of mild steel as :
furnace. k = 43 W/m.K, ρ = 7850 kg/m3,
C = 474 J/kg.K, α = 0.045 m2/s.
15 Solution
cm
Given : The mild steel sphere with ;
D = 15 mm, h = 120 W/m2.K,
40 cm
k = 43 W/m.K Ti = 625°C,
Fig. 6.19. Cylindrical steel ingot for example 6.14 T∞ = 25°C, ρ = 7850 kg/m3,
Assumptions : C = 474 J/kg.K, T = 100°C,
1. Internal temperature gradients are α = 0.045 m2/s.
negligible.
2. Uniform heating throughout the length of Air
furnace. m
T¥ = 25°C
m
3. Constant properties. =
15
5°
C
D 62
Analysis : The radius of steel ingot, Ti
= 2
h = 120 W/m .K
D 0.15 m
ro = = = 0.075 m
2 2
The characteristic length of the cylinder.
Fig. 6.20. Sphere for example 6.15
V πro 2 L
δ= = To find :
As 2πro 2 + 2πro L
(i) The time required to reach the sphere to
π × (0.075) 2 × 0.4 100°C.
=
2π × (0.075) 2 + 2π × 0.075 × 0.4 (ii) Initial rate of cooling of the sphere in °C/s
= 0.0315 m (iii) Instantaneous rate of heat transfer at the end
hδ 100 × 0.0315 of one minute.
Biot number Bi = = = 0.070
k 45 (iv) Total energy transferred during first one
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat capacity minute.
system analysis can be reasonably used for approximation. Assumptions :
Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution 1. Internal temperature gradients are negligible.
T − T∞ RS ht UV
= exp −
RS
αht UV 2. No radiation heat exchange.
Ti − T∞
= exp −
T ρδC W kδ T W 3. Constant properties.
Analysis : The radius of mild steel sphere, or ∆U = – 7850 × (4/3) π × (0.0075)3 × 474
D 15
=
RS FG
× (625 – 25) × exp −
120 × 60
−1
IJ UV
ro =
2 2
= 7.5 mm = 0.0075 m
T H 7850 × 0.0025 × 474 K W
The characteristic length of the sphere : or ∆U = 2125.8 W. Ans.
V r 0.0075 It is the decrease of internal energy of sphere.
δ= = o = = 0.0025 m
As 3 3 Example 6.16. The steel ball bearing (k = 50 W/m.K,
Biot number α = 1.3 × 10–5 m2/s), 40 mm in diameter are heated to a
temperature of 650°C. It is then quenched in an oil bath
hδ 120 × 0.0025
Bi == = 0.00697 at 50°C, where the heat transfer coefficient is estimated
k 43
to be 300 W/m2.K.
Which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat Calculate (a) the time required for bearing to reach
capacity system analysis can be reasonably used for 200°C, (b) the total amount of heat removed from a
approximation. bearing during this time, and (c) the instantaneous heat
(i) Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution transfer rate from the bearings, when they are first
immersed in oil bath and when they reach 200°C.
T − T∞ RS UV
= exp −
ht (P.U.P., Dec. 2009 ; J.N.T.U., May 2000)
Ti − T∞ T W
ρ Cδ Solution: Given : Steel ball bearing to be quenched :
D = 40 mm or ro = 0.02 m
or
100 − 25 R
= exp S−
120t UV k = 50 W/m.K, α = 1.3 × 10–5 m2/s
625 − 25 T 7850 × 474 × 0.0025 W Ti = 650°C, T∞ = 50°C
2
h = 300 W/m .K, T = 200°C.
or t = 161.2 s = 2.687 min. Ans.
(ii) The initial rate of cooling can be obtained by
energy balance as T¥ = 50°C
Rate of decrease of internal energy = Rate of heat mm 2

40 C h = 300 W/m .K
convection from the sphere = 0°
D 65
=
dT Ti
– ρVC = hAs(Ti – T∞)
dt
dT 120 × 4 π × (0.0075 m) 2 × (625 − 25) Fig. 6.21. Steel ball bearing for example 6.16
or =–
dt 7850 × (4/3) π × (0.0075 m) 3 × 474 To find :
= – 7.74°C/s (Decreasing). Ans. (a) Time required by bearings to reach 200°C.
(iii) Instantaneous heat transfer rate at end of (b) Total heat transferred from a bearing.
1 minute : (c) Instantaneous heat transfer rate from
bearings
RS
Q(t) = hAs(Ti – T∞) exp −
ht UV (i) at t = 0, and (ii) when T = 200°C.
T ρδC W Analysis : The characteristic length of bearing
(spherical body)
= 120 × 4π × (0.0075)2 × (625 – 25)
ro
R
× exp S−
120 × 60 UV δ=
3
T 7850 × 0.0025 × 474 W Bi =
hδ
=
300 × 0.02
= 0.04
k 50 × 3
= 50.89 × 0.461 = 23.47 W. Ans. which is less than 0.1, thus the lumped system analysis
(iv) Total heat transferred during first 60 seconds is applicable.
(decrease in internal energy) (a) Time required for bearings to reach 200°C,
eqn. (6.10)
|RS FG
∆U = – ρVC(Ti – T∞) exp −
ht
−1
IJ |UV T − T∞ RS
ht UV
3hαt RS UV
|T H ρδC K |W Ti − T∞
= exp −
ρδCT= exp −
W
ro k T W
FG 200 − 50 IJ = – 3 × 300 × 1.3 × 10 −5

t 2. Internal temperature gradients are negligible.
or, ln
H 650 − 50 K 0.02 × 50 3. No radiation heat exchange.
or t = 118.5 s ≈ 2 min. Ans.
(b) Total heat removed from bearing during a Analysis : Consider the two plastic sheets as
period of 118.5 s can be obtained by eqn. (6.7) ; shown in Fig. 6.22.
R|S F h A t I − 1U|V
|T GH ρVC JK |W
s Adhesion
∆U = – ρVC (Ti – T∞) exp −
k F4 I |R F 3hαt IJ − 1|UV
= – G πr J (T – T ) Sexp G −
α H3 K
3
o i ∞
|T H r k K |W o
TL = 250°C TL = 250°C
50 R4 U
× S π × (0.02) V × (650 – 50)
3
=–
1.3 × 10−5
T3 W Sheet 1 Sheet 2
R
| F 3 × 300 × 1.3 × 10 × 118.5 IJ − 1U|V
× Sexp G −
−5 Ti = 30°C Ti = 30°C
|T H 0.02 × 50 K |W 5 mm 5 mm
= 58.0 × 103 J = 58 kJ. Ans.
–ve sign indicates decrease of internal
energy of bearing.
Fig. 6.22. Bonding of two plastic sheets
(c) Instantaneous heat transfer rate :
(i) At t = 0, initial rate of heat transfer The thickness of the two sheet
Qt = 0 = hAs(Ti – T∞) 2L = 5 mm + 5 mm = 10 mm = 0.01 m.
= 300 × 4π × (0.02)2 × (650 – 50) The energy balance equation for the two sheets
together :
= 904.7 W. Ans.
Rate of heat inflow
(ii) At t = 118.5 s or when temperature of bearing
= Rate of internal energy increase
reaches to 200°C.
2kA(TL − T) dT
Q(t) = hAs (T(t) – T∞) or = ρVC
L dt
= 300 × {4π × (0.02)2} × (200 – 50)
where T is the temperature, function of time.
= 226.16 W. Ans.
Let θ = TL – T
Example 6.17. Two plastic sheets (k = 0.232 W/m.K, dθ dT
C = 1.674 kJ/kg.K, ρ = 1300 kg/m3), each 5 mm thick are =–
dt dt
to be bonded together with a thin layer of adhesive, which Substituting and rearranging,
fuses at 140°C. To perform this process, they are pressed
2 kAdt dθ
between two surfaces at 250°C. Find the time required =–
for which the sheets should be pressed together to ρVCL θ
complete the process. The initial temperature of sheets is Integrating both sides within the limits, we get
30°C. Assume perfect contact and neglect resistance of
adhesive. Derive the formula used.
2kA
ρVCL z t
0
dt = − z
θi
θc dθ
θ
Solution
2kAt θc FG IJ = – ln LM T − T OP L c
Given : Two plastic sheets to be bonded ;
L = 5 mm, k = 0.232 W/m.K,
or
ρVCL
= – ln
θi H K NT − T Q L i
Ti = 30°C, TL = 250°C or t=
ρ (AL) C L L T − T OP
× ln M L i
T = 140°C, ρ = 1300 kg/m3, 2kA NT − T Q L c
C = 1.674 kJ/kg.K = 1674 J/kg.K. 1300 × 1674 × (0.005) 2

=
To find : The time required to reach the centre 2 × 0.232
temperature 140°C.
× ln
LM 250 − 30 OP
Assumptions :
1. Infinite long plastic sheets.
N 250 − 140 Q
= 81.2 s = 1.35 min. Ans.
Example 6.18. A long and wide copper plate of 4.5 cm dT

thick, at initial temperature of 180°C is held on the water or haAa(T – T∞) + hwAw(T – T∞) = – ρVC
dt
surface so that its one face is in contact with water at where T is the temperature, function of time and
25°C. The other surface is exposed to air side at 25°C. A = Aw = Aa
Unit surface conductance on the water and air side are dT
Then (hw + ha) A(T – T∞) = – ρVC
80 and 8 W/m2.K, respectively. Neglecting the radiation dt
losses, heat transfer from edges and internal temperature (hw + ha ) Adt dT
gradients, find the time required to cool the plate to 90°C. or =–
ρVC T − T∞
The properties of the copper are : Treating hw, ha, A, k, ρ, V and C as constants and
ρ = 8800 kg/m3, C = 410 J/kg.K integrating as
k = 380 W/m.K.
Also find the time required to cool the plate to
90°C, if it is placed in air only.
ρVC z zL
(hw + ha ) A t
0
dt = −
( T − T∞ ) dT
( Ti − T∞ ) T − T∞
OP
(hw + ha ) A t T − T∞
Solution
ρVC
= − ln MN
Ti − T∞ Q
Given : A long and wide copper plate with
L = 4.5 cm = 0.045 m, k = 380 W/m.K, or t=–
ρVC
× ln
LM
T − T∞ OP
(ha + hw ) A N
Ti − T∞ Q
Ti = 180°C, T∞1 = T∞2 = 25°C,
=–
8800 × (0.045 A) × 410
× ln
90 − 25 LM OP
T = 90°C, ρ = 8800 kg/m3, (80 + 8) A 180 − 25 N Q
C = 410 J/kg.K, ha = 8 W/m2.K, = 1603.3 s = 26.72 min. Ans.
hw = 80 W/m2.K. (ii) When plate is exposed to air on both sides
To find : (As = 2A)
(i) The time required to cool the plate to 90°C, if
one side is in water and other in air. t=–
ρVC
× ln
LM
T − T∞ OP
(ii) Time required to cool the plate to 90°C, if it is
ha (2 A) N
Ti − T∞ Q
placed in air only.
=–
8800 × (0.045 A) × 410
× ln
90 − 25 LM OP
°C
8 × 2A 180 − 25 N Q
180 = 8818.5 s = 2.45 hours. Ans.
3
/m Ti =
0 kg
880 kg.K
r =
410
J/
.K Example 6.19. A household electric iron has a steel base,
C = 80 W/m weighs 1 kg. The base has an ironing surface of 0.025 m2
3
k=
and is heated from the other surface with a 250 W heating
Air 5°
C 2
.K element. Initially the iron is at a uniform temperature of
=2
W
T¥
8W
/m 20°C. Suddenly the heating starts, and the iron dissipates
at
er ha
=
heat by convection from ironing surface into an ambient
at
25
°C
at 20°C with a convection coefficient of 50 W/m2.K.
2 K
.
Calculate the temperature of iron 5 minute after
W
/m
4 .5 cm the starts of heating. What would be the equilibrium
0
hw
=8 temperature of the iron, if control did not switch off the
current ?
Fig. 6.23. Copper plate exposed to water and air on
bottom and top side, respectively. The properties of the material are :
ρ = 7840 kg/m3, C = 450 J/kg.K,
Assumptions :
k = 70 W/m.K. (N.M.U., May 2002)
1. Infinite long and wide copper plate.
2. Internal temperature gradients are negligible. Solution
3. Constant properties. Given : An electric iron with
Analysis : (i) If the one side of the plate is held on k = 70 W/m.K, Ti = 20°C,
water and other side exposed to air. The energy balance T∞ = 20°C, A = 0.025 m2,
for the copper plate : t = 5 min = 300 s, ρ = 7840 kg/m3,
Rate of heat transfer from its surfaces = Rate of C = 450 J/kg.K, h = 50 W/m2.K,
internal energy decrease of the plate. m = 1 kg, Q = 250 W.
2
h = 50 W/m .K Steel iron 6.2. ANALYTICAL SOLUTION
Mass= 1.0 kg
T¥ = 20°C 6.2.1. Criteria for Neglecting Internal Temperature
Gradients
Consider an infinite plate of thickness 2L as shown in
Fig. 6.25. The plate is initially at uniform temperature
2
A = 0.025 m 250 Watt
Ti = 20°C
heating element Ti at t = 0. The plate is suddenly exposed to convection
environment at temperature T∞ and heat transfer
Fig. 6.24. House hold steel iron for example 6.19
coefficient h for all t > 0. The governing differential
To find : equation for one dimensional time dependent unsteady
(i) The temperature of iron after 5 minute of start state heat conduction without heat generation is given
of heat supply. by eqn. (2.8).
(ii) Steady state temperature of iron.
Assumptions : ¥
1. No radiation heat loss.
2. No heat loss from the edges and top face of
electric iron.
h h
3. Negligible internal temperature gradients.
4. Constant properties. Ti
T¥
Analysis : (i) The thickness of the base of the iron T¥
can be calculated as
m 1 kg
L= =
Aρ (0.025 m ) × (7840 kg/m 3 )
2 L L
= 0.0051 m
x
Since the iron has convection heat interaction only
on one of its surface, hence its characteristic length ¥
would be its thickness,
Fig. 6.25. Transient conduction in an infinite plate
δ = L = 0.0051 m
hδ 50 × 0.0051 ∂ RS ∂T UV = 1 ∂T
Biot number Bi =
k
=
70
= 0.0036 ∂x T ∂x W α ∂t
∂2T ∂T
system analysis can be reasonably used for approxima- or α =
∂x 2 ∂t
tion. Using equation (6.25) ...(6.28)
θ = T – T∞
where, T = f(x, t)
q
= θi exp (– Mt) + {1 – exp (– Mt)} and at t = 0, T = Ti
h
where, θi = Ti – T∞ = 20 – 20 = 0 Introducing the variable
ht 50 × 300 θ(x, t) = θ = (T – T∞)
Mt = =
ρCL 7840 × 450 × 0.0051
= 0.834 ∂ 2θ ∂θ
Then α 2 =
Q 250 ∂x ∂t
q= = = 10,000 W/m2
A 0.025 Assuming the product solution as
10,000
Hence, T – 20 = × {1 – exp (– 0.834)} θ = F(x) G(t) ...(6.29)
50
or T = 133°C. Ans. Substituting in eqn. (6.28), we get
(ii) The equilibrium temperature becomes for
∂ 2 F( x) ∂G(t)
t→∞ α 2 G(t) = F(x)
∂x ∂t
q
T(∞) = T∞ +
h 1 ∂ 2 F(x) 1 ∂G(t)
or = ...(6.30)
10,000 F( x) ∂x 2 α G(t) ∂t
= 20 + = 220°C. Ans.
50
Introducing a separation constant as Differentiating eqn. (6.35) with respect to x

∂θ 2
1 ∂ 2 F(x) 1 ∂G(t) = {– C1 sin λx + C2 cos λx} λ e −αλ t
2 = = – λ2 ...(6.31) ∂x
F( x) ∂x α G(t) ∂t ...(6.36)
The λ2 is called separation constant and function Using boundary condition (ii) at x = 0
G(t) must decay exponentially with time, therefore λ2 is FG IJ
∂θ
H K
2
= {– C1 sin λx + C2 cos λx}x=0 × λ e −αλ t
considered negative. ∂x x = 0
Each side of eqn. (6.31) is a function of only one =0
variable and each side will be equal to – λ2. Taking each = {– C1 sin λ(0) + C2 cos λ(0)} = 0
equation separately It gives C2 = 0
The eqn. (6.35) reduces to
1 ∂ 2 F(x)
= – λ2 θ = C1 e −αλ t cos λx
2
...(6.37)
F( x) ∂x 2
Using boundary condition (iii), at x = L
1 ∂ 2 F(x)
or
F( x) ∂x 2
+ λ2 = 0 FG ∂θ IJ
H ∂x K
2
= – C1 e −αλ t λ sin λL
The characteristic equation is in the form of x=L
m2 + λ2 = 0 or m = ± λ 2
It can be written as and θL = C1 e −αλ t cos λL

F(x) = A1 e–iλx + A2eiλx Therefore,
= A1(cos λx – i sin λx) + A2(cos λx + i sin λx) 2 h 2
= (A1 + A2) cos λx + (iA2 – iA1) sin λx – C1 e −αλ t λ sin λL = – C1 e −αλ t cos λL
k
= B1 cos λx + B2 sin λx ...(6.32) h
where B1 and B2 are new constants. or λ sin λL = cos λL
k
1 1 ∂G(t)
Again = – λ2 λk
α G(t) ∂t or cot λL =
h
∂G (t) λL λL
or = – αλ2∂t or cot λL = = ...(6.38)
G (t ) hL/k Bi
Integrating with respect to t, we get Equation (6.38) is a transcedental equation and
ln[G(t)] = – αλ2t + A3 it has an infinite number of roots. The value of root λ
2 can be obtained by plotting cot λL and λL/Bi against λL
or G(t) = A3 e −αλ t ...(6.33)
as shown in Fig. 6.26. From the intersections of the two
where A3 is constant of integration.
functions as many value of λ as λ1, λ2, λ3, ..... etc. can be
Substituting these solutions in eqn. (6.29), we determined. The equation cot λL = λL/Bi is satisfied for
have an infinite succession of values of λL so that for a given
2
θ = (B1 cos λx + B2 sin λx)A3 e −αλ t ...(6.34) λ, the equation defines the value of λ. This succession
of values of λ called eigen values, will be denoted by λn,
Introducing the new constants C1 and C2 as
which depend on Biot number.
C1 = B1A3 and C2 = B2A3
2
g2 = cot lL g2 = cot lL g2 = cot lL g2 = cot lL
Then, θ = (C1 cos λx + C2 sin λx) e −αλ t ...(6.35)
The three constants C1, C2 and λ are to be g1 = (lL/Bi)
evaluated from initial and boundary conditions
(i) At t = 0, θ = θi = Ti – T∞
0
∂θ (lL)1 (lL)2 (lL)3 (lL)4 (lL)n
(ii) At x = 0, =0 1
—p
3
—p
5
—p
7
—p
∂x 2
1p
2
2p
2
3p
2
4p
(No heat transfer at mid-plane)
(iii) At the surfaces of the wall at x = L
∂θ FG IJ
–k
H
∂x x = L K
= h θx = L = h (TL – T∞)
FG IJ
Fig. 6.26. Graphical solution of the transcendental
∂θ h
or
H
∂x x = L K=– θ
k x=L equation cot λL =
λL
Bi
The temperature distribution becomes the αt

following series solution. Using Fo = , Fourier number ; then
L2
n=∞
n=∞
∑ θ
2
Cn e −αλ t cos λnx 2 sin ξ n cos (ξ n x / L)
θ= ...(6.39)
∑
2
= e− ξn Fo
n=1 θi
n=1 ξ n + sin ξ n cos ξ n
Using initial condition (i), at t = 0 ...(6.46)
n=∞ At x = 0, θ = θc , the temperature distribution at
θ= ∑
n=1
Cn cos λn x ...(6.40) the centre ;
n=∞
θc 2 sin ξ n
where n is simple integers, 1, 2, 3, ....., ∑
2
= e– ξn Fo
For n = 1, at x = L i.e., at outer surface θi

n=1 ξ n + sin ξ n cos ξ n
θs = C1 cos λ1L ...(6.41) ...(6.47)
At x = L, θ = θL , the surface temperature
At centre (x = 0)
distribution
θc = C1 n=∞
θL 2 sin ξ n cos ξ n
Hence the non dimensional temperature
distribution becomes θi
=
n=1
∑ e–ξn
2
Fo
ξ n + sin ξ n cos ξ n
θs ...(6.48)
= cos λ1L ...(6.42) The results using eqns. (6.46), (6.47) and (6.48)
θc have been calculated for different cases and plotted in
For internal temperature gradients within 5% the form of charts for quick reference by Gröber and
(negligible), we get Erk, Gurney-Lurie, Heisler and others. Heisler chart
θs for θc/θi is given in Fig. 6.31(a).
≥ (1 – 0.05) Using temperature distribution in eqn. (6.46), the
θc
cummulative heat loss from an infinite plate is
θs expressed.
or ≥ 0.95 ...(6.43)
θc Q Q
=
or cos λL ≥ 0.95 ρVC (Ti − T∞ ) Q i
n=∞
or λL ≥ 0.3175 radian 2 sin 2 ξ n
∑
2
= 2
× (1 − e − ξ n Fo
)
Substituting in eqn. (6.38), we get n=1
ξ n + ξ n sin ξ n cos ξ n
0.3175 ...(6.49)
cot(0.3175) =
Bi 6.2.2. Infinite Cylinder and Sphere with Convective
or Bi ≈ 0.1
Boundaries
Thus when Biot number is less than or equal to
0.1, the internal temperature gradients within the solid Similar to the transient temperature distribution and
can be neglected and the lumped system analysis can heat flow in an infinite plate, the transient temperature
be used for unsteady state heat conduction problems. distribution in an infinite cylinder of radius ro exposed
Further, the constant Cn is determined for each to convection boundary can be obtained. The
value of λn i.e., 1, 2, 3, ...... In general temperature distribution in an infinite cylinder is given
as
2 θi sin λ n L θ
Cn = ...(6.44) T(r, t) − T∞
λ n L + sin λ n L cos λ n L =
θi Ti − T∞
For convenience introducing ξn = λnL, where the ∞ 2
e − λ n αt J (λ r) J 1 (λ n ro )
discrete values of ξn are positive roots of the
transcendental equation (6.38) in form
=2
n=1
∑ λ n ro
× 20 n
J 0 (λ n r) + J 12 (λ n ro )
ξn tan ξn = Bi ...(6.45) ...(6.50)
The temperature distribution in the slab is finally where J0 and J1 are zeroth and first order Bessel’s
obtained as function of first kind.
The centre line temperature J0(0) = 1
θ n=∞
F 2 sin ξ n I
∑ GH ξ JK
2 2
(αt / L2 ) ∞
e− ξn θc T(0, t) − T∞ e − λ n αt J 1 (λ n ro )
θi = n + sin ξ n cos ξ n = =2 ∑
×
n=1 θi Ti − T∞ λ n ro 1 + J 12 (λ n ro )
× cos (ξn x/L) n=1
where θi = Ti – T∞ ; ...(6.51)
Heisler charts for centre line temperature θc/θi The above relations are simplified to
and the position temperature θ/θi for a long cylinder are θ T(0, t) − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
given in Figs. 6.32 (a) and 6.32(b), respectively. With Plane wall (x = 0), c = = C1 e 1
θi Ti − T∞
the use of these charts, the time temperature history at ...(6.55)
any location in the cylinder can be obtained. Cylinder (r = 0),
For sphere of radius ro, the similar relations can θc T(0, t) − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
be obtained, derived by Schneider. Figs. 6.33 (a) and = = C1 e 1 ...(6.56)
θi Ti − T∞
6.33 (b) show Heisler chart for θc/θi and θ/θi to determine
the temperature time history at any location in a sphere. Sphere (r = 0),
θc T(0, t) − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
6.2.3. One Term Approximation = = C1 e 1 ...(6.57)
θi Ti − T∞
The one-dimensional transient heat conduction Once the Biot number is known, the above
problems can be solved exactly for any of the three relations can be used to obtain the temperature
geometries of plane wall, cylinder or sphere. But the anywhere in the medium.
solutions involve approximation of an infinite series, The fraction heat transfer can also be determined
which are difficult to deal with. However, the terms in from the following relations, derived from one term
the solutions converge rapidly with increasing time. If approximations.
Fourier number is greater than 0.2, then the infinite
Q θ sin ξ 1
series solution can be reduced to one term solution Plane wall : =1– c ...(6.58)
i.e., keeping the first term and ignoring the all other Qi θi ξ1
terms in the series. It results into an error less than Q θ c J 1 (ξ 1 )
2%. Thus it is convenient to express the solution using Cylinder : =1–2 ...(6.59)
Qi θi ξ1
one term approximation for Fo ≥ 0.2 ; given as Q θ c sin ξ 1 − ξ 1 cos ξ 1
Plane wall : Sphere : =1–3
θ T( x, t) – T∞ 2
Qi θi ξ 13
= = C1e – ξ1 Fo cos (ξ 1 x/L) ...(6.52) ...(6.60)
θi Ti – T∞ where Qi = mC(Ti – T∞) = ρVC(Ti – T∞) ...(6.61)
2 sin ξ 1 Example 6.20. In a material treatment process, a
With C1 =
ξ 1 + sin ξ 1 cos ξ 1 metallic sphere 10 mm in diameter is initially at 400°C
Similarly for is suddenly subjected to two step cooling process.
θ T(r, t) − T∞ 2 Step 1. Cooling in stagnant air at 20°C with
Cylinder : = = C1 e −ξ 1 Fo J 0 (ξ r/ro )
θi Ti − T∞ convective coefficient of 10 W/m2.K for a period, until
...(6.53) the centre temperature reaches a temperature of 335°C.
θ T(r, t) − T∞ − ξ 12 Fo sin (ξ 1r/ro ) Step 2. After sphere attains 335°C, it is cooled to
Sphere : = = C1 e 50°C in a well stirred water bath at 20°C, with convective
θi Ti − T∞ ξ 1 (r/ro )
...(6.54) coefficient of 6000 W/m2.K.
where C1, ξ1 are functions of Biot number only and their The thermophysical properties of material are
values are presented in Table B-5 of Appendix B, against ρ = 3000 kg/m3, k = 20 W/m.K,
Biot number for all three geometries. The function J0 is C = 1000 J/kg.K, α = 6.66 × 10–6 m2/s.
the zeroth order Bessel function of first kind, its value (i) Calculate the time required for step 1 for
can be obtained from Table B-6 of Appendix B. cooling process to be completed.
(ii) Calculate the time required during step 2 of
Note: The characteristic length in defining the Biot the process for centre of sphere to cool from 335°C to
number must be considered as half thickness L for a plane 50°C.
V
Solution
wall and radius ro for long cylinder and sphere instead Given : The material treatment of a metallic
A
sphere
as done in lumped heat capacity method.
D = 10 mm
At the centre of the plane wall, cylinder and ro = 5 mm = 0.005 m
sphere ρ = 3000 kg/m3,
sin ( x) k = 20 W/m.K
x = r = 0, cos(0) = 1, J(0) = 1 and =1 α = 6.66 × 10–6 m2/s,
x
C = 1000 J/kg.K
For step 1. Ti = 400°C, Step 2 : Checking the validity of the lumped heat
Ta = 335°C capacity system in water
ha = 10 W/m2.K, h2 δ 6000 × 0.005
Bi = = = 0.5
T∞ = 20°C k 3 × 20
For step 2. Ti = 335°C, It is greater than 0.1, thus the lumped heat
Tw = 50°C capacity method is not appropriate to use. However,
T∞ = 20°C, using one term approximation for centre temperature
hw = 6000 W/m2.K. to reach 50°C from 335°C. For this method, using
eqn. (6.57) with
To find :
(i) Time required for cooling process in step 1. h2 ro 6000 × 0.005
Bi = = = 1.5
(ii) Time required for cooling process in step 2. k 20
Assumptions : From Table B-5
1. One-dimensional conduction in radial C1 = 1.376,
direction only.
ξ1 = 1.80 rad.
2. No radiation heat exchange in either step of
cooling. Tw − T∞ −ξ 2 Fo
Thus, = C1 e 1
3. Constant properties. Ti − T∞
T = 20°C T = 20°C 1
×
LM
50 − 20 OP
= e
−(1.8)2 Fo
ha = 10 W/m .K
2
hw = 6000 W/m .K
2
1.376 N
335 − 20 Q
1 L 30 OP = 0.824
× ln M
or Fo = –
N 1.376 × 315 Q
Air Water
3.24
ro 2 Fo (0.005) 2 × 0.824
Sphere, ro = 5 mm and t2 = =
3 α 6.66 × 10 −6
= 3000 kg/m
C = 1 kJ/kg.K = 3.09 s. Ans.
–6 2
Ti = 400°C = 6.66 × 10 m /s Ti = 335°C Note that with Fo = 0.824, the use of one term
k = 20 W/m.K
Ta = 335°C Tw = 50°C approximation is justified.
Step 1 Step 2 Example 6.21. A rocket engine nozzle is made of high
Fig. 6.27. Schematic for example 6.20 temperature steel 0.64 cm thick, k = 29 W/m.K, α = 6.39 ×
Analysis : The characteristic length of the sphere 10–6 m2/s. The flame side surface film coefficient is
8370 W/m2.K. The flame temperature is constant at
ro 0.005
= δ= m. 2200°C. If the nozzle is initially at uniform temperature
3 3
of 25°C.
Step 1 : Checking the validity of the lumped heat
What should be the duration of combustion in
capacity system in air
order to limit the operating temperature of steel to
h1δ 10 × 0.005 1100°C ?
Bi = = = 8.33 × 10–4
k 3 × 20
Solution
It is well within the lumped heat capacity method.
Given : Rocket engine nozzle
Therefore, using eqn. (6.10)
L = 0.64 cm = 0.0064 m,
Ta − T∞
= exp −
h1t1 LM OP k = 29 W/m.K
Ti − T∞ ρδC N Q α = 6.39 × 10–6 m2/s,
or t1 = –
ρro C LM
T − T∞
ln a
OP h = 8370 W/m2.K
3h N
Ti − T∞ Q T∞ = 2200°C,
=–
3000 × 0.005 × 1000
× ln
335 − 20 LM OP Ti = 25°C
3 × 10 400 − 20 N Q TL= 1100°C.
To find : Duration of combustion.
t1 = 93.8 s. Ans.
Assuming
Combustion
chamber π
ξ = λL = 45° =
Outer surface
h 4
Rocket
Bi 1.847 × 4
nozzle tan ξ = = = 2.351
ξ π
T¥
L = 0.64 cm
ξ = 66.96°C
which is greater than assumed value.
L L
π
x Let ξ= = 60°
Ti 3
3 × 1.843
tan ξ = = 1.7637 → ξ = 60.4°C
TL π
agrees with assumption.
Fig. 6.28. Schematic of a rocket nozzle
Taking n = 1
Assumptions :
−ξ 2
Fo sin 2ξ 1
1. Wall thickness of nozzle is very small 0.5057 = e 1
ξ 1 + sin ξ 1 cos ξ 1
compared to its diameter, the nozzle wall can be mod-
elled as infinite plane wall of thickness 0.64 cm. FG π IJ 2
2. The outer surface of the nozzle as insulated, =e

_
H 3K × Fo
×
sin (120° )
π
against the heat flow. + sin (60° ) cos (60° )
3
3. Uniform heat transfer coefficient.
FG π IJ 2
4. Discarding any radiation heat transfer.
= 0.585 e
_
H 3K × Fo
Analysis : The Biot number of wall insulated of

thickness L FG 0.5057 IJ = –  π  2
hL 8370 × 0.0064
or ln
H 0.585 K  3  × Fo
Bi = = = 1.847
k 29 1.397
or Fo = = 0.1274
which is much higher than 0.1, and thus the lumped 1.0966
system analysis cannot be applicable. The Hiesler charts Fo L2 0.1274 × (0.0064) 2
or analytical method can be used for temperature or t= =
α 6.39 × 10 −6
distribution. _
= 0.8175 s ~ 0.825
Using analytical approach given by eqn. (6.46)
The combustion must complete within 0.82 s.
n=∞
θ 2 sin ξ n Ans.
∑
2
= e− ξn Fo
. Example 6.22. An egg can be approximated as a sphere,
θi n=1
ξ n + sin ξ n cos ξ n
5 cm in diameter, with thermophysical properties
× cos (ξn x/L) k = 0.6 W/m.K, α = 0.14 × 10–6 m2/s. The egg is taken
θL from a refrigerator at 2°C and is dropped into boiling
At x = L, water, where the convection heat transfer coefficient is
θi
estimated as 1200 W/m2.K. Calculate time required to
n=∞ reach the centre temperature of the egg to 75°C.
TL – T∞ 2 sin ξ n cos ξ n
Ti – T∞
= ∑e
n=1
– ξ n 2 .Fo
.
ξ n + sin ξ n cos ξ n Solution
Given : An egg as spherical body :
Calculating each term separately D = 5 cm,
TL − T∞ 1100 − 2200 ro = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m
= = 0.5057
Ti − T∞ 25 − 2200 k = 0.6 W/m.K
α = 0.14 × 10–6 m2/s
1 1
= = 0.5414 Ti = 2°C,
Bi 1.847
Tc = 75°C,
Bi = ξn tan ξn h = 1200 W/m2.K.
0.2154 × (0.025) 2
or t=
0.14 × 10 −6
Egg = 961.6 s = 16 min. Ans.
Ti = 2°C
It will take 16 min. for centre of egg to reach to
2 75°C from 2°C.
h = 1200 W/m .K
T¥ = 100°C Example 6.23. A long cylindrical shaft, 20 cm in diameter
is made of steel (k = 14.9 W/m.K), ρ = 7900 kg/m3,
Fig. 6.29. Schematic of egg in boiling water C = 477 J/kg.K and α = 3.95 × 10 –6 m2/s. It comes out of
an oven at a uniform temperature of 600°C. The shaft is
To find : Time to reach the centre temperature of then allowed to cool slowly in an environment at 200°C
egg to 75°C.
with an average heat transfer coefficient of 80 W/m2.K.
Assumptions : Calculate the temeprature at the centre of the shaft,
1. Boiling water temperature at atmospheric 45 min after the start of cooling process. Also calculate
conditions as T∞ = 100°C. the heat transfered per unit length of the shaft during
this period.
2. Temperature variation in the egg in radial
direction only with time. Solution
3. Uniform heat transfer coefficient. Given : D = 20 cm
ro = 10 cm = 0.1 m
4. Constant properties of egg.
k = 14.9 W/m.K, ρ = 7900 kg/m3
Analysis : Biot number
C = 477 W/m.K, α = 3.95 × 10–6 m2/s
hr 1200 × 0.025
Bi = o = = 50 Ti = 600°C, T∞ = 200°C
k 0.6
h = 80 W/m2.K, t = 45 min = 2700 s.
which much greater than 0.1, thus the lumped system
analysis is not applicable. Heisler charts or one term To find :
solution can be used. (i) Temperature at the centre of the shaft.
Using one term solution. (ii) Heat transfer from 1 m length of shaft.
For sphere with
Bi = 50, ξ1 = 3.0788 Steel shaft
and C1 = 1.9662 (From Table B-5) D = 20 cm
Ti = 600°C r
Substituting these values in eqn. (6.57) and solv- 2
ing for Fo ; h = 80 W/m .K
T¥ = 200°C
θc T − T∞ 2
= c = C1 e − ξ 1 Fo
θi Ti − T∞ Fig. 6.30. Schematic for shaft exposed to
convection ambient
75 − 100 − (3.0788) 2 Fo
= 1.9662 × e Assumptions :
2 − 100
1. Shaft as an infinite cylinder.
25 1
or × = e–9.48 Fo 2. Heat conduction in the shaft in radial direc-
98 1.9662
tion only with time.
or ln (0.12974) = – 9.48 Fo
3. Uniform heat transfer coefficient.
It gives Fo = 0.2154
4. No radiation heat transfer.
Fo is greater than 0.2 and thus the use of one
term solution is justified, Analysis : (i) The Biot number for shaft
αt hro 80 × 0.1
Fo = Bi = = = 0.537
ro 2 k 14.9
which is larger than 0.1 and hence the lumped system 1. Biot Number, Bi.
analysis is not applicable. Either Heisler charts or one 2. Fourier Number, Fo.
term solution may be used. 3. Temperature ratio at the centre.
αt 3.95 × 10 −6 × 2700 4. Temperature ratio at any position.
Fo = = = 1.0665 5. Dimensionless position.
ro 2 (0.1) 2
6. Dimensionless heat transfer.
Fo is greater than 0.2, thus using one term
For infinite plane wall, long cylinder and sphere,
solution for cylinder :
there are three graphs, first one is used to obtain
At Bi = 0.537, C1 = 1.122 centreline temperature, second one for position
ξ1 = 0.970 temperature and third for determination of heat flow in
the geometry.
Substituting the values in eqn. (6.56)
6.3.1. Transient Temperature Charts for Slab
Tc − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
= C1 e 1 Consider a slab (i.e., a plane) of thickness 2L, confined
Ti − T∞
to the region – L ≤ x ≤ L. The slab initially at a
Tc − 200 2 temperature Ti, is suddenly exposed to convection
=1.122 × e − (0.970) × 1.0665 = 0.411 environment (for t > 0) with a heat transfer coefficient
600 − 200
h, on its both boundary surfaces. The heat flows from
or Tc = 200 + 400 × 0.411 = 364.5°C. Ans. both surfaces inward. Due to symmetry of problem, only
The centre temperature of shaft will reach half region 0 ≤ x ≤ L is considered. The dimensionless
364.5°C after 45 min. Ans. parameters for a slab can be expressed as :
(ii) Heat transfer from shaft can be obtained by hL
eqn. (6.59) 1. Biot Number, Bi =
k
Q Tc − T∞ J 1 (ξ 1 ) αt
=1–2× 2. Fourier Number, Fo =
Qi Ti − T∞ ξ1 L2
3. Temperature ratio at the centre,
where J1(ξ1) = J1 (0.970) = 0.430 θ c Tc − T∞
=
Q Tc − T∞ FG0.430 IJ θ i Ti − T∞
ρVC (Ti − T∞ )
=1–2
Ti − T∞
×
H0.970 K 4. Temperature ratio at any position,
θ T( x, t) − T∞
= 1 – 2 × 0.411 × 0.443 = 0.635 =
θc Tc − T∞
Q = 7900 × [π × (0.1)2 × 1] × 477
x
× (600 – 200) × 0.635 5. Dimensionless position =
L
= 30098500 J = 30.09 MJ. Ans.
Q
6. Dimensionless heat transfer =
Qi
6.3. TRANSIENT TEMPERATURE CHARTS : where, L = half thickness of a slab, in metres.
HEISLER AND GRÖBER CHARTS x = position in the slab, measured from centre,
where temperature is required, m.
When the internal temperature gradients are large,
lumped heat capacity system analysis becomes Tc = centreline temperature of the slab, °C.
unsuitable for the analysis of transient heat conduction T(x, t) = position temperature in the slab, °C.
problems. In such situation the Heisler and Gröber Qi = initial internal energy content in the slab
charts are widely used for determination of = ρ(A 2L) C (Ti – T∞) Joules.
1. Centreline temperature. Q = total amount of energy lost by plate during
2. Position temperature. time t.
3. The heat transfer. α = thermal diffusivity of the material, m2/s.
To obtain the required value of unknowns, the k = thermal conductivity of the material,
various dimensionless parameters required are W/m.K.
700
600
100
500
90
Plate
80
70
400
60
300
200
140
= h(T – T¥ )
50
120
45
40
35
30
25
20
18
100
16
¶T
¶x
x
80
–k
60
Initially
at Ti
2
t
40
L
Fo =
2L
o
28
24
hL
k
14
12
L
10
20
¶T
¶x
9
h(T¥ – T) = –k —
8
7
6
5
16
4
2.5 1.8
2.0
12
1.6
1.4 1.2 8
4
3
0 0.8 .7 0.6 0.5 0.4 .3

1. 0 0 0.2 0.1 0.05 0
2
1
0
0.001
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.01
0.1
0.002
0.007
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.05
0.02
0.07
0.04
0.03
q T –T
—c = c
qi Ti – T¥
Fig 6.31 (a) Centreline temperature for an infinite plate of thickness 2L
The temperature at any position x from the mid-plane can be obtained from position correction temperature
chart, Fig. 6.31 (b)
θ θ θ T − T∞
= c × = .
θi θi θc Ti − T∞
1.0
0.2
0.9
0.4
0.8
0.7
0.6 0.6 x/L

Tc – T¥
T – T¥
0.5
=
qc
q
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.2 0.9
0.1
Plate
1.0
0
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 10 20 50 100
Bi = k
–1
hL
Fig. 6.31 (b) Position correction for temperature as a function of centre
temperature in an infinite cylinder of radius ro
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
01
k = 0.0
0.6
2
5
0.01
0.02
Q 0.5
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.1
0.2
0.5
1 2 5 10 20 50
Bi = hL
Qi
0.4
0.3
0.2
Plate
0.1
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10
2
2 h at
Bi Fo = 2
k
Fig. 6.31 (c) Dimensionless heat loss for an infinite plate of thickness 2L
6.3.2. Transient Temperature Charts for Long Cylinder and Sphere

Consider a long cylinder or a sphere of radius ro, initially at temperature Ti is suddenly subjected to convection
environment (for t > 0) with heat transfer coefficient h and fluid temperature T∞. The various dimensionless
parameters required for Heisler charts solution are
hro
1. Biot number, Bi =
k
αt
2. Fourier number, Fo =
ro 2
θc Tc − T∞
3. Temperature ratio at the centre, =
θi Ti − T∞
θ T(r, t) − T∞
4. Temperature ratio at any position, =
θc Tc − T∞
r
5. Dimensionless radial position,
ro
Q
6. Dimensionless heat transfer, ;
Qi
200 300 350

Cylinder
140
120
0
10
90
80
70
100
60
50
40
35
80
30
60
–k — = h(T – T¥)
30 40
28
¶T
¶r
25
24
20
Fo = 2
at
ro
18
16
Initially
ro
ro
14
at Ti
20
k/h
12
10
9
8 10 12 14 16
7
6
8
6
4
0
3.
5
1.6
0
8
2.
1.
5
3.
5
2.
4
1.2
3
1.4
1.0
0.8 0.6
2
0.5 0.3
0.2 0.1
1
0
0
0.01
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.02
0.005
0.002
0.001
0.05
0.007
0.004
0.003
0.07
0.04
0.03
q Tc – T¥
—c =
qi Ti – T¥
Fig. 6.32. (a) Centreline temperature for an infinite cylinder of radius ro,
subjected to convection at its boundary surface
where ro = radius of cylinder or sphere

r = position radius in cylinder or sphere
Tc = centre temperature, °C
Ti = initial temperature, °C
T(r, t) = position temperature, °C
Q = total amount of heat energy lost by body in time t, Joules
1.0
0.2
0.9
0.4
0.8
0.7
0.6 0.6 r/ro

Tc – T¥
T – T¥
0.5
=
qc
q
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.2 0.9
0.1
Cylinder
1.0
0
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 10 20 50 100
–1 k
Bi =
hro
Fig. 6.32. (b) Position correction for temperature as a function of centre

temperature in an infinite cylinder of radius ro
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
1
k = 0.00
0.6
2
5
0.01
0.02
Q 0.5
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.1
0.2
0.5
1 2 5 10 20 50
o
Bi = hr
Qi
0.4
0.3
0.2
Cylinder
0.1
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10
2
Bi Fo = h a
2 t
k2
Fig. 6.32. (c) Dimensionless heat loss Q/Qi for an infinite cylinder of radius ro
Qi = initial internal energy content of the body = ρVC(Ti – T∞), Joules

t = time, s
α = thermal diffusivity, m2/s
k = thermal conductivity, W/m.K
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K.
250
210
Sphere
170
130
90
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0
10
80
60
70
90
45
50
35
40
– k — = h(T – T¥)
30 25
18
20
16
¶T
¶r
ro
k/h
10
12
14
Fo = 2
at
8
ro
7
8
6
7
ro
5 6
Initially
at Ti
3 4
.5
2.8 3
4 6
2
2.5
2.
2. 2.
0
2. 1.8 .6 4
1 1.
1.2
2
1.0
5
0.7
1.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.2
0.5 0
0.5
0
0.001
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.01
0.1
0.002
0.005
0.02
0.007
0.004
0.003
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.03
q Tc – T¥
—c =
qi Ti – T¥
Fig. 6.33 (a) Centre temperature for a sphere of radius ro, subjected to correction at the boundary surface
0
1.0
0.2
0.9
0.8 0.4
0.7
0.6
c Tc – T
r/ro
T – T
0.6
0.5
=
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.1
Sphere
1.0
0
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 10 20 50 100
1 k
=
Bi hro
Fig. 6.33 (b) Position correction for temperature as a function of centre

temperature for a sphere of radius ro
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
1
2
0.00
5
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.6
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
Q
1
50
o k=
5
2
10
20
0.5
Qi
hr /
0.4
0.3
0.2
Sphere
0.1
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10
2
2 h t
Bi Fo =
2
k
Fig. 6.33 (c) Dimensionless heat loss Q/Qi for a sphere of radius ro
Example 6.24. A 50 mm thick iron plate is initially at (iii) Calculate the energy removed from the plate
225°C. Its both surfaces are suddenly exposed to air at per square metre during this period.
25°C with convection coefficient of 500 W/m2.K. Take thermophysical properties of iron plate :
(i) Calculate the centre temperature, 2 minute k = 60 W/m.K, ρ = 7850 kg/m3,
after the start of exposure. C = 460 J/kg, α = 1.6 × 10–5 m2/s.
(ii) Calculate the temperature at the depth of (Anna Univ., March 2000)
10 mm from the surface, after 2 minute of exposure.
Solution From Heisler chart Fig. 6.31 (a) for centreline

Given : A hot thick iron plate exposed to air on 1
temperature, for = 4.8 and Fo = 3.07
both surfaces Bi
2L = 50 mm or L = 25 mm = 0.025 m, θc T − T∞
= c = 0.58
k = 60 W/m.K, Ti = 225°C, θi Ti − T∞
T∞ = 25°C, t = 2 min = 120 s, or Tc = 0.58 × (225 – 25) + 25
ρ = 7850 kg/m3, C = 460 J/kg.K, = 141°C. Ans.
h = 500 W/m2.K α = 1.6 × 10–5 m2/s, (ii) Temperature at the depth of 10 mm from the
Depth = 10 mm from the surface. surface,
x = L – depth = 25 mm – 10 mm = 15 mm
To find :
(i) The centreline temperature of the plate, after x 15
Hence = = 0.6
2 minute of exposure. L 25
(ii) The temperature at the depth of 10 mm from From chart Fig. 6.31 (b) for position temperature,
the surface, after 2 minute. 1 x
for = 4.8 and = 0.6
(iii) Heat transferred during 2 minute. Bi L
Assumptions : Temperature ratio at the location,
1. The heat transfer area of 1 m2. θ T − T∞
= = 0.95
2. Constant properties. θc Tc − T∞
Analysis : (i) Consider the plate of thickness 2L, or T = 25 + 0.95 × (141 – 25)
hence considering L as characteristic length = 135.2°C. Ans.
hL 500 × 0.025 (iii) Heat loss from the plate during 2 minute
Biot number Bi = = = 0.21 exposure ;
k 60
The Biot number is greater than 0.1, hence the Bi = 0.21
lumped heat system analysis cannot be used. Using the Bi2 Fo = (0.21)2 × 3.07 = 0.135
Heisler charts : From the Gröber chart Fig. 6.31 (c) for heat
1 transfer ratio for plane wall
1
= = 4.8
Bi 0.21 Q
= 0.45
Qi
where Qi = ρVC(Ti – T∞) = ρ(A2L)C(Ti – T∞)
= (7850 kg/m3) × (1 m2 × 0.05 m)
Air Air × (460 J/kg) × (225 – 25) × (K)
T(0, t) T(L, t)
= 35.33 × 106 J/m2 = 35.33 × 103 kJ/m2
T¥ T¥ The heat transferred during 2 minute,
Q = 0.45 × 35.33 × 103 kJ/m2
= 15.9 × 103 kJ/m2. Ans.
h h
Example 6.25. Consider a steel pipeline that is 1 m in
diameter and has a wall thickness of 40 mm. The pipe is
2L
heavily insulated on the outside and before the initiation
x of flow, the wall of the pipe is at uniform temperature of
Fig. 6.34. Schematic of thick iron plate – 20°C. Suddenly the hot oil at 60°C flows through the
pipe creating convective surface condition corresponding
Fourier number
h = 500 W/m2.K at the inner surface of the pipe.
αt 1.6 × 10 −5 × 120 (i) What is the appropriate Biot and Fourier
Fo = = = 3.07
L2 (0.025) 2 numbers, 8 minutes after the initiation of flow ?
(ii) At t = 8 minute, what is the temperature of Analysis : (i) Biot and Fourier numbers after
the exterior pipe surface covered by the insulation ? 8 minute of exposure.
(iii) What is the heat flux to the pipe from the oil Biot number
at t = 8 minute ?
hL 500 × 0.04
(iv) How much energy per metre pipe length has Bi = = = 0.313. Ans.
been transferred from the oil to the pipe during the period k 63.9
of 8 minutes ? Fourier number
The thermophysical properties of the steel : αt 18.8 × 10 −6 × (8 × 60)
k = 63.9 W/m.K, ρ = 7823 kg/m3 ; Fo = = = 5.64. Ans.
L2 (0.04) 2
C = 434 J/kg, α = 18.8 × 10–6 m2/s.
(ii) Biot number is greater than 0.1, hence lumped
Solution
heat system analysis cannot be used.
Given : A large steel pipe insulated on its outer Using the Heisler charts, Fig. 6.31(a)
surface ;
L = 40 mm = 0.04 m, k = 63.9 W/m.K, 1 1
With = = 3.2
Ti = – 20°C, T∞ = 60°C, Bi 0.313
t = 8 min, ρ = 7823 kg/m3, and Fo = 5.64, the centreline temperature,
C = 434 J/kg.K, h = 500 W/m2.K,
Tc − T∞
α = 18.8 × 10–6 m2/s. = 0.22
Ti − T∞
To find :
(i) Biot and Fourier numbers after 8 minute of or Tc = 0.22 × (– 20 – 60) + 60 = 42°C. Ans.
exposure. (iii) Heat flux at the surface requires the
(ii) The temperature of exterior pipe surface after determination of temperature at the surface,
8 minute.
(iii) Heat flux to the wall at t = 8 minute. x
Hence, =1
(iv) Heat energy transferred to pipe per unit L
length during 8 minutes period.
Assumptions : From chart for position temperature, for 1 = 3.2
Bi
1. Since the pipe diameter is too large as
compared to its thickness, therefore, treating it as a x
and = 1.0 temperature ratio at the location, from
plane wall. L
2. One surface of the pipe is adiabatic, and hence Fig. 6.31(b)
taking L = 0.04 m.
T − T∞
3. Constant properties. = 0.86
Tc − T∞
T or T = 60 + 0.86 × (42 – 60) = 45°C
T(L, t) The heat flux at the surface after 8 min
q = h (T∞ – Ts)
T(0, t) = 500 × (60 – 45)
Ti = – 20°C
or = 7500 W/m2. Ans.
T¥ = 60°C
Insulation T(x, 0) 2
h = 500 W/m .K
(iv) The energy transfer to the pipe wall over
= – 20°C
8 minute interval
Bi = 0.313
Oil
Bi Fo = (0.313)2 × 5.64 = 0.55
2
From the Gröber chart Fig. 6.31(c) for heat

L = 40 mm transfer ratio for plane wall
x
Q
Fig. 6.35. Schematic for example 6.25 = 0.78
Qi
where Qi = initial energy content per unit pipe Assumptions :

length 1. The slab is sufficiently large so it can be
= ρVC(Ti – T∞) = ρ(πDL)C(Ti – T∞) treated as an infinite slab.
= 7823 × (π × 1 × 0.04) × 434
2. Heat conduction in axial direction only.
× {– 20 – (– 60)}
3. Uniform heat transfer coefficient on the slab.
= 34.13 × 106 J/m = 34.13 × 103 kJ/m
The heat transferred during 8 minute, 4. No radiation heat transfer.
Q = 0.78 × 34.13 × 103 kJ/m Analysis : (i) Biot number for an infinite slab
= 26.62 × 103 kJ/m. Ans. hL 1200 × 0.05
Bi = = = 0.28
Example 6.26. A slab of aluminium 10 cm thick is k 215
initially at temperature of 500°C. It is suddenly It is greater than 0.1, thus lumped system
immersed in a liquid bath at 100°C resulting in a heat analysis is not applicable.
transfer coefficient of 1200 W/m2.K. Determine the
temperature at the centreline and surface 1 min after Fourier number,
the immersion. Also calculate the total thermal energy
αt 8.4 × 10 −5 × 60
removed per unit area of the slab during this period. Fo = 2 = = 2.016
The properties of the aluminium for given conditions are: L (0.05) 2
α = 8.4 × 10–5 m/s, k = 215 W/m.K, It is greater than 0.2, thus one term solution as
ρ = 2700 kg/m3, C = 0.9 kJ/kg.K. well as Heisler charts solution can be possible. Using
(Anna Univ., May 2001) Heisler charts for an infinite slab, Fig. 6.31 (a)
Solution 1 1 U|
Given : An aluminium slab as shown in Fig. 6.36, Bi
=
0.28
= 3.57
V| θc T − T∞
= c = 0.63
2L = 10 cm, L = 5 cm = 0.05 m,
Ti = 500°C,
Fo = 2.016 W θi Ti − T∞
T∞ = 100°C,
h = 1200 W/m2.K, The centreline temperature of the slab
α = 8.4 × 10–5 m2/s, Tc = 100 + (500 – 100) × 0.63
k = 215 W/m.K, = 352°C. Ans.
C = 0.9 kJ/kg. K = 900 J/kg.K,
Alternatively
ρ = 2700 kg/m3,
Using one term solution
t = 1 min = 60 s.
To find : At Bi = 0.28, ξ1 = 0.504,
(i) Centreline temperature of slab after 1 min. C1 = 1.0422 (From Table B-5)
(ii) Temperature at the surface after 1 min. Using relation
(iii) Thermal energy removed per unit area of the θc Tc − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
slab during first one minute. = = C1 e 1
θi Ti − T∞
2
= 1.04s22 × e − (0.504) × 2.016
or Tc = 100 + (500 – 100) × 0.624
Liquid Liquid
T(0, t) T(L, t) = 350°C. Ans.
(ii) The surface temperature from Fig. 6.31 (b) :
T¥ T¥
For surface,
x
L
=1 U|
h h
1
V| T − T∞
Tc − T∞
= 0.87
Bi
= 3.57
W
2L
The surface temperature,
x
T = 0.87 × (352 – 100) + 100 = 319.24. Ans.
Fig. 6.36. Schematic of aluminium slab of example 6.26
Alternatively ρ = 2700 kg/m3, C = 900 J/kg.K, k = 210 W/m.K

Surface temperature can also be obtained by
using eqn. (6.52)
T( x, t) − T∞ 2
= C1e −ξ1 Fo cos (ξ1 x/L) D = 5 cm T¥ = 70°C
Ti − T∞ 2
h = 525 W/m .K
x
Here Fo = 2.016, and = 1 (at the surface) Ti = 200°C
L T(ro, t)
From Table B-5 in Appendix,

Tc
For Bi = 0.28,
ξ1 = 0.505 rad, C1 = 1.0423
r
Thus T(L, t) = 100 + (500 – 100) × 1.0423
2
× e − (0.505) × 2.016
× cos (0.505 × 1) Analysis : Since the position temperature is to
= 318.2. Ans. determine, thus using Heisler charts.
(iii) Thermal energy removed per unit area of slab The radius of cylinder
during first one minute. D 0.05 m
ro = = = 0.025 m
2 2
Bi = 0.28  Q Biot number
 = 0.48 (From Fig. 6.31)
Bi 2 Fo = 0.158  Qi hro 525 × 0.025
Bi = = = 0.0625
k 210
Heat removed 1
Q = 0.48 × ρ (A2L) C(Ti – T∞) = 16
Bi
= 0.48 × 2700 × 1 × 2 × 0.05 × 0.900 Fourier number
× (500 – 100) FG k IJ t
αt
= 46.65 × 106 J/m2. Ans.
Fo =
r o H ρC K r
2
=
o
2
Example 6.27. A long aluminium cylinder 5.0 cm in

F 210 IJ × 60
=G
diameter and initially at 200°C is suddenly exposed to a H 2700 × 900 K (0.025) 2
= 8.29
convection environment at 70°C with heat transfer The dimensionless centre temperature from
coefficient of 525 W/m2.K. Calculate the temperature at Heisler chart, Fig. 6.32 (a)
the radius of 1.25 cm 1 minute after the cylinder exposed Tc − T∞
to the environment. (J.N.T.U., May 2004) = 0.35
Ti − T∞
Solution ∴ Tc = 70 + 0.35 × (200 – 70) = 115.5°C
The dimensionless position
Given : A long cylinder
r 1.25 cm
D = 5.0 cm, Ti = 200°cm, = = 0.5
ro 2.5 cm
T∞ = 70°C, h = 525 W/m2.K,
r = 1.25 cm, t = 1 min = 60 s. 1
= 16
Bi
To find : The temperature at the radius of 1.25 cm
in the cylinder. From Fig. 6.32 (b)
Assumptions : T − T∞
= 0.98
(i) No radiation exchange Tc − T∞
(ii) The physical properties for aluminium T = 70 + 0.98 × (115.5 – 70)

cylinder as = 114.59°C. Ans.
Alternatively Analysis : (A) For copper cylinder :

Since Biot number is much less than 0.1, thus Biot number
this problem can also be solved by using the lumped hro 100 × 0.05
system analysis, eqn. (6.10) Bi = = = 0.0142
k 350
ro The lumped system analysis or chart solution can
δ= = 0.0125 m
2 be applied. Applying the chart solution, because
T − T∞
= exp −
LM
ht OP centreline and position temperature are to be calculated.
Ti − T∞ N
ρCδ Q Hence
1
Bi
=
1
= 70
T = 70 + (200 – 70) 0.0142
LM
× exp −
525 × 60 OP (i) Temperature ratio at the centre
N 2700 × 900 × 0.0125 Q θc

θi
T − T∞
= c
Ti − T∞
=
418 − 1000
30 − 1000
= 0.6
= 70 + 130 × 0.354 = 116°C. Ans.
It is temperature in the cylinder with error of 1.2% From Heisler chart Fig. 6.32 (a) for centreline
only. temperature, we get Fourier number,
Fo = 18.8
Example 6.28. Two long cylinders of 10 cm in diameter,
one of copper and other of asbestos are placed in a αt
Further, Fo =
furnace. The initial temperature of cylinders are 30°C ro 2
and the temperature in the furnace is 1000°C. Find how
much time be kept in furnace to reach its centre tem- 18.8 × (0.05) 2
perature 418°C. Also find the temperature at a radius of or t= = 4122.85 s
114 × 10 −7
4 cm after this time. Assume the following properties :
Combined convective and radiative heat transfer = 1.145 hours. Ans.
coefficient = 100 W/m2.K. (ii) Temperature at the radius of 4 cm
For copper k = 350 W/m.K, r 4
α = 114 × 10–7 m2/s = = 0.8
ro 5
For asbestos k = 0.11 W/m.K,
From chart Fig. 6.32 (b), for position temperature
α = 0.28 × 10–7 m2/s.
(P.U.P., May 1989) 1 r
of a cylinder, for = 70 and = 0.8
Bi ro
Solution
Temperature ratio at the location,
Given : Two identical cylinders of copper and
asbestos with T − T∞
= 0.985
D = 10 cm, or ro = 5 cm = 0.05 m, Tc − T∞
h = 100 W/m .K2 Ti = 30°C, or T = 1000 + 0.985 × (418 – 1000)
T∞ = 1000°C, Tc = 418°C = 426.73°C. Ans.
For copper k = 350 W/m.K,
It has very less temperature gradients over 4 cm
α = 114 × 10–7 m2/s, radius.
For asbestos k = 0.11 W/m.K,
(B) For asbestos cylinder
α = 0.28 × 10–7 m2/s.
Biot number
To find :
(i) The time required to reach for the cylinder hro 100 × 0.05
Bi =
= = 45.45
centreline temperature 418°C. k 0.11
(ii) Temperature at the radius of 4 cm in each Biot number is too large, hence using chart
cylinder. solution.
Assumptions :
1 1
1. Infinite long cylinders. Hence, = = 0.022
Bi 45.45
(i) Temperature ratio at the centre (iii) Heat transferred during 2 minutes.
θc T − T∞ 418 − 1000 Analysis : Biot number
= c = = 0.6
θi Ti − T∞ 30 − 1000 hr 500 × 0.025
From Heisler chart Fig. 6.32 (a) for centreline Bi = o = = 0.21
k 60
temperature, we get fourier number, Using the Heisler chart :
Fo = 0.21
1 1
0.21 × (0.05) 2 = = 4.8
It gives t= = 18750 s Bi 0.21
0.28 × 10 −7 Fourier number
= 5.2 hours. Ans.
(ii) Temperature at the radius of 4 cm αt 1.6 × 10 −5 × 2 × 60
Fo = = = 3.07
r 4 ro 2 (0.025) 2
= = 0.8 (i) From Heisler chart Fig. 6.33 (a), for centreline
ro 5
From chart Fig. 6.32 (b), for position tempera- 1
temperature of sphere, at = 4.8 and Fo = 3.07
1 r Bi
ture of cylinder, for = 0.022 and = 0.8
Bi ro Tc − T∞
= 0.18
Temperature ratio at the location, Ti − T∞
T − T∞ or Tc = 0.18 × (225 – 25) + 25
= 0.286 = 61°C. Ans.
Tc − T∞
(ii) Temperature at the depth of 1 cm from the
or T = 1000 + 0.286 × (418 – 1000) surface,
= 833.5°C. Ans.
r = ro – depth = 25 mm – 10 mm
It has large temperature gradients. = 15 mm
Example 6.29. An iron sphere of diameter 5 cm is r 15
initially at a uniform temperature of 225°C. It is sud- Hence = = 0.6
ro 25
denly exposed to an ambient at 25°C with convection
coefficient of 500 W/m2.K. From chart for position temperature of sphere
(i) Calculate the centre temperature 2 minute after 1 r
Fig. 6.33 (b), at = 4.8 and = 0.6
the start of exposure. Bi ro
(ii) Calculate the temperature at the depth of Temperature ratio at the location,
1 cm from the surface after 2 minute of exposure.
T − T∞
(iii) Calculate the energy removed from the sphere = 0.95
during this period. Tc − T∞
Take thermophysical properties of iron plate : or T = 25 + 0.95 × (61 – 25)
k = 60 W/m.K, ρ = 7850 kg/m3, = 59.2°C. Ans.
C = 460 J/kg, α = 1.6 × 10–5 m2/s. (iii) Heat loss from the sphere during 2 minute
exposure
Solution
Bi = 0.21
Given : An iron sphere with
Bi2. Fo = (0.21)2 × 3.07 = 0.135
D = 5 cm, or ro = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m,
k = 60 W/m.K, Ti = 225°C, From the Gröber chart, Fig. 6.33 (c) for heat trans-
fer ratio for sphere
T∞ = 25°C, t = 2 min.,
3
ρ = 7850 kg/m , C = 460 J/kg.K, Q
= 0.8
h = 500 W/m2.K, α = 1.6 × 10–5 m2/s, Qi
depth = 1 cm from the surface. 4
where, Qi = ρVC(Ti – T∞) = ρ × πro3 C(Ti – T∞)
To find : 3
(i) The centreline temperature of the sphere RSFG IJ
4 UV
after 2 minute of exposure.
= 7850 ×
TH K
3
× π × (0.025 ) 3 × 460 ×
W
(ii) The temperature at the depth of 1 cm from (225 – 25)
the surface after 2 minute. = 47,268 J = 47.268 kJ
The heat transferred during 2 minute, 2. The surface is suddenly exposed to constant
Q = 0.8 Qi heat flux q0.
Q = 0.8 × 47.268 kJ = 37.814 kJ. Ans. 3. The surface is suddenly exposed to convection
environment at T = T∞ with heat transfer coefficient h.
These three cases are illustrated in Fig. 6.39 and
6.4. TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN SEMI
solutions are summarised below.
INFINITE SOLIDS Case 1. Change in surface temperature
T(0, t) = Ts for t > 0
An infinite body extends itself in all direction of space.
If such an infinite solid is divided in the middle by a Case 1 Case 2
plane, then half is referred as semi infinite solid. A T(x, 0) = Ti T(x, 0) = Ti
semi infinite solid is a body that has a single boundary T(0, t) = Ts – k [¶T/¶x]x = 0 = q0
surface and extends to infinity in one direction as shown
Ts
in Fig. 6.38. This body is used to estimate the tempera-
qo
ture distribution in the part of the body, in which we
are interested i.e., region close to surface.
For an example, the earth and the thick slab can x x
be considered as semi infinite body to obtain the T(x, t)
temperature variation nearer to its surface. Ts t t
¥
T
¥
Ti Ti
x x
T(x, t) (a) (b)
¥
Case 3
T(x, 0) = Ti
– k [¶T/¶x]x = 0 = h[T¥ – T(0, t)]
x
¥ T¥, h
Fig. 6.38. A semi infinite solid with nomenclature
The general criteria for an infinite body to be
considered semi infinite subjected to one-dimensional x
heat conduction is
T¥
δ
≥ 0.5 t
2 αt
where δ is thickness of the body.
Consider a semi infinite solid, initially at uniform
temperature Ti. At time t > 0, the surface of the solid is
subjected to some boundary condition. The temperature Ti
x
distribution and heat flow at any position x in the solid
with time can be obtained by using eqn. (6.28) (c)
2
∂ T 1 ∂T Fig. 6.39. Transient temperature distributions in a semi
2 = 0≤x≤∞ infinite solid for three surface conditions :
∂x α ∂t (a) constant surface temperature, (b) constant surface heat
subjected to initial and boundary conditions : flux, and (c) surface convection.
(i) Initial Condition. At surface T(x, 0) = Ti and Solution to the preceding equation by the Laplace
at interior T(∞, t) = Ti transform technique leads to
(ii) Boundary Conditions. Three types of T ( x, t) − Ts
conditions may be imposed on the surface. = erf (ξ) ...(6.62)
Ti − Ts
1. The surface temperature is suddenly changed where the quantity erf (ξ) is Gauss error function and is
and maintained at T = Ts . defined with a dimensionless dummy variable ξ as
x Case 2. Constant surface heat flux on semi

ξ= infinite solid
2 αt
and erf (ξ) =

π 0
2 ξ
z
The numerical values of Gauss error function
2
e − ξ dξ...(6.63)
qs = qx=0 = q0
T(x, t) – Ti =
2q0 αt / π F I
GH JK
exp −
x2
kA 4αt
erf(ξ) are presented as a function of ξ (zeta) in Table
B-1 of Appendix B. q x R F x IJ UV
Inserting the dummy variable ξ and definition of –
kA T
S1 − erf G
0
H 2 αt K W ...(6.68)
error function in eqn. (6.62), the expression for
temperature distribution becomes : Case 3. Convection boundary condition
T( x, t) − Ts
Ti − Ts
=
2 ξ −ξ2
π 0
e dξ z
The heat flow rate at any position may be worked
...(6.64)
Heat convected into the surface = Heat conducted
into the surface
∂T
out as hA (T∞ – Tx = 0) = – kA ∂x
x=0
∂T
Q = – kA The solution with this boundary condition yields
∂x to
The partial differentiation of eqn. (6.64) yields
∂T 2 − x 2 / 4 αt ∂ x FG IJ T( x, t) − Ti x FG IJ – exp RS hx + h αt UV 2
∂x
= (Ti − Ts ) ×
π
e
∂x 2 αt H K T∞ − Ti
= erfc
2 αt H K Tk k W 2
or
∂T
=
Ti − Ts − x2 / 4αt
e ...(6.65) F x + h αt I ...(6.69)
× erfc G
∂x παt
The temperature distribution for semi infinite H 2 αt k JK
solid is shown in Fig. 6.40. The instantaneous heat flow The quantity erfc (ξ) appeared in eqn. (6.69) is
rate can be expressed as the complimentary error function, defined as
kA (Ts − T∞ ) − x 2 / 4 αt erfc (ξ) = 1 – erf (ξ) ...(6.70)
Q(t) = e ...(6.66)
παt 1.0
The heat flow rate at the surface (x = 0) 0.5 Ambient
T(x, t)
∂T kA (Ts − Ti )
0.4
T¥, h
0.3
Q = – kA ∂t = ...(6.67) 3 ¥ x
παt
————
x=0 0.2
T(x, t) – Ti
2
T¥ – Ti
1
1.0 0.5
0.1 0.4
0.3
0.05
0.8 0.04 0.2
0.03 0.1
T(x, t) – Ts
————
Solid
Ti – Ts
Surface 0.02
0.6 T(x,t) at = 0.05
h——
at Ts
k
0.01
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5
0.4 x
0 x x = ———
2 at
Fig. 6.41. Dimensionless transient temperatures for a
0.2 semi infinite solid with surface convection to
environment T∞ with h
0
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
Despite its simple appearance, the solutions that
0
x
x = —— appear in eqns. (6.62), (6.67), (6.68) and (6.69), the
2 at relations cannot be obtained analytically. Therefore,
Fig. 6.40. Temperature distribution T(x, t) in a semi infinite these are evaluated numerically for different values of
solid which is initially at Ti and for t > 0 boundary surface FG x IJ .
at x = 0 is maintained at Ts ξ =
H 2 αt K
When h → ∞, T∞ = Ts and eqn. (6.69) reduces to 5. The freezing temperature of water as 0°C,
T( x, t) − Ti FG x IJ = 1 – erf FG x IJ which the pipe may attain after three months.
Ts − Ti
= erfc
H2 αt K H 2 αt K Analysis : For prescribed surface temperature, the
temperature distribution in the soil is
...(6.71)
equivalent to result obtained in eqn. (6.62). The T − Ts x FG IJ
graphical solution is given in Fig. 6.41 is simply plot of
analytical solution given by eqn. (6.69).
Ti − Ts
= erf
2 αt H K
0 − (− 10) x FG IJ
6.4.1. Penetration Depth and Penetration Time
The penetration depth is referred to the location, where
or
15 − (− 10)
= 0.4 = erf
2 αt H K
the temperature changes is within 1% of the applied From Table B-1. ; for erf (ξ) = 0.4, ξ ≈ 0.37
change in temperature (Ts – Ti) i.e., Here
T − Ts t = 3 months × 30 days × 24 h × 3600 s
= 0.99 = erf (1.8) ...(6.72)
Ti − Ts = 7.776 × 106 s
or penetration depth, x
x = 1.8 × 2 αt = 3.6 αt Then, 0.37 =
2 αt
...(6.73)
The penetration time at a given depth indicates, x
=
the time taken by the surface to get 1% penetration. 2 0.15 × 10 −6
× 7.776 × 10 6
1 x FG IJ 2
or x = 0.8 m. Ans.
i.e., t=
α 3.6 H K ...(6.74)
The water pipes must be placed 0.8 m below the
Example 6.30. The ground at a particular location is free surface of earth in order to avoid freezing.
covered with snow pack at – 10°C for a continuous period
of three months, and the average soil properties at that Example 6.31. A large mass of a material is intially at
location are k = 0.4 W/(m.K) and α = 0.15 × 10–6 m2/s. uniform temperature of 100°C. Its surface is suddenly
Assuming an initial uniform temperature of 15°C for lowered and maintained at 2°C. The thermal diffusivity
the ground, calculate the minimum depth to place the of the material is 0.41 m2/h. Calculate the time required
water pipes from the surface to avoid freezing. for the temperature gradient at the surface to reach
3.5°C/cm.
Ts = –10°C
Solution
Atmosphere
Given : A large mass of material as semi infinite
Soil x body
T(x, t) Ti = 100°C, T = 2°C,
Water pipe α = 0.41 m /h = 1.139 × 10–4 m2/s
2
Ti = 15°C
∂T
= 3.5°C/cm.
Fig. 6.42. Schematic for example 6.30 ∂t
Surface
Solution at 2°C Large
mass
Given : Undergrounded water main (pipe) : at
Ts = – 10°C, t = 3 months Ti = 100°C
k = 0.4 W/m.K, α = 0.15 × 10–6 m2/s
Ti = 15°C, T(x, t) = 0°C
To find : Depth of water pipes in order to avoid Fig. 6.43. Schematic for example 6.31
freezing. To find : Time for surface temperature gradient to
Assumptions : 3.5°C/cm.
1. One-dimensional conduction. Analysis : The heat flow rate at the surface is
2. Soil is an infinite medium. given by eqn. (6.67)
3. Uniform and constant properties of soil. ∂T kA (Ts − Ti )
Q = – kA =
4. Convection heat transfer coefficient h → ∞. ∂x x = 0 παt
∂T Ti − Ts T − Ts FG IJ
x
or
∂x
=
παt Ti − Ts
= erf
H K
2 αt
F I
x=0
= erf G
GH 2 1.17 × 10 × 18000 JJK
100 − 2 0.25
or 3.5 × 100 =
–5
π × 1.1139 × 10 −4 × t
FG 98 IJ 2
1 or T = 450 + (25 – 450) × erf (0.272)
or t=
H 350 K ×
π × 1.139 × 10 −4 From Table B-1, erf (0.272) ≈ 0.3
= 219 s. Ans. ∴ T = 450 – 425 × 0.30
Example 6.32. A thick steel slab is initially at a uniform = 322.5°C. Ans.
temperature of 25°C. When the slab is exposed to hot (ii) The instantaneous heat flow rate can be
flue gases, the surface temperature is suddenly changes obtained by using eqn. (6.66)
to 450°C. Calculate the temperature in the plane
250 mm from the slab surface 5 h after the change in x2
kA (Ts − Ti ) −
surface temperature. Also calculate the heat flow per m2 Q(t) = e 4 αt
of this plane and total energy flowing the surface during παt
2
the 5 h period. 45 × 1 × (450 − 25) × e( − 0.272 )
Take k = 45 W/m.K, =
π × 1.17 × 10 –5 × 18000
ρ = 8000 kg/m3, and C = 480 J/kg.K.
= 21818.2 W. Ans.
Solution
(iii) The total heat flow from the surface during
Given : A thick steel plate as a semi infinite plate 5 h.
z
Ti = 25°C, Ts = 450°C,
kA (Ts – Ti ) t 1
x = 250 mm = 0.25 m Q= dt
πα o t
t = 5 h = 18000 s, A = 1 m2,
k = 45 W/m.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3, t
= 1.13 kA(Ts – Ti ) ×
C = 480 J/kg.K. α
= 1.13 × 45 × 1 × (450 – 25)
Steel 18000
×
Surface slab 1.17 × 10 –5
Ts = 450°C
= 847 × 106 J = 847 MJ. Ans.
Ti = 25°C
6.5. TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN
MULTIDIMENSIONAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 6.44. Schematic for example 6.32 The Heisler charts presented earlier may be used to
obtain the temperature distribution and heat transfer
To find : in one-dimensional transient heat conduction problems
(i) Temperature at x = 0.25 m associated with large plane of thickness 2L, in long
(ii) Instantaneous heat flow rate per m2. cylinder or in the sphere of radius ro. When a wall whose
(iii) Total energy flow in 5 h. height and depth dimensions are not large compared
> ro) is encountered,
to its thickness or a short cylinder (L |
Analysis : (i) Temperature distribution in semi
infinite plate : additional space coordinates are necessary to specify the
temperature, the above charts are no longer useful.
k 45 But with the use of clever superposition principle
α= =
ρC 8000 × 480 called product solution, these charts can be used to
= 1.17 × 10–5 m2/s obtain the solution for two-dimensional transient heat
conduction problems such as short cylinder, long Infinite

cylinder
rectangular bar, a semi infinite cylinder or plate. The T(r, t)
three dimensional problems associated with geometries ro h
such as a rectangular prism, semi infinite rectangular
a= 2L
bar may also solved by using these charts provided that T¥ x T(x, t)
all the surfaces of the solid is subjected to same ambient a = 2L
at T∞ with same heat transfer coefficient h and the body T(x, r, t)

does not involve any heat generation. r
ro Infinite
plane
The product solution for an infinite rectangular 0
wall
bar, Fig. 6.45 can be formed from two infinite plates of
(a) (b)
thickness 2L1 and 2L2, respectively.
Fig. 6.46. A short cylinder of radius ro and height (a = 2L) is
F T(x, y, t) – T I =G
F T(x, t) – T I considered intersection of an infinite plane wall of thickness
GH T − T JK H T − T JK
∞ ∞
2L and infinite cylinder of radius ro
i ∞ Ractangular bar i ∞ 2L 1 , plate
The product solution for a short cylinder of radius
F T( y, t) – T I
×G
ro and length (a = 2L), Fig. 6.46 is
H T − T JK
∞
...(6.75)
i ∞ F
T( x, t) – T∞ I
T(r, z, t) – T∞
GH JK
2L 2 , plate
=
Ti − T∞ Ti − T∞ plane wall
Infinite
T(x, y, t)
plane
F T ( r , t) – T I
GH T − T JK
h wall 2 ∞
× ...(6.76)
i ∞ infinite cylinder
z®¥ T¥
T(y, 0) = Ti
h y
T(y, t) 2L2 The proper form of product solutions for some
x
other geometries given in Table 6.2. It is important to
T¥
T(x, 0) = Ti Infinite note that x is measured from surface of a semi infinite
T(x, t)
plane solid, but from the mid plane of a plane wall and r is
wall 1
2L2 2L1 measured from centre of cylinder or sphere.
2L1
The dimensionless temperature ratio
Fig. 6.45. Infinite rectangular bar (2L1 × 2L2) is considered θ T – T∞
intersection of two plane walls of thickness 2L1 and 2L2
=
θi Ti − T∞
subjected to same convection environment
TABLE 6.2. Multidimensional solutions expressed as products of one-dimensional solutions for
bodies that are initially at a uniform temperature Ti and exposed to convection on
all surfaces to a medium at T∞
0 r x r
ro
0
x
r
q(r, t) qcyl(r, t) (x, r, t) cyl(r, t) seminf(x, t) (x, r, t) (r, t) wall(x, t)

= cyl ×
qi
=
qi i
=
i
×
i i i i
Infinite cylinder Semi infinite cylinder Short cylinder
y
y
x z
x
x
q(x, y, z, t)
=
q(x, t) qseminf(x, t) qi
——— = ————— (x, y, t) seminf(x, t) seminf(y, t) qseminf (x, t)qseminf (y, t) qseminf (z, t)
qi = ×
qi i i i × ×
qi qi qi
Semi infinite medium Quarter infinite medium Corner region of a large medium
2L 2L
y x
y L
xx
x L z
0 L
x
(x, y, z, t) wall(x, t)
=
q(x, t) qwall (x, t) q(x, y, t) qwall(x, t) qseminf(y, t) qi qi
= = × seminf(y, t)
seminf(z, t)
qi qi qi qi qi × ×
Infinite plate (or plane wall) Semi infinite plate qi qi
Quarter infinite plate
x z
y
z y
(x, y, z, t) (x, y, z, t)
= =
i i
(x, y, t) wall(x, t) wall(y, t) wall(x, t) wall(y, t) seminf(z, t) wall(x, t) (y, t) wall(z, t)
= × × × × wall ×
i i i i i i i i i
Infinite rectangular bar Semi infinite rectangular bar Rectangular parallelopiped
In the similar manner, the solutions for three-dimensional problems is obtained as product of three
one-dimensional solutions.
A modified form of the product solutions can also be used to obtain the total transient heat transfer to or
from a multidimensional geometry by superimposing the heat loss for one-dimensional bodies.
The transient heat transfer for a two-dimensional geometry formed by the intersection of two one-dimensional
geometries 1, 2 is given by
F QI F QI F QI L F QI O We will use one term approximate solution for

GH Q JK = G Q J + G Q J × M1 − G Q J P
i 2-D, solid
H K H K NM H K PQ
i 1 i 2 i 1
cylinder and analytical solution to semi infinite medium.
For infinite long cylinder :
...(6.77) hr 120 × 0.1
Transient heat transfer for a three dimensional Bi = o = = 0.05 < 0.1
k 237
geometry formed by the intersection of the three
one-dimensional geometries is given by αt 9.71 × 10 −5 × (5 × 60)
Fo = 2 =
F QI F Q I F Q I LM1 − F Q I OP ro (0.1) 2
= GQ J + GQ J
GH Q JK H K H K MN GH Q JK PQ
= 2.913 > 0.2
i 3-D, solid i 1 i 2 i 1 Thus one term approximation solution is
F QI L F QI O L F QI O applicable, from Table B-5, at Bi = 0.05 for cylinder

+ G Q J × M1 − G Q J P × M1 − G Q J P
C1 = 1.0124, ξ1 = 0.3126
H K MN H K PQ MN H K PQ
i 3 i 1 i 2 Tc − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
...(6.78) = C1 e 1
Ti − T∞
Example 6.33. A semi infinite aluminium cylinder
2
− (0.3126) × 2.913
(k = 237 W/m.K, α = 9.71 × 10–5 m2/s) 20 cm in diameter = 1.0124 × e = 0.762
is initially at uniform temperature of 200°C. The cylinder The solution for position temperature distribution
is then placed in water at 15°C, with h = 120 W/m2.K.
Calculate the temperature at the centre of the cylinder T( x , t ) − Ti
in semi infinite medium is given by
15 cm from the end surface 5 minute after the start of T∞ − Ti
cooling. eqn. (6.69),
Solution
T( x, t) – Ti
= erfc
x LM OP – exp LM hx + h αt OP
2
Given : An aluminium cylinder as semi infinite T∞ − Ti 2 αt N Q Nk k Q 2

body
L x + h αt OP
× erfc M
k = 237 W/m.K
α = 9.71 × 10–5 m2/s MN 2 αt k PQ
D = 20 cm, ro = 0.1 m Here the quantities
Ti = 200°C, T∞ = 15°C x 0.15
x = 15 cm, h = 120 W/m2.K = = 0.851
2 αt 2 9.71 × 10 − 5 × 300
t = 5 min
hx 120 × 0.15
= = 0.076
Water k 237
2
h = 120 W/m .K
T¥ = 15°C h 2 αt
= Bi2 Fo = 0.052 × 2.913 = 0.0073
k2
h αt
= 0.0073 = 0.0853
k
x = 15 cm T( x, t) − Ti
= erfc (0.851) – exp [0.076 + 0.073]
T∞ − Ti
× erfc (0.851 + 0.0853)
Fig. 6.47
T( x, t) − Ti
To find : Centre temperature of cylinder after or = 0.2289 – 1.0868 × 0.187 = 0.0256
5 min. T∞ − Ti
Analysis : A semi infinite cylinder is two-
But position temperature ratio T( x , t ) − T∞ can be
dimensional body, and thus the temperature will vary
Ti − T∞
in both r and x directions within cylinder as well as with obtained as
time, and its solution is
θ cyl (r, t) θseminf ( x, t) T( x, t) − T∞ T ( x, t) − Ti
θ( x, r, t) =1– = 1 – 0.0256 = 0.9743
= × Ti − T∞ (T∞ − Ti )
θi θi θi
Therefore, the centre temperature ratio in semi Assumptions :

infinite cylinder can be expressed as (i) The two-dimensional transient heat
T( x, 0, t) − T∞ T( x, t) − T∞ T − T∞ conduction.
= × c
Ti − T∞ Ti − T∞ Ti − T∞ (ii) Short cylinder is an intersection of infinite
= 0.9743 × 0.762 = 0.742 cylinder and a plane wall.
or T(x, 0, t) = 15 + (200 – 15) × 0.742
x
= 152.3°C. Ans.
Alternatively
Since Biot number is less than 0.1, thus the
internal temperature gradients in the body are
negligible and centre and surface temperatures of the 2L
cylinder be equal. Using lumped system analysis : 0 r
2 ht 2 hα t
− −
T − T∞ ρr C rk
= e o =e o ro
Ti − T∞
or T = 15 + (200 – 15)
2 × 120 × 9.71 × 10 −5 × 300
− Fig. 6.48. (b) Intersection of infinite plane
0.1 × 237
×e wall and infinite cylinder
= 152.74°C. Ans. Analysis : At any time, the minimum temperature
Example 6.34. A 10 cm diameter 16 cm long cylinder is at the geometric centre of the cylinder i.e., T(0, t) or
(k = 0.5 W/m.K and α = 5 × 10–7 m2/s) is initially at at x = 0 and the maximum temperature is at the outer
uniform temperature of 20°C. The cylinder is then placed circumference of the cylinder.
in a furnace where the ambient temperature is 500°C Tmin at x = 0, r = 0
with h = 30 W/m2.K. Calculate the minimum and maxi- Tmax at x = L, r = ro
mum temperature in the cylinder 30 min after it has
For dimensionless position temperature in the
been placed in the furnace.
plane wall from Figs. 6.31 (a) and (b)
Solution
Given : A short cylinder as two-dimensional body,
1
=
k
=
0.5
30 × 0.08
= 0.21 U| θθ = 0.90
c
V| x θ
Bi hL i
D = 10 cm or ro = 0.05 m −7
αt 5 × 10 × 1800
W L = 1, θ
2L = 16 cm or L = 0.08 m Fo = = = 0.27
2
k = 0.5 W/m.K, α = 5 × 10–7 m2/s L (0.08) 2 c
= 0.14
Ti = 20°C, T∞ = 500°C
h = 30 W/m .K2 t = 30 min = 1800 s. θ(L, t) θ θ
= c ×
θi θi θc
= 0.9 × 0.27 = 0.243
For dimensionless position temperature in the cylinder
from Figs. 6.32 (a) and (b)
U|
L x
16 cm
10 cm 1 k 0.5 θc
V|
= = = 0.33 = 0.47
Bi hro 30 × 0.05 θi
ro
Fo =
αt
ro 2
=
5 × 10 −7 × 1800
(0.05) 2
W r
ro
= 1,
θ
θc
= 0.33
Fig. 6.48. (a) Short cylinder = 0.36

To find : θ(ro , t) θc θ
= ×
(i) Minimum temperature in the cylinder. θi θi θc
(ii) Maximum temperature in the cylinder. = 0.47 × 0.33 = 0.155
(i) Minimum temperature It can also be defined as the ratio of heat transfer
coefficient to the internal specific conductance of the
θ min Tmin − T∞ θ
= c
FG IJ
θ
× c
FG IJ solid.
θi
=
Ti – T∞ θi plane wall H K
θi cylinder H K The Fourier number is expressed as
Rate of heat conduction αt
Fo = = 2
= 0.9 × 0.47 = 0.423 Rate of thermal energy storage δ
Tmin = 500 + 0.423 × (20 – 500) ρVC
The time constant is defined as τ =
= 297°C. Ans. hA s
(ii) Maximum temperature When we attempt a problem of unsteady state
heat conduction, the following guidelines should be
FG IJ FθI followed :
θ max
θi
T
= max
− T∞
Ti − T∞
×
θ
θi H K = GH θ JK
i
Calculate the Biot number for the given solid as
wall cyl hδ
Bi =
= 0.243 × 0.155 = 0.0376 k
V
Tmax = 500 + 0.0376 × (20 – 500) With the characteristic length of the solid, δ = .
As
= 481.92°C. Ans.
When Bi is more than 0.1, then Heisler and
Gröber charts are used for the approximation of the
6.6. SUMMARY solution of the problem. These charts can also be used
to obtain the total heat transfer from a body upto time t.
In unsteady state heat conduction, the temperature Using one term approximation, the solution of
varies with position as well as time. In the lumped one-dimensional transient heat conduction problems are
system analysis, the temperature of solid is assumed expressed as
uniform in the system at any time. The temperature of
Plane wall :
any solid of mass m, volume V surface area As, density
θ T( x, t) − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
ρ, and specific heat C, initially at uniform temperature = = C1 e 1 cos (ξ1x/L)
Ti exposed to convection ambient at T∞ with h is θi Ti − T∞
approximated by the lumped system analysis as Cylinder :
T − T∞
= exp −
LM
hA s t OP
providing that
θ
=
T(r, t) − T∞ 2
= C1 e − ξ 1 Fo J0(ξ1r/ro)
Ti − T∞ ρVC N Q Sphere :
θi Ti − T∞
Biot number,
h( V/A s ) θ T(r, t) − T∞
Bi = ≤ 0.1 =
k θi Ti − T∞
The instant heat transfer rate Q(t) between a solid sin (ξ 1 r / ro )
− ξ 12 Fo
and its ambient at T∞ with h is expressed as = C1 e .
(ξ 1 r / ro )
∂T where C1 and ξ1 are functions of Biot number and their
Q(t) = hAs(T(t) – T∞) = ρVC
∂t values are listed in Table B-5 of Appendix B.
= hAs(Ti – T∞) exp −
FG hA s t IJ At the centre of solid, the one term approximation
H ρVC K reduces to
θ T − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
Total amount of heat transferred between a body = =e 1
and its surroundings at T∞ is θi Ti − T∞
∆U = z
0
t
Q(t) dt
Using one term approximation, the fraction of
heat transfer in three geometries are
|R F hA t IJ − 1|UV
Q θ sin ξ 1
Plane wall : =1– c
= ρVC(T – T ) Sexp G − s Qi θi ξ1
|T H ρVC K |W
i ∞
Q θ J 1 (ξ 1 )
The Biot number is expressed as Cylinder : =1–2 c
Qi θi ξ1
Internal resistance to heat flow hδ
Bi = = Q θ sin ξ 1 − ξ 1 cos ξ 1
Convection resistance to heat flow k Sphere : =1–3 c .
Qi θi ξ 13
REVIEW QUESTIONS 3. Glass spheres of radius 2 mm at 600°C are to be cooled

in an air stream at 30°C to a temperature of 80°C
1. How does transient heat conduction differ from steady without any surface crack. Estimate the maximum
state heat conduction ? value of convection coefficient. Also determine the
2. What is lumped system analysis ? What are the minimum time required for the cooling. Take
assumptions made in the lumped system analysis and properties as ρ = 2225 kg/m3, C = 835 J/kg.K and
when is it applicable ? k = 1.4 W/m.K. [Ans. h = 210 W/m2.K, t = 14.35 s]
4. Stainless steel ball bearings [ρ = 8085 kg/m3, k =
3. Prove that the temperature distribution in a body at
15.1 W/m.K, C = 480 J/kg.K], 1.2 cm in diameter are
time t during a Newtonian heating or cooling is given
taken from an oven at a uniform temperature of 900°C
by
and are exposed to air at 30°C with h = 125 W/m2.K,
T − T∞ for a short period and then they are dropped into
= e–Bi Fo.
Ti − T∞ water for quenching. If the temperature of balls does
4. Consider a hot backed chicken piece on a plate. The not fall below 850°C prior to quenching, calculate,
temperature of the chicken piece is observed to drop how long they stand in air before being dropped into
by 5°C during first minute. Will the temperature drop water ? [Ans. 3.7 s]
during the second minute be less than, equal to or 5. The steel balls [k = 54 W/m.K, ρ = 7800 kg/m3, and
more than 5°C ? Why ? Comment. C = 465 J/kg.K], 8 mm in diameter are annealed by
5. What is Biot number ? What is its physical heating them first to 900°C in a furnace and then
significance ? Is the Biot number more likely to allowing them to cool slowly to 100°C in ambient air
larger for highly conducting solids or insulator ones ? at 30°C with h = 75 W/m2.K. Calculate how long the
annealing process will take ? If 2500 balls are to be
6. What is time constant ? Discuss the response of
annealed per hour, calculate the rate of heat transfer
thermocouple.
from the balls to ambient air.
7. What is Fourier number ? What is its physical
[Ans. 162 s, 43.1 MJ/h]
significance ?
6. Cylindrical pieces of size 30 mm dia and 30 mm height
8. Discuss the criteria for neglecting internal
with ρ = 7800 kg/m3, C = 486 J/kg.K and k = 43 W/m.K
temperature gradients within a solid during tran-
are to be heat treated. The pieces initially at 35°C
sient heat conduction. Deduce the condition for it.
are placed in a furnace at 800°C with convection
9. Explain the applications of Heisler and Gröber charts
coefficient of 85 W/m2.K. Determine the time required
in transient heat conduction.
to heat the pieces to 650°C. If by mistake the pieces
10. What is the product solution method ? How is it used were taken out of the furnace after 300 seconds,
to determine the transient temperature distribution determine the shortfall in the requirements.
in a two-dimensional system ?
[Ans. 9.08 min, 162°C]
11. In which situation, one term approximation is suitable
7. It is desired to estimate the batch time for a heat
to solve unsteady state heat conduction.
treatment process involved in cooling alloy steel balls
12. What do mean by semi infinite body ? What is the of 15 mm diameter from 820°C to 100°C in an oil bath
general criteria to be considered for a semi infinite at 40°C with h = 18 W/m2.K. The material properties
body ? are ρ = 7780 kg/m3, C = 526 J/kg.K and k =
45 W/m.K. Determine the time required. If it is
PROBLEMS required to be achieved in 10 minutes, determine the
value of convection coefficient.
1. Steel balls 12 mm in diameter are annealed by heating [Ans. t = 1457.8 s, h = 43.74 W/m2.K]
to 1150 K and then slowly cooling to 400 K in air at 8. A thermocouple in form of a long cylinder, 2 mm in
325 K with convection coefficient of 20 W/m2.K. dia, initially at 30°C is used to measure the
Assuming the properties of the steel to be temperature of a cold gas at –160°C. The convection
k = 40 W/m.K, ρ = 7800 kg/m3 coefficient is 60 W/m2.K. The material properties are
and C = 600 J/kg.K ρ = 8922 kg/m3, C = 410 J/kg.K and k = 22.7 W/m.K.
Determine the time it will take to indicate – 150°C. Also
Estimate the time required for the cooling process. calculate the time constant. [Ans. 89.76 s, 30.5 s]
[Ans. 18.7 min.] 9. A metal plate 10 mm thick at 30°C is suddenly
2. A solid copper sphere (k = 393 W/m.K), 10 mm in exposed on one face to heat flux of 3000 W/m2 and
diameter, initially at 80°C is placed in an air stream the other side is exposed to convection to a fluid at
at 30°C. The temperature is dropped to 65°C after 30°C with h = 50 W/m2.K . Determine the temperature
61 seconds. Calculate the value of convection after 10 s. Take properties of the material ρ =
coefficient. Assume properties as ρ = 8925 kg/m3, 8933 kg/m3, C = 385 J/kg.K and k = 380 W/m.K
C = 397 J/kg.K. [Ans. h = 34.53 W/m2.K] [Ans. 31.03°C]
10. A thermocouple junction may be approximated as exposed to a fluid at 35°C with h = 100 W/m2.K.
a sphere 2 mm in diameter with k = 30 W/m.K, Calculate the time to reach the centre temperature
ρ = 8600 kg/m3, and C = 400 J/kg.K. The convection of the slab to 90°C. [Ans. 14.9 min.]
coefficient is 280 W/m2.K. How long will it take for 18. A copper sphere (k = 370 W/m.K, ρ = 8900 kg/m3,
the thermocouple to record 98 per cent of the applied
C = 380 J/kg.K), 3 cm in diameter is initially at uniform
temperature difference ? [Ans. 8 s]
temperature of 50°C. It is suddenly exposed to an air
11. A thermocouple is to be used to measure the stream at 10°C with h = 15 W/m2.K. How long does it
temperature in a gas stream. The junction may be take the sphere temperature to drop to 25°C ?
approximated as sphere having ρ = 8400 kg/m3, [Ans. 18.42 min]
C = 400 J/kg.K and k = 25 W/m.K. The convection
coefficient is 560 W/m2.K. Calculate the diameter of 19. An aluminium can (k = 210 W/m.K, ρ = 2700 kg/m3,
the junction needed to measure the 95 per cent of the C = 900 J/kg.K) having a volume of 350 cm3 contains
applied temperature difference in 3 s. [Ans. 1 mm] beer at 1°C. Using lumped system analysis, calculate
12. An orange of diameter 6 cm initially at a uniform the time required to reach the beer temperature
temperature of 30°C. It is placed in a refrigerator in to 15°C when place in a room at 22°C with h =
which the air temperature is 2°C. If the convection 15 W/m2.K. Assume (k = 0.66 W/m.K, ρ = 1000 kg/m3,
coefficient is 50 W/m2.K, determine the time required C = 4200 J/kg.K) and surface area of beer can is
for the centre of the orange to reach 10°C. Take 650 cm2. [Ans. 27.6 min.]
thermophysical properties of orange as α = 20. A solid steel ball (k = 35 W/m.K), 300 mm in diameter
1.4 × 10–7 m2/s, and k = 0.59 W/m.K. [Ans. 45 min.] is coated with a dieletric material (k = 0.04 W/m.K),
13. A chicken piece [α = 1.6 × 10–7 m2/s, and k = 2 mm thick. The coated sphere is initially at a uniform
0.5 W/m.K] of diameter 2 cm, initially at a uniform temperature of 500°C and is suddenly quenched in a
temperature of 7°C, is dropped suddenly in boiling large oil bath at 100° with h = 3300 W/m2.K. Calculate
water at 100°C. The heat transfer coefficient is the time required for coated steel sphere to reach
150 W/m2.K. The chicken piece is considered cooked 140°C.
when its centre temperature reaches 80°C. How long Take α = 8.72 × 10–4 m2/s, ρ = 8600 kg/m3,
will it take the centreline temperature to reach 80°C? C = 460 J/kg.K. [Ans. 67.37]
[Ans. 8 min, 20 s] [Hint. Neglect the effect of energy storage in dielectric
14. A 6 cm diameter potato [α = 1.6 × 10–7 m2/s, and material, since its ρCV is very small.]
k = 0.68 W/m.K], initially at a uniform temperature 21. A large aluminium plate (k = 210 W/m.K) of thickness
of 20°C, is suddenly dropped into boiling water at 0.15 m, initially at a uniform temperature of 300 K,
100°C. The heat transfer coefficient between the is placed in a furnace having an ambient temperature
water and the potato surface is 6000 W/m2.K. of 800 K with h = 500 W/m2.K.
Determine the time required for the centre tempera- (a) Calculate the time required for the plate
ture of the potato to reach 95°C and energy mid-plane to reach 700 K.
transferred during this time. (b) What is the surface temperature of the plate for
[Ans. 33 min., 37.8 kJ] this condition ?
15. A solid steel ball bearing 25 mm OD, initially at Take ρ = 2700 kg/m3, C = 900 J/kg.K,
uniform temperature of 600°C is quenched in an oil α = 8.4 × 10–5 m2/s.
bath at 40°C. The convective heat transfer coefficient 22. A copper cylinder 10 cm diameter, 20 cm long is
is 1500 W/m2.K. Determine the centreline tempera- removed from liquid nitrogen bath at –196°C and
ture and the temperature at 1.25 mm from the sur- exposed to air at 25°C with convection coefficient of
face after the bearing has been in the oil for first half 20 W/m2.K. Find the time required by cylinder to
minute. Also, determine the heat lost by spherical attain the temperature of –110°C. Take thermo-
ball during the first half minute.
physical properties as :
[Ans. 900°C, 770°C, and 1390 kJ] C = 380 J/kg.K, ρ = 8800 kg/m3, k = 360 W/m.K.
16. A short cylinder 75 mm OD and 10 cm long is at a [Ans. 27.47 min.]
uniform temperature of 250°C. At the time equal to
23. The cylindrical steel rods (ρ = 7832 kg/m3,
zero, it is placed in a convection environment with
C = 434 J/kg.K, and k = 63.9 W/m.K), 50 mm in
h = 400 W/m2.K and T∞ = 40°C. If the material
properties are α = 0.046 m2/h, and k = 37 W/m.K, diameter are heat treated by passing them through a
determine the temperature at the centre of the furnace, 5 m long in which gases are maintained at
cylinder after 4 minutes. [Ans. 69°C] 750°C with h = 125 W/m2.K. The initial temperature
17. A 30 cm × 30 cm slab of copper [k = 370 W/m.K, of rods is 50°C. Calculate the speed at which the rods
C = 380 J/kg.K, ρ = 8900 kg/m3], 5 cm thick is initially must be passed through the furnace in order to
at a uniform temperature of 260°C. It is suddenly achieve 600°C at the centre line. [Ans. 9.55 mm/s]
24. Estimate the time required to cook a hot dog in boiling 31. Consider a household iron of 1000 W heating element
water. Assume that the hot dog is initially at 6°C and whose base plate is made of 5 mm thick aluminium
convection heat transfer coefficient is 100 W/m2.K and [ρ = 2770 kg/m3, C = 875 J/kg.K, and α =
the final temperature at the centre line is 80°C. Treat 7.3 × 10–5 m2/s]. The base plate has surface area of
hot dog as a long cylinder of 20 mm diameter with 0.03 m2. Initially the iron is at a uniform temperature
the following properties : of 22°C, ambient temperature. Assuming heat trans-
ρ = 880 kg/m3, C = 3350 J/kg.K, k = 0.52 W/m.K. fer coefficient at the surface of the base plate to be
[Ans. 7.6 min.] 12 W/m2.K and 85 per cent of heat generated the
25. A long pyroceram rod, 20 mm in diameter is initially heating element is transfered to the base plate.
at a uniform temperature of 627°C and suddenly Calculate the time required for the base plate to reach
exposed to a fluid at 27°C with h = 100 W/m2.K. 140°C. Is it realistic to assume the plate temperature
Calculate the time required to reach the centreline to be uniform at all times ? [Ans. 52 s]
at 327°C. Take thermophysical properties as : 32. During a picnic on a hot summer day all the cold
ρ = 2600 kg/m3, C = 808 J/kg.K, drinks consumed and only available drinks were those
at the ambient temperature of 40°C. In an effort to
and k = 3.98 W/m.K. [Ans. 84.36 s]
cool a 500 ml drink in a can which is 12.5 cm high
26. In heat treating to harden steel ball bearings (C = and 72 mm in dia, a person grabs the can and start
500 J/kg.K, ρ = 7800 kg/m3, k = 50 W/m.K) initially shaking it in the iced water bath at 0°C. The tem-
at 27°C is desired to increase the surface temperature perature of the drink is assumed to be uniform at all
for a short time without significantly warming the time and the heat transfer coefficient between iced
interior of the ball. This type of heating is obtained water and aluminium can is 170 W/m2.K. Calculate
by sudden immersion in the molten salt bath at the time for the canned drink to cool to 5°C.
1027°C with h = 5000 W/m2.K. Calculate the time
required to reach the surface temperature of 20 mm Take thermophysical properties of cold drink
diameter ball to 727°C. k = 0.6 W/m.K, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, C = 4187 J/kg.K.
27. A sphere, (k = 50 W/m.K, α = 1.5 × 10–6 m2/s), 80 mm [Ans. 31 min.]
in diameter is initially at uniform temperature of 33. In order to get some warm milk for a baby, a mother
800°C. It is suddenly quenched in an oil bath at 50°C pours the milk into a thin walled metal glass, 6 cm in
with h = 1000 W/m2.K. At a certain time, the surface diameter. The height of the milk in the glass is 7 cm.
temperature of the sphere is observed to be 150°C. She then places the glass into a large pan, filled with
What is the corresponding centre temperature of the a hot water at 60°C. The milk is stirred constantly,
sphere ? so that its temperature is uniform throughout. If the
28. An aluminium tube, 20 cm long with inner and heat transfer coefficient between the water and glass
outer radii as 5 cm and 6 cm, respectively, is quenched is 120 W/m2.K, calculate the time for milk to warm
from 500°C to 30°C in a large reservoir of water at up from 3°C to 38°C. Can the milk in this case be
10°C. Below 100°C, the heat transfer coefficient is treated as a lumped system ? Why ?
1500 W/m2.K and above 100°C, its effective mean Take for milk k = 0.56 W/m.K, ρ = 1000 kg/m3,
value is 500 W/m2.K. The thermophysical properties C = 4200 J/kg.K. [Ans. 5.83 min.]
of aluminium are
34. A spherical stainless steel vessel at 93°C contains
ρ = 2700 kg/m3, k = 210 W/m.K, C = 900 J/kg.K.
45 kg of water initially at 93°C. If the entire system
Neglect internal thermal resistance, calculate the is suddenly immersed in an iced water, calculate the
quenching time. [Ans. 50.8 s] time required for the water in the vessel to cool to
29. A 6 mm diameter mild steel rod (k = 54 W/m.K, 16°C and the temperature of the walls of the vessel
ρ = 7800 kg/m3, C = 420 J/kg.K) at 38°C is suddenly at that time. Assume heat transfer coefficients at
immersed in a liquid at 100°C with h = 110 W/m2.K. inner and outer surfaces are 17 W/m2.K and
Calculate the time required for the rod to get 88°C. 22.7 W/m2.K, respectively and wall thickness of
[Ans. 1 min 13 seconds] 25 mm.
30. A 1.4 kg aluminium household iron has 500 W heating 35. The temperature of a gas stream is measured by a
element. The surface area is 0.046 m2. The ambient thermocouple, whose junction can be approximated
air temperature is 21°C with h = 11 W/m2.K. How as a 1 mm diameter sphere. The properties of the
long after the iron is plugged in will its temperature junction are k = 35 W/m.K, ρ = 8500 kg/m3, and
reach 104°C ? C = 320 J/kg.K and the convection heat transfer
Take ρ = 2770 kg/m3, C = 875 J/kg.K, k = 200 W/m.K] coefficient between junction and the gas is
[Ans. 212 s] 210 W/m2.K. Calculate how long will it take for the
thermocouple to approach the temperature within 40. A short brass cylinder [ρ = 8530 kg/m3,
1 per cent of the initial temperature difference. C = 0.389 kJ/(kg.°C), k = 110 W/(m.°C), and
[Ans. 10 s] α = 3.39 × 10–5 m2/s] of diameter D = 8 cm and height
H = 15 cm is initially at a uniform temperature of
36. A 30 cm outer dia 10 m long pipe with a surface
temperature of 90°C carries steam. The pipe is buried
with its centreline at depth of 1 m. The ground surface
is – 6°C and average thermal conductivity of the soil Brass
is 0.7 W/m.K. Calculate the heat loss per day and cylinders Ambient
cost of heat loss, if the steam heat is worth ` 100 per air
106 kJ. Also calculate the thickness of 85% magnesia 15 cm 8 cm 20°C
insulation (k = 0.038 W/m.K) necessary to achieve
the same insulation as provided by the soil with total
Ti = 150°C
heat transfer coefficient of 23 W/m2.K on the outside
of the pipe.
37. In the vulcanization of tires, the carcass is placed into
a jig and steam at 150°C is admitted suddenly to both
Fig. 6.50. Schematic for prob. 40.
sides as shown in Fig. 6.49. If the tire thickness is
2.5 cm, initial temperature 21°C, h = 150 W/m2.K, Ti = 150°C. The cylinder is now placed in atmospheric
ρ = 1100 kg/m3, C = 1650 J/kg.K, k = 0.163 W/m.K. air at 20°C, where heat transfer takes place by
Calculate time required for the centre of the rubber convection with a heat transfer coefficient of h = 40
to reach 132°C. W/(m2.°C). Calculate (a) the centre temperature of
the cylinder, (b) the centre temperature of the top
surface of the cylinder, and (c) the total heat
transferred from the cylinder 15 min after the start
of the cooling.
Steam
Steam [Ans. (a) 85.4°C, (b) 85.4°C, (c) 161.37 kJ]
T = 149°C
T = 149°C 41. A semi infinite aluminium cylinder [k = 237 W/(m.°C),
Tire rubber α = 9.71 × 10–5 m2/s] of diameter D = 15 cm is initially
at a uniform temperature of Ti = 150°C. The cylinder
is now placed in water at 10°C, where heat transfer
Fig. 6.49. Sechematic for prob. 37 takes place by convection with a heat transfer
[Ans. 37.12 min.] coefficient of h = 140 W/(m2.°C). Determine the tem-
perature at the centre of the cylinder, 10 cm from the
38. A person puts a few apples into the freezer at – 15°C to
end surface 8 min after the start of the cooling.
cool them quickly for guests who are about to arrive.
Initially, the apples are at a uniform temperature of 42. A hot dog can be considered to be a cylinder 12 cm
20°C, and the heat transfer coefficient on the surfaces long and 2 cm in diameter whose properties are
is 8 W/(m2.°C). Treating the apples as 9 cm diameter ρ = 980 kg/m3, C = 3.9 kJ/(kg.°C), k = 0.76 W/(m.°C),
spheres and taking their properties to be and α = 2 × 10–7 m2/s. The hot dog initially at 5°C is
ρ = 840 kg/m3, C = 3.6 kJ/(kg.°C), k = 0.513 W/(m.°C), dropped into boiling water at 100°C. If the heat
and α = 1.3 × 10–7 m2/s, determine the centre and surface transfer coefficient at the surface of the hot dog is
temperatures of the apples in 1 h. Also determine the estimated to be 600 W/(m2.°C), determine the centre
amount of heat transferred from each apple. temperature of the hot dog after 5, 10, and 15 min by
39. (a) An aluminium wire, 1 mm in diameter at 200°C treating the hot dog as (a) a finite cylinder and (b) an
is suddenly exposed to an environment at 30°C infinitely long cylinder.
with h = 85.5 W/m2.K. Estimate the time required 43. A hot dog 12.5 cm long, 2.2 cm in diameter was
to cool the wire to 90°C. equipped with two thermocouples, one at the centre
(b) If the same wire were to place in air stream and other just under the skin. The initial temperature
(h = 11.65 W/m2.K). What would be the time indicated by both thermocouples was 20°C, which was
required to reach it to 90°C ? ambient temperature too. The hot dog was then
Take thermophysical properties as suddenly dropped into the boiling water at 94°C. After
C = 900 J/kg.K, ρ = 2700 kg/m3, 2 min, the centre and surface temperatures were
measured to be 59°C and 88°C, respectively. The
k = 204 W/m.K. [Ans. (a) 7.4 s, (b) 54.3 s]
thermophysical properties of the hot dog can be taken
as ρ = 980 kg/m3, C = 3900 J/kg.K. Using transient 46. Long cylindrical stainless steel rods [k = 13.4 W/(m.°C)
temperature charts, calculate (a) thermal diffusivity and α = 3.48 × 10–6 m2/s] of 10 cm diameter are heat
of the hot dog (b) thermal conductivity of hot dog and treated by drawing them at a velocity of 3 m/min
(c) convection heat transfer coefficient. through a 9 m long oven maintained at 900°C. The
[Ans. (a) 2 × 10–7 m2/s, (b) 0.76 W/m.K, (c) 658 W/m2.K] heat transfer coefficient in the oven is 90 W/(m2.C).
If the rods enter the oven at 30°C, determine their
44. In a production facility, 3 cm thick large brass plates
centreline temperature when they leave.
[k = 110 W/(m.°C), ρ = 8530 kg/m3, C = 380 J/(kg.°C)
and α = 33.9 × 10–6 m2/s] that are initially at a uniform 47. In a heat treatment plant, the balls of bearings 10 mm
temperature of 25°C, as shown in Fig. 6.51 are heated in diameter are loaded on a conveyor belt. The
by passing them through an oven maintained at belt passes through a furnace (inside temperature
700°C. The plates remain in the oven for a period of = 1000°C, h = 200 W/m2.K) along its length (L = 3 m).
10 min. Taking the covection heat transfer coefficient If the balls are heated from 30°C to 250°C, such that
to be h = 80 W/(m2.°C), determine the surface the temperature gradients should not exceed 5%, find
temperature of the plates when they come out of the the velocity of the belt required.
oven. Take ρ = 3000 kg/m3, C = 0.5 kJ/kg.K,
Furnace, 700°C k = 50 W/m.K. [Ans. 0.933 m/s]
48. A 2.5 cm thick sheet of plastic initially at 21°C is
placed between two heated steel plates, that are
maintained at 138°C. The plastic is heated just long
enough for its mid plane temperature to reach 130°C.
If thermal conductivity of the plastic is 0.0011 W/m.K,
α = 2.7 × 10–6 m2/s and the thermal contact resistance
3 cm at the interface between plastic and steel is negligible,
calculate, (a) the time required for heating
(b) temperature at the plane 0.6 cm from the steel
plate at the moment the heating is discontinued, and
Brass plate, 25°C (c) the time required for the plastic to reach a
Fig. 6.51 temperature of 130°C, at 0.6 cm from the steel plate.
[Ans. 448.5°C] 49. An egg, 5 cm in mean diameter (k = 0.6 W/m.K,
45. A long 35 cm diameter cylindrical shaft made of ρ = 1000 kg/m3, C = 4170 J/kg.K) is initially at a tem-
stainless steel [k = 14.9 W/(m.°C), ρ = 7900 kg/m3, perature of 4°C. It is dropped in the boiling water at
C = 477 J/(kg.°C), and α = 3.95 × 10–6 m2/s] comes out 100°C for 15 min. The heat transfer coefficient from
of an oven at a uniform temperature of 400°C, water to egg can be assumed to be 1700 W/m2.K. What
Fig. 6.52. The shaft is then allowed to cool slowly in a would be the temperature at the centre of egg at the
chamber at 150°C with an average convection heat end of cooking period ?
transfer coefficient of h = 60 W/(m2.°C). Determine 50. A mild steel (k = 54 W/m.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3,
the temperature at the centre of the shaft 20 min after C = 410 J/kg.K) cylindrical billet, 25 cm in diameter
the start of the cooling process. Also determine the is to be raised to a minimum temperature of 700°C
heat transferred per unit length of the shaft during by passing it through a 6 m long furnace. If the
this time period. furnace gases are at 1600°C with overall heat
transfer coefficient of 68 W/m2.K. Calculate the
maximum speed at which a continuous billet
Oven entering at 200°C can travel through the furnace.
900°C 51. A 6 cm diameter, steel ball is at uniform temperature
3 m/min of 800°C. It is to be hardened by suddenly dropping it
into an oil bath at a temperature of 50°C with
convection coefficient of 500 W/m2.K. If the quenching
6m occurs when the ball reaches a temperature of 100°C,
Stainless determine how long the ball should be kept in the oil
steel, 30°C bath.
If 100 balls are to be quenched per minute, determine
Fig. 6.52
the rate at which the heat must be removed from the
[Ans. 390°C, 15,680 kJ]
oil bath in order to maintain the bath temperature at REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
50°C.
Take thermophysical properties as : k = 61 W/m.K, 1. Holman J.P. “Heat Transfer”, 8th edition, McGraw
Hill Eduction, 2010, New Delhi.
ρ = 7850 kg/m3, C = 460 J/kg.K.
2. Incropera F.P. and DeWitt. D.P., “Fundamentals of
[Ans. 3.26 min, 28.588 MJ/min.]
Heat and Mass Transfer”, 5th edition, John Wiley &
52. An aluminium cylinder (k = 210 W/m.K) 50 mm in Sons, 2002.
diameter and 10 cm long is initially at uniform 3. Cenzel Yunus A., “Heat Transfer., A Practical
temperature of 200°C is plunged into a quenching Approach”, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Education,
bath at 10°C. Take h = 530 W/m2.K, what is the tem- 2003.
perature on centreline of the cylinder after one 4. Cass law H.S. and Jaeger J.C., “Conduction of Heat
minute? [Ans. 61.33°C] in Solids.”, 2nd edition Oxford University Press.
53. A steel cylinder 20 cm diameter is initially heated to London, 1959.
980°C. It is then quenched in an oil bath at 38°C with 5. Heisler M.P., “Temperature Charts for Induction and
convection coefficient of 568 W/m2.K. Calculate the Constant Temperature Heating.”, ASME Transactions
time required for the cylinder centre to reach a 69, 1947.
temperature of 260°C. The properties of steel are : 6. Gröber H, Erk S., and Grigull U., “Fundamentals of
k = 16 W/m.K, ρ = 7816 kg/m3, Heat Transfer” McGraw Hill New York, 1961.
C = 460 J/kg, α = 4.4 × 10–6 m2/s. 7. Schneider P.J., “Conduction Heat Transfer”, Addision-
[Ans. 19.7 s] Wisley, Reading, M.A., 1955.
8. Özisik M.N., “Heat Transfer—A Basic Approach”.,
54. Calculate the total heat transferred from a short McGraw Hill, New York, 1985.
brass cylinder 10 cm in diameter and 12 cm
9. Suryanarayana N.V. “Engineering Heat Transfer”,
long within first fifteen minute of exposure. Take ρ = Penran International Publishing, India, 2008.
8530 kg/m3, C = 380 J/kg.K, k = 110 W/m.K, Ti = 120°C,
10. Kreith Frank and Bohn M.S. “Principles of Heat
T∞ = 25°C, h = 60 W/m2.K, α = 3.39 × 10–5 m2/s. Transfer”, 5th edition, PWS Publishing Company,
[Ans. 85.9 kJ] Boston M.A., 1997.
Principles of Convection 7
7.1. Mechanism of Heat Convection. 7.2. Classification of Convection. 7.3. Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient. 7.4. Convection
Boundary Layers—Velocity boundary layer—Thermal boundary layer—Significance of boundary layers. 7.5. Laminar and Turbulent
Flow—Laminar boundary layer—Turbulent boundary layer. 7.6. Momentum Equation for Laminar Boundary Layer. 7.7. Energy Equation
for the Laminar Boundary Layer. 7.8. Boundary Layer Similarities—Friction coefficient—Nusselt number. 7.9. Determination of
Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient—Dimensional analysis—Exact mathematical solutions—Approximate analysis of boundary layers—
Analogy between heat and momentum transfer—Numerical analysis. 7.10. Dimensional Analysis—Primary dimensions and dimensional
formulae—Dimensional homogeneity—Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis—Buckingham π theorem—Dimensional analysis for forced
convection—Dimensional analysis for natural convection. 7.11. Physical Significance of the Dimensionless Parameters—Reynolds
number—Critical reynolds number Recr—Prandtl number—Grashof number—Nusselt number—Stanton number—Peclet number—Graetz
number. 7.12. Turbulent Boundary Layer Heat Transfer—Prandtl mixing length concept—Turbulent heat transfer. 7.13. Reynolds Colburn
Analogy for Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate. 7.14. Mean Film Temperature and Bulk Mean Temperature. 7.15. Summary—Review
Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.
The objective of this chapter is to give basic 7.1. MECHANISM OF HEAT CONVECTION
understanding of physics of convection heat transfer and
to present them in the form of general equations, which As discussed in chapter one, the heat convection involves
are applied in subsequent chapters for the particular two mechanism, simultaneously. One is energy transfer
cases. from a hot surface to a adjacent fluid by random
In the previous chapters, we dealt with heat molecular motion, it is called diffusion. The other one is
conduction, which is a mechanism of heat transfer due advection, i.e., the transport of energy by bulk movement
to random molecular activities through a stationary of the fluid from higher temperature region to lower
medium, solid or fluid. The convection heat transfer was temperature region. Such motion in presence of tem-
restricted to the boundary conditions only and the rate perature gradient will enhance the heat transfer rate.
of heat convection at the boundaries was considered The molecules in aggregate retain their random motion
constant so far. and the fluid motion brings the hotter and colder fluid
The convection heat transfer is of importance to chunks in contact, thus initiating the high rate of
practical problems in industrial application. The flow conduction at a large number of sites in the fluid.
of a liquid or a gas through a heat exchangers, two phase Therefore, the rate of heat transfer in the convection is
flow in the boilers and condensers, cooling of electronic due to superposition of energy transfer by random
chips, heat removal from the condenser of a refrigerator molecular motion (conduction) at the surface as well as
are some common examples of convection heat transfer. the energy transfer by bulk motion of fluid.
The convection heat transfer is recognised closely
related to the fluid flow. Hence understanding of 7.2. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVECTION
convection should start with basic knowledge of fluid
dynamics, momentum transfer, energy transfer, shear The convection heat transfer is classified as natural (or
stress, pressure drop, friction coefficient and the nature free) or forced convection, depending on how the fluid
of fluid flow like laminar or turbulent etc. motion is initiated. The natural or free convection is a
234
PRINCIPLES OF CONVECTION 235
process, in which the fluid motion results from heat Consider the heating of a cold iron block as
transfer. When a fluid is heated or cooled, its density shown in Fig. 7.2. If there is no significant velocity of
changes and the buoyancy effects produce a natural hot air surrounds the block, the heat will be
circulation in the affected region, which causes itself transferred from hot air to block by natural convection.
the rise of warmer fluid and the fall of colder fluid : If a fan blows air over the block, the heat will be
Therefore, energy transfers from hotter region to colder transferred from hot air to cold block by forced
convection. If the speed of the air over the block surface
region and such process is repeated as long as the
increases, the block will be heated up faster. If air is
temperature difference in the fluid exists.
replaced by water, the heat transfer rate by convection
In the forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow will be increased several times.
over a surface or in a duct by external means such as a
pump or a fan. A large number of heat transfer Air Relative
T¥ = 100°C
applications utilize forced convection, because the heat velocities of
u¥ = 5 m/s fluid layers
transfer rate is much faster than that in free convection.
Zero
velocity
Air Q
at the
20°C surface
5 m/s Q
Heated Hot iron block

plate at 70°C Ts = 20°C
(a) Forced convection Fig. 7.2. Heating of cold block by forced convection
Experience shows that the convection heat
Warm transfer strongly depends on fluid properties, dynamic
Q
Air air rising viscosity µ, thermal conductivity kf, density ρ, and
Heated specific heat Cp, as well as on the fluid velocity. It also
plate depends on geometry and roughness of the solid surface,
in addition to type of fluid flow. Thus the convection
heat transfer relations are rather complex, because of
(b) Natural convection dependence of convection on so many variables.
Q
Stagnant No convection 7.3. CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
air current
Heated
COEFFICIENT
plate
The rate of heat transfer per unit surface area from a
surface to a fluid is proportional to temperature
(c) In absence of fluid motion, heat transfer in the difference and it is expressed as
fluid is by conduction only
qconv ∝ (Ts – T∞)
Fig. 7.1. The heat transfer from a hot surface qconv = h (Ts – T∞) ...(7.1)
to the surrounding fluid
where h = constant of proportionality and is called
Further, the convection heat transfer is also heat transfer coefficient,
classified as external convection or internal convection. Ts = temperature of the surface, °C
In external convection, the fluid surrounds a surface T∞ = temperature of free stream fluid, °C.
such as flow over a flat or curved surface, while in Based on the interpretation, the convective heat
internal convection, the fluid is surrounded by a surface transfer coefficient is expressed as
such in a pipe carrying steam or water filled cooling
qconv
passage in an internal combustion engine. The fluid h= ...(7.2)
flows can also be stated as laminar, turbulent or (Ts − T∞ )
translatory (transition from laminar to turbulent). or it is defined as the rate of convection heat transfer
Forced and natural convection have separate criteria per unit surface area per unit temperature difference.
for distinctions of these regims. It is measured in W/m2.K or W/m2. °C.
Consider the flow of a hot fluid at temperature the wall surface is obtained over entire distance x = 0 to
T∞ over a cold surface at a constant temperature of Ts x = L and width w as
as shown in Fig. 7.2. It is observed that the fluid layer Q = h (wL) (T∞ – Ts) ...(7.6)
in contact with the solid surface sticks to the surface. It
Example 7.1. Experimental results for local heat
is very thin layer of fluid and has zero velocity (no slip
transfer coefficient hx for flow over a flat plate with an
condition). Therefore, the heat transfer from wall surface
to the adjacent, fluid layer is by pure conduction, and extremely rough surface were found as
the conduction heat flux q(x) at the wall surface y = 0 is hx = ax–0.1
given by where a is a constant and x is a distance from the leading
∂T( x, y) edge of the plate.
q(x) = kf ...[7.3(a)] Develop an expression for ratio of average heat
∂y y=0
where T(x, y) is temperature distribution of fluid transfer coefficient h for a plate of length x to the local
heat transfer coefficient hx at x.
∂T
= temperature gradient at the surface, Solution
∂y y=0
Given : The variation of local heat transfer
kf = thermal conductivity of the fluid.
coefficient as hx = ax–0.1
The negative sign is omitted from the eqn. [7.3(a)]
because the heat flow from fluid to wall, i.e., in negative To find : The ratio of average heat transfer
y direction. coefficient to local heat transfer coefficient.
The heat transfer rate between the fluid and the Analysis : The average heat transfer coefficient
wall surface is related to the local heat transfer is given by eqn. (7.5), over a distance 0 to x is
coefficient hx, defined as
q(x) = hx (T∞ – Ts) ...[7.3(b)]
where Ts and T∞ are the wall surface and free stream
h=
1
x z0
x
hx dx
Boundary
fluid temperatures, respectively. T∞ layer hx = ax
– 0.1
In steady state conditions, the heat flow rate is

constant, thus equating eqn. [7.3(a)] with eqn. [7.3(b)],
hx (T∞ − Ts ) ∂T( x, y) Ts
= k
convection ∂y y=0
x

conduction
Fig. 7.3. Schematic
∂T( x , y )
k Using hx = ax–0.1 and integrating, we get
zL z
∂y y=0
or hx = ...(7.4) 1 x a x
T∞ − Ts h= ax – 0.1 dx = x – 0.1 dx
x 0 x 0
MN OPQ
where hx is local heat transfer coefficient at a certain
position x in flow direction and for given temperature a x 0.9
= = 1.11 ax–0.1
distribution in the flow. It is calculated from eqn. (7.4). x 0.9
It is used to obtain the heat flux at any location in the = 1.11 hx. Ans.
fluid flow.
Example 7.2. Experimental results for heat transfer over
The local heat transfer coefficient may vary along a flat plate with an extremely rough surface were found
the length of flow as a result of changes in the velocity to be correlated by an expression of the form
and other parameters in the flow direction. We are Nux = 0.04 Re0.9 Pr1/3
usually interested for the heat transfer rate from the
where Nux is the local value of Nusselt number at a
entire surface. Which can be obtained by using average position x measured from the leading edge of the plate.
heat transfer coefficient over a distance x = 0 to x = L, Derive an expression for ratio of average heat transfer
determined from coefficient to local heat transfer coefficient hx.
1 L
h=
L 0 z
hx dx
With use of average value of heat transfer

...(7.5) Solution
The local Nusselt number for flow over a flat plate
is given by
coefficient h, the heat transfer rate Q from the fluid to
Nux = 0.04 Re0.9 Pr1/3 (b) Thermocouple reading, when gas velocity is
hx x 20 m/s.
where Nux = ,
kf Wall
ρ u∞ x µCp Thermocouple
Rex = and Pr =
µ k u gas
The local heat transfer coefficient is expressed
as
FG ρ u x IJ
kf ∞
0.9 Fig. 7.4. Schematic
x H µ K
hx = 0.04 × Pr1/3
Assumptions :
F ρ u IJ x
= 0.04 k G
∞
0.9 (i) Steady state conditions,
H µK
–0.1 Pr1/3 ...(i)
f (ii) Constant properties.
The average heat transfer coefficient is obtained Analysis : The heat transfer coefficient is given
as by
z FG ρ u IJ x Pr dx
0.9
1 x
∞
h ∝ u0.8 or h = au0.8
H µK
h= –0.1 1/3
0.04 kf
x 0 and the heat transfer rate by radiation
FG ρu IJ Pr x dx
z Qrad ∝ ∆T or Qrad = b ∆T
0.9
0.04 kf ∞ 1/ 3
x
− 0.1
=
x HµK 0
where a and b are constants of proportionality under
0.04 FG ρu IJ Pr LM x OP
∞
0.9
1/3
0.9
steady state conditions.
Rate of convection heat transfer from thermo-
=
x
kf
HµK N 0.9 Q couple to gas
0.04 ∞ FG ρu x IJ Pr
0.9
1/3 = Rate of heat radiation from walls
=
0.9 x
kf
H µ K ...(ii)
to thermocouple
h 1 h A(T – T∞) = Qrad
and hx = 0.9 = 1.11. Ans. a u0.8 A(T – T∞) = b(Tw – T)
Example 7.3. A bare thermocouple is used to measure b (Tw − T) Tw − T FG IJ
the temperature of a gas flowing through a hot duct. The
heat transfer coefficient between a gas and thermocouple
or u0.8 =
a A (T – T∞ )
=d
T − T∞ H K
is proportional to u0.8, where u is the gas velocity and b
where d = , a new constant.
heat transfer rate by radiation from the walls to the aA
thermocouple is proportional to temperature difference. (a) (i) At u1 = 5 m/s and T1 = 323 K
When the gas is flowing at 5 m/s, the thermo- FG T − 323 IJ
w
couple reads 323 K and when it is flowing at 10 m/s, it (5)0.8 = d
H 323 − T K ∞
reads 313 K. Calculate the appropriate wall temperature
3.624 × G
F 323 − T I
H T − 323 JK
at a gas temperature of 298 K. or d=
∞
...(i)
What temperature will the thermocouple indicate w
when the gas velocity is 20 m/s ? (ii) At u2 = 10 m/s, T2 = 313 K
Solution FG T − 313 IJ
w
Given : Thermocouple is exposed to gas stream

(10)0.8 = d
H 313 − T K ∞
Using d from eqn. (i), we get
h ∝ u0.8
F 323 − T I × FG T − 313 IJ
Qrad ∝ ∆T
u1 = 5 m/s, T1 = 323 K
6.309 = 3.624 × GH T − 323 JK H 313 − T K
w
∞ w
u2 = 10 m/s, T2 = 313 K (iii) At T∞ = 298 K

F 323 − 298 I × FG T − 313 IJ
u3 = 20 m/s, T∞ 2 = 298 K. 6.309 = 3.624 × GH T − 323 JK H 313 − 298 K
w
w
To find :
Tw − 313
(a) Wall temperature, when gas temperature is 1.0446 =
298 K. Tw − 323
or 1.0446 Tw – 337.4 = Tw – 313 The retardation of fluid motion in the boundary

or 0.0446 Tw = 337.41 – 313 = 24 layer is due to the shear (viscous) stresses acting in
Tw = 548 K. Ans. opposite direction. With increasing the distance y from
(b) At u3 = 20 m/s the surface, shear stress decreases, the local velocity u
FG 548 − T IJ increases until approaches u∞. With increasing the dis-

tance from the leading edge, the effect of viscosity
(20)0.8 = d
H T − 298 K penetrates further into the free stream and boundary
10.98 = 3.624 layer thickness grows (δ increases with x).
FG 323 − 298 IJ × FG 548 − T IJ In fluid mechanics, the surface shear stress τs in
×
H 548 − 323 K H T − 298 K terms of skin friction coefficient Cf is expressed as
or 10.98 T – 3272 = 220.66 – 0.40 T Cf
τs = ρ u∞ 2 ...(7.7)
11.37 T = 3488.7 2
or T = 307 K. Ans. The surface shear stress may also determined
from knowledge of velocity gradient of the fluid at the
7.4. CONVECTION BOUNDARY LAYERS surface
LM du OP
7.4.1. Velocity Boundary Layer
Consider the flow of fluid over a flat plate as shown in
τs = µ
N dy Q y=0
...(7.8)
Fig. 7.5. The fluid approaches the plate in x direction 7.4.2. Thermal Boundary Layer
with a uniform velocity u∞. The fluid particles in the If the fluid flowing on a surface has a different
fluid layer adjacent to the surface get zero velocity. This temperature than the surface, the thermal boundary
motionless layer acts to retard the motion of particles layer is developed in similar manner to velocity
in the adjoining fluid layer as a result of friction between boundary layer.
the particles of these two adjoining fluid layers at two
Consider a fluid at temperature T∞ flows over a
different velocities. This fluid layer then acts to retard
surface at a constant temperature Ts. The fluid particles
the motion of particles of next fluid layer and so on,
in adjacent layer to the plate get the same temperature
until a distance y = δ from the surface reaches, where
that of surface. The particles exchange heat energy with
these effects become negligible and the fluid velocity u
particles in adjoining fluid layer and so on. As a result,
reaches the free stream velocity u∞. As a result of
the temperature gradients are observed in the fluid
frictional effects between the fluid layers, the local
layers and a temperature profile is developed in the fluid
fluid velocity u will vary from x = 0, y = 0 to y = δ.
flow, which ranges from Ts at the surface to fluid
temperature T∞ sufficiently far from the surface in y
Y
Velocity direction. The flow region over the surface in which the
Boundary
layer
temperature variation in the direction normal to surface
Velocity profile is observed is called thermal boundary layer. The
u¥ d(x)
u(x, y) thickness of thermal boundary layer δth at any location
along the length of flow is defined as a distance y from
x
the surface at which the temperature difference (T – Ts)
Fig. 7.5. Velocity boundary layer on a flat plate equals 0.99 of (T∞ – Ts).
The region of the flow over the surface bounded or Ts – T = 0.99(Ts – T∞) if Ts > T∞
by δ in which the effects of viscous shearing forces caused where T is local temperature in thermal boundary layer,
by fluid viscosity are observed, is called the velocity a function of x and y directions.
boundary layer or hydrodynamic boundary layer With increasing the distance from leading edge
or simply the boundary layer. The thickness of the effect of heat transfer penetrates further into the
boundary layer δ is generally defined as a distance from free stream and the thermal boundary layer grows as
the surface at which local velocity u = 0.99 of free stream shown in Fig. 7.6 (a) and Fig. 7.6 (b).
velocity u∞.
Thermal
T¥
boundary t.b.l d
Y layer dth th
— >> 1, Pr << 1
d
u¥ v.b.l
u∞ d
T∞ Ts
T∞
Plate at δth
Ts (a) Liquid metals
O X
x T = f(x, y) t.b.l
T¥
Fig. 7.6. (a) Thermal boundary layer for flow of d
th
a cold fluid over a hot plate u¥ v.b.l — <1
dth d
d
T = Ts + 0.99 (T∞ – Ts)
Thermal Ts
Y boundary
layer (b) Gases
u∞
T∞ Temperature
T∞ v.b.l
profile
δth T = f(x, y)
u¥ d T¥
X dth
O Ts t.b.l — << 1, Pr >> 1
x dth d
Ts
Fig. 7.6. (b) Thermal boundary layer for flow
of hot fluid on a cold plate Thermal boundary layer (t.b.l)
Velocity boundary layer (v.b.l)
The convection heat transfer rate any where along
the surface is directly related to the temperature (c) Oils
gradient at that location. Therefore, the shape of the Fig. 7.7. Relative thickness of thermal and velocity
temperature profile in the thermal boundary layer leads boundary layers for different types of fluid
to the local convection heat transfer between surface
and flowing fluid. 7.5. LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
7.4.3. Significance of Boundary Layers
The analysis of convection problems requires the
The velocity boundary layer, is of extent δ(x) and is knowledge of the type of boundary layer developed,
characterised by the presence of velocity gradients and whether it is laminar or turbulent. The type of boundary
fluid friction. The thermal boundary layer is of extent strongly influences the skin friction and heat transfer
δth(x) and is characterised by temperature gradient and coefficient.
heat transfer.
The developed boundary layer may consist of
For flow over a heated (or cold) surface, both laminar boundary, transition region and turbulent
velocity and thermal boundary layers are developed boundary layer as shown in Fig. 7.8.
simultaneously. If the effects of fluid viscosity (viscous The velocity boundary layer δ(x) is characterized
shear stress) is stronger than thermal effects, then the by the presence of velocity gradients and shear stresses.
velocity boundary layer will be thicker than the thermal
The thermal boundary layer δth(x) is characterized
boundary layer and vice versa. The schematic
by temperature gradients and heat transfer.
illustrations of relative thickness of δ(x) and δth(x) for
liquid metals, gases and oils are shown in Fig. 7.7. For 7.5.1. Laminar Boundary Layer
liquid metals, thermal effects are much stronger than The velocity boundary layer starts at the leading edge
viscous effects, and therefore, thermal boundary layer of the plate as a laminar boundary layer, in which the
(t.b.l) is much thicker than the velocity boundary layer fluid motion is highly ordered and it is possible to identify
(v.b.l) Fig. 7.7 (a). For gases, the viscous effects are the stream lines along which particles move. The fluid
slightly weaker than thermal effects, thereore, thermal motion along a stream line is characterized by the
boundary layer is a little thicker than velocity boundary
velocity components u and v in both x and y directions
layer, Fig. 7.7 (b). Similarly for oils, greese etc, the
and it influences the momentum and energy transfer
viscous effects are much stronger than thermal effects
through the boundary layer. The velocity profile in
and thus, the velocity boundary layer is much thicker
laminar boundary layer is approximately parabolic.
than the thermal boundary layer Fig. 7.7 (c).
7.5.2. Turbulent Boundary Layer and heat transfer mechanisms involve the fluid lumps
The fluid motion in the turbulent boundary layer has moving randomly.
very large disturbances and is characterized by velocity The characteristic of fluid flow is governed by
fluctuations. The fluctuations increase the momentum dimensionless quantity called the Reynolds number as
and heat transfer. Due to fluid mixing, the turbulent
u∞ x
boundary layer thickness is larger and velocity profiles Rex = ...(7.9)
ν
are flatter with the sharp drop near the surface.
where, u∞ = free stream velocity, m/s,
Laminar boundary Transition Turbulent boundary ν = kinematic viscosity, m2/s,
layer region layer Turbulent
Boundary u¥ layer x = distance from the leading edge for flow
layer u(x, y) u
¥
over a flat plate, m.
y thickness
d(x) The Reynolds number at which the transition
x from laminar to turbulent boundary layer takes place
xcr
u¥xcr
d(x) Buffer
Viscous is called the critical Reynolds number and for flow along
Boundary layer
Recr = v
layer thickness
sublayer a flat plate, the transition begins at critical Reynolds
number
Fig. 7.8. Boundary layer concept for flow along a flat plate
Recr ≈ 5 × 105. ...(7.10)
At some distance from the leading edge, the small
disturbances in the flow begin to be amplified and the Example 7.4. Water flows at 20°C at 8 kg/s through
fluid fluctuations begin to develop, it is transition from the diffuser having 3 cm diameter at the entrance and
laminar to turbulent boundary layer as shown in 7.0 cm diameter at its exit. Calculate the fluid velocity
Fig. 7.8. The transition to turbulence is attained by and Reynolds number at the inlet and exit of the diffuser.
significant increase in boundary layer thickness, wall Solution
shear stress, and heat transfer coefficient. These effects Given : Flow of water through a diffuser.
are shown in Fig. 7.9.
D1 = 3.0 cm = 0.03 m, D2 = 7.0 cm = 0.07 m
h m = 8 kg/s.
Cfx To find :
(i) Velocity of water at inlet and exit of diffuser.
hx or Cfx
(ii) Reynolds number at the inlet and exit of
d d(x)
diffuser.
T¥
Assumptions :
(i) Steady flow conditions.
u¥
(ii) Constant properties of fluid.
xcr Flow
x 8 kg/s
Laminar Transition Turbulent
Fig. 7.9. Variation of velocity boundary layer δ(x), local Inlet Exit
heat transfer coefficient hx and local friction coefficient
Cfx for flow over a flat plate Fig. 7.10. Schematic of diffuser
The turbulent boundary layer has three

different regions. A laminar sublayer is very thin layer Analysis : (i) The properties of water at 20°C
next to wall in which flow is laminar. Adjacent to laminar δ = 1000 kg/m3, µ = 1007.4 × 10–6 kg/m/s
sublayer, there is a buffer layer in which small The flow cross-sectional area at inlet
disturbances exist. The buffer layer is followed by the π 2 π
A1 = D = × (0.03 m)2 = 7.069 × 10–4 m2
turbulent layer with larger turbulences. The momentum 4 1 4
π 2 π (i) The Reynolds number is expressed as

At exit A2 = D = × (0.07 m)2
4 2 4 ρu∞ x Re x µ
= 3.848 × 10–3 m2 Rex = or x =
µ ρ u∞
Using continuity equation, the velocities.
For Rex = 108,
m
At inlet u1 = 10 8 × 184.6 × 10 − 7
ρ1 A 1 x= = 31.82 m Ans.
1.16 × 50
8 kg/s The minimum length of the plate for Re = 108 is
=
3 –4 2 31.82 m.
(1000 kg/m ) × (7.069 × 10 m )
= 11.32 m/s. Ans. (ii) For transition to occur at Recr = 5 × 105
m 5 × 10 5 × 184.6 × 10 − 7
At exit u2 = xcr =
ρ2 A 2 1.16 × 50
(8 kg/s) = 0.159 m. Ans.
=
(1000 kg/m ) × (3.848 × 10 − 3 m 2 )
3 The transition from laminar to turbulent will
occur at x = 0.159 m.
= 2.08 m/s. Ans.
(ii) The respective Reynolds numbers
7.6. MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR LAMINAR
ρu1D 1 1000 × 11.32 × 0.03
Re1 = = BOUNDARY LAYER
µ 1007.4 × 10 − 6
= 337105. Ans. Considering two dimensional control volume as shown
in Fig. 7.11. The equation of motion for the laminar
ρu2 D 2 1000 × 2.08 × 0.07 boundary layer can be obtained by equating force and
and Re2 = =
µ 1007.4 × 10 − 6 momentum transfer on the element. The assumptions
= 144530. Ans. made in the analysis are
Example 7.5. A fan provides air speed upto 50 m/s, is Y

used in low speed wind tunnel with atmospheric air at
rvdx + rdx ¶v dy
27°C. If this wind tunnel is used to study the boundary mdx [ ¶¶uy+ ¶y¶ ( ¶¶uy (dy [ ¶y u¥ x
layer behaviour over a flat plate upto Re = 108. What dy
should be the minimum plate length ? At what distance dx
from the leading edge would transition occur, if critical dx
Reynolds number is Recr = 5 × 105 ? rudy ¶u
r udy + rdy dx
Control ¶x
Solution dy
Volume
pdy pdy + ¶ (pdy) dx
Given : Flow over a flat plate ¶y
¶u
m dx
u∞ = 50 m/s, T∞ = 27°C ¶y
Rex = 108, Recr = 5 × 105. rvdx

To find : (i) Minimum length of a flat plate for
Fig. 7.11. Force and momentum analysis for
Rex = 108. laminar boundary layer
(ii) Distance from the leading edge for
1. The flow is incompressible and steady ;
Recr = 5 × 105. 2. No pressure variation in perpendicular
Analysis : The properties of air at 27°C from direction of plate ;
Table A-4 3. Viscosity is constant ;
ρ = 1.16 kg/m3 4. Negligible shear forces in y direction ;
5. Unit depth in z direction.
µ = 184.6 × 10–7 kg/m/s
According to Newton’s second law of motion ∂

= ρvudx + ρdx (uv) dy
d (mv) x ∂y
ΣFx = ...(7.11)
dt
where ΣFx = sum of applied forces in x direction, and = ρuvdx + ρdxdy u
RS dv
+v
du UV
d (mv) x T dy dy W
= rate of increase in momentum flux in The net momentum transfer in x direction
dt
x direction. d(mv) x RS
= ρdxdy u
∂u
+u
∂u
+u
∂v
+v
∂u UV
The momentum flux in x direction is product of
mass flow rate through a particular side of control
dt T ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y W
volume and x directional velocity component at that L F ∂u + ∂v IJ + RSu du + v du UVOP
= ρdxdy Mu G
point.
N H ∂x ∂y K T dx dy WQ
volume
The rate of mass entering the left face of control
or
d(mv)
= ρdxdy Su
x R ∂u + v ∂u UV ...(7.13)
= ρudy
dt T ∂x ∂y W
The rate of momentum entering the left face of R ∂u + ∂v UV = 0 (continuity equation)
Since u S
control volume T ∂x ∂y W
= ρudyu = ρu2dy. The forces acting in x direction are viscous and
The rate of mass leaving the right face pressure forces.
∂u The pressure force on the left face
= ρudy + ρdy dx
∂x = pdy
The rate of momentum leaving the right face The pressure force on the right face
∂ ∂
= ρu2 dy + ρdy dx (u2) = – pdy – (pdy) dx
∂x ∂x
LM∂u
+u
∂u OP (∵ in opposite direction)
= ρu2 dy + ρdydx u
N∂x ∂x Q The viscous force at bottom face
The rate of mass entering the bottom face = ρvdx ∂u
The rate of mass leaving the top face =–µ dx
∂y
∂v The viscous force at top face
= ρvdx + ρdx dy
∂y
The mass balances on the control volume =µ
∂u
dx + µ
RS UV
∂ ∂u
dxdy
∂u ∂v
∂y T W
∂y ∂y
ρudy + ρvdx = ρudy + ρdy dx + ρvdx + ρdx dy Net forces in x direction
∂x ∂y
Rearranging we get ; ∂p ∂ 2u
ΣFx = – dxdy + µ 2 dxdy ...(7.14)
RS UV
ρ ∂u + ∂v dxdy = 0
∂x ∂y
T
∂x ∂ y W Substituting eqns. (7.13) and (7.14) in eqn. (7.11),
RS ∂u + ∂v UV = 0 we get
or
T ∂x ∂y W ...(7.12)
ρ u
RS ∂u
+v
∂u UV
∂ 2u ∂p
=µ 2 −
It is the mass continuity equation for the laminar T ∂x ∂y ∂yW ∂x
...(7.15)
boundary layer. The eqn. (7.15) is the momentum equation for the
laminar boundary layer with constant properties. If the
The rate of momentum in x direction associated
pressure changes on two side of control volume is
with mass entering the bottom face
negligible then above equation reduces to
= ρvudx
∂u ∂u µ ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
The rate of momentum in x direction leaves the u +v = = ν ...(7.16)
top face ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y2 ∂y2
7.7. ENERGY EQUATION FOR THE LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

Consider the element control volume as shown in Fig. 7.12
u¥ x T¥
dy
Ts dx –kfdx [ ¶¶Ty + ¶y¶ ( ¶¶Ty (dy [

¶(vT)
(rvdx)CpT + (rCpdx)
¶y dy
2
¶u
Net viscous work m ( (
¶y
dx dy
(rudy) CpT Control

dy ¶(uT)
Volume (rudy)CpT + (rCpdy) dx
¶x
dx
¶T
–kf dx ¶y (rvdx)CpT
Fig. 7.12. Energy analysis for laminar boundary layer
The assumption made to simplify the analysis : Energy convected out the right face
1. Incompressible steady flow ; ∂
= ρCp (uT) dy + ρCp dy (u T) dx
∂x
2. Constant properties ; Energy conducted out the top face
3. Negligible heat conduction in direction of fluid ∂
flow. = ρCp (vT) dx + ρCp dx (v T) dy
∂y
The energy balance on the control volume can be Energy conducted out the top face
expressed as LM ∂T + ∂ T OP dx dy
= – kf
2
Energy convected at the left face

+ energy convected at the bottom face
N ∂y ∂y Q 2
Net energy change rate,

+ heat conducted in the bottom face + net
viscous work done on the element R∂
E′ = ρC dxdy S (u T) +
∂ U
(v T)V
= Energy convected out the right face
net p
T ∂x ∂y W
+ energy convected out the top face ∂2T
− kf dx dy ...(7.17)
+ heat conducted out the top face. ∂y 2
Writing the each quantity separately ; The net viscous force
∂u
Energy convected in the left face FD = µ dx
∂y
= (ρudy)CpT = ρCp(uT)dy Element moves through a distance per unit time
Energy convected in the bottom face ∂u
= dy
= (ρvdx)CpT = ρCp(vT)dx ∂y
Energy conducted in the bottom face Net viscous work done on the element,
∂T FG ∂u IJ 2
= – kf dx
∂y
WD = µ
H ∂y K dx dy
Writing the energy balance on the element, we To find :

get (i) An expression for local friction coefficient Cfx,
ρC S
R ∂(uT) + ∂(vT) UV = µ FG ∂u IJ + k ∂ T 2 2 (ii) An expression for average friction coefficient
T ∂x ∂y W H ∂y K
p ∂y
f 2
Cf .
Analysis : (i) The shear stress at the wall is
LF ∂T + v ∂T IJ + T FG ∂u + ∂vIJ OP
ρC MG u
expressed as
or
NH ∂x ∂y K H ∂x ∂y K Q
p
τs = µ
∂u
...(i)
∂y
R ∂u U ∂ T ...(7.18)
= µS V +k
2 2 y=0
T ∂y W ∂y
f 2 and shear stress in terms of local friction coefficient as
C fx
Using the continuity eqn. (7.12), τs = ρu∞ 2 ...(ii)
2
∂u ∂v
+ =0 Equating two equations for shear stress at the
∂x ∂y surface, we get
Rearranging eqn. (7.18), we get
2 µ ∂u
∂T
+v
∂T kf ∂ 2 T
+
µ RS ∂u UV 2
Cfx =
ρ u∞ 2 ∂y
u
∂x ∂y
=
ρC p ∂y 2
ρC p T ∂y W For given velocity profile
y=0
∂T
+ v
∂T
α
∂2T
+
ν RS ∂u UV 2
LM 3 × 1 − 1 . 3 y OP
T ∂y W
2
or u = ...(7.19) ∂u 3u∞
∂x ∂y ∂y2 C p = u∞ =
For low velocity flow, viscous forces are negligibly
∂y y=0 N2 δ 2 δ Q 3
y=0
2δ
small in comparison to conduction term, then Then
∂T ∂T ∂2T 2µ 3 u∞ 3ν
u +v =α 2 ...(7.20) Cfx = 2
× =
∂x ∂y ∂y ρ u∞ 2 δ u∞ δ
Introducing the expression for δ(x), we get,
Example 7.6. The velocity profile u(x, y) for a boundary
layer flow over a flat plate is given by 3ν 13 u∞ ν
Cfx = × = 0.646
u( x, y) 3 y 1 y LM OP 3 u∞ 280 νx u∞ x
u∞
= −
2 δ 2 δ N Q 0.646
where the boundary layer thickness δ(x) is the function = . Ans.
Re x
of x and is given by
(ii) The average friction coefficient Cf is given by
280 νx
δ(x) =
13 u∞
(i) Develop an expression for local drag coefficient
Cf =
1
L z 0
L
C fx dx =
1
L z0
L
0.646
ν
u∞ x
dx
z
Cfx.
(ii) Develop an expression for average drag 0.646 ν L
= × x–1/2 dx
coefficient Cf over a distance x = L from the leading edge L u∞ 0
of the plate.
0.646 ν Fx I
− 1/ 2 + 1
L
Solution =
L u∞ GH − 1/2 + 1JK 0
Given : The velocity profile for the boundary layer
as
ν 2 × 0.646
u 3 y 1 y F I 3 = 2 × 0.646
u∞ L
=
Re L
u∞
= −
2 δ 2 δ H K
280 νx = 2 C fx Ans.
and δ(x) =
13 u ∞ x=L
Example 7.7. The temperature profile in a thermal hx x

boundary layer for flow over a flat plate is given by Nux = = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3
kf
T ( x, y) − Ts 3 y 1 y FG IJ 3
where Nux is called the local Nusselt number.
T∞ − Ts
= −
2 δ th 2 δ th H K and the thickness of
The average heat transfer coefficient
thermal boundary layer δth is the function of x and is
h=
1 L
L 0 xzh dx
z
x µ Cp
given by δth(x) = 4.53 where, Pr = Pr 1/3 L 1 ρ u∞ x
Rex 1/2 Pr 1/3 kf = 0.332 kf × dx
L 0 x µ
z
ρ u∞ x
and Re = . Develop the expressions for local and ρ u∞ 1 L
µ = 0.332 kf Pr1/3 × x − 1/2 dx
µ L 0
average heat transfer coefficients.
Solution
kf
Pr 3
1 ρ u∞ LM L OP
1/ 2
Given : The temperature profile in a thermal

= 0.332
L µ MN 1/2 PQ
boundary layer as kf ρu ∞ L
= 2 × 0.332 Pr1/ 3
L µ
T − Ts 3 y FG IJ
1 y FG IJ 3
kf
T∞ − Ts
=
2 δ th
−
H K
2 δ th H K or h = 2 × 0.332
L
Re L 1/2 Pr 1/3 = 2hx
x=L
x Average Nusselt No. Nu = 2Nux. Ans.
and δth = 4.53
Re x 1/ 2 Pr 1/3
ρ u∞ x
7.8. BOUNDARY LAYER SIMILARITIES
µC p
with Pr = , and Re =
kf µ The eqn. (7.16) and eqn. (7.20) derived earlier for low
To find : The expressions for local and average speed forced convection flow are of practical importance
heat transfer coefficients. in many engineering applications. By close examination
of above two equations, we find that the two equations
Analysis : The local heat transfer coefficient, hx
is expressed as are of same form. Each equation is characterised by
advection term on the left hand side and a diffusion term
∂T on right hand side : These similarity may be extended
kf
∂y y=0 in a rational manner by non dimensionalizing the
hx =
T∞ − Ts governing equations.
For given temperature profile The boundary layer equations are normalized by
∂T LM 3 1 −
1 3 y2
×
OP defining dimensionless indenpedent variables of the
following form.
∂y y=0
= (T∞ – Ts)
MN 2 δ th 2 δ 3th PQ y=0 x y
x* = , y* = ...(7.21)
3 (T∞ − Ts ) L L
= where L is characteristic length for the surface of interest
2 δ th
such as length of a flat plate. The dependent
3 kf (T∞ − Ts ) 3 kf dimensionless variables may be defined as
Then hx = =
2 (T∞ − Ts ) δ th 2 δ th u v T − Ts
u* = , v* = and T* =
Introducing the expression for δth u∞ u∞ T∞ − Ts
1/2 1/3
...(7.22)
3 kf × Re x Pr where u∞ and T∞ are velocity and temperature of free
hx = ×
2 4.53 x stream fluid respectively, and Ts is the temperature of
the surface. Substituting eqns. (7.21) and (7.22) in
kf
Rex1/2 Pr1/3. Ans.
= 0.332 eqns. (7.12), (7.16) and (7.20) to obtain the corresponding
x
boundary layer equations in non dimensional form as
This expression can be arranged in the
shown in Table 7.1.
dimensionless form as
TABLE 7.1. Convection transfer equations and their boundary conditions in non dimensional form
Boundary Transfer equation Boundary conditions Similarity

layer parameter(s)
wall free stream
∂u∗ ∂v∗
Continuity + =0 ...(7.23) — — —
∂x∗ ∂y∗
∂u∗ ∂u∗ ν ∂ 2 u∗
Velocity u∗ + v∗ = u∗ (x∗, 0) = 0
∂x∗ ∂y∗ u∞ L ∂y∗
...(7.24) v∗ (x∗, 0) = 0 u∗(x∗, ∞) = 1 ReL
2
∂T∗ ∂T∗ α ∂ T∗
Thermal u* + v∗ = T∗ (x∗, 0) = 0 T∗ (x∗, ∞) = 1 ReL Pr
∂x∗ ∂y∗ u∞ L ∂y∗2
...(7.25)
From eqns. (7.24) and (7.25), the two similarity 7.8.1. Friction Coefficient
parameters may be concluded. These similarity Shear stress at the surface is given by eqn. (7.8)
parameters are important, because they permit us to
apply solutions from one configuration to another ∂u
τs = µ
geometrical similar configuration under entirely ∂y y=0
different conditions. For example, if the Reynolds Substituting u and y from eqns. (7.21) and (7.22),
number is same, the dimensionless velocity distribution we get
for air, water and glycerine etc. flowing over a flat plate
will be the same at a given value of x∗. u∞ ∂u *
τs = µ ...(7.31)
Eqn. (7.23) indicates that v∗ is related to u∗, x∗ L ∂y * y* = 0
and y∗, thus
Defining local skin friction coefficient using
v* = f1(u∗, x∗, y∗) ...(7.26)
eqn. (7.7)
Similarly, from eqn. (7.24), u∗ can be expressed
in the form τs
Cfx = ...(7.32)
u∗ = f2(x∗, y∗, ReL) ...(7.27) ρ u∞2 /2
ν Substituting eqn. (7.31) for τs, we get
The eqn. (7.24) has a quantity on its right
u∞ L 2 µ u∞ ∂u∗ 2 ∂u∗
Cfx = =
hand side. This quantity is a dimensionless group and ρ u∞2 L ∂y∗ y∗ = 0
Re L ∂y∗ y∗ = 0
its reciprocal is well known Reynolds number.
...(7.33)
u∞ L
ReL = ...(7.28) From eqn. (7.33) it is also evident that
ν
Cfx = f3 (x∗, ReL) ...(7.34)
α
From eqn.(7.25) the term is also a It indicates that for flow over bodies of similar
u∞ L
dimensionless group and it may be expressed as shape the local friction coefficient is function of x∗ and
α νFG α IJ FG IJ
1 1
ReL and it is independent of fluid or free stream velocity.
u∞ L
=
u∞ LH×
ν K H K
=
ReL Pr
...(7.29) 7.8.2. Nusselt Number
In convection heat transfer, the local heat transfer
The ratio of two properties (α/ν) is also a
coefficient is expressed as
dimensionless property and its reciprocal is referred as
Prandtl number (Pr) FG ∂T IJ
ν
hx = –
kf
H ∂y K y=0
or Pr = ...(7.30)
α Ts – T∞
In non dimensional form Solution

(T∞ − Ts ) ∂T * kf ∂T * Given : Operating conditions of an internally
hx = – kf =
(Ts − T∞ )L ∂y * L ∂y * y* = 0
cooled turbine blade as shown in Fig. 7.13 (a).
y∗ = 0
...(7.35) To find :
In appropriate dimensionless form (i) Heat flux to the blade, when surface
temperature is lowered to 700°C.
hx L ∂T *
Nux = = = f4(x∗, ReL, Pr) (ii) Heat flux to larger identical turbine blade
kf ∂y *
y* = 0 with reduced velocity to 80 m/s.
...(7.36) Schematic :
The quantity hx L/kf is called the local Nusselt
q1
Number. It is equal to dimensionless temperature
Ts = 700°C
gradient at the surface and thus it provides a measure
Air
of convection heat transfer occurring at the surface. The
role of local Nusselt number in thermal boundary layer
T¥ = 1150°C
is same as that of local friction coefficient in velocity
L=
boundary layer. 40
u¥ = 160 m/s mm
The average value of Nusselt number gives
average value of heat transfer coefficient h, that is
independent of x∗ Case 1
hL
Nu = = f5 (ReL , Pr) ...(7.37)
kf q2
Ts = 800°C
Example 7.8. Experimental test on a portion of a turbine Air
blade as shown in Fig 7.13 (a) indicates a heat flux of
95000 W/m2. T¥ = 1150°C
2 L=
q = 95000 W/m u¥ = 80 m/s 80
mm
Ts = 800°C
Case 2
T¥ = 1150°C Coolant
Fig. 7.13 (b)
u¥ = 160 m/s Assumptions :

40
mm (i) Steady state conditions.
(ii) Constant air properties.
Analysis : (i) From eqn. (7.36) for given geometry
Fig. 7.13. (a) Original condition
hx L
The blade is cooled at inside in order to maintain Nux = = f(x∗, ReL, Pr)
kf
its temperature constant at 800°C.
Since there is no change in dimension and envi-
(i) Determine the heat flux to the blade if its
ronmental conditions, thus x∗, ReL, Pr will remain same
temperature is reduced to 700°C by increasing the
even with change in Ts. The Nusselt number is also
coolant flow,
unchanged, thus the local heat transfer coefficient hx
(ii) Calculate the heat flux at same dimensionless
also remains same.
location for a similar turbine blade having a chord
For case 1. The heat flux can be given by
length of 80 mm when the blade operates in an air flow
at T∞ = 1150°C and u∞ = 80 m/s with Ts = 800°C. q1 = hx1 (T∞ – Ts),
q1 95000 information about the phenomenon, but facilates the

where hx1 = h = = interpretation of variables to obtain them in certain
T∞ − Ts 1150 − 800
dimensionless groups. The dimensional analysis for
= 271.43 W/m2.K forced and natural convection is discussed in next
and q1 = 271.43 × (1150 – 700) articles.
= 122143 W/m2.K. Ans.
7.9.2. Exact Mathematical Solutions
(ii) For case 2. The blade size is increased to 2L
This method requires solution of simultaneous equations
and free stream air velocity is reduced to one half,
therefore related with fluid motion and energy transfer in moving
fluid. The complete mathematical equations describing
1/2 u∞ (2L)
Re L 2 = = ReL fluid flow and heat transfer can only be written for
ν
Environment is same, thus Pr remains laminar flow. Even for laminar flow, the equations are
unchanged therefore, Nu also remains same quite complicated and their solution is very tedious.
Nu2 = Nu Exact solutions are important, because they serve
as basis for comparison and a check on approximated
hx2 L 2 hL
or = x solutions.
kf kf
7.9.3. Approximate Analysis of Boundary Layers
L 1
or hx2 = hx = 271.43 × In these methods, the detailed mathematical formula-
2L 2
tion for flow in the boundary layer is avoided. But simple
= 135.7 W/m2.K equations are used to approximate momentum and
and the heat flux energy transfer of fluid flow and they are solved by in-
q2 = hx2 (T∞ – Ts) tegral method. The method is relatively simple and
= 135.7 × (1150 – 800) yielding solutions are well agree with exact solutions
= 47500 W/m2. Ans. within certain range. This technique is used to laminar
flow as well as to turbulent flow.
7.9. DETERMINATION OF CONVECTION HEAT 7.9.4. Analogy between Heat and Momentum Transfer
TRANSFER COEFFICIENT It is very useful tool for analysis of the turbulent flow
process. Because our knowledge of turbulent exchange
There are five general methods, that may be used for mechanism is quite limited and thus we cannot write
determination of heat transfer coefficient : equations completely.
1. Dimensional analysis combined with 7.9.5. Numerical Analysis
experimental data.
2. Exact mathematical solution of boundary It can approximate the exact equations. It requires to
layer equations. express the field variables at descrete points in time
and space coordinate. However, the solution can be made
3. Approximate analysis of boundary layer
sufficiently accurate with proper descretization of
equations by integral methods.
problem field. It has one advantage that once the
4. Analogy between heat and momentum solution procedure is programmed, the solution for
transfer. different boundary conditions, property variables and
5. Numerical analysis. so on can easily be handled.
All methods can evaluate the heat transfer
coefficient, but no single method can solve all types of 7.10. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
problems, because each method has its own limitations
that restrict its scope of applications. Dimensional analysis differs from the conventional
methods of approach in which certain equations are
7.9.1. Dimensional Analysis solved for a resulting equation. Instead, it combines
It is a mathematically simple method and has a wide several variables affecting a phenomenon in
range of applications. Its main limitation is that, the dimensionless group, such as Nusselt number, which
obtained results are incomplete and useless without facilitates the interpretation and extends its application
experimental validation. It does not provide any to experimental data.
The dimensional analysis does not give any homogeneous i.e., fundamental dimensions of various
information about the nature of phenomenon, hence the terms on two sides of the equation are identical. A
success or failure of the method depends on proper dimensionally homogeneous equation is independent of
selection of affecting variables. It is therefore, important fundamental units, if their units are consistent. It states
to understand the physics of phenomenon before that to a dimensionally homogeneous equation, the
applying dimensional analysis. quantities of the same units can be added, substracted
or equated. Consistency of units demands, if one term
7.10.1. Primary Dimensions and Dimensional Formulae
of equation is measured in a particular unit say m/s
In SI system of units the primary dimension of length then all term in the equation must be measured in m/s.
L, time t, temperature T and mass M are used. The dimensional homogeneity is useful in the following
The dimensional formula in primary dimensions ways :
for a physical quantity is obtained from its definition of (i) It facilates the determination of the
physical laws. For an example, the dimensional formula dimensions of a physical quantity.
for the length of a rod is (L) by definition, for velocity (ii) It helps to check the dimensional consistency
(distance/time) is Lt–1 and so on. of an equation.
The symbols, units and dimensions of commonly (iii) It facilates the conversion of units from one
used quantities in heat transfer analysis are listed in system to another.
Table 7.2. (iv) It provides a step towards dimensional
analysis.
TABLE 7.2. Important physical quantities
with their symbols, units and primary 7.10.3. Rayleigh’s Method of Dimensional Analysis
dimensions In this method, a functional relationship of the
quantities that may influence a dependent variable is
Sr. Quantity Symbol Primary expressed in form of an exponential equation.
No. and units dimensions If y is dependent variable and it depends on
1. Length, diameter L or D, m L variables x1, x2, x3, ..., then the equation in an
2. Time t, s t exponential form
3. Mass m, kg M y = C (x1a, x2b, x3c, ...,) ...(7.38)
4. Temperature T, °C T Where C is dimensional constant, which may be
5. Area A, m2 L2 evaluated from physical characteristic of problems or
6. Volume V, m3 L3 through experimentation, a, b, c,.... are arbitrary
7. Density ρ, kg/m3 ML–3 exponents and are obtained by comparing the exponents
8. Velocity u, v or u∞, m/s Lt –1 of the primary dimensions on two sides of an equation.
9. Acceleration a or g, m/s2 Lt–2 The Rayleigh method does not provide any
10. Force F, N(kg m/s2) MLt–2 information regarding the number of dimensionless
11. Pressure p, N/m2 ML–1 t–2 groups to be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis.
12. Shear stress τ, N/m2 ML–1 t–2 Further, this method can only be used for dimensional
13. Heat transfer rate Q, W(Nm/s) ML2 t–3 analysis of a dependent variable which depends upon
14. Specific heat Cp, J/kg. K L2 T–1 t–3 maximum four independent variables. If number of
15. Dynamic viscosity µ, kg/m.s ML–1 t–1 independent variables exceeds then it becomes tedious
16. Kinematic viscosity ν, m2/s L2 t–1 work to obtain an expression for the dependent variable.
17. Thermal conductivity k, W/m.K ML T–1 t–3 Therefore, this method has become obsolete and is not
18. Thermal diffusivity α, m2/s L2 t–1 favoured for use.
19. Coefficient of expansion β, K–1 T –1 Example 7.9. Find the functional relationship for
20. Heat transfer coefficient h, W/m2.K MT–1 t–3 pressure drop for a fluid flowing through a tube diameter
21. Mass flow rate m , kg/s M t–1 D, fluid density ρ, fluid velocity u and fluid viscosity µ.
Solution
7.10.2. Dimensional Homogeneity The pressure drop for a flowing fluid in the
A physical equation is the relationship between two or functional form.
more physical quantities. The principle of dimensional ∆p = f(D, ρ, u, µ)
homogeneity states that all equations, describing the Let ∆p = C [Dp, ρq, ur, µs]
behaviour of a physical system must be dimensionally
where C is non dimensional constant.
The dimensional equation of above equation in e = 1 – f, d=–c+f

primary dimensions M, L, and t are b=c a=c–1
ML–1 t –2 = C [L p (ML–3)q (Lt –1)r (ML–1 t –1)s] c–1
Therefore, h = C [D u ρ µc c –c+f k1–f Cpf ]
or ML–1 t –2 = C [Mq+s L p–3q + r – s . t –r– s]
Multiplying D/kf on both sides, we get
For dimensional homogeneity, the exponent of
hD LMF ρ uD I F µ C
c
I f
OP
MNGH µ JK GH k
each dimension on both sides of the equation must be
identical. Thus kf
=C
f
p
JK PQ
For M : 1=q+s
or NuD = C ReDc Prf
For L : – 1 = p – 3q + r – s
For t : –2=–r–s ρ uD
where ReD = , Reynolds numbers,
There are four unknowns (p, q, r and s), but three µ
equations. Therefore, it is not possible to find the
µCp
numerical values of p, q, r and s. However, three Pr = , Prandtl number
unknowns can be expressed in terms of fourth variable. kf
Let choose viscosity with exponent ‘s’ and other
hD
exponents are expressed as and NuD = , Nusselt number.
kf
r=2–s
q = 1 – s and p = – s, Thus in forced convection, the Nusselt number is
Substituting these values, we get a function of Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
∆p = C [D–s ρ1–s u2–s µs] 7.10.4. Buckingham π Theorem
L µ OP
=CM
s
× ρu2 = C
ρu 2 When the large physical quantities are involved in a
N ρuD Q Re d s phenomenon, the Rayleigh method of dimensional
analysis becomes tedious. The Buckingham π theorem
ρ uD
where ReD = . is an improvement of Rayleigh method. It is simple and
µ
more systematic for determining the dimensionless
The values of C and s are to be evaluated by
groups.
experimentation.
Example 7.10. Find the functional expression for forced According to Buckingham π theorem, if n
convection heat transfer between a fluid flowing through variables are influencing a phenomenon and if they can
a tube and its wall. be expressed in m primary dimensions (M, L, T and t),
then the dimensionless independent groups formed will
The heat transfer coefficient in forced convection
be n – m. These dimensionless term are called π terms.
is influenced by tube diameter (D), fluid velocity (u), and
The independent dimensionless groups can be arranged
the fluid properties such as density (ρ), dynamic viscosity
as
(µ), thermal conductivity (kf) and specific heat (Cp).
f(π1, π2, π3, ...) = 0 ...(7.39)
Solution
The heat transfer coefficient in the functional In a particular phenomenon, involving seven
form variables and if they can be expressed in four primary
h = f(D, u, ρ, µ, kf , Cp) dimensions, then the number of dimensionless groups
formed are
Let h = C [Da ub ρc µd kfe Cpf ] n–m=7–4=3
where C is non dimensional constant. Hence f(π1, π2, π3) = 0 ...(7.40)
Expressing quantities in terms of primary
or π1 = φ(π2, π3) ...(7.41)
dimensions
Each dimensionless π term is formed by
Mt–3 T –1 = C [La (Lt –1)b (ML–3)c (ML–1 t –1)d
m variables, along with one selected variable from
(MLt –3 T –1)e (L2 t –2 T –1)f
remaining (n – m) variables i.e., each π term involves
For dimensional homogeneity of equation ;
(m + 1) variables. These m variables (equal to primary
M : 1=c+d+e
dimensions) formed a core group, which appear
L : 0 = a + b – 3c – d + e + 2f
repeatedly in each π term, consequently, called as
t : – 3 = – b – d – 3e – 2f
repeating variables. The repeating variables are selected
T : – 1 = – e – f.
among the n variables in such way that
There are four equations and six unknowns, thus
complexity starts in such case. Let expressing the (i) They together must contain all primary
exponents in terms of c and f. dimensions.
(ii) They themselves must not form a On solving, we get

dimensionless group. e = – 1, f = – 2, d = 1
(iii) As far as possible, the dependent variable ∆p D
should not be selected as repeating variable. or π2 = D ρ–1 u–2∆p =
ρu 2
(iv) No repeating variable should have the same F ∆p D , µ I = 0.
dimension. Therefore, φ GH ρu ρuD JK
2
(v) The repeating variables should be chosen in
such a way that one variable contains geometrical 7.10.5. Dimensional Analysis for Forced Convection
property, other one contains dynamic (flow) property The forced convection heat transfer phenomenon can
and third one contains fluid property etc. be influenced by the variables given in Table 7.3.
Example 7.11. Reconsider the example 7.10 and develop
TABLE 7.3
an expression for pressure drop.
Solution Sr. Parameters Symbol Primary
No. and unit dimensions
Given : The pressure drop for flow through tube
as 1. Tube Diameter D, m L
∆p = f(D, ρ, u, µ) or φ(∆p, D, ρ, u, µ) = 0 (Characteristic length)
2. Fluid density ρ, kg/m3 M L–3
There are five (n) variables affecting a
phenomenon and they can be expressed in three primary 3. Fluid viscosity µ, kg/m/s M L –1t–1
dimensions (M, L, and t). Therefore, the number of 4. Fluid velocity u∞, m/s Lt–1
dimensionless π groups to be formed are 5. Fluid thermal kf , W/m.K M Lt–3T–1
conductivity
n – m = 5 – 3 = 2 or φ(π1, π2) = 0
6. Heat transfer h, W/m2.K M t–3T–1
Each π term consists of m = 3 common variable, coefficient
called repeating variables along with one selected 7. Fluid specific heat Cp, J/kg.K L2t–2T–1
variable.
Let π1 = Da ρb uc µ These seven variables are expressed in four
π2 = Dd ρe uf ∆p primary dimensions (M, L, T, t), therefore, according to
Buckingham π theorem, the independent dimensionless
Expressing the each variable in their primary groups formed are :
dimensions for each π term.
= No. of variable affecting the phenomenon
Therefore, π1 = La (ML–3)b (Lt–1)c (ML–1 t –1)
or M0 L0 t0 = Mb+ 1 La–3b+c–1, t –c–1 – No. of primary dimensions used
For dimensional homogeneity the exponent of = 7 – 4 = 3 (i.e., π1, π2, π3)
M, L, t must be equal to zero. Writing these three groups as,
M: 0=b+1 π1 = Da, ρb, µc, kfd, u∞
L : 0 = a – 3b + c – 1 π2 = De, ρf, µg, kfh, Cp
t : 0=–c–1
π3 = Di, ρj, µk, kfl, h
Solving these simultaneous equations, we get
where D, ρ, µ, kf form a core group (repeating variables)
c = – 1, b = – 1, a = – 1 and u∞, Cp and h are as selected variables.
or π1 = D–1 ρ–1 u–1 µ
Since the groups π1, π2, π3 are dimensionless,
µ 1 hence certain exponents are applied on the repeating
or π1 = =
ρuD Re D variable, which are to be determined,
Similarly π2 = Ld (ML–3)e (Lt–1) f (ML–2 t –2) (i) Expressing the variable in their primary
dimensions for π1,
or M0 L0 t0 = Me+1 Ld – 3e+f – 2 t–f– 2
For dimensional homogeneity π1 = La . (ML–3)b . (ML–1 t–1)c . (MLt–3T–1)d . (Lt–1)
M: 0=e+1 or M0L0T0t0 = Mb+c+d . La–3b–c+d+1 . T–d . t–c–3d–1
L : 0 = d – 3e + f – 2 Separating the exponents for dimensional
t : 0=–f–2 homogeneity
M: 0=b+c+d 7.10.6. Dimensional Analysis for Natural Convection

L : 0 = a – 3b – c + d + 1 The relations used for the natural convection are based
T : 0=–d on practical observations. Hence the dimensional
t : 0 = – c – 3d – 1 analysis is also useful in natural convection. The
parameters which influence the natural convection
Solvingthese simultaneous equations, we get
phenomenon are listed below with their primary
d = 0, c = – 1
dimensions :
b = 1, a = 1
TABLE 7.4
Hence the dimensionless group formed is,
Dρu∞
π1 = = ReD (Reynolds number) Sr. Parameters Symbol Primary
µ No. and unit dimensions
...(7.42)
(ii) Expressing the primary dimension for 1. Characteristic length Lc, m L
variables of π2, 2. Fluid density ρ, kg/m3 M L–3
π2 = Le . (ML–3) f . (ML–1t–1) g 3. Fluid viscosity µ, kg/m.s M L–1t–1
4. Temperature difference ∆T, °C T
. (MLt–3T–1)h . (L2t–2T–1)
5. Coefficient of volumetric
or M0L0T0t0 = Mf+g+h . Le–3f–g+h+2 . T–h–1 . t–g–3h–2 expansion β, K–1 T–1
Separating the exponents for dimensional 6. Gravitational acceleration g, m/s2 L t–2
homogeneity. 7. Fluid thermal conductivity kf , W/m.K MLt–3T–1
M: 0=f+g+h 8. Heat transfer coefficient h, W/m2.K M t–3T–1
L : 0 = e – 3f – g + h + 2 9. Fluid specific heat Cp , J/kg.K L 2t –2T–1
T : 0=–h–1
t : 0 = – g – 3h – 2 Out of these nine variables, the product of gβ∆T,
Solving these simultaneous equations, we get represents the buoyancy force and considered as a one
h = – 1, g = 1 variable. Thus the variable, affecting the natural
f = 0, e = 0 convection are now remaining only seven and these can
Hence the dimensionless group formed is, be represented by four primary dimensions (M, L, T, t),
therefore, the independent dimensionless groups formed
µC p
π2 = = Pr (Prandtl Number) ...(7.43) are :
kf = No. of variables affecting the phenomenon
(iii) Expressing the primary dimension for – No. of primary dimensions used
variables of π3, = 7 – 4 = 3 (i.e., π1, π2, π3)
π3 = Li . (ML–3) j . (ML–1t–1) k . (MLt–3T–1) l . (Mt–3T–1) Writing these three groups as,
or M0L0T0t0 = Mj+k+l+1 . Li–3j–k+l . T–l–1 . t–k–3l–3
π1 = Lca , ρb, µc, kfd, gβ∆T
Separating the exponents for dimensional
homogeneity π2 = Lce , ρf, µg, kfh, Cp
M: 0=j+k+l+1 π3 = Lci , ρj, µk, kfl, h
L : 0 = i – 3j – k + l where Lc, ρ, µ, kf form a core group and gβ∆T, Cp and h
T : 0=–l–1 are as selected variables.
t : 0 = – k – 3l – 3 (i) Expressing the variable in their primary
Solving these simultaneous equations, we get dimensions for π1,
l = – 1, k = 0 π1 = La.(ML–3)b.(ML–1t–1)c.(MLt–3T–1)d.(Lt–2)
j = 0, i=1 or M L T t0 = Mb + c + d . La – 3b – c + d + 1 . T – d.t – c – 3d – 2
0 0 0
Hence the dimensionless group formed is, Separating the exponents for dimensional
hD homogeneity
π3 = = NuD (Nusselt Number)
kf M: 0=b+c+d
...(7.44) L : 0 = a – 3b – c + d + 1
Hence for forced convection, T : 0=–d
NuD = f(ReD, Pr) ...(7.45)
t : 0 = – c – 3d – 2
Solving these simultaneous equations, we get 7.11. PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE

d = 0, c=–2 DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS
b = 2, a=3
Hence the dimensionless group formed is, 7.11.1. Reynolds Number
ρ 2
( gβ∆T)L3c ( gβ∆T)L3c It is the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces in the
π1 = 2
= 2 velocity boundary layer. It is used in forced convection
µ ν
and approximated as :
= GrL (Grashof Number) ...(7.46)
(ii) Expressing the primary dimensions for Inertia forces ρu∞ L c u∞ L c
Re = = =
variables of π2, Viscous forces µ ν
π2 = Le . (ML–3) f . (ML–1t–1) g . (M L t–3T–1) h where, Lc = characteristic length of flow geometry, m ;
. (L2t–2T–1) = x, distance from the leading edge in the
flow direction for a flat plate;
or M0L0T0t0 = M f+g+h . Le –3f–g+h+2 . T –h–1 . t –g–3h–2
= D, diameter for flow through or across a
Separating the exponents for dimensional
cylinder and a sphere;
homogeneity
u∞ = free stream velocity, m/s ;
M: 0=f+g+h
ρ = fluid density, kg/m3 ;
L : 0 = e – 3f – g + h + 2
µ = dynamic viscosity of fluid, Ns/m2 or kg/m/s ;
T : 0=–h–1
ν = µ/ρ = kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s.
t : 0 = – g – 3h – 2
Solving these simultaneous equations, we get The Reynolds number is a dimensionless
quantity. It characterises the type of flow, whether it is
h = – 1, g = 1
laminar or turbulent flow.
f = 0, e = 0
Hence the dimensionless group formed is, 7.11.2. Critical Reynolds Number Recr
µC p It is a value of Reynolds number, where boundary layer
π2 = = Pr (Prandtl Number) changes from laminar to turbulent nature. It is denoted
kf
by Recr.
...(7.47)
(iii) Expressing the primary dimensions for For flow over a flat plate, the transition from
variables of π3, laminar to turbulent boundary layer occurs roughly
π3 = Li. (ML–3) j. (ML–1t–1)k. (MLt–3T–1)l when critical Reynolds number is
. (Mt–3T–1) Recr ≥ 5 × 105 ...(7.50)
or 0 0
MLTt =M 0 0 j+k+l+1 Li–3j–k+l T–l–1 t–k–3l–3 In fluid flow through tubes, the Reynolds number
Separating the exponents for dimensional is also used to characterized the fluid flow. The transition
homogeneity from laminar to turbulent boundary layer occurs, when
M: 0=j+k+l+1 u∞ D
ReD, cr = ≥ 2300 ...(7.51)
L : 0 = i – 3j – k + l ν
T : 0=–l–1 These are generally accepted values of critical
t : 0 = – k – 3l – 3 Reynolds numbers, which may vary with surface
Solving these simultaneous equations, we get roughness, level of turbulence and the variation of
pressure along the flow.
l = – 1, k = 0
j = 0, i = 1 7.11.3. Prandtl Number
Hence the dimensionless group formed is, It is defined as the ratio of the momentum diffusivity ν
hL c to the thermal diffusivity α or
π3 = = NuL (Nusselt Number)
kf Momentum diffusivity ν µρC p µC p
Pr = = = =
...(7.48) Thermal diffusivity α ρkf kf
Hence for free convection, It is a dimensionless property, a function of
NuL = f(GrL, Pr) ...(7.49) temperature. It provides a measure of relative
effectiveness of momentum and energy transfer in the where, ∆T = temperature difference (Ts – T∞) between
velocity and thermal boundary layers, respectively. wall surface and fluid, K.
For gases Pr ≅ 1 ; i.e., both momentum and heat h = heat transfer coefficient; W/m2.K.
diffusion through the fluid take place at the same rate. kf = thermal conductivity of the fluid ; W/m.K.
For liquid metal Pr << 1 ; indicates heat Lc = characteristic length of fluid flow, m
diffuses in the fluid very quickly, and for oils, Pr >> 1;
indicates heat diffusion is very slow in the fluid relative Based on the interpretation, the value of Nu as
to momentum. unity indicates that there is no convection, the heat
transfer is by pure conduction in the boundary layer.
Consequently, the thermal boundary layer is
much thicker for liquid metals, much thinner for oils Large value of Nu indicates large convection in the fluid.
relative to velocity boundary layer as shown in Fig. 7.7. 7.11.6. Stanton Number
Further, the thicknesses of two boundary layers can be
It is the ratio of the heat transfer at the surface to that
related as
transported by fluid by its thermal capacity.
δ th ( x) Heat flux to the fluid
= Pr n where n is the exponent ...(7.52) Stx =
δ ( x) Heat transfer capacity of fluid
h ∆T h
7.11.4. Grashof Number = = ...(7.54)
ρC pu∞ ∆T ρC pu∞
It is defined as the ratio of the buoyancy forces to the
viscous forces acting in the fluid layer. It is used in free Mathematically, it is the ratio of Nusselt number
convection and its role is same as that of Reynold number and product of Reynolds number and Prandtl number
in forced convection. The Grashof number characterises and it is also expressed as
the type of boundary layer developed in natural convec- Nu x
Stx = ...(7.55)
tion heat transfer. It is denoted by Gr and expressed as Rex Pr
gβ∆TL c3 7.11.7. Peclet Number

Gr = ...(7.53)
ν 2 It is the ratio of heat transfer by convection to heat
where, g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2, transfer by conduction. It is denoted by Pe and expressed
β = coefficient of volumetric expansion as
= 1/(Tf + 273), K–1, Heat transfer by convection
Pe =
∆T = temperature difference between surface Heat transfer by conduction
and fluid, °C or K, mC p ∆T ρVC pL
= = ...(7.56)
T + T∞ kf ∆T/L kf
Tf = mean film temperature = s °C,
2 Mathematically, the Peclet numbers is product
ν = kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s, of Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
Lc = characteristic length of the body, m Pe = Re.Pr ...(7.57)
= height, L for vertical plates and cylinders, 7.11.8. Graetz Number
= diameter, D for horizontal cylinder and It is a dimensionless number used in study of stream
sphere, line fluid flow. It is the ratio of fluid stream thermal
capacity of fluid flowing per unit length thermal con-
Surface area A s
= = , for other geometries ductivity of fluid. It is denoted by Gz and expressed as
Perimeter P
Thermal capacity of fluid per unit length
For free convection, the transition from laminar Gz =
to turbulent occurs, when Grcr ≈ 10 9. Thermal conductivity
Cp
m π D
7.11.5. Nusselt Number = = Re . Pr . ...(7.58)
kf x 4 x
It is defined as the ratio of convection heat flux to
conduction heat flux in the fluid boundary layer or where x = hydrodynamic entry length,
D = inside diameter of the tube.
Convection heat flux h∆T hL c
Nu = = = Generally it is associated with thermal entry
Conduction heat flux kf ∆T/L c kf
length of a fully developed flow through tubes.
Example 7.12. Calculate the approximate The density of air at 5 bar and 400°C (= 673 K)
Reynolds numbers and state if the flow is laminar or p 5 × 100 kPa
turbulent for the following : ρ=
RT
=
b g
0.287 kJ / kg . K × (673 K)
(i) A 10 m long yatch sailing at 13 km/h in sea = 2.588 kg/m3
water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and µ = 1.3 × 10–3 kg/ms. The viscosity at 400°C
(ii) A compressor disc of radius 0.3 m rotating at
15000 r.p.m. in air at 5 bar and 400°C and 1.46 × 10 − 6 × (673) 3 / 2
µ=
1.46 × 10 − 6 T 3/2 (110 + 673)
µ= kg/ms. = 3.3 × 10–5 kg/ms
(110 + T)
(iii) 0.05 kg/s of CO2 gas at 400 K flowing in a (a) The Reynolds number
20 mm dia. pipe and ρ u∞ D 2.588 × 471.23 × 0.6
1.56 × 10 − 6 T 3/2 Re = =
µ= kg/ms. µ 3.3 × 10 − 5
(233 + T)
(N.M.U., May 2002) = 22.17 × 106. Ans.
Solution (b) The Re > 5 × 105, thus flow is turbulent. Ans.
(i) Given : Yatch sails on sea water (iii) Given : CO2 gas
L = 10 m, m = 0.05 kg/s, T = 400 K,
3
13 × 10 Di = 20 mm = 20 × 10–3 m,
u∞ = 13 km/h = = 3.61 m/s
60 × 60
1.56 × 10 − 6 T 3/2
ρ = 1000 kg/m3, and µ= kg/ms.
(233 + T)
µ = 1.3 × 10–3 kg/ms.
To find :
To find :
(a) Reynolds number, (a) Reynolds number,
(b) Type of flow. (b) Type of flow.
Analysis : (a) The Reynolds number can be Analysis : At 400 K, the density of CO2
calculated as
ρ = 1.3257 kg/m3
ρu∞ L 1000 × 3.61 × 10
Re = =
µ 1.3 × 10 − 3 (a) The Reynolds number for pipe flow can also
= 2.78 × 10 7. Ans. be calculated as
(b) The Re > 5 × 105, thus flow is turbulent. Ans. 4m
Re =
(ii) Given : A compressor disc with π Di µ
ro = 0.3 m or D = 0.6 m
1.56 × 10 − 6 T 3/2
N = 15000 rpm, where µ=
(233 + T)
p = 5 bar, T = 400°C
1.46 × 10 − 6 T 3/2 1.56 × 10 − 6 × (400) 3/2
Then µ=
and µ= (233 + 400)
(110 + T)
To find : = 1.97 × 10–5 kg/ms.
(a) Reynolds number, 4 × 0.05
Then Re =
(b) Type of flow. π × 20 × 10 − 3 × 1.97 × 10 − 5
Assumption : For air R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K. = 1.61 × 105. Ans.
Analysis : The equivalent linear velocity of
(b) Re ≥ 2300 for tube flow, thus the flow is
compressor disc
πDN π × 0.6 × 1500 turbulent. Ans.
u∞ = = = 471.23 m/s
60 60
Example 7.13. Calculate the approximate Grashof 0.4 × 0.2

number and state if the flow is laminar or turbulent for = = 0.067 m
2 × (0.4 + 0.2)
the following :
(a) A central heating radiator, 0.6 m high with a
9.81 × (854)2 × 0.7 × 10 − 3
surface temperature of 75°C in a room at 18°C,
× (75 − 40 ) × (0.067 )3
(ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, Pr = 0.72, and µ = 1.8 × 10–5 kg/ms). (i) Gr =
(3.56 × 10 − 2 )2
(b) A horizontal oil sump with a surface
temperature of 40°C, 0.4 m long and 0.2 m wide = 4.1 × 104. Ans.
containing oil at 75°C. Take ρ = 854 kg/m3, Pr = 546, (ii) Gr < 109, thus the flow is laminar
β = 0.7 × 10–3 K–1 and µ = 3.56 × 10–2 kg/ms. (c) Air
(c) Air at 20°C (ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, Pr = 0.72 and T∞ = 20°C, ρ = 1.2 kg/m3,
µ = 1.8 × 10 –5 kg/ms) adjacent to a 60 mm dia. Pr = 0.72
horizontal light bulb, with a surface temperature of
µ = 1.8 × 10–5 kg/ms, Lc = D = 60 mm,
90°C. (N.M.U., May 2002)
Ts = 90°C
Solution
90 + 20
The properties are given, thus the Grashof Tf = = 55°C,
2
number for any flow situation can be calculated as
1
g β∆T L3c gρ2 β∆T L3c β= = 3.049 × 10–3 K–1
Gr = = 55 + 273
ν2 µ2
where Lc = significant length of the body. 9.81 × (1.2)2 × 3.049 × 10 − 3
(a) Lc = 0.6 m, ∆T = 75 – 18 = 57°C × (90 − 20) × (60 × 10 − 3 )3
ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, Pr = 0.72, Gr =
(1.8 × 10 −5 )2
–5
µ = 1.8 × 10 kg/ms
Mean film temperature, = 2.0 × 106, Laminar. Ans.
75 + 18 Example 7.14. Calculate the Nusselt number in
Tf = 46.5°C
2 following cases :
1 1 (i) A horizontal electronic component with a
β= = surface temperature of 35°C, 5 mm wide and 10 mm
Tf + 273 46.5 + 273
long, dissipating 0.1 W heat by free convection from its
= 3.13 × 10–3 K–1 one side into air at 20°C. Take for air k = 0.026 W/m.K.
The Grashof number (ii) A 1 kW central heating radiator 1.5 m long
9.81 × (1.2) 2 × 3.13 × 10 − 3 × 57 × (0.6) 3 and 0.6 m high with a surface temperature of 80°C,
GrL = dissipating heat by radiation and convection into room
(1.8 × 10 −5 ) 2
at 20°C (k = 0.026 W/m.K, assume black body radiation
= 1.68 × 109. Ans.
and σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4).
The GrL > 109, the flow is turbulent. Ans.
(iii) Air at 6°C (k = 0.024 W/m.K) adjacent to a
(b) A horizontal oil sump
wall 3 m high and 0.15 m thick made of brick with
Ts = 40°C T∞ = 75°C, k = 0.3 W/m.K, the inside temperature of the wall is
L = 0.4 m, w = 0.2 m, 18°C, the outside wall temperature is 12°C.
ρ = 854 kg/m ,3 Pr = 546,
Solution
–3
β = 0.7 × 10 K –1
(i) Given : A horizontal electronic component
µ = 3.56 × 10–2 kg/ms. w = 5 mm, L = 10 mm,
For horizontal plate, the characteristic length Q = 0.1 W, Ts = 35°C,
As L×w T∞ = 20°C, kf = 0.026 W/m.K.
Then Lc = =
P 2(L + w)
Analysis : This heat is also transfered by convection, thus

Q = h As (Ts – T∞) Q
= h(Ts – T∞)
0.1 = h × (10 mm × 5 mm × 10–6) × (35 – 20) A
or h = 133.33 W/m2.K On inner surface
The significant length 12 = h1 × (18 – 6) or h1 = 1 W/m2.K
−6
As 10 mm × 5 mm × 10
Lc = = h1L c 1× 3
P 2 × (10 mm + 5 mm) × 10 −3 and Nu = = = 125. Ans.
kf 0.024
= 1.67 × 10–3 m
The Nusselt number On outer wall surface
hL c 133.33 × 1.67 × 10 −3 12 = h2 × (12 – 6) or h2 = 2 W/m2.K
Nu = =
kf 0.026 h2 L c 2×3
= 8.54. Ans. and Nu = = = 250. Ans.
kf 0.024
(ii) Given : Central heating radiator
Q = 1 kW = 103 W,
w = 1.5 m,
7.12. TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER HEAT
L = Lc = 0.6 m,
TRANSFER
Ts = 80°C = 353 K, The flow of fluid in the boundary layer is more often
T∞ = 20°C = 293 K, turbulent rather than laminar as shown in Fig. 7.14. In
kf = 0.026 W/m.K, the turbulent flow, the transport mechanism is added
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4. by random fluctuation of lumps of fluid. The irregular
Analysis : The radiation heat transfer for black velocity fluctuations are superimposed upon the motion
surface of main stream and these fluctuations are primarily
Qrad = σ As (Ts4 – T∞4) responsible for transfer of heat and momentum. The
rates of momentum and heat transfer in the turbulent
= (5.67 × 10–8) × (1.5 × 0.6)
flow and associated friction and heat transfer coefficients
× (3534 – 2934)
are many times more than the laminar flow, because of
= 416.2 W better mixing in which lumps of fluid collide with one
Heat transfer by convection another randomly and make multidirectional flow and
Qconv = Q – Qrad = 1000 – 416.2 = 583.7 W mix the fluid effectively.
Then Qconv = h As (Ts – T∞) In the turbulent flow, the instantaneous fluid
583.7 = h × (1.5 × 0.6) × (80 – 20) currents are highly torn and fluctuating randomly and
or h = 10.80 W/m2.K it is very difficult to trace the path of an individual fluid
The Nusselt number element. This behaviour is shown in Fig. 7.15, which
hL c 10.80 × 0.6 plots arbitrary flow property P as a function of time at
Nu = = = 249.4 Ans. some location in a turbulent boundary layer. The
kf 0.026
property P could be a velocity component, or fluid tem-
(iii) Given : Air flow adjacent to a wall perature at any instant. The time mean value and
T∞ = 6°C, kf = 0.024 W/m.K, fluctuating component may be represented as P and P′,
Lc = H = 3 m, L = 0.15 m, respectively for steady flow. The instantaneous velocity
k = 0.3 W/m.K, T1 = 18°C, components u and v can be expressed in the form
T2 = 12°C.
u = u + u′ and v = v + v′
Analysis : The heat transfer rate per m2 by steady
state conduction, through the wall Similarily instantaneous temperature can be
expressed as
Q k(T1 − T2 ) 0.3 × (18 − 12)
= =
A L 0.15 T = T + T ′ and so on
= 12 W/m2
Y u¥ Time average of instantaneous rate of x

directional momentum transfer per unit area
X
u
Turbulent
u=u
v=–
– + u¢
v + v¢
–
T = T + T¢
τt = –
1 t
t 0 z
(ρ v′ )(u + u′ ) dt ...(7.60)
It is also called “apparent turbulent shear stress
Buffer
or Reynolds stress” and can be rearranged as
z z
–
layer r = r + r¢
etc. 1 t 1 t
Laminar τt = – ρ v′ u dt − ρ v′ u′ dt
sub layer t 0 t 0
Fig. 7.14. Velocity profile in turbulent boundary

= – ρ v′ u − ρ u′ v′ ...(7.61)
layer on a flat plate Since u is mean velocity, thus constant and the
p P¢ time averaged ρv– ′ is zero, therefore
– τt = – ρ u′ v′ ...(7.62)
P
As stated above u′v′ is not zero, but it is negative,
Flow thus the turbulent shear stress is positive and analogous
property
– to laminar shear stress
P = P + P¢
du du
τl = µ = ρν ...(7.63)
time t dy dy
Fig. 7.15. Property variation with time at some Actually, the laminar shear stress τl is true stress
points in turbulent boundary layer whereas the Reynolds stress τt is the stress to account
for the effects of momentum transfer due to turbulence.
Y
Mean velocity u Thus the total shear stress
du
u
l τtotal = τl + τt = µ − ρ u′ v′ ...(7.64)
A A¢ dy
u¢ l
7.12.1 Prandtl Mixing Length Concept
Turbulent lump y Prandtl postulated that the fluctuations of fluid lumps
in turbulent flow on average are analogous to motion of
molecules in a gas. The Prandtl mixing length l is the
distance travelled on an average by the turbulent lumps
X
of fluid in direction perpendicular to mean flow before
Fig. 7.16. Turbulent shear stress and mixing length coming to rest. The Prandtl mixing length l is analogous
Consider a turbulent lump crosses the plane to the mean free path of molecules in a gas.
A – A′ as shown in Fig. 7.16. The fluctuating velocity Let us imagine a turbulent lump which is located
components continuously transport mass and at a distance l above or below plane A – A′ as shown in
therefore, momentum across a plane A – A′ normal to y Fig. 7.16. The fluid lumps move back and forth across
direction. the plane and increase turbulent shearing stress effect.
The instantaneous mass transport per unit area At distance y + l, the velocity of fluid would be
across the plane = ρv′ approximately
Instantaneous rate of transfer of x directional du
u(y + l) = u(y) + l
momentum per unit area represents shear stress. dy
τ′ = – ρv′ ( u + u′ ) ...(7.59) and at distance y – l
The negative sign is inducted, because, when a du
u(y – l) = u(y) – l
turbulent lump moves upward (v′ > 0), it enters the dy
region of higher u , it will tend to slow down the The Prandtl demonstrated that the turbulent
fluctuations in u′, thus u′ < 0 and vice-versa so a positive fluctuation u′ is proportional to mean of above two
v′ is associated with negative u′, therefore, the product quantities, or
u′v′ is a negative quantity.
du caused by temperature difference between time mean

u′ = l ...(7.65) temperature of two planes. The turbulent heat transfer
dy
rate per unit area
He also postulated that v′ would be of same order
of magnitude as u′, i.e., Qt ∂u ∂ T
= – ρCp v′ T′ = – ρCp lT2 .
du A ∂y ∂y
v′ = l
dy ∂T
= − ρC p εH ...(7.73)
The turbulent shear stress eqn. (7.62) ∂y
FG du IJ 2
du where εH is eddy or turbulent diffusivity of heat, or
τt = – ρ u′ v′ = ρ l2
H dy K = ρ εM
dy εH = lT2
∂u
∂y
...(7.74)
...(7.66)
where εM is eddy or turbulent viscosity, or ∂T
The minus sign is due to second law, because
du ∂y
εM = l2 ...(7.67) would be negative.
dy
The total rate of turbulent heat transfer per unit
The eddy viscosity εM is analogous to kinematic
area
viscosity ν. But ν is a physical property, while εM is not,
and it depends on dynamics of flow. FG Q IJ
H AK
t
= Molecular conduction/area
Total shearing stress total
+ Turbulent heat transfer through eddies/area
du du
τtotal = µ + ρ εM
dy dy ∂T ∂T
=– k – ρCpεH
du du ∂y ∂y
= ρν + ρ εM ∂T ∂T
dy dy = – ρCp α – ρCpεH
du ∂y ∂y
= ρ(ν + εM) ...(7.68)
dy ∂T
= – ρCp (α + εH) ...(7.75)
For turbulent flow ∂y
where α = k/ρCp.
du
εM >> ν and τtotal ≈ ρεM ...(7.69) The contribution to the total heat transfer rate
dy
by molecular conduction is proportional to α, and
For laminar flow
turbulent contribution is proportional to εH.
du For all fluids except liquid metals
εM = 0 and τtotal ≈ ρν ...(7.70)
dy εH >> α in turbulent flow and
For buffer layer (transition zone),
FQ I ∂T
du
H AK ≈ − ρC p εH ...(7.76)
t
τtotal = ρ(ν + εM) ∂y
dy total
For laminar flow εH = 0 and
7.12.2. Turbulent Heat Transfer
FG Q IJ ∂T
H AK
t
The heat transfer in turbulent flow is analogous to = − ρC p α ...(7.77)
∂y
momentum transfer. The instantaneous turbulent heat total
transfer rate per unit area can be expressed as In transition zone

Qt
A
=
1
t z
0
t
(ρv′ ) C p (T + T ′ ) dt = ρ C p v′ T ′
...(7.71)
FQ I
H AK
t
total
∂T
= − ρ C p (α + ε H )
∂y
The ratio of eddy viscosity to eddy thermal
Using Prandtl mixing length concept, the diffusivity is called turbulent Prandtl number
temperature fluctuations T′ can be related with time ε
mean temperature gradient as Prt = M ...(7.78)
εH
dT This definition is analogous to definition of
T′ ≈ lT ...(7.72)
dy Prandtl number
when a fluid lump in turbulent flow migrates plane ν
Pr =
A – A′ by a distance ± lT, the resulting fluctuation is α
But the Prandtl number Pr and turbulent Prandtl The eqn. (7.81) is called Reynolds analogy. It is
number are not same. The Prandtl number Pr is a satisfactory for gases Pr = 1. Colburn had corrected to
dimensionless physical property of fluid. However, the fluids having Prandtl number ranging 0.6 to 50 and it
turbulent Prandtl number Pr is a property of flow field is modified to
more than a field. Various models have been developed C fx
for evaluating of Prt. Reynolds model is simplest one, Stx Pr2/3 = ...(7.82)
he assumed Prt = 1 i.e., εH = εM. 2
where subscript x represents the distance from the
However, the numerical values of Prt may vary
leading edge. The expression (7.82) is referred as
between 1 and 2.
Reynolds Colburn analogy for flow over flat pate and
For Prt = 1, the turbulent heat flux eqn. (7.76) Stx Pr2/3 is called Colburn’s factor.
and turbulent shear stress eqn. (7.69) can be related as
For average properties (average heat transfer
∂T coefficient and friction coefficient), the above equation
ρC p εH
Qt ∂y is also valid in the form
=−
Aτ t ∂u Cf
ρεM
∂y St Pr2/3 = ...(7.83)
2
Qt ∂T valid for all types of flow over a flat plate.
or = − τt C p ...(7.79)
A ∂u
This relation was first introduced in 1874 by
7.14. MEAN FILM TEMPERATURE AND BULK
Reynolds and therefore, called Reynolds analogy for
turbulent flow. This analogy however, does not hold good MEAN TEMPERATURE
in viscous sublayer, where the flow is laminar.
For external flows such as flow over a flat plate, flow
across a cylinder or a sphere, the fluid properties like ρ,
7.13. REYNOLDS COLBURN ANALOGY FOR Cp, kf, and µ are generally evaluated at mean film
TURBULENT FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE temperature Tf or
Ts + T∞
To obtain the heat transfer rate for turbulent flow Tf = ...(7.84)
2
over a flat plate with Prt = 1, the eqn. (7.79) can be ar-
where Ts = surface temperature, °C and
ranged as
T∞ = free stream temperature of fluid, °C
Qs qs
du = − dT or du = − dT For internal flows such as flow through tubes,
Aτ sC p τ sC p ducts etc, the fluid properties are evaluated at mean of
where subscript s indicates that q and τ are taken at the bulk inlet and outlet temperature, Tm or
surface of the plate. Integrating above equation between
Tb, in + Tb, out
u = 0, T = Ts and u = u∞, T = T∞ yields to Tm = ...(7.85)
2
qs qs τs C p
u∞ = Ts – T∞ or = where Tb, in = Bulk mean inlet temperature, °C, and
τ sC p Ts − T∞ u∞ Tb, out = Bulk mean outlet temperature, °C.
Introducing local heat transfer coefficient and Sometimes, the correlations may specify some
friction coefficient as other temperature ; such as for internal flow it may be
qs C fx the mean of fluid temperature Tm and pipe wall surface
hx = and τs = ρu∞ 2 temperature Ts. If temperature differences (surface to
Ts − T∞ 2
fluid, inlet to outlet) are small enough, then changes in
C fx
Then hx = Cp ρu∞ ...(7.80) the fluid properties are negligible and the choice of
2 particular temperature becomes unimportant, provid-
hx C fx ing consistancy is maintained.
or =
ρ u∞ C p 2 Example 7.15. Atmospheric air at 400 K flows with a
velocity of 4 m/s along a flat plate, 1 m long, maintained
C fx
or Stx = ...(7.81) at an uniform temperature of 300 K. The average heat
2 transfer coefficient is estimated to be 7.75 W/m2.K. Using
Nu x hx Reynolds Colburn analogy, calculate the drag force
where Stx = = is called Stanton number.
Re x Pr ρ C p u∞ exerted on the plate per metre width.
Solution direction normal to surface is observed, is called thermal

Given : Flow along a flat plate boundary layer (δth).
T∞ = 400 K, Ts = 300 K, The fluid flow over a flat plate starts as a laminar
L = 1 m, w = 1 m, boundary layer, in which the fluid motion is highly
2
h = 7.75 W/m .K, u∞ = 4 m/s. ordered and fluid flow can be identified in stream lines.
To find : Drag (shear) force exerted on the plate. The fluid flow becomes turbulent after some distance
from the leading edge, in which large velocity
Analysis : Reynolds Colburn analogy for flow over
fluctuations and highly disordered motion of the fluid
a flat plate is given by
are observed. The intense mixing in turbulent flow
h Pr 2 / 3 C f enhances both the drag force and heat transfer. The flow
St Pr2/3 = =
ρ C pu∞ 2 regime depends mainly on Reynolds number, expressed
The physical properties of atmospheric air at as
mean film temperature Inertia forces u∞ x
Re = =
Ts + T∞ 300 + 400 Viscous forces ν
Tf = = = 350 K
2 2 where u∞ is free stream fluid velocity, x is the distance
ρ = 0.998 kg/m3, from leading edge and ν is kinematic viscosity.
Cp = 1009 J/kg.K, Pr = 0.697 The Reynolds number for flow through a circular
Then friction coefficient pipe is calculated as
2 × 7.75 × (0.697) 2 / 3 ρ umD umD
Cf = = 3.025 × 10–3 ReD = =
0.998 × 1009 × 4 µ ν
The average shear stress where um = mean fluid velocity, D is inner diameter of
Cf 3.025 × 10−3 tube and ν is kinematic viscosity.
τ= ρu∞ 2 = × 0.998
2 2 The Reynolds number for non-circular duct is
× (4)2 = 0.0241 N/m2. calculated as
The drage (shear) force u D
Re = m h
F = wLτ = 1 × 1 × 0.0241 ν
= 0.0241 N. Ans. 4 Ac
where Dh = , hydraulic diameter,
P
7.15. SUMMARY Ac = cross-section area of non-circular tube,

P = wetted perimeter.
Convection is the mode of heat transfer that involves The Reynolds number at which the flow turns to
conduction as well as bulk fluid motion. The rate of be turbulent from laminar flow is called critical Reynolds
convection heat transfer is expressed by Newton’s law number, Recr and its value is
of cooling as Recr = 5 × 105 for flow over flat plate
Q = hA(Ts – T∞) (W) = 2300 for flow inside tubes.
where Ts is surface temperature and T∞ is free stream For flow over a flat plate, the momentum and
fluid temperature. energy equations are given as
The convection heat transfer is classified as
∂u ∂u 1 ∂ 2 u ∂T ∂T 1 ∂ 2 Τ
natural or forced convection. The natural or free u +v = and u +v =
∂y ∂y ν ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y α ∂y 2
convection is a process in which fluid motion is set up
due to density difference results from heat transfer. The similarities between velocity and thermal
While in the forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow boundary layer indicate that the local skin friction
over a surface or in a duct by external means. coefficient Cfx and Nusselt number Nux are function of
Reynolds number as
The region of flow in which the effects of viscous
Cfx = f(x∗, Rex)
shear forces caused by fluid viscosity are observed, is
called velocity boundary layer (δ). The flow region over hx L
Nux = = φ(x∗, Rex, Pr)
the surface in which the temperature variation in the kf
x µCp The Reynolds Colburn anology for turbulent flow

where x∗ = and Pr = , Prandtl number. over a flat plate indicates that the heat transfer
L kf
coefficient and fluid friction are related as
The local friction coefficient is expressed in terms
of local shear stress τs as hx C
Pr 2 / 3 = fx
ρ u∞ C p 2
τs
Cfx = Here the quantity
ρ u∞ 2 /2
hx Nu
The dimensional analysis is a method of analysis =
ρ u∞ C p Rex Pr
in which certain variable affecting a phenomenon are
= Stx (Stanton number)
combined in dimensionless group such as Nusselt
number, which facilates the interpretation and extends C fx
∴ Stx Pr2/3 =
its application to experimental data. 2
TABLE 7.5. Dimensionless groups used in heat transfer
Groups Definition Interpretation
hL c
Biot number (Bi) Ratio of internal thermal resistance of a solid to the boundary
k
layer thermal resistance.
τs
Coefficient of friction (Cf) Dimensionless surface shear stress.
ρu∞2 /2
Colburn j factor St Pr2/3 Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient.
αt
Fourier number (Fo) Ratio of heat conduction to the rate of thermal energy
L c2
storage in a solid.
∆p
Friction factor (f ) Dimensionless pressure drop for internal flow.
( L/D) ρu∞2 /2
gβ (Ts − T∞ )L c3
Grashof number (GrL ) Ratio of buoyancy to viscous forces of the fluid.
ν2
C p (Ts − Tsat )
Jacob number (Ja) hfg
Ratio of sensible heat to latent energy absorbed during liquid
vapour phase change.

hL
Nusselt number (NuL ) Dimensionless temperature gradient at the surface of fluid.
kf
Peclet number (PeL ) ReL Pr Dimensionless independent heat transfer parameter.

µC p ν
Prandtl number (Pr) = Ratio of momentum and thermal diffusivities.
kf α
u∞L
Reynolds number (ReL ) Ratio of inertia to viscous forces of a flowing fluid.
ν
h Nu L
Stanton number (St) = Modified Nusselt number.
ρu∞C p ReL Pr
where Lc = characteristic length of the geometry.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 23. Express the similarities of momentum and energy

equations for flow over a flat plate.
1. Define laminar and turbulent flows. What is Reynolds 24. State the method for evaluation of heat transfer
number ? coefficient.
2. Explain velocity and thermal boundary layer. 25. State the scope and application of dimensional
3. Discuss laminar sublayer, buffer layer and turbulent analysis in heat transfer processes. What are the two
layer in a boundary layer. methods for obtaining the dimensionless groups ?
4. What is critical Reynolds number? State its 26. Show by Rayleigh method of dimensional analysis,
approximate values for flow over flat plate and that the Nusselt number is function of Reynolds
through a circular tube. number and Prandtl number.
5. What do you understand by local and average value 27. Explain Buckingham π theorem. What are its merits
of heat transfer coefficient ? and demerits ? What are repeating variables ? How
6. Explain local and average value of skin friction are they selected ?
coefficient. 28. What do you understand by mean value and
7. Show that the Reynolds number for flow through a fluctuating component of velocity and other properties
tube of diameter D can be expressed in turbulent flow ?
29. Explain the Prandtl mixing length concept to describe
4m
Re = . turbulent flow over a surface.
π Dµ
30. Explain the Reynolds analogy for turbulent flow over
8. Explain the mechanism of convection heat transfer. a surface.
9. What are the differences between natural and forced
convection ? PROBLEMS
10. What is external forced convection ? How does it differ
from internal forced convection ? 1. Calculate Reynolds numbers and state the type of flow,
11. What is physical significance of Prandtl number ? whether it is laminar or turbulent for the following :
12. What is physical significance of Reynolds number ? (a) A 15 m long yatch sailing at 15 km/h in sea water
How is it defined for (a) flow over a flat plate of length (ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and µ = 1.3 × 10–3 kg/ms).
L, (b) flow over a cylinder of diameter D, (c) flow [Ans. 48.07 × 106, turbulent]
through a tube of diameter d, and flow through a (b) A compressor disc of radius 0.5 m rotating at
rectangular tube of cross-section a × b ? 18000 r.p.m in air at 5 bar and 400°C and
13. What is physical significance of Nusselt number ?
How is it defined for (a) flow over a flat plate of 1.46 × 10 − 6 T3/2
µ= kg/ms.
length L, (b) flow over a cylinder of diameter D, (c) flow (110 + T)
through a tube of diameter d, and flow through a [Ans.14.78 × 107, turbulent]
rectangular duct of cross-section a × b ? (c) 0.08 kg/s of CO2, gas at 400 K flowing in a 40 mm
14. When is heat transfer through a fluid layer by diameter pipe. For viscosity take
conduction and when is it by convection ? For what
case, the rate of heat transfer is higher ? 1.56 × 10− 6 T3/2
µ= kg/ms.
15. How does the heat transfer coefficient differ from (233 + T)
thermal conductivity ? [Ans. 1.29 × 105, turbulent]
16. What is no slip condition on a surface ? (d) The roof of a coach 6 m long, travelling at 100 km/h
17. What property is responsible for development of in air (ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 and µ = 1.8 × 10–5 kg/ms).
velocity boundary layer ? What property is for thermal [Ans. 1.11 × 107, turbulent]
boundary layer ? F Pr = µC I
18. Consider laminar flow over a flat plate, will the
friction coefficient change with position ? How about
2. Calculate Prandtl number GH k JK f
p
for the
the heat transfer coefficient ? Explain. following :

19. In the fully developed region of the flow in a circular (a) Water at 20°C : µ = 1.002 × 10 –3 kg/ms,
tube, will the velocity profile change in the flow Cp = 4.183 kJ/kg.K and kf = 0.603 W/m.K.
direction ? [Ans. 6.95]
20. How does surface roughness affect pressure drop and (b) Air at 20°C and 1 bar : R = 287 J/kg.K,
heat transfer in a tube flow ? ν = 1.563 × 10–5 m2/s, Cp = 1005 J/kg.K and
21. Derive an expression for momentum transfer kf = 0.02624 W/m.K. [Ans. 0.719]
equation for flow over a flat plate. (c) Mercury at 20°C ; µ = 1520 × 10 –6 kg/ms,
22. Derive an equation for energy transfer for flow over Cp = 0.139 kJ/kg.K and kf = 0.0081 W/m.K.
a flat plate.
[Ans. 0.0261]
(d) Engine oil at 60°C ; µ = 8.36 × 10 –2 kg/ms, (b) Develop an expression for average friction
Cp = 2035 J/kg.K and k = 0.141 W/m.K. coefficient over a distance x = L form the leading
[Ans. 1207] edge of the plate.
3. Calculate the appropriate Grashof number and state (c) Calculate the drag force acting on a plate 2 m by
the type of flow for the following : 2 m for the flow of air at atmospheric pressure
and at 350 K with velocity of 4 m/s.
(a) A central heating radiator, 0.8 m high with a
surface temperature of 75°C in a room at 18°C 8. The exact expression for local friction coefficient Cfx
(ν = 1.5 × 10– 5 m2/s, Pr = 0.72) for laminar flow over a flat plate is given by
[Ans. 3.98 × 109, Turbulent] 0.664
Cfx = .
(b) A horizontal oil sump with a surface temperature Re x
of 40°C, 0.5 m long and 0.4 m wide containing oil
at 75°C, (Pr = 546, β = 0.7 × 10–3 K–1 and ν = 4.168 Air at atmospheric pressure and 350 K flows with a
× 10–5 m2/s) [Ans. 18.97 × 104, Laminar] velocity of 30 m/s over a flat plate 0.2 m long. Calculate
the drag force acting per meter width of the plate.
(c) The surface of heating coil 30 mm diameter, having
surface temperature of 80°C in water at 20°C [Ans. 0.222 N]
(ρ = 1000 kg/m3, Pr = 6.95, β = 0.227 × 10–3 K–1 9. The local heat transfer coefficient hx for laminar
and µ = 1.00 × 10–3 kg/ms). boundary layer flow over a flat plate is given by
[Ans. 3.6 × 106, laminar] xhx
(d) Air at 20°C , (Pr = 0.72, and ν = 1.5 × 10–5 m2/s) = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3.
kf
adjacent to a 75 mm diameter horizontal light bulb
with a surface temperature of 100°C. Develop an expression for average heat transfer
[Ans. 4.41 × 104, laminar] coefficient h over a distance x = L from leading edge
4. Calculate appropriate Nusselt number for the of the plate.
following : 10. Engine oil at 40°C (µ = 0.21 kg/(m/s) ; ρ = 875 kg/m3)
A gas flow (Pr = 0.71, µ = 4.63 × 10–5 kg/ms and flows inside a 2.5 cm diameter, 50 m long tube with a
Cp = 1175 J/kg.K) over a turbine blade of chord length mean velocity of 1 m/s. Determine the pressure drop
20 mm, where the average heat transfer coefficient for flow through the tube. (J.N.T.U., May 2004)
is 1000 W/m2.K. [Ans. 261]
LM Hint. ∆p = f L ρu 2
64 OP
N
∞
,f = [Ans. 537.6 kPa]
5. Calculate the distance from the leading edge of a flat
plate at which the transition occurs from laminar to
D 2 Re PQ
turbulent flow for atmospheric air at 27°C with (a) 2,
(b) 10, (c) 20 m/s. Assume transition at Recr = 5 × 105. 11. For a laminar natural convection from a heated
vertical surface, the local convection coefficient may
[Ans. (a) 4.21 m, (b) 0.842 m, (c) 0.421 m] be expressed as hx = C x–1/4.
6. Assume transition from laminar to turbulent at
where hx is heat transfer coefficient at a distance x
Recr = 5 × 105, calculate the distance from the leading
from leading edge and C is a constant.
edge at which the transition occurs for the flow of
each of the following fluids with a velocity of 2 m/s at Derive an expression for the ratio h/hx, where h is
40°C (a) air at atmospheric pressure, (b) hydrogen at average heat transfer coefficient between leading edge
atmospheric pressure, (c) water, (d) ethylene glycol,
LM Ans. 4  L  −0.25 
(e) engine oil.
7. The velocity profile u(x, y) for a laminar boundary
(x = 0) and x = L location.
N 3 x 

layer flow along a flat plate is given by
u ( x, y)
=2
y
−2
LM OP + LM y OP
y
3 4
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
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δ ( x)
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‘‘Handbook of Heat Transfer’’, 2/e, McGraw Hill, New
δ( x) 5.83 York 1985.
=
x Re x 2. Kays W.M. and M.E. Crawford, ‘‘Convective Heat and
(a) Develop an expression for local friction Mass Transfer’’, 2nd ed., McGraw Hill, New York,
coefficient. 1980.
3. Giedt Warren H., ‘‘Investigation of Variation of Point 11. Incropera F. P. and D. P. DeWitt, “Introduction to
Unit-Heat Transfer Coefficient Around a Cylinder Heat Transfer”, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
Normal to an Airstream’’. Transaction of ASME, 12. Bayazitoglu Y. and M. N. Ozisik, “Elements of Heat
vol. 71 pp. 375–301, 1949. Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1988.
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McGraw Hill, New York, 1968. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982.
5. Zhukauskas A and A, B, Ambrazyavichyus, Int, J. 14. White F.M., “Heat and Mass Transfer”, Addison
of “Heat Mass Transfer”, Vol 3, pp. 305, 1961. Wesley, Reading, MA, 1988.
6. Knudsen J.D. and D.L. Katz, ‘‘Fluid Dynamics and 15. Jacob M., “Heat Transfer”, Vol I, Wiley, New York,
Heat Transfer’’, McGraw Hill, New York, 1958. 1949.
7. McAdams W.M., ‘‘Heat Transmission’’, 3rd ed. 16. Suryanarayana N. V., ‘‘Engineering Heat Transfer’’
McGraw Hill, New York, 1954. West Pub. Co. New York, 1998.
8. Jacob M. and G.A. Hawkins, “Elements of Heat 17. Chapman Alan. J., ‘‘Fundamentals of Heat Transfer’’
Transfer”, 3rd ed., Wiley, New York, 1957. Macmillan, New York.
9. Krieth Frank and M.S. Bohn, “Principles of Heat 18. Christopher Long, ‘‘Essential Heat Transfer’’,
Transfer”, 5th ed., PWS Pub. Company, 1997. Addision Wesley Longman, 2001.
10. Holman J. P., “Heat Transfer”, 7th ed., McGraw Hill, 19. Giedt Warren H., ‘‘Principles of Engineering Heat
New York, 1990. Transfer’’, Van Nostrand Inc. 2nd ed., 1967.
External Flow 8
8.1. Laminar Flow Over a Flat Plate—Approximate analysis of momentum equation—Approximate analysis of energy equation. 8.2. Reynolds
Colburn Analogy : Momentum and Heat Transfer Analogy for Laminar Flow Over Flat Plate. 8.3. Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate.
8.4. Combined Laminar and Turbulent Flow. 8.5. Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres—Drag coefficient—Heat transfer coefficient.
8.6. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.
When a fluid flows over a body such as plate, cylinder, ∂T ∂T ∂2T

sphere etc., it is regarded as an external flow. In such a Energy : u +v =α 2 ...(8.3)
∂x ∂y ∂y
flow, the boundary layer develops freely without any
constraints imposed by adjacent surfaces. Accordingly, 8.1.1. Approximate Analysis of Momentum Equation
the region of flow, outside the boundary layer in which Consider two-dimensional steady flow of an
the velocity and temperature gradients are negligible incompressible, constant property fluid along a flat plate
is called the free stream region.
as shown in Fig. 8.1.
In an external flow forced convection, the relative
motion between the fluid and the surface is maintained y y=d
by external means such as a fan or a pump and not by
u¥
buoyancy forces due to temperature gradients as in Velocity
boundary
natural convection. layer
In this chapter, our primary objective is to u¥
d(x)
determine the heat transfer coefficient and coefficient
dy
of friction for flow over different geometries such as flat u(x, y)
plate, cylinder and sphere, for both laminar and
turbulent flow conditions, we will discuss theoretical as x
well as empirical relation for both quantities. dx
1 2
8.1. LAMINAR FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE Fig. 8.1. Elemental control volume for integral momentum
equation analysis of laminar boundary layer
In the chapter 7, we have discussed that a flow is termed
To obtain momentum equation in the integral
the laminar flow until the critical Reynolds numbers
form, we must integrate above eqns. (8.1) and (8.2) in
Recr ≈ 5 × 105 is reached. Further, the coefficients of
the y-direction across the boundary layer. Integrating
friction and heat transfer are related to the velocity and
eqn. (8.1).
z z
temperature distribution in the flow, respectively. For
laminar boundary layer, continuity, momentum, and δ ∂u δ ∂v
dy + dy = 0
energy transfer equations with constant properties and 0 ∂x 0 ∂y
zero pressure gradients are: The boundary condition, v = 0 at y = 0
z
∂u ∂v
Continuity : + =0 ...(8.1) δ ∂u
∂x ∂y Then v(y = δ) = – dy
0 ∂x
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u ...(8.4)
Momentum : u +v =ν 2 ...(8.2)
∂x ∂y ∂y
266
EXTERNAL FLOW 267
Similarly, integrating eqn. (8.2), u=0 at y = 0 ...(a)
z0
δ
u
∂u
∂x
dy + z0
δ
v
∂u
∂y
dy = ν
z0
δ ∂ 2u
∂y 2
dy
∂u
u = u∞ at y = δ ...(b)
z
=0 at y = δ …(c)
∂ ∂u δ FG IJ ∂y
= ν
0 ∂y ∂y
dy
H K and for constant pressure condition at surface
Integrating second term on L.H.S. by parts, we ∂ 2u
at y = 0, u = v = 0, therefore =0 ...(d)
get ∂y 2
z LM OP z LM OP
δ δ
δ ∂u δ ∂v ∂u On solving, we get coefficients as:
dy = ν
0
u
∂x
dy + uv
N Q 0
−
0
u
∂y ∂y N Q 0
C1 = 0, C2 =
3 u∞ u
, C3 = 0, and C4 = – ∞3
Using boundary conditions ; 2 δ 2δ
u = u∞ at y=δ Therefore, the velocity distribution in the
boundary layer becomes
∂u
=0 at y=δ u 3 y 1 y F I F I 3
Substituting, we get
∂y
u∞
=
2 δ
−
2 δ H K H K ...(8.7)
z z
Inserting the eqn. (8.7) into eqn. (8.6), we get
z LM RS 3 F y I − 1 F y I UVOP
δ ∂u δ ∂v ∂u
u dy + u∞ v − u dy = − ν d δ 3
|T 2 H δ K 2 H δ K |WPQ
0 ∂x 0 ∂y ∂y u∞ u∞ − u∞
...(8.5)
y=0
dx 0 MN
The –ve sign is inserted in above equation,
because shear force at wall (y = 0) acts in opposite RS 3 F y I − 1 F y I UV dy
3
direction. Substituting v from eqn. (8.4), we get |T 2 H δ K 2 H δ K |W

z0
δ
u
∂u
∂x
dy − u∞ z 0
δ ∂u
∂x
dy − z
0
δ RS
u −
T
∂
∂y z
0
δ ∂u
∂x
UV
dy dy
W =ν
∂ R|
S
∂y T|
∞u
3 F y I 1 F y I U|
G J− G J V
3
2 H δ K 2 H δ K W|
y=0
z LM 3 F y I − 9 F y I − 1 F y I
∂u 2 3
= −ν d δ
N2 H δ K 4 H δ K 2 H δ K
∂y y=0
or u∞ 2
dx
z z z
0
3 F yI 1 F yI O
δ ∂u δ ∂u δ ∂u ∂u 4 6
or
0
u
∂x
dy − u∞
0 ∂x
dy +
0
u
∂x
dy = – ν
∂y y=0
+
2 δH K −
4 H δK Q
P dy
or u∞ z
0
δ ∂u
∂x
dy − 2 z 0
δ
u
∂u
∂x
dy = ν
∂u
∂y y=0
3 1
2δ
On integration it leads to
= ν u∞ ...(8.8)
It can be written in the form FG 3 u∞ IJ

z
d 39 2
∂ δ
(u∞u – u2) dy = ν
∂u H
dx 280
u∞ δ = ν
2 δ K ...(8.9)
0 ∂x ∂y y = 0
The free stream velocity u∞ is constant. The
Rearranging, we get
z
variables may be separated as
d δ ∂u
(u∞ − u) u dy = ν ...(8.6) 140 ν
dx 0 ∂y y = 0 δ dδ = dx
13 u∞
It is known as Von Karman integral equation for
momentum transfer in laminar boundary layer. The δ is function of x only, integrating leads to
Assuming velocity distribution in the four term δ2 140 νx
polynomial as = +C ...(8.10)
2 13 u∞
u(x) = C1 + C2y + C3y2 + C4y3
where C is constant of integration and it can be
The constants C1, C2, C3 and C4 are evaluated evaluated from initial condition,
with the following boundary conditions : δ = 0 at x = 0, it gives C = 0
Therefore, eqn. (8.10) becomes
δ2 =
280 νx
13 u∞
...(8.11)
=
1 0.646
L
×
u∞ /ν z L
0
x −1/2 dx
In dimensionless form 1.292 1.292

= = = 2C fx ...(8.17)
F δI 2
280 ν u∞ L Re L
H xK
x=L
= ν
13 u∞ x
u∞ L
δ ν 4.64 where ReL= , Reynolds number based on total plate
or = 4.64 = ...(8.12) ν
x u∞ x Re x
length, L. The average skin friction coefficient or
u∞ x coefficient of friction is often referred as the drag
where Rex = , the Reynolds number and δ = δ(x),
ν coefficient. The drag force acting on the plate
thickness of velocity boundary layer, at a distance Cf
x from the leading edge of the surface. ρ u∞2 As
F = τs A s = ...(8.18)
2
The exact solution of the boundary layer equation Mass flow rate through the boundary layer
yields to The mass flow rate per unit width through the
δ 5.0 boundary layer at any x position is given by
z
= ...(8.13)
x Re x δ
x =
m ρ u dy
Skin friction coefficient : 0
To evaluate the coefficient of friction, we consider Inserting eqn. (8.7) for u, we get
shear stress at the surface,
τs = µ
∂u
∂y
x = u∞
m z
0
δ
ρ
R| 3 FG y IJ − 1 FG y IJ
T
U| dy
S| 2 H δ K 2 H δ K
V|
W
3
Using eqn. (8.7), we get

y=0
= u∞
L 3 y − 1 × 1 y OP
ρM ×
2 4 δ
τs =
3 µ u∞ N2 2δ 2 4 δ Q 3
0
2 δ 5
Substituting δ from eqn. (8.12), we get It gives x = ρ δ u∞
m ...(8.19)
8
3 µ u∞
u∞ x µ u∞ u∞ x 8.1.2. Approximate Analysis of Energy Equation
τs = ×
= 0.323
ν
2 4.64 x x ν The integral energy equation can be derived in similar
...(8.14) way as eqn. (8.6). In this case, we consider a control
Further, the shear stress can also be expressed volume for two dimensional steady flow of
in terms of coefficient of friction or skin friction incompressible fluid as shown in Fig. 8.2.
coefficient Cfx, as T¥
ρ u∞2 2 τs y Velocity
τs = C fx or Cfx = ...(8.15) u¥ boundary
2 ρ u∞ 2 layer
Thermal
Inserting eqn. (8.14) in eqn. (8.15), we get boundary
d(x) layer
µ u∞ u∞ x u(x, y)
Cfx = 2 × 0.323 dth
ρ u∞2 x ν T(x, y) Ts
x
= 0.646 ν 0.646 ...(8.16)
dx
= 1 2
u∞ x Re x
Fig. 8.2. Control volume for integral energy analysis of
It is the expression for local skin friction laminar boundary layer
coefficient Cfx.
The energy equation in differential form is given
The average value of coefficient of friction can be by eqn. (8.3).
evaluated by integrating eqn. (8.16) over entire plate.
z z
∂T ∂T ∂2T
1 L 1 L 0.646 u +v =α 2
Cf = C fx dx = dx ∂x ∂y ∂y
L 0 L 0 u∞ x For convenience, we introduce a dimensionless
ν temperature θ(x, y) as:
EXTERNAL FLOW 269
T( x, y) − Ts 3α
θ(x, y) = ...(8.20) =
T∞ – Ts 2δ th u ∞
where θ(x, y) varies from zero at the wall surface to unity The integration with respect to y yields to
at the edge of thermal boundary layer. Now the energy
equation can be written in the form
LM
d 3 δ 2th 3 δ 2th
− +
3 δ 2th 1 δ 4th
−
∂θ ∂θ ∂ 2θ
dx 4 δ N 4 δ 20 δ 8 δ3
u
∂x
+v
∂y
=α 2
∂y
...(8.21)
+
3 δ 4th
−
1 δ 4th OP
=
3α
...(8.24)
Subjected to boundary conditions 20 δ 3 28 δ 3 Q2 δ th u∞
θ=0 at y = 0 We define new variable as
θ=1 at y = δth δ th
ξ= ...(8.25)
Using v from eqn. (8.4), we get resulting energy δ
equation in integral form as Then eqn. (8.24) becomes
d
dx
LM
N z 0
δ th
u (1 − θ) dy = α
OP
Q
∂θ
∂y y=0
...(8.22)
d
dx
δ
LM F
3 2
20NH
ξ –
3 4
280
ξ
I OP = 3 α
K Q 2 ξδu ∞
...(8.26)
Inserting the velocity distribution, eqn. (8.7) Let we consider the thermal boundary layer is
u 3 y 1 y F I F I 3 thinner than velocity boundary layer as shown in
u∞
=
2 δ
−
2 δ H K H K Fig. 8.2, for Pr > 1 the ξ < 1 and term
3
ξ4 becomes
Assuming temperature profile as 280
least, thus negligible. The eqn. (8.26) simplifies to
θ = C1 + C2y + C3y2 + C4y3
d 2 10 α
Subjected to boundary conditions ξδ (ξ δ ) =
dx u∞
θ=0 at y = 0
θ=1 at y = δth Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
∂θ dξ dδ 10 α
=0 at y = δth 2ξ2 δ2 + ξ3 δ = ...(8.27)
∂y dx dx u∞
∂ 2θ d ξ 1 d ξ3
=0 at y = 0 Using ξ2 = , then
∂y 2 dx 3 dx
Applying, these boundary conditions, we get 2 2 d ξ3 dδ 10 α
dimensionless temperature distribution in the form δ + ξ3 δ = ...(8.28)
3 dx dx u∞
3 y F I
1 y F I 3 Using velocity boundary layer thickness in the
θ=
2 δ th GH JK
–
2 δ th GH JK ...(8.23) form
140 ν
Introducing velocity and temperature distribution δ dδ = dx
13 u∞
in eqn. (8.22 )
|RS
z
280 νx
d LM 3 F y I − 1 F y I OP
δ th 3 and δ2 =
13 u∞
|T N2 H δ K 2 H δ K Q
u∞
dx 0
Then eqn. (8.28) becomes
LM1 − 3 F y I + 1 F y I 3
OP dy
MN 2 GH δ JK 2 GH δ JK
d ξ 3 3 3 39 α
th th PQ x
dx
+ ξ =
4 56 ν
d L3 F y I 1 F y I O
3
3 4 dξ 13 α
=α M G J− G J P
dy M 2 H δ K 2 H δ K P
or ξ3 + x
3 dx
=
14 ν
...(8.29)
N Q th th
y=0 It is linear differential equation of first order in
or
d L
M
dx N z
F3 y – 9 y + 3 y
0
δ th
GH 2 δ 4 δδ 4 δδ th
2
3
th
4
ξ3 and its solution is
13 α
ξ3 = Cx–3/4 + ...(8.30)
1 3 1 I 14 ν
−
2δ 3
y3 + 3
4 δ δ th
y4 −
4δ 3
δ 3th
y6 JK dy where C is constant of integration and evaluated from
boundary conditions
δth = 0 at x = 0 cannot be used for liquid metals with very low Prandtl
∴ ξ = 0 at x = 0 number and heavy oils or silicons. The Churchill and
Using, we get C=0 Ozoe have suggested the following correlations for
laminar flow on an isothermal plate
13 α
Then ξ3 = ...(8.31)
14 ν 0.387 Re 1/2
x Pr
1/3
Nux = ...(8.40)
1
Pr–1/3
LM1 + FG 0.0468 IJ OP
2 / 3 1/4
MN H Pr K
or ξ=
1.026
PQ
ν δ for Rex Pr > 100
where Pr = , Prandtl number and ξ = th
α δ Constant heat flux boundary condition
δ th 1 In many practical situations, the surface heat flux
Thus = Pr–1/3 ...(8.32) is constant and the temperature distribution on the plate
δ 1.026
This relation shows that the ratio of thermal to surface is to be determined. The local Nusselt number
velocity boundary layer thicknesses for laminar flow for constant heat flux condition on the plate is expressed
along a flat plate is inversely proportional to the cube by
root of the Prandtl number. Nux = 0.453 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 ...(8.41)
Substituting δ(x) from eqn. (8.12), we get The local Nusselt number can also be expressed
4.53 x in terms of heat flux q and local temperature difference
δth = ...(8.33)
Re 1/2 Pr 1/3 (Tx – T∞) as
Further, the local heat transfer coefficient is qx
defined by Nux = ...(8.42)
kf (Tx − T∞ )
kf (∂T/∂y) y = 0 kf (∂θ/∂y) y = 0
hx = – =− qx
Ts − T∞ Ts − T∞ or Tx – T∞ =
Nu x kf
1/ 2 1/3
3 kf 3 kf Re Pr The average temperature difference over entire
= =
2 δ th 2 4.53 x plate
= 0.332
x
kf
Re1/2 Pr1/3 ...(8.34) Ts – T∞ =
1
L z
0
L
(Tx − T∞ ) dx =
1
L z
0
L qx
Nu x kf
z
or Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 ...(8.35)
1 L qx
h x = dx
where Nux = x = Local Nusselt number L 0 u∞
kf 0.453 x 1/2
Pr 1/3 kf
...(8.36) ν
Average heat transfer coefficient can be evaluated
h=
1
L z0
L
hx dx = 2hx x=L
...(8.37)
=
0.453L
q
u∞
Pr 1/3 kf
z
0
L
x 1/2 dx
ν
Thus NuL = 2 Nu x x=L qL
Ts – T∞ =
hL 0.6795 Re L 1/2 Pr 1/3 kf
or NuL = = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 ...(8.38)
kf
kf
u L or q = 0.6795 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 (Ts – T∞)
where ReL = ∞ , Reynold number for entire flow L
ν ...(8.43)
length. Comparing eqn. (8.43) with
The fluid properties should be evaluated at mean
q = h (Ts – T∞)
film temperature
Ts + T∞ kf
Tf = ...(8.39) we get h = 0.6795 ReL1/2 Pr1/3
2 L
The eqn. (8.35) is applicable for laminar fluid kf
= 1.5 Nux=L = 1.5 hx=L ...(8.44)
flowing having Prandtl numbers between 0.6 and 50. It L
EXTERNAL FLOW 271
With 3% error in constant. The eqn. (8.49) is called

8.2. REYNOLDS COLBURN ANALOGY : the Reynolds Colburn analogy, and it expresses the
MOMENTUM AND HEAT TRANSFER relation between fluid friction and heat transfer for
ANALOGY FOR LAMINAR FLOW OVER laminar flow over a flat plate.
FLAT PLATE For Pr ≅ 1, the eqn. (8.49) reduces to
C fx
If two or more processes are governed by similar Stx = ...(8.50)
dimensionless relations, the processes are said to be 2
analogous. The equations (8.2) and (8.3) for laminar flow It is called Reynolds analogy for laminar flow over
over flat plate are of the same form. a flat plate.
The local value of shear stress at the surface may
be expressed in terms of skin friction coefficient Cfx 8.3. TURBULENT FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE
FG C IJ ρ u
fx 2 In the turbulent boundary layer, it is very difficult to
τx =
H2K ∞ ...(8.45) predict the position of fluid lumps, thus the velocity and
temperature profiles can be approximated to give fruitful
Further, the shear stress at the surface can also result. The coefficient of friction and heat transfer
be expressed by equation coefficient are evaluated from empirical correlations
FG ∂u IJ based on experimental data.
τx = µ
H ∂y K y=0 1. (a) Local coefficient of friction Cfx
Using velocity distribution for boundary layer Based on the boundary layer theory given by
schlichting, the local skin or friction coefficient within
u 3 y 1 y RS UV 3
Reynolds number 5 × 105 and 107 is related as
u∞
= −
2 δ 2 δ T W Cf x = 0.0592 Rex–1/5
Valid for 5 × 105 < Rex < 107 ...(8.51)
3µ u∞
we get τx = At higher Reynolds number, the Schultz-Grunow
2δ
suggested the following correlation
4.64 x Cf x = 0.370 (ln Rex)–2.584
Using δ(x) =
Re x Valid for 107 < Rex < 109 ...(8.52)
3 µ u∞ ρu∞ x FG IJ 1/2 (b) Average friction coefficient, Cf

It yields to τx =
9.28 x
×
µ H K ...(8.46) The average friction coefficient over the entire
plate in the turbulent flow is determined by integrating
Equating equations (8.45) and (8.46) for shear eqn. (8.51) w.r.t. x,
z
stress at surface, we get
1 L
C fx µ u∞ FG
ρ u∞ x IJ 1/ 2
1 Cf =
L
C fx dx ...(8.53)
= 0.323 ×
H K 0
z
2 x µ ρu∞2
F µ IJ 1 L FG u IJ − 1/ 5
0.0592 x − 1/ 5 ×
H νK
1/2 ∞
C fx = dx
= 0.323 G L
or
H ρu x K = 0.323 Rex–1/2 0
2
FG IJ
z
∞
− 1/5
...(8.47) 0.0592 u L
Rewriting eqn. (8.35) as =

L H K
× ∞
ν 0
x − 1/5 dx
Nux = 0.332 Pr1/3 Rex1/2
Dividing both sides by Rex Pr, we get 0.0592 F u I
×G J
− 1/5
LM x OP 4/5 L
H νK
∞
=
Nu x
=
hx
= 0.332 Pr–2/3 Rex–1/2
L N4 / 5Q 0
= 0.074 FG
u LI
Re x Pr ρC pu∞ − 1/5
H ν JK
∞
or Stx Pr2/3 = 0.332 Rex–1/2 ...(8.48)
Comparing eqns. (8.47) and (8.48), we get
or Cf = 0.074 ReL–1/5 ...(8.54)
C fx
Stx Pr2/3 ≈ ...(8.49) Valid for 5 × 105 < ReL < 107
2
2. The boundary layer thickness in turbulent

boundary can be obtained by following correlations.
Cfx
(a) If the boundary layer is completely turbulent, hx
starting from the leading edge, then
δ
= 0.381 Rex–1/5 ...(8.55)
x
(b) If boundary layer is laminar upto
Recr = 5 × 105 and then becomes fully turbulent, for such Laminar Turbulent
case, the thickness of boundary layer is given by
Transition
x
δ 0 L
= 0.381 Rex–1/5 – 10256 Rex–1 ...(8.56)
x Fig. 8.3. Variation of local friction and local heat transfer
Valid for 5 × 105 < Rex < 107 and 0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 60 coefficients for flow over a flat plate
3. The heat transfer coefficient in turbulent
boundary layer can be obtained by using Reynolds h
Colburn analogy eqn. (8.49) ; h = haverage
C fx
Stx Pr2/3 =
2
Using Cfx from eqn. (8.51), we obtain
Stx Pr2/3 = 0.0296 Rex–0.2 ...(8.57)
Laminar Turbulent
The Local Nusselt number
Nux = Stx Rex Pr 0 xcr L
x
or Nux = 0.0296 Rex4/5 Pr1/3 ...(8.58) Fig. 8.4. Graphical representation for average heat transfer
Valid for 5 × 105 < Re < 107 and 0.6 < Pr < 60 coefficient for a flat plate with combined laminar and
turbulent flow
If Cfx is used from eqn. (8.52), we get
The friction coefficient for laminar and turbulent
Stx Pr2/3 = 0.185 {ln (Rex)}–2.584 ...(8.59) regions are
for 107 < Rex < 109 Cfx = 0.664 Rex–1/2 0 ≤ x ≤ xcr (laminar)
The average Nusselt number over the entire plate = 0.0592 Re–1/5 xcr ≤ x ≤ L (turbulent)
in turbulent flow is determined by integrating The average friction coefficient over the entire
eqn. (8.35), we get plate is obtained as
Nu = 0.037 ReL4/5 Pr1/3 ...(8.60)
Cf =
1
L
LM
N z xcr
C fx, laminar dx
z
0
Valid for 5 × 105 < ReL < 107 and 0.6 < Pr < 60
The eqns. (8.54) and (8.60) give average friction +
L OP
xcr
C f x, turbulent dx
Q ...(8.61)
z
and heat transfer coefficients, respectively for the entire
plate, when the flow is turbulent over the entire plate. 1 LM xcr
Fu I − 1/2
0.664 x − 1/2
H νK
∞
dx
=
L MN 0
8.4. COMBINED LAMINAR AND TURBULENT

FLOW + z L
xcr
0.0592 x − 1/5
Fu I
H νK
∞
− 1/5
dx
OP
PQ
In most of the cases, a flat plate is sufficiently long for 1 LM u F I Fx I
− 1/ 2 1/ 2 xcr
the flow to become turbulent from laminar as shown in =

L
0.664 ∞
MN ν H K GH 1/2 JK 0
Fig. 8.3. Consider a boundary layer flow along a flat
plate such that the flow is laminar over the region
F u I LM x OP − 1/5 4/5 L OP
H ν K N 4/5 Q
∞
0 ≤ x ≤ xcr and turbulent over the region xcr ≤ x ≤ L,
Fig. 8.4.
+ 0.0592
xcr
PQ
EXTERNAL FLOW 273
After simplifying, we get Use relation NuL = 0.036 ReL0.8 Pr1/3

1742 and ρ = 1.092 kg/m3,
Cf = 0.074 ReL–1/5 – ...(8.62) µ = 19.123 × 10–6 Ns/m2
Re L
Valid for 5 × 105 < ReL < 107 kf = 0.0265 W/m.K,
Pr = 0.71.
In combined boundary conditions, the average
convection heat transfer coefficient for entire plate can Solution
also be determined by integrating hx over the laminar Given : A crank case of an automobile
region (0 ≤ x ≤ xcr) and then over turbulent region L = 0.6 m, w = 0.2 m, z = 0.1 m
(xcr ≤ x ≤ L) as
z z
Ts = 350 K, T∞ = 276 K, u∞ = 30 m/s.
1 LM x cr
hx , laminar dx +
L
hx , turbulent dx
OP To find: Heat transfer rate.
h=
L N 0 x cr Q Analysis: The Reynolds number
...(8.63)
ρu∞ L
Using eqns. (8.35) and (8.58) in laminar and ReL =
µ
turbulent regions, respectively.
h=
kf LM0.332 F u I
L MN H νK
∞
1/2
z
0
xcr
x 1/2
dx
=
(1.092 kg/m 3 ) × (30 m/s) × (0.6 m)
(19.123 × 10 − 6 N. s/m 2 )
z
= 1.03 × 106
Fu I 4/5 L OP From given relation, the average Nusselt number
H νK x 4 / 5 dx Pr1/3
∞
+ 0.0296
xcr PQ NuL = 0.036 ReL0.8 Pr1/3
Integrating and rearranging, we get = 0.036 × (1.03 × 106)0.8 × (0.71)1/3
NuL = [0.664 Recr1/2 + 0.037 = 2075
(Re4/5 4/5 1/3 Average convective heat transfer coefficient
L – Recr )] Pr ...(8.64)
or 4/5
NuL = (0.037 ReL – A) Pr 1/3 ...(8.65) Nu L kf 2075 × (0.0265 W/m. K )
h= =
where 4/5
A = 0.037 Recr – 0.664 Recr 1/2 L (0.6 m )
In typical transition, Reynolds number Recr = 91.6 W/m2·K
= 5 × 105, then the eqn. (8.65) reduces to Surface area of crank case,
As = (2 × 0.6 m × 0.2 m) + (2 × 0.2 m
hL
NuL = = (0.037 ReL4/5 – 871) Pr1/3 ...(8.66) × 0.1 m) = 0.28 m2
kf
Heat Transfer Rate,
Valid for 0.6 < Pr < 60 Q = hAs(Ts – T∞)
5 × 105 < ReL ≤ 108 = (91.6 W/m2.K) × (0.28 m2)
Recr = 5 × 105 × (350 – 276) (K) = 1898 W. Ans.
When a flat plate is subjected to uniform heat
Example 8.2. Air at 27°C and 1 atm flows over a flat
flux instead of uniform temperature, the local Nusselt plate at a speed of 2 m/s. Calculate the boundary layer
number in turbulent flow region thickness at distances of 0.2 m and 0.4 m from the leading
Nux = 0.0308 Rex4/5 Pr1/3 ...(8.67) edge of the plate. Calculate the mass flow rate, which enters
the boundary layer between x = 0.2 m and x = 0.4 m. The
Example 8.1. The crank case of an automobile is viscosity of air at 27°C is 1.85 × 10–5 kg/ms. Assume unit
approximated as 0.6 m long, 0.2 m wide, and 0.1 m deep. depth in z-direction.
Assuming that the surface temperature of the crank case
Solution
is 350 K. Estimate the rate of heat flow from the crank
case to atmosphere at 276 K at a road speed of 30 m/s. Given : Flow over a flat plate
Assume that the vibration of the engine and chassis T∞ = 27°C, p = 1 atm = 101.325 kN/m2,
induce the transmission from laminar to turbulent flow u∞ = 2 m/s, x1 = 0.2 m,
very near to leading edge that for practical purposes the x2 = 0.4 m, µ = 1.85 × 10–5 kg/ms.
boundary layer is turbulent over the entire surface. To find :
Neglect the radiation and use for the front and rear
surfaces, same heat transfer coefficient as for bottom and (i) Boundary layer at thickness δx=0.2, and δx=0.4
sides. (ii) Mass flow rate between δx=0.2, and δx=0.4.
Assumptions : Example 8.3. Air at 27°C and 1 atm flows over a heated
1. Steady state conditions. plate with a velocity of 2 m/s. The plate is at uniform
2. Gas constant R for air as 0.287 kJ/kg·K. temperature of 60°C. Calculate the heat transfer rate
3. Incompressible fluid flow with constant from (i) first 0.2 m of the plate, (ii) first 0.4 m of the
properties. plate. (N.M.U., Nov. 2000)
Analysis : The density of air can be calculated by Solution
using equation of state Given : The flow over a heated flat plate
p p T∞ = 27°C, p = 1 atm,
= RT∞ or ρ = u∞ = 2 m/s, Ts = 60°C,
ρ RT∞
x1 = 0.2 m, x2 = 0.4 m.
101.325 kN/m 2
or ρ= To find :
(0.287 kJ /kg . K ) × (27 + 273) (K )
= 1.177 kg/m3 (i) Heat transfer rate from first 0.2 m.
The Reynolds number is calculated as (ii) Heat transfer rate from first 0.4 m.
ρu∞ x Assumptions :
Rex = 1. No heat radiation exchange ;
µ
1.177 × 2 × 0.2 2. The unit depth in z-direction ;
At x = 0.2 m, Re x1 = = 25448 3. Air and surface temperatures are different,
1.85 × 10 − 5
taking the properties at mean film temperature.
1.177 × 2 × 0.4
At x = 0.4 m, Re x2 = = 50897 Properties of air : The mean film temperature
1.85 × 10 − 5
Ts + T∞ 60 + 27
(i) The boundary layer thickness is calculated by Tf = = = 43.5°C
2 2
using eqn. (8.13)
The properties of air at 43.5° C (from Table A-4
5x of appendix)
δ=
Re x ν = 17.36 × 10–6 m2/s, kf = 0.02749 W/m.K,
5 × 0.2 m Pr = 0.7, Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg.K.
At x = 0.2 m, δx = 0.2 = = 6.27 × 10–3 m
25448 Analysis : The Reynolds number at x = 0.2 m
= 6.027 mm. Ans. u∞ x1 (2 m/s) × (0.2 m)
Re x1 = = = 23041
5 × 0.4 m ν (17.36 × 10 − 6 m 2 /s)
At x = 0.4 m, δx = 0.4 = = 8.86 × 10–3 m
50897 (i) The heat transfer rate from first 0.2 m:
= 8.86 mm. Ans. The local value of heat transfer coefficient can be
(ii) To calculate the mass flow rate which enters calculated as
the boundary layer between x = 0.2 m and x = 0.4 m. hx x1
Nu x1 = 1 = 0.332 Re x11/2 Pr1/3
At any x position the mass flow rate in boundary kf
layer can be obtained by using eqn. (8.19) 0.332 × (0.02749 W/m .K )
or hx1 =
5 (0.2 m)
m = ρu∞ δ
8 × (23041)1/2 × (0.7)1/3
2
= 6.15 W/m . K
Thus the mass that enters between two boundary
layers The average value of heat transfer coefficient
5 h1 = 2 hx1 = 2 × 6.15 = 12.3 W/m2. K
=
∆m ρu∞ {δx=0.4 – δx=0.2}
8 The heat transfer rate upto x = 0.2 m:
5 Q1 = h1 As (∆T)
= ×(1.177 kg/m3) × (2 m/s)
∆m
8 Q1
× [8.86 × 10–3 m – 6.27 × 10–3 m] or = (12.3 W/m2. K) × (0.2 m) × (60 – 27)(K)
L
= 3.82 × 10–3 kg/s. Ans. = 81.18 W/m. Ans.
EXTERNAL FLOW 275
(ii) The heat transfer rate from first 0.4 m: Assumptions :

u∞ x2 2 × 0.4 1. No radiation heat exchange.
Reynolds no. Re x = = 2. The steady state heat transfer.
2 ν 17.36 × 10 − 6
3. Air and surface temperatures are different,
= 46082 taking the properties at mean film temperature.
The local value of heat transfer coefficient Properties of air : The mean film temperature
1/2 T + T∞ 60 + 10
Nu x2 = 0.332 Re x2 Pr1/3 Tf = s = = 35°C
2 2
0.02749 The properties of air at 35°C (from Table A-4)
or hx2 = × 0.332 × (46082)1/2 × (0.7)1/3
0.4 ρ = 1.1373 kg/m3, µ = 19 × 10–6 kg/ms,
= 4.35 W/m2. K kf = 0.0272 W/m K, Pr = 0.7,
Average heat transfer coefficient Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg K.
h2 = 2hx2 = 2 × 4.35 = 8.7 W/m2. K Analysis : The Reynolds number
ρu∞ x
The heat transfer rate Rex =
µ
Q2
= (8.7 W/m2. K) × (0.4 m) × (60 – 27)(K) (1.1373 kg/m 3 ) × (3 m/s) × (0.3 m )
L =
= 114.8 W/m. Ans. (19 × 10 − 6 kg/ms)
= 53872
Example 8.4. Air at 10°C and at a pressure of 100 kPa
is flowing over a plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. If the plate (i) The boundary layer thickness is calculated by
is 30 cm wide and at a temperature of 60°C. Calculate eqn. (8.13) :
the following quantities at x = 0.3 m. 5x 5 × 0.3 m
δ= = = 6.46 × 10–3 m
(i) Boundary layer thickness, Re x 53872
(ii) Local friction coefficient, = 6.46 mm. Ans.
(iii) Local shearing stress, (ii) The local friction coefficient :
(iv) Total drag force, 0.646 0.646
Cfx = = = 2.783 × 10–3. Ans.
(v) Thermal boundary layer thickness, Re x 53872
(vi) Local convective heat transfer coefficient, (iii) Local shear stress :
(vii) The heat transfer from the plate. C fx 2.783 × 10 − 3
τx = ρu∞2 = × 1.1373 × (3)2
Solution 2 2
Given : Flow over a flat plate = 0.0142 N/m2. Ans.
T∞ = 10°C, u∞ = 3 m/s, Ts = 60°C, (iv) Total drag force :
w = 30 cm = 0.3 m, p = 100 kPa x = 0.3 m. Drag force,
F = average shear stress × shear area = τs As
T¥ The average shear stress,
Air u¥ Ts = 60°C τs = 2 τx = 0.0284 N/m2
and shear area, As = w × L = 0.3 × 0.3 = 0.09 m2
Hence F = 0.0284 × 0.09
0.3 m
= 2.564 × 10–3 N. Ans.
Fig. 8.5. Flow of air over a heated plate
(v) Thickness of thermal boundary layer :
To find : δ 6.46
(i) Boundary layer thickness, δth = Pr − 1/3 = × (0.7)–1/3
1.026 1.026
(ii) Local friction coefficient, = 7.091 mm. Ans.
(iii) Local shearing stress, (vi) Local heat transfer coefficient :
(iv) Total drag force, Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3
(v) Thermal boundary layer thickness,
kf
(vi) Local convective heat transfer coefficient, or hx = × 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3
(vii) The heat transfer from the plate. x
(0.0272 W/m.K ) u∞ π FG
π y IJ µu∞
=
(0.3 m)
× 0.332 and τs = µ
2δ
cos
H
2 δ K y=0
=π
2δ
...(i)
× (53872)1/2 × (0.7)1/3
2
= 6.2 W/m K. Ans. The temperature distribution
(vii) Heat transfer rate from the plate : T − Ts y FG IJ FG IJ
y
2
Q = h A s (∆T) T∞ − Ts
=2
δ th
−
H K H K
δ th
where average heat transfer coefficient,
d R| F y I F y I
2
U|
h = 2hx = 2 × 6.2 = 12.4 W/m2.K and
dT
= (T − T ) S2 G J − G J
dy | H δ K H δ K
V|
T W
∞ s
Hence, Q = (12.4 W/m2.K) × (0.09 m2) dy th th
× (60 – 10)(K) = 55.8 W. Ans.

R| F 1 I − 2 y U|V
= (T – T ) S2 G
Example 8.5. The air at a temperature of T∞ , flows over
a flat plate with a free stream velocity of u∞. The plate is
∞
|T H δ JK (δ ) |W
s
th th
2
maintained at a constant temperature of Ts. The velocity FG dT IJ 2 2 (T∞ − Ts )

u and temperature T of air at any location are given by
u πy
H dy K y=0
= (T∞ − Ts )
δ th
=
δ th
= sin The heat transfer rate at the plate surface
u∞ 2δ
y F I F I
y
2
dT
and
T − Ts
T∞ − Ts
= 2
δ th
− GH JK GH JK
δ th
h(Ts – T∞) = – kf
dy y=0
where y is the distance measured from the plate along
its normal, and δ and δth are the hydrodynamic and − kf
LM 2 (T − T ) OP
∞ s
thermal boundary layer thicknesses, respectively. Find
the ratio of heat transfer coefficient to shear stress at the or h= N δ Q = 2k th f
...(ii)
(Ts − T∞ ) δ th
plate surface using following data :
u∞ = 10 m/s, δ/δth = Pr1/3, Dividing eqn. (ii) by eqn. (i), we get ratio of heat
–5 transfer coefficient to shear stress
µ(air) = 2.5 × 10 kg/ms, Ts = 200°C,
k(air) = 0.04 W/m.K, Cp(air) = 1000 J/kg.K, h 2kf 2δ 4 kf FG δ IJ = 4k f
T∞ = 50°C (N.I.T. Calicut, May 2003) τs
=
δ th
× =
πµu∞ πµu∞ H δ K πµu
th ∞
Pr1/3
Solution ...(iii)
Given : Flow of air over a flat plate. It is the desired ratio. Ans.
u πy T − Ts y FG IJ FG IJ
y
2
Now, Pr =
µC p
=
2.5 × 10 − 5 × 1000
= 0.625
u∞
= sin
2δ
,
T∞ − Ts
=2
δ th H K H K
−
δ th kf 0.04
u∞ = 10 m/s. δ/δth = Pr 1/3 h 4 × 0.04
and = × (0.625)1/3
Ts = 200°C T∞ = 50°C τs π × 2.5 × 10 − 5 × 10
–5
µ = 2.5 × 10 kg/ms, kf = 0.04 W/m.K = 174.18 m/s K. Ans.
Cp = 1000 J/kg.K. Example 8.6. Air at velocity of 3 m/s and at 20°C flows
To find : Ratio of heat transfer coefficient to shear over a flat plate along its length. The length, width and
stress. thickness of the plate are 100 cm, 50 cm, and 2 cm,
Analysis : The shear stress at the wall is given by respectively. The top surface of the plate is maintained
FG du IJ at 100°C. Calculate the heat lost by the plate and
temperature of bottom surface of the plate for the steady
τs = µ
H dy K y=0 state conditions. The thermal conductivity of the plate
may be taken as 23 W/m.K. (P.U., Nov. 1999)
Using velocity profile
u πy Solution
= sin Given : Flow over a flat plate
u∞ 2δ
T∞ = 20°C, u∞ = 3 m/s,
du d πyF I
π y π FG IJ
or
dy
= u∞
dy
sin
2δH= u∞ cos
K
2 δ 2δ H K Ts = 100°C, k = 23 W/m.K
EXTERNAL FLOW 277
w = 0.5 m, z = 0.02 m, Q×z 270.7 × 0.02

or Tb = Ts + = 100 +
L = 100 cm = 1 m. kA 23 × (1 × 0.5)
= 100.47°C. Ans.
C
100° Example 8.7. A flat plate 1 m wide and 1.5 m long is
/s Ts = w
=0
3m .5 maintained at 90°C in air with free stream temperature
u¥ = m
z = 0.02 m
of 10°C flowing along 1.5 m side of the plate. Determine
the velocity of the air required to have a rate of energy
Ai dissipation as 3.75 kW.
ra 1m
L=
t2
0° Use correlations
C
NuL = 0.664 Re1/2 Pr1/3 for laminar flow;
0.8
NuL = [0.036 Re – 836] Pr 1/3
To find : for turbulent flow.
(i) Heat transfer rate from the plate. Take properties of air:
(ii) Temperature of bottom surface of the plate. ρ = 1.0877 kg/m3, µ = 2.029 × 10–5 kg/ms,
Assumptions : kf = 0.028 W/m K, Pr = 0.703,
1. No radiation heat exchange. Cp = 1.007 kJ/kg K. (P.U., May 1995)
2. Steady state heat transfer conditions. Solution
3. Air and surface temperatures are different, Given : Flow along a flat plate:
taking the properties at mean film temperature.
L = 1.5 m, w = 1 m,
Properties of fluid : The film temperature
T∞ = 10°C Ts = 90°C,
T + T∞ 100 + 20
Tf = s = = 60°C Q = 3.75 kW.
2 2
The properties of air at 60°C from Table A-4 : To find : The velocity of air.
ρ = 1.06 kg/m3, ν = 18.97 × 10–6 m2/s,
kf = 0.02894 W/m K, Pr = 0.696, Air
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K.
Analysis : The Reynolds number T¥ = 10°C
Ts = 90°C
u∞ L 3×1
ReL = = = 1.58 × 105
ν 18.97 × 10 − 6
L = 1.5 m
The ReL is less than 5 × 105, hence the flow is
laminar. Fig. 8.7. Schematic for example 8.7
Average heat transfer coefficient :
Assumptions :
NuL = 0.664 Re1/2L Pr
1/3
kf
or h= × 0.664 Re1/2
L Pr
1/3
2. Steady state heat transfer conditions.
L
0.02894 3. Air flow on both sides of the plate.
h= × 0.664 × (1.58 × 105)1/2
1 Analysis : The heat transfer rate by convection is
× (0.696)1/3 given by :
2
= 6.77 W/m .K
Q = hAs(∆T)
(i) The average heat transfer rate from the plate:
Q = hAs (∆T) = 6.77 × (1 × 0.5) × (100 – 20) For two sides of the plate
= 270.7 W/m. Ans. 3.75 × 103 = 2h × (1.5 × 1) × (90 – 10)
(ii) The temperature of the bottom surface of the (∵ As = 2 sides × 1.5 × 1 m2)
plate:
or h = 15.625 W/m2.K.
Making the energy balance for the plate;
The Nusselt number,
kA(Tb − Ts )
Q= hL 15.625 × 1.5
z NuL = = = 837.05
kf 0.028
Assuming the laminar flow along the plate ; The properties of air at 300 K (from Table A-4)
NuL = 0.664 Re1/2 Pr1/3 kf = 0.026 W/m.K, Pr = 0.708,
or 837.05 = 0.664 Re1/2 × (0.703)1/3 ν = 16.8 × 10–6 m2/s, µ = 1.98 × 10–5 kg/ms.
or ReL = 2.01 × 106 Analysis : The Reynolds number
The Reynolds number ReL is greater than critical u∞ L 20 × 1.5
Reynolds number 5 × 105, hence assumption made is ReL = = = 1.785 × 106
ν 16.8 × 10 −6
wrong. The fluid flow is turbulent, using the relation ;
NuL = [0.036 Re0.8 – 836] Pr1/3 or ReL > 2 × 105, hence flow is turbulent at
Using the values ; x = 1.5 m
837.05 = [0.036 Re0.8 – 836] × (0.703)1/3 The critical length of flow for laminar boundary
layer can be calculated by using critical Reynolds
or Re0.8
L = 49371.8 number.
or ReL = 7.36 × 105
u x
Assumption made is correct. The velocity of air : Recr = ∞ cr
ρu∞ L ν
ReL = 2 × 10 5 × 16.8 × 10 − 6
µ or xcr = = 0.168 m
µ Re 2.029 × 10 − 5 × 7.36 × 10 5 20
u∞ = = (a) The average heat transfer coefficient for the
ρL 1.0877 × 1.5
laminar boundary layer :
= 9.15 m/s. Ans.
h xcr
Example 8.8. Atmospheric air at 275 K and free stream Nux = = 0.664 Re1/2
cr Pr
1/3
kf
velocity of 20 m/s flows over a 1.5 m long flat plate
kf
maintained at a uniform temperature of 325 K, calculate: h = 0.664 Re1/2 1/3
xcr cr Pr
(a) The average heat transfer coefficient over the
region of laminar boundary layer ; 0.664 × 0.026
= × (2 × 105)1/2 × (0.708)1/3
(b) The average heat transfer coefficient over the 0.168
entire length of 1.5 m ; = 41.0 W/m2.K. Ans.
(c) The total heat transfer rate from the plate to (b) The average heat transfer coefficient over
the air over 1.5 m length and 1 m wide. entire plate :
Assume transition occurs at Recr = 2 × 105. Since the flow is turbulent at x = 1.5 m and
(Mumbai University, May 2003) Reynolds number
Solution Re = 1.785 × 106
Given : T∞ = 275 K, u∞ = 20 m/s, Using eqn. (8.66) for average heat transfer
L = 1.5 m, w = 1 m, coefficient
Ts = 325 K Recr = 2 × 105 NuL = (0.037 ReL0.8 – 871)Pr1/3
To find : 0.026
(a) The average h over the region of laminar h= × [0.037 × (1.785 × 106)0.8 – 871]
1.5
boundary layer ; × (0.708)1/3
(b) The average h over the entire length of 1.5 m ; 2
= 43.8 W/m .K. Ans.
(c) The total heat transfer rate from the plate to (c) The total heat transfer rate
the air over 1.5 m length and 1 m wide.
Q = h As (∆T) = (43.8 W/m2·K)
Assumptions :
× (1.5 m × 1 m) × (325 – 275)(K)
1. No heat exchange by thermal radiation and
heat conduction. = 3290 W. Ans.
2. The steady state heat transfer. Example 8.9. The local atmospheric pressure at
3. Air and surface temperatures are different, Mahableshwar hill station in Maharashtra (1610 m from
taking the properties at mean film temperature. sea level) is 83.4 kPa. Air at this pressure and 20°C flows
Properties of air : The film temperature with a velocity of 8 m/s over a 1.5 m × 6 m flat plate
T + T∞ 275 + 325 whose temperature is 134°C. Determine the rate of heat
Tf = s = = 300 K transfer from the plate, if the air flows parallel to (a) 6 m
2 2
long side, and (b) the 1.5 m side.
EXTERNAL FLOW 279
Solution The heat transfer rate

Given : Q = 11.07 × (1.5 × 6) × (134 – 20)
Air = 11,358 W. Ans.
T¥ = 20°C Ts = 134°C Example 8.10. An air stream at 0°C is flowing along a
1.5 m
heated plate at 90°C at a speed of 75 m/s. The plate is
u¥ = 8 m/s
45 cm long and 60 cm wide. Assuming the transition of
patm = 83.4 kPa
boundary layer takes plate at Recr= 5 × 105. Calculate
the average value of friction coefficient and heat transfer
6m coefficient for full length of the plate. Also calculate the
heat dissipation from the plate.
Fig. 8.8. Flow over a flat plate
(Anna Univ., March 2000)
To find : Rate of heat transfer from the plate, if
(a) L = 6 m, and (b) L = 1.5 m. Solution
Analysis : The film temperature Given : Air flows along a heated plate
T + Ts 20 + 134 L = 45 cm = 0.45 m, T∞ = 0°C
Tf = ∞ = = 77°C = 350 K
2 2 w = 60 cm = 0.6 m, Ts = 90°C
The density of air
Recr = 5 × 105, u∞ = 75 m/s
p 83.4 kPa
ρ= =
RT (0.287 kJ/kg.K) × (20 + 273) (K)
Air at
= 0.991 kg/m3 T¥ = 0°C
The density is only the function of pressure and
other properties are independent of pressure. Thus from
u¥ = 75 m/s Heated plate at
Table A-4 ; Ts = 90°C
kf = 0.030 W/m.K, µ = 2.075 × 10–5 kg/ms
Pr = 0.697
(a) When air flows parallel to 6 m side, the
Reynolds number To find :
ρu∞ L 0.991 × 8 × 6 (i) Average value of friction coefficient,
ReL = = = 2292434
µ 2.075 × 10 − 5 (ii) Average heat transfer coefficient,
which is greater than 5 × 105, thus there would be a (iii) Heat dissipation from the plate.
combined laminar and turbulent flow. The average
Assumptions :
Nusselt number
Nu = (0.037 ReL0.8 – 871) Pr1/3 (i) Steady state conditions.
= [0.037 × (2292434)0.8 – 871] (ii) Due to symmetry, the analysis for friction
× (0.697)1/3 = 3248 coefficient and heat transfer rate on one side of plate
Nu kf only.
3248 × 0.030
Then h = = = 16.25 W/m2.K (iii) Constant properties.
L 6
The heat transfer rate from the plate Analysis : The film temperature of fluid
Q = h (wL) (Ts – T∞) Ts + T∞ 90 + 0
= 16.25 × (1.5 × 6) × (134 – 20) Tf = = = 45°C ≈ 318 K
2 12
= 16,672 W. Ans.
The properties of air from Table A-4 :
(b) When air flows is parallel to 1.5 m side of plate
0.991 × 8 × 1.5 ρ = 1.113 kg/m3, Cp = 1.007 kJ/kg.K,
ReL = = 5.73 × 105 µ = 1.928 × 10–5 kg/ms
2.075 × 10 − 5
which is again slightly greagter than 5 × 105, thus using kf = 0.0276 W/m.K, Pr = 0.693
Nu = [0.037 (ReL)0.8 – 871] Pr1/3 = 553.5 (i) The Reynolds number for fluid flow
553.5 × 0.030 ρu∞ L 1.113 × 75 × 0.45
and h= = 11.07 W/m2.K ReL = = = 1.95 × 106
1.5 µ 1.928 × 10 − 5
which is greater than 5 × 105, thus the flow becomes Analysis : The film temperature of air over the
turbulent at x = 0.45 m. For combined region of laminar plate
(upto Re = 5 × 105) and turbulent (Re > 5 × 105), the Ti + T∞ 30 + 470
Tf = = = 250°C
average friction coefficient is determined by eqn. (8.62) 2 2
1742 The properties of air at 250°C from Table A-4
Cf = 0.074 ReL–1/5 –
Re L ρ = 0.674 kg/m3, Cp = 1035 J/kg.K,
1742 ν = 41.79 × 10–6 m2/s, kf = 0.0427 W/m.K,
= 0.074 × (1.95 × 106)–1/5 – 6
1.95 × 10 Pr = 0.68
= 3.19 × 10–3. Ans. The Reynolds number
(ii) The average Nusselt number is given by u∞ L 2 × 0.4
ReL = = = 19143.33
eqn. (8.66) ν 41.79 × 10 − 6
hL which is less than 5 × 105, thus the flow is laminar.
Nu = = (0.037 ReL4/5 – 871) Pr1/3 For average Nusselt number, using
kf
hL
= {0.037 × (1.95 × 106)4/5 – 871} Nu = = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3
kf
× (0.693)1/3 = 2754.4
0.0427
and the heat transfer coefficient or h = 0.664 × × (19143.33)1/2 × (0.68)1/3
0.4
2754.4 × 0.0276 = 8.62 W/ m2.K
h= Making the energy balance on the plate
0.45
= 168.94 W/m2.K. Ans. Rate of internal energy gain = Rate of heat
(iii) The heat dissipation rate from the plate transfer to plate by convection and radiation
Q = h(2A)(Ts – T∞) = h (2wL) (Ts – T∞) dT
or mC = hAs (T∞ – Ti) + σε A(T4∞ – Ti4)
dt
= 168.94 × (2 × 0.6 × 0.45) × (90 – 0)
dT
= 8210.34 W. Ans. or ρ(Lwz) C = h(2wL) (T∞ – Ti) + σε (2wL) (T∞4 – Ti4)
dt
Example 8.11. Hot air at 470°C flows over a flat plate dT
40 cm × 20 cm and 3 mm thick at a velocity of 2 m/s or 8000 × (0.4 × 0.2 × 0.003) × 450 ×
dt
along the 40 cm side. The initial plate temperature is = 8.62 × (2 × 0.4 × 0.2) × (470 – 30)
30°C. The specific heat of the plate is 450 J/kg.K and + 5.667 × 10–8 × 0.85 × (2 × 0.4 × 0.2)
density of the plate material is 8000 kg/m3. Calculate × (7434 – 3034)
the initial temperature rise of the plate in °C/min, if the
dT
plate receives heat due to convection and radiation from or 864 = 606.85 + 2283.84 = 2890.7
both sides. dt
dT 2890.7
Assume emissivity of the plate is 0.85. or = = 3.345°C/sec
dt 864
Solution = 199.76°C/min. Ans.
Given : Hot air flows over a flat plate
Example 8.12. In a glass making process, a plate of
Ti = 30°C = 303 K, T∞ = 470°C = 743 K. glass 0.5 m × 2 m and 3 mm in thickness is cooled by
To find : The initial temperature rise of the plate blowing hot air with velocity 1 m/s in direction parallel
in °C/min. to plate, such that the rate of cooling is slow. The initial
glass plate temperature is 425°C and hot air tempera-
ture is 200°C. Estimate :
Ti = 30°C e = 0.85 z = 3 mm (i) Initial rate of cooling in °C/min.
T¥ = 470°C C = 450 J/kg.K
3 (ii) Time required for cooling from 425°C to
r = 8000 kg/m
u¥ = 2 m/s 375°C.
w = 20 cm Assume properties of glass as
L = 40 cm ρ = 2500 kg/m3, C = 0.76 kJ/kg.K
EXTERNAL FLOW 281
and properties of air may be taken from following table: The average heat transfer coefficient
T °C ν × 106 m2/s kf (W/m.K) Pr ρ kg/m3

Nu L kf 118.2 × 0.046
h= =
L 2
200 34.85 0.039 0.68 0.746
= 2.72 W/m2.K.
300 48.33 0.046 0.67 0.615
(i) The initial rate of cooling :
400 63.09 0.051 0.66 0.524
The energy balance on glass plate yields :
Assume that air flow takes place on both sides of Rate of decrease of internal energy of plate
plate.
= Rate of heat convection from both sides
Solution of plate.
Given : Hot air is flowing across a glass plate dT
– mC = h(2A) (Ti – T∞)
T∞ = 200°C Ti = 425°C dt
z = 3 mm L=2m dT
or – ρVC = h(2wL) (Ti – T∞)
w = 0.5 m u∞ = 1 m/s dt
T = 375°C. dT
or – ρ(wL z)C = h(2wL) (Ti – T∞)
dt
dT
– 2500 × (0.5 × 2 × 3 × 10–3) × (0.76 × 103)
Cp = 0.76 kJ/kg. K 3 mm dt
T¥ = 200°C r = 2500 kg/m3
Ti = 425°C
= 2.72 × (2 × 0.5 × 2) × (425 – 200)
u¥ = 1 m/s
dT 1224
0.5 m or =– = – 0.214 °C/s
dt 5700
2m
= – 12.88 °C/min
Fig. 8.11. Schematic for example 8.12 The temperature decreases at the rate of 12.88°C
To find : per minute initially. Ans.
(i) Initial rate of cooling, (ii) Time required to cool the glass plate from
425°C to 375°C :
(ii) Time required for cooling of glass plate from
425°C to 375°C. Using lumped system analysis
Analysis : The film temperature of air T − T∞ FG
= exp −
h A st IJ
Ts + T∞ 400 + 200
Tf = = = 300°C
Ti − T∞ H ρVC K
2 2 F I
where mean surface temperature of plate G 2.72 × (2 × 2 × 0.5) t JJ
= exp G −
375 − 200
Ts =
425 + 375
= 400°C 425 − 200 GG 2500 × (2 × 0.5 × 3 × 10 )
−3
JJ
2
Thus the air properties should be used at 300°C.
H × 0.76 × 10 3
K
0.778 = exp L−
MN 5700 OPQ
ν = 48.33 × 10–6 m2/s, kf = 0.046 W/m.K, 5.44 t
or
Pr = 0.67, ρf = 0.615 kg/m3
The Reynolds number 5700
or t=– × ln(0.778) = 263.33 s
u∞ L 1× 2 5.44
ReL = = = 41382 = 4.39 min. Ans.
ν 48.33 × 10 − 6
which is less than Recr = 5 × 105, thus the flow is laminar.
Thus for average Nusselt number, using correlation 8.5. FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
hL Another external flow involves fluid flow across circular
NuL = = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3
kf cylinders and spheres. The characteristic length for a
circular cylinder or sphere is taken to be the external
= 0.664 × (41382)1/2 × (0.67)1/3 = 118.2
diameter D. Thus the Reynolds number is defined as:
ρu∞ D u∞ D Fig. 8.13 (a), the fluid flows the curvature of the cylinder.
ReD = = ...(8.68)
µ ν At higher velocities (Re > 2 × 105), the fluid wraps the
where u∞ is the uniform velocity of fluid as it approaches cylinder on frontal side and it is attached to the surface
the cylinder or sphere. The critical Reynolds number of cylinder as it approaches the top of the cylinder. As
for flow across a circular cylinder or sphere is boundary layer detaches from the surface, forming a
Recr = 2 × 105.
wake behind the cylinder as shown in Fig. 8.13 (b). This
The cross flow over a cylinder or sphere involves
complex flow pattern as shown in Fig. 8.12. point is called separation point.
Flow in wake region is characterised by random
Boundary
layer
Separation vortex formation and pressure is much lower than the
point
stagnation point pressure.
The flow separation occurs at about θ = 80°,
when the boundary layer is laminar and at about
θ = 140°, when it is turbulent.
u¥
q
8.5.1. Drag Coefficient
The flow across a circular cylinder or sphere strongly
influences the drag force FD acting on the body. This
drag force is caused by two effects : the friction drag,
Stagnation Wake
point which is due to shear stress at the boundary surface
and the pressure drag, which is due to the pressure
Fig. 8.12. Typical flow pattern in cross flow over
a circular cylinder differential between front and rear side of the body
As free stream fluid approaches the cylinder, it when wake is formed in the rear. The variation of
is brought to rest at the forward stagnation point with average drag coefficient CD for cross flow over a single
an increase in fluid pressure. Thus the fluid branches out circular cylinder and a sphere with Reynolds number are
and encircle cylinder forming a boundary layer, that presented in Fig. 8.14. The large decrease in CD for
wraps around the cylinder. The pressure decreases in Re > 2 × 105 is caused by transition to turbulent flow,
the flow direction, while fluid velocity increases. which moves the separation point further on the rear of
Laminar
the body reducing the size of wake and thus magnitude
boundary of pressure drag. The drag coefficient CD may be defined
layer
as
u¥ FD
CD = ...(8.69)
ρu∞ 2
Af
Separation 2
5
(a) Laminar flow (Re < 2 × 10 ) where Af = cylinder frontal area, normal to direction of
Laminar Transition Turbulent flow.
boundary boundary Af = LD for cylinder of length L
layer layer
π 2
= D for a sphere.
u¥ 4
The drag coefficient plays very important role in
Separation design of high speed vehicles like racing cars and
5
(b) Turbulence occurs (Re > 2 × 10 ) aeroplanes. The cars are manufactured with low inclined
Fig. 8.13. Flow pattern for cross flow over a cylinder for walls and glasses to reduce the drag coefficient.
various Reynolds number Aeroplanes are designed in the shape of birds and
At very low free stream (Re < 2 × 105), the fluid submarines in shape of fish in order to minimise drag
completely wraps around the cylinder as shown in coefficient, thus fuel consumption.
EXTERNAL FLOW 283
400
200
100
60
40
20
10
6 Smooth cylinder
CD
4
2
1
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1 Sphere
0.06
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Re
Fig. 8.14. Average drag coefficient for cross flow over a smooth circular cylinder and a smooth sphere
0.62 Re D 1/2 Pr 1/3 LM1 + F Re I OP

5/ 8 4 /5
MN GH 28,200 JK
8.5.2. Heat Transfer Coefficient D
= 0.3 +
Flow across cylinders and spheres involves flow [1 + (0.4/Pr) 2 / 3 ]1/4 PQ
separation, which make the analysis complicated. ...(8.70)
Therefore, such flow must be studied experimentally. Valid for ReD Pr > 0.2.
The complicated flow pattern across a cylinder discussed
earlier influences the heat transfer. The experimental 800
results of variation of the local Nusselt number Nuθ
around the circumference of cylinder, subjected to cross q
700 D
flow of air is shown in Fig. 8.15. Here, for all the cases,
the Nusselt number Nuθ is relatively high at the
600
stagnation point (θ = 0°), but it decreases with increase Re =
in θ due to thickening of boundary layer. The Nusselt 186
219
,000
number becomes minimum at the separation point 500
170
,00
0
,000
(between 80° to 100°) and then it further increases with Nu q
140
,000
increase in θ due to intense mixing of fluid in the 400
separated flow region. When transition from laminar to 101,
300
turbulent takes place, there is observed a sharp rise in
300
Nusselt number, and once again due to increase in 70,80
0
thickness of turbulent boundary layer, the Nusselt
number decreases. 200
The engineers are always interested in average

value of heat transfer coefficient over the entire surface. 100
Several relations are available in the literature. The

Churchill and Bernstein suggested the following empiri- 0
0° 40° 80° 120° 180°
cal relation for average Nusselt number, when cylinder
q from stagnation point
is in cross flow
Fig. 8.15. Variation of the local heat transfer coefficient
hD along the circumference of a circular cylinder in cross
Nucyl =
kf flow of air
All the fluid properties must be evaluated at the 1

Tf = (T∞ + Ts).
1 2
film temperature Tf = (Ts + T∞). For flow over a sphere, Whitaker recommands the
2
The average Nusselt number for flow across cyl- following correction.
inders can be expressed in compact form as hD
Nusph = = 2 + [0.4 ReD1/2
hD k f
Nucyl =
kf
= C Rem Pr1/3 ...(8.71)
F I
µ∞
1/4
The experimentally determined constants C and

2/3
+ 0.06 ReD ] Pr 0.4
GH JK
µs
...(8.72)
m are given in Table 8.1 for circular as well as for which is valid for
non-circular geometries. The characteristics length D
0.71 < Pr < 380
for use in calculation for Reynolds and Nusselt numbers
for different geometries are indicated on the figure. All 3.5 < ReD < 80,000
the fluid properties must be evaluated at film 1 < (µ∞/µs) < 3.2
temperature
TABLE 8.1. Empirical correlations for the average Nusselt number for forced convection over
circular and non-circular cylinders in cross-flow
Cross-section of the cylinder Fluid Range of Re Nusselt number

Circle Gas or 0.4 – 4 Nu = 0.989 Re0.330 Pr1/3
liquid 4 – 40 Nu = 0.911 Re0.385 Pr1/3
D 40 – 4000 Nu = 0.683 Re0.466 Pr1/3
4000 – 40,000 Nu = 0.193 Re0.618 Pr1/3
40,000 – 400,000 Nu = 0.027 Re0.805 Pr1/3
Square Gas 5000 – 100,000 Nu = 0.102 Re0.675 Pr1/3
Square Gas 5000 – 100,000 Nu = 0.246 Re0.588 Pr1/3

(tilted 45°)
D
Hexagon Gas 5000 – 100,000 Nu = 0.153 Re0.638 Pr1/3
Hexagon Gas 5000 – 19,500 Nu = 0.160 Re0.638 Pr1/3

(tilted 45°) 19,500 – 100,000 Nu = 0.0385 Re0.782 Pr1/3
D
Vertical Gas 4000 – 15,000 Nu = 0.228 Re0.731 Pr1/3

plate
D
Ellipse Gas 2500 – 15,000 Nu = 0.248 Re0.612 Pr1/3

D
EXTERNAL FLOW 285
A special case of convection heat transfer from The heat dissipation rate
sphere when liquid droplets freely fall on the sphere, Q = h (πDL) (Ts – T∞)
the Ranz and Marshall suggested
= 55.56 × (π × 0.1 × 1) × (110 – 4)
Nusph = 2 + 0.6 ReD1/2 Pr1/3 ...(8.73)
= 1850.35 W. Ans.
Example 8.13. A long 10 cm diameter steam pipe is
exposed to atmospheric air at 4°C. The outer surface of Example 8.14. A metallic bar of 25 mm diameter is
the pipe is at 110°C and air is flowing across the pipe at cooled by air at 30°C, cross-flowing past the bar with a
the velocity of 8 m/s. Determine the rate of heat loss from velocity of 2.5 m/s. If the surface temperature of the bar
the pipe per unit of its length. is not to exceed 85°C and resistivity of the metal is
Solution 0.015 × 10–6 Ohm per metre. Calculate (i) the heat
Given : A long pipe exposed to air in cross flow. transfer coefficient from the surface to air, and (ii) the
To find : The heat transfer rate from pipe per permissible current intensity for the bus bar.
unit length. (P.U.P., May 2002)
Analysis : The properties of air at 1-atm pressure
Solution
and the film temperature of Tf = 21 (T∞ + Ts) = 21 (4 + 110) Given : Flow across a metallic bar
= 57°C = 330 K are: D = 25 mm = 0.025 m, T∞ = 30°C
Ts = 110°C u∞ = 2.5 m/s, Ts = 85°C
ρ = 0.015 × 10–6 ohm/m
D = 10 cm To find :
(i) The heat transfer coefficient,
(ii) Permissible current intensity for the bus bar.
Air T¥ = 4°C Analysis : The properties of air at
u¥ = 8 m/s
1 1
Tf = (Ts + T∞ ) = (85 + 30)
Fig. 8.16. Schematic for example 8.13 2 2
= 57.5°C = 330.5 K
kf = 0.0283 W/(m.K)
ν = 18.65 × 10–6 m2/s,
ν = 1.86 × 10–5 m2/s
kf = 0.0288 W/m.K, Pr = 0.696
Pr = 0.708
(i) Heat transfer coefficient :
The Reynolds number of the flow is
The Reynolds number
u∞ D (8 m/s)(0.1 m) u∞ D 2.5 × 0.025
ReD = = = 43,011 =
ν 1.86 × 10 − 5 m 2 /s ReD = = 3351.2
ν 18.65 × 10 − 6
The Nusselt number for flow across a cylinder The average Nusselt number for flow across a
can be calculated as cylinder can be given by
0.62 Re 1/2 1/3 NuD = CRem D Pr
1/3
D Pr
Nu = 0.3 + where m = 0.466 and C = 0.683 for Re = 3351.2 from
[1 + (0.4/Pr) 2 / 3 ]1/ 4
Table 8.1, thus
LM F Re I OP 5/8 4 /5
MN GH 28,200 JK PQ
D NuD = 0.683 × (3351.2)0.466 × (0.696)1/3 = 26.6
× 1+
The heat transfer coefficient
0.62 × (43011) 1/2 × (0.708) 1/3 Nu D kf 26.6 × 0.0288
= 0.3 + h= =
[1 + (0.4/0.708) 2 / 3 1/4
] D 0.025
LM F 43011 I OP 5/8 4 /5
2
= 30.63 W/m .K. Ans.
MN GH 28,200 JK PQ
× 1+ = 196.34 (ii) Permissible current intensity :
Heat dissipation rate for 1 metre of bar
Nu kf 196.34 × 0.0283 Q = hAs (∆T) = h (πDL) (∆T)
and h= =
D 01
. = 30.63 × (π × 0.025 × 1) × (85 – 30)
= 55.56 W/m2.K = 132.33 W
Heat generation rate in bus bar for 1 metre of The rate of heat transfer from cylinder surface
bar. per metre length
F ρL I = I LM ρL OP
= I2 Re = I2 GH A JK N (π/4) D Q
c
2
2
Q
L
= (πD) h (∆T)
= I2
LM 0.015 × 10 × 1OP = 30.557 × 10
−6
–6 I2
= (π × 0.05 m) × (100.6 W/m2. K)
× (127 – 27)(K)
N (π/4) × (0.025) Q
2
= 1581 W/m. Ans.
In steady state conditions (ii) Square tube : With vertical height of 0.05 m
Heat dissipation rate = Heat generation rate u∞ L
132.33 = 30.557 × 10–6 I2 Re = = 5.975 × 104
ν
or I2 = 4330489 or I = 2081 A. Ans. Nu = 0.102 Re0.675 Pr1/3
Example 8.15. Air at 27°C is flowing across a tube with
0.102 × 0.03 × (5.975 × 10 4 ) 0.675
a velocity of 25 m/s. The tube could be either a square of
5 cm side or a circular cylinder of 5 cm dia. Compare × (0.7) 1/3
or h=
the rate of heat transfer in each case, if the tube surface 0.05
is at 127°C. = 91.02 W/m2. K
Use the correlation : Nu = C Ren Pr1/3 The rate of heat transfer from cylinder surface
where, C = 0.027, n = 0.805 for cylinder per metre length
C = 0.102, n = 0.675 for square tube.
Q
Solution = hAs (∆T)
Given : Flow across the square and circular tube L
D = 5 cm, Ts = 127°C, = (91.02 W/m2. K) × (4 × 0.05 m)
T∞ = 27°C, u∞ = 25 m/s. × (127 – 27)(K)
To find : Heat transfer rate in each case. = 1820 W/m. Ans.
Assumptions : The heat transfer rate from square tube is higher
1. No radiation heat exchange. than that from circular tube.
2. The steady state heat transfer conditions. Example 8.16. Air stream at 27°C moving at 0.3 m/s
3. Air and surface temperatures are different, across 100 W incandescent bulb, glowing at 127°C. If
taking the properties at mean film temperature. the bulb is approximated by a 60 mm diameter sphere,
Properties of air : The mean film temperature estimate the heat transfer rate and the percentage of
T + T∞ 27 + 127 power lost due to convection.
Tf = s = = 77°C
2 2 Use correlation Nu = 0.37 ReD0.6.
The properties of air at 77°C = 350 K
(N.M.U., Dec. 2002)
ρ = 0.955 kg/m3, kf = 0.03 W/m.K,
ν = 20.92 × 10–6 m2/s. Pr = 0.7, Solution
Cp = 1.009 kJ/kg. K. Given : Flow over a electric bulb :
Analysis : (i) The cylindrical tube : T∞ = 27°C, u∞ = 0.3 m/s, P = 100 W,
The Reynolds number, Ts = 127°C, D = 60 mm = 0.06 m.
u D 25 × 0.05 To find :
Re = ∞ = = 5.975 × 104 (i) The heat transfer rate.
ν 20.92 × 10 − 6
The Nusselt number, (ii) Percentage of power lost due to convection.
hD Properties of fluid : The film temperature
Nu = = 0.027 Re0.805 Pr1/3
kf Ts + T∞ 127 + 27
Tf = = = 77°C = 350 K=
0.03 2 2
or h= × 0.027 × (5.975 × 104)0.805
0.05 The properties of air at 77°C are
× (0.7)1/3 ν = 2.09 × 10–5 m2/s,
= 100.6 W/m .K2
kf = 0.03 W/m.K.
EXTERNAL FLOW 287
Solution
Given : A decorative plastic film on a copper
Air sphere to be cured ;
D = 10 mm, u∞ = 10 m/s,
27°C
Ti = 75°C, T∞ = 23°C
3 m/s 127°C T = 35°C, p = 1 atm.
100 W
Air
10 m/s Copper
sphere
23°C
Fig. 8.17. Schematic of an incandescent bulb
Assumptions :
1. Spherical shape of the electric bulb. Fig. 8.18. Schematic for example 8.17
To find : The time required to cool the sphere to
3. The steady state heat transfer conditions.
35°C.
Analysis : The Reynolds number
Assumptions :
u D 0.3 × 0.06
ReD = ∞ = = 865.3 1. No radiation heat exchange.
ν 2.09 × 10 − 5
2. The steady state heat transfer conditions.
NuD = 0.37 ReD0.6 = 0.37 × (865.3)0.6 = 21.4
The heat transfer coefficient 3. Internal temperature gradients within the
kf 0.03 sphere are negligible.
h= Nu D = × 21.4 = 10.7 W/m2. K
D 0.06 Analysis : The time required to cool the sphere
(i) The heat transfer rate: can be calculated by
Q = hAs(Ts – T∞) = h(πD2)(Ts – T∞)
= (10.7 W/m2. K) × π × (0.06 m)2 θ
=
T − T∞
= exp −
RS
ht UV
× (127 – 27)(K) θ i Ti − T∞ ρδCT W
= 12.10 W. Ans.
where, δ = characteristic length, and it is calculated
(ii) The percentage of heat lost by forced
for sphere as ;
convection:
Q 12.10 V D 0.01m
= × 100 = × 100 = 12.1%. Ans. δ= = = = 0.001667 m
P 100 As 6 6
Example 8.17. A decorative plastic film on a copper and h is the heat transfer coefficient, can be calculated
sphere, 10 mm in diameter is cured in an oven at 75°C. by using eqn. (8.72) :
The sphere is suddenly removed from the oven and
NuD = 2 + (0.4 ReD1/2 + 0.06 ReD2/3) Pr0.4 [µ∞/µs]1/4
exposed to an air stream at 1 atm. and 23°C, flowing at
10 m/s. Estimate how long, it will take to cool the sphere u∞ D (10 m/s) × (0.01 m)
where, ReD = = = 6510
to 35°C. ν 15.36 × 10 − 6 m 2 /s
Take properties of copper as :
Hence the Nusselt number ;
ρ = 8933 kg/m3, k = 399 W/m.K,
NuD = 2 + {0.4 × (6510)1/2 + 0.06 × (6510)2/3}
C = 387 J/kg.K.
and properties of air at 296 K as :
× (0.709)0.4
L 181.6 × 10
×M
−7
kg/ms OP 1/ 4
ν = 15.36 × 10 –6 m2/s, kf = 0.0258 W/m.K, N 197.8 × 10 –7

kg/ms Q
Pr = 0.709, µ = 181.6 × 10 –7 kg/ms
= 47.4
and for air at 328 K, µ = 197.8 × 10 –7 kg/ms.
and the heat transfer coefficients ;
(N.M.U., May 1998)
kf
= 47.4 ×
0.0258 W/m . K 35 − 23
= exp −
RS 122t UV
h = Nu
D 0.01 m 75 − 23 T
8933 × 0.001667 × 387 W
or ln (12/52) = – (122/5762)t
= 122 W/m2.K
or t = 69.13 sec. Ans.
Now using the values for calculation of time
required for cooling ;
8.6. SUMMARY
TABLE 8.2. Summary of convection heat transfer correlations for external flow
Correlation Geometry Conditions and properties at
δ = 5x/Rex–1/2 Flat plate Laminar, Tf
Cfx = 0.646 Rex–1/2 Flat plate Laminar, local, Tf
Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 Flat plate > 0.6

Laminar, local, Tf, Pr ~
δth ≈ δ Pr–1/3 Flat plate Laminar, Tf
Cf = 1.292 ReL–1/2 Flat plate Laminar, average, Tf
NuL = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 Flat plate > 0.6

Laminar, average, Tf, Pr ~
Nux = 0.565 Pex1/2 Flat plate < 0.05

Laminar, local, Tf, Pr ~
Cfx = 0.0592 Rex–1/5 Flat plate < 108

Turbulent, local, Tf , Rex ~
δ = 0.37x Rex–1/5 Flat plate < 108

Turbulent, local, Tf , Rex ~
Nux = 0.0296 Rex4/5 Pr1/3 Flat plate < 108, 0.6 ~

Turbulent, local, Tf , Rex ~ < Pr ~
< 60
Cf = 0.074 ReL–1/5 – 1742 ReL–1 Flat plate < 108

Mixed, average, Tf , Recr = 5 × 105, ReL ~
NuL = (0.037 ReL4/5 – 871) Pr1/3 Flat plate Mixed, average, Tf , Recr = 5 × 105,
< 108, 0.6 < Pr < 60
ReL ~
Nu D = CReDmPr1/3 Cylinder Average, Tf , 0.4 < ReD < 4 × 105,

(and m from Table 8.1) > 0.7
Pr ~
NuD = 0.3 + {0.62 ReD1/2 Pr1/3/[1 + (0.4/ Cylinder Average, Tf , ReD Pr > 0.2
Pr)2/3]1/4}[1 + (ReD/28,200)5/8]4/5
NuD = 2 + (0.4 ReD1/2 + 0.06 ReD2/3)Pr0.4 Sphere Average, T∞ , 3.5 < ReD < 7.6 × 104,
. (µ∞/µs)1/4 0.71 < Pr < 380, 1.0 < (µ∞/µs) < 3.2
NuD = 2 + 0.6 ReD1/2Pr1/3 [25(x/D)–0.7] Falling drop Average, T∞
m,
NuD = CReD 0.36(Pr /Pr )1/4 Average, T∞, 1000 < ReD < 2 × 106,
maxPr ∞ s Tube bank
0.7 < Pr < 500
EXTERNAL FLOW 289
REVIEW QUESTIONS 4. Air at 24°C flows along a 4 m long flat plate with a
velocity of 5 m/s. The plate is maintained at 130°C.
1. Where is the heat flux be higher for laminar forced
Calculate the heat transfer coefficient over the entire
convection from a horizontal flat plate at leading edge
length of the plate and the heat transfer rate per metre
or trailing edge ?
with of the plate. [Ans. 9.73 W/m2. K, 4120 W/m]
2. How does the flow in thermal boundary layer over a 5. Air flows along a thin plate with a velocity of 2.5 m/s.
flat plate differ from the flow outside the thermal The plate is 1 m long and 1 m wide. Estimate
boundary layer ? the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge
3. How are average friction and heat transfer coefficients of the plate and the force necessary to hold the plate
in the stream of air. The air has a viscosity of
determined in flow over a flat plate ?
0.86 × 10–5 kg/ms and a density of 1.12 kg/m3.
4. When a fluid flows over a cylinder, why does the drag [Ans. 8.1 mm, 0.0158 N]
coefficient suddenly drop, when the flow becomes 6. Air flows along a thin flat plate 1 m wide and 1.5 m
turbulent ? long at a velocity of 1 m/s. The free stream
5. Why is the flow separation in flow over cylinders temperature is 4°C. Calculate the amount of heat that
delayed in turbulent flow ? must be supplied to plate in order to maintain it at a
uniform temperature of 50°C. [Ans. 441.6 W]
6. Why are racing cars and airplanes designed
7. Atmospheric air at 300 K and free stream velocity of
aerodynamic ?
30 m/s flows across a single tube. Water at 60°C enters
7. Which car will consume less fuel; one with sharp a tube of 25 mm diameter at mean fluid velocity of
corners and other one is contoured in shape of an 2 m/s. Calculate the exit temperature of water, if the
ellipse ? tube is 3 m long and wall temperature is constant at
100°C. [Ans. 77°C]
8. Explain the Reynolds Colburn analogy for laminar
8. Forced air at 30°C flows over a square flat plate
flow over a plate.
maintained at 110°C. The drag force experienced by
9. Explain Reynolds Chilton analogy for turbulent flow the plate is 12 N. Using the Reynolds Colburn
over a flat plate. analogy, to calculate the heat transfer coefficient and
10. Explain the heat transfer phenomenon, when a fluid heat loss from the plate surface. Assume flow is
flows across a bluff body. turbulent. [Ans. 80.22 W/m2.K, 10285.84 W]
9. A refrigerated truck carrying the food stuff is speeding
on a highway at 95 km/h in a desert area, where the
PROBLEMS ambient air temperature is 50°C. The body of the
truck may be considered as a rectangular box, 10 m
1. Air at atmospheric pressure and 400 K flows over a
long, 4 m wide and 3 m high. Consider the boundary
flat plate with a velocity of 5 m/s. The transition from
layer on four walls to be turbulent and the heat is
laminar to turbulent occurs at a Reynold number of
transferred from these four surfaces. If the wall
5 × 105; determine the distance from the leading edge
surfaces of the truck are maintained at 10°C.
of the plate at which transition takes place. Calculate the following :
[Ans. 2.59 m] (a) Heat loss from the four vertical surfaces ;
2. Atmospheric air at 27°C flows along a flat plate with (b) Power required to overcome the resistance acting
a velocity of 8 m/s. The critical Reynolds number at on surfaces. [Ans. (a) 320.08 W, (b) 3.88 kW]
which transition from laminar to turbulent takes 10. The atmospheric air at 30°C flows past a flat plate
place is 5 × 105. with a sharp leading edge. The velocity of the air is
(a) Determine the distance from the leading edge of 4 m/s. The plate is heated uniformly throughout its
the plate at which the transition occurs ; entire length and is maintained at a surface
(b) Determine the local coefficient of friction at the temperature of 50°C. Assuming that the transition
location where transition occurs ; and occurs at a critical Reynolds number of 5 × 105, find
(c) Determine the average drag coefficient over the the distance from the leading edge at which the flow
distance where the flow is laminar. is in the boundary layer changes from laminar to
turbulent. At this location, calculate (a) thickness of
[Ans. (a) 1.05 m, (b) 9.1358 × 10–4, (c) 0.072 N]
hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers ; (b) total
3. Air at atmospheric pressure and 54°C flows with a drag force per unit width of the plate; (c) heat transfer
velocity over a 1 m long flat plate maintained at rate ; (d) mass enters the layer.
200°C, calculate the average shear stress and heat [Hint. Consider surface area of both sides of the
transfer coefficient over 1 m length of the plate. plate] (N.M.U., Nov. 1999)
Determine the rate of heat transfer between the plate [Ans. (a) 13.9 mm, 15.258 mm ; (b) 6.98 N ;
and air per metre width of the plate.
(c) 445.2 W ; (d) 140.76 kg/h]
[Ans. 1790 W/m]
11. Air at 27°C and 1 bar flows over a flat plate at a speed (ii) The local heat flux and surface shear stress at
of 2 m/s, the trailing edge,
(i) Calculate the boundary layer thickness at (iii) The total drag force and heat transfer per unit
400 mm from the leading edge of the plate. Find width of the plate.
the mass flow rate per unit width of the plate. 15. Air at 25°C and atmospheric pressure flows at a
Take µ = 19.8 × 10–6 kg/ms at 27°C. velocity of 25 m/s over both surfaces of a 1 m long
flat plate, maintained at 125°C. Calculate the rate
(ii) The plate is maintained at 60°C, calculate the
of heat transfer per unit width from the plate for the
heat transfer rate per hour. Use following
value of critical Reynolds number corresponding to
properties of air
105, 5 × 105 and 106.
ν = 17.36 × 10–6 m2/s, 16. A circular pipe 25 mm outside diameter is exposed
kf = 0.0275 W/m.K to an air stream at 27°C and 1 atm. The air moves in
Cp = 1006 J/kg.K, cross flow over the pipe at 15 m/s, while the outer
R = 287 J/kg.K, Pr = 0.7. surface of the pipe is maintained at 100°C. What is
the drag force exerted on the pipe per unit length?
[Ans. (i) δ = 8.57 mm, m = 0.01242 kg/s, What is the rate of heat transfer from the pipe per
(ii) Q = 416.7 kJ/h] unit length ?
12. Air at 20°C and at atmospheric pressure flows at a 17. Atmospheric air at 27°C is flowing at a velocity of
velocity of 4.5 m/s past a flat plate with a sharp 15 m/s. What is the rate of heat transfer per unit
leading edge. The entire plate surface is maintained length from the following surfaces, each at 77°C,
at a temperature of 60°C. Assuming that the when the air is in cross flow over the surface ?
transition occurs at Re = 5 × 105, find the distance (i) A circular cylinder 10 mm in diameter,
from the leading edge, at which the flow in the (ii) A square cylinder 10 mm on a side,
boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent, (iii) A vertical plate 10 mm high.
at this location calculate :
18. An uninsulated steam pipe is used to transport steam
(i) Thickness of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary from one building to another. The pipe is 0.5 m in
layers, diameter has a surface temperature of 150°C and is
(ii) Local and average heat transfer coefficients, exposed to atmospheric air at 30°C. The air moves
(iii) Heat transfer rate from both sides for unit width in cross-flow over the pipe with a velocity of 5 m/s.
of the plate, What is the heat loss per unit length of the pipe ?
(iv) The skin friction coefficient. 19. Water at 20°C flows over a 20 mm diameter sphere
[Ans. xcr = 1.88 m, (i) 12.34 mm, 13.55 mm, with a velocity of 5 m/s. The surface of the sphere is
(ii) 3.05 W/m2.K, 6.1 W/m2.K, at 60°C. What is the drag force on the sphere ? What
(iii) 917.44 W, (iv) 9.136 × 10–4] is the heat transfer rate from the sphere ?
13. Air at 20°C and at a pressure of 1 bar is flowing over 20. Atmospheric air at 27°C and at a velocity of 0.5 m/s
a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. If the plate is 280 mm flows over a 40 W bulb, whose surface is at 140°C.
wide and at 56°C. Calculate the following quantities The bulb may be approximated as a sphere of 50 mm
at x = 280 mm diameter. What is the heat loss by convection to air?
(i) Boundary layer thickness. 21. A 25 mm diameter sphere is to be maintained at 50°C
(ii) Local friction coefficient, in either an air stream or a water stream, both at
(iii) Average friction coefficient, 20°C, and 2 m/s, velocity. Compare the rate of heat
(iv) Shearing stress due to friction, transfer and drag force for two fluids.
(v) Thickness of thermal boundary layer. 22. Steam at 1 atm and 100°C is flowing across a 5 cm
outer diameter tube at a velocity of 6 m/s.
(vi) Local heat transfer coefficient,
Estimate Nusselt number, heat transfer coefficient
(vii) Average heat transfer coefficient,
and heat transfer rate per metre length of the pipe,
(viii) Rate of heat transfer by convection, if the pipe is at 200°C.
(ix) Drag force on the plate, and 23. An electric transmission line of 1.2 cm diameter
(x) Total mass flow rate through the boundary. carries a current of 200 A and has a resistance of
[Ans. (i) 6.26 mm, (ii) 0.00296, (iii) 0.00594, 3 × 10–4 ohm per metre length. If air at 16°C and
(iv) 0.0152 N/m2, (v) 7.05 mm, (vi) 6.43 W/m2.K, 33 km/h is flowing across it, calculate surface
(vii) 12.86 W/m2.K, (viii) 36.3 W, (ix) 0.0012 N temperature of wire.
(x) 0.01335 kg/s] 24. A long hexagonal copper extrusion is removed from
14. Engine oil at 100°C and at a velocity of 0.1 m/s flows a oven at 400°C and exposed to air at 50°C, flowing
past a flat plate maintained at 20°C. Determine: across it at 10 m/s. The surface of the copper has an
(i) The velocity and thermal boundary layer emissivity of 0.9 due to oxidation. The rod is 3 cm
thicknesses at the trailing edge, across opposite flat sides and has an cross-sectional
EXTERNAL FLOW 291
area of 7.79 cm2 and perimeter of 10.4 cm. Calculate The resistance wire is exposed to an air stream at
the time required for the centre of the copper to cool 30°C, with velocity of 7 m/s. Calculate the surface
to 100°C. temperature of the wire.
25. A stainless steel pin fin 5 cm long, 6 mm outer
33. Air at 20°C and atmospheric pressure is flowing over
diameter extends from a flat plate into an air stream
a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. If the plate is 30 cm
flowing at 175 m/s. Estimate (i) average heat transfer
wide and at a temperature of 60°C, calculate at
coefficient, (ii) temperature at the end of fin, (iii) the
x = 0.3 m;
rate of heat flow from the fin.
Take plate temperature as 650°C and air steam (i) Thickness of velocity and thermal boundary
temperature as 30°C. layers,
26. During a cold winter day air at 15.27 m/s is blowing (ii) Local and average friction coefficients,
parallel to 4 m high and 10 m long wall of a house. If (iii) Local and average heat transfer coefficients,
outside air is at 5°C and wall is maintained at 12°C,
(iv) Total drag force on the plate,
calculate the rate of heat loss from the wall by
convection. What would be the heat dissipation rate, (v) Heat transfer rate.
if air velocity is doubled ? [Ans. 9212 W, 16,408 W] Take the following properties of air at 313 K
27. The top surface of a container truck moving at 70 km/h ρ = 1.18 kg/m3, ν = 17 × 10–6 m2/s
is 2.8 m wide and 8 m long. The top surface is absorbing
kf = 0.0272 W/m.K, Cp = 1.007 kJ/kg.K
net solar radiation at the rate of 200 W/m2, while it is
exposed to ambient air at 30°C. Assuming the roof of Pr = 0.705. (V.T.U., Karnataka, July 2002)
the truck is perfectly insulated and the radiation heat [Ans. (i) 6.52 mm, 7.14 mm
exchange with the surroundings to be negligible, (ii) 2.80 × 10–3, 5.61 × 10–3
calculate the equilibrium temperature of the top
(iii) 6.16 W/m2.K, 12.32 W/m2.K
surface of the container.
(iv) 2.68 × 10–3 N
28. A stainless steel ball (ρ = 8055 kg/m3, C = 480 J/kg.K)
of diameter 15 cm is removed from the oven at a (v) 44.46 W]
uniform temperature of 350°C. The ball is then 34. The air at atmospheric pressure and at 40°C flows
exposed to atmospheric air at 30°C with velocity of with a velocity 8 m/s along a flat plate, 3 m long,
6 m/s. The surface temperature of the ball eventually which is maintained at a uniform temperature of
drops to 250°C. Determine the average heat transfer 100°C. Calculate the local heat transfer coefficient
coefficient during the cooling process and calculate at the end of the plate and average heat transfer
the time for cooling process. coefficient over entire length of the plate. Assume
29. A person extends his uncovered arms into an air Recr = 2 × 105. [Ans. 18.93 W/m2.K, 20.62 W/m2.K]
stream at 6°C and 30 km/h in order to feel cooling. 35. Assuming a man as a cylinder of 40 cm diameter
Initially the skin temperature of the arm is at 37°C. and 1.72 m high with a surface temperature of 37°C.
Consider the arm as 60 cm long and 7.5 cm diameter Calculate the heat lost from its body, while standing
cylinder, calculate the rate of heat dissipation from in wind flowing at 20 km per hour at 17°C.
an arm.
30. A long aluminium wire of 3 mm diameter is extruded Use the relation : NuD = 0.027 ReD0.805 Pr1/3.
at a temperature of 350°C. The air at 35°C flow across [Ans. 947.43 W]
the wire at 6 m/s, velocity. Calculate the rate of heat
transfer from a wire to air per metre length, when it
is first exposed to air.
Ts = 37°C
31. Consider a person who is trying to keep his body cool
in a hot summer day by turning a fan on and exposing
his entire body to an air stream at 30°C. The fan is
blowing air at a velocity of 2 m/s. If the person is doing
some light work and generating sensible heat at a Air
rate of 100 W, calculate the average temperature of
outer skin of the person. The average human body T = 17°C D L = 1.72 m
can be treated as a 30 cm diameter cylinder with an
u = 20 km/h
exposed surface area of 1.7 m2. Neglect heat loss by
radiation. Also calculate the heat dissipation rate
from the body if air velocity is doubled.
[Ans. 33.8°C, 32.2 °C]
32. A 4 m long, 1.5 kW electric resistance wire is made of
0.25 cm diameter stainless steel (k = 15.1 W/m.K).
Fig. 8.19. Schematic for problem 35
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGNG 9. Jacob, M. and G.A. Hawkins, ‘‘Elements of Heat
Transfer’’ 3rd ed. Wiley, New York, 1957.
1. Rehsenow, W.M., J.P. Harnett and E.N. Genic, eds. 10. Krieth Frank and M.S. Bohn, “Principles of Heat
“Handbook of Heat Transfer”, 2/e, McGraw Hill, New Transfer”, 5th ed., PWS Pub. Company, 1997.
York, 1985. 11. Holman, J.P., “Heat Transfer”, 7th ed. McGraw Hill,
2. Kays, W.M. and M.E. Crawford, “Convective Heat New York, 1990.
and Mass transfer”, 2nd ed. McGraw Hill, New York, 12. Incropera, F.P., and D.P. DeWitt, “Introduction to
1980. Heat Transfer”, 2/e, John Wiley and Sons, 1990.
3. Giedt Warren H., “Investigation of Variation of Point 13. Ozisik, M.N., “Heat Transfer—A Basic Approach”,
Unit-Heat Transfer Coefficient Around a Cylinder McGraw Hill, New York, 1985.
Normal to an Airstream.” “Transaction of ASME ”, 14. Bayazitoglu, Yand M.N. Ozisik, “Elements of Heat
Vol. 71, pp. 375–381, 1949. Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1988.
4. Christopher, Long, “Essential Heat Transfer”, 15. Thomas, L.C., “Heat Transfer”, Prentice-Hall,
Addison-Wesley, Longman, 2001. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1982.
5. Zhukauskas, A. and A. B. Ambrazyavichyus, “Int. J. 16. White, F.M., “Heat and Mass Transfer”,
of Heat and Mass Transfer”, Vol 3. pp. 305, 1961. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1988.
6. Giedt, Warren H., “Principles of Engineering Heat 17. Jacob, F. M., “Heat Transfer”, Vol. 1, Wiley, New
Transfer”, Van Nostrand Inc., 2nd ed., 1967. York, 1949.
7. Knudsen, J.D. and D.L. Katz, “Fluid Dynamics and 18. Suryanarayana, N.V., “Engineering Heat Transfer”,
Heat Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1958. West Pub. Co., New York, 1998.
8. McAdams, W.M., “Heat Transmission”, 3rd ed. 19. Chapman, Alan. J., “Fundamentals of Heat Trans-
McGraw Hill, New York, 1954. fer”, Macmillan, New York.
Internal Flow 9
9.1. Flow Inside Ducts. 9.2. Hydrodynamic Considerations—Mean velocity um—Hydrodynamic entry length—Velocity profile in fully
developed region—Friction factor—Pressure drop and friction factor in fully developed flow. 9.3. Thermal Considerations—The mean
temperature or bulk temperature. 9.4. The Heat Transfer in Fully Developed Flow. 9.5. General Thermal Analysis—Constant surface
heat flux—Constant surface temperature. 9.6. Heat Transfer in Laminar Tube Flow. 9.7. Flow Inside a Non-circular Duct. 9.8. Thermally
Developing, Hydrodynamically Developed Laminar Flow. 9.9. Heat Transfer in Turbulent Flow Inside a Circular Tube—Analogy
between heat and momentum transfer in turbulent flow through tube—Correlation for turbulent flow. 9.10. Heat Transfer to Liquid Metal
Flow in Tube. 9.11. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.
9.1. FLOW INSIDE DUCTS Thus there is a limit to velocity and thermal boundary
layer thicknesses, the radius of tube.
The flow of fluid through the tubes and ducts for There are large changes in the value of heat
transporting cooling and heating fluids, etc., is of transfer coefficient in the region, where, the boundary
engineering importance. Most heat exchangers involve layer thickness increases, but smaller changes in the
the heating or cooling of fluids flowing in the tubes. The region, where the boundary layer has reached its
fluid in such applications is forced to flow by a fan or maximum value.
pump through a tube that is sufficiently long to
accomplish desired heating or cooling. Pressure drop and 9.2. HYDRODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS
heat flux are associated with forced flow through the
tubes and friction factor and heat transfer coefficient When a fluid enters a tube, with a velocity, the boundary
are used to determine the pumping power and length of layer develops along the surface of the tube. The growth
tube. of boundary layer at the entrance of a larger diameter
tube is much similar to that is for flow along a flat
surface. However, the flow velocity cannot be same due
to presence of boundary layer on opposite wall, the
development of boundary layer occurs at the expense of
shrinking the flow region and concludes the boundary
layer merger at the centre line of the tube, where the
velocity profile becomes independent of flow length, that
Fig. 9.1. Flow through duct
∂u
There is a fundamental difference between =0
∂x
external and internal flows. In the external flow, we and flow is called hydrodynamically developed flow.
have studied so far, the fluid had a free surface, thus its To illustrate the concept of fully developed region,
boundary layer growth is not restricted by any confining developing region and hydrodynamic entry length,
surface. However, in internal flow, such as in tubes, the consider the flow of an incompressible fluid through a
fluid is completely confined by inner surfaces of the tube. tube as shown in Fig. 9.2.
293
Hydrodynamically
Hydrodynamic entry length
0 developed region
x Boundary layer
xe
A B C Velocity profile
u¥
ro = D/2
r
x
0 u 0 u(r, x) 2u¥ u(r)

0
Fig. 9.2. The development of a laminar velocity profile in a pipe
At the entrance to tube at section A, the fluid 9.2.1. Mean Velocity um

velocity is uniform as u∞. As fluid proceeds in the tube, In above illustration, throughout the length of the tube
the viscous forces at the wall retard the motion of the mass flow rate m (kg/s) is assumed to be constant,
particles in the fluid layer near to the wall. The boundary and the mean velocity, um (m/s) of fluid is also constant
layer begins to develop along the flow length and thus
FG π D IJ
H4 K
2
the velocity profile changes continuously in the direction = ρum Ac = ρum
m
of flow. For instance at section B, the velocity profile
4m
indicates zero velocity at the surface and some value u and um = ...(9.1)
at a distance δ from the surface of the tube. Here u πρ D 2
becomes greater than u∞ due to shrinkage in flow area. where ρ = density of fluid, kg/m3,
Further, for down stream flow, the boundary layer π 2 FG IJ
thickness δ increases and becomes equal to radius ro of
Ac = cross-section area of tube =
4
D , m2
H K
the tube at section C. From section C onward the velocity D = inner diameter of the tube, m.
profile remains unchanged. This velocity profile is called If the velocity profile, u(r, x) at any location is
z
the fully developed velocity profile. The region of known, then the mass flow rate
fully developed velocity profile is known as the
=
m ρ u(r, x) dAc ...(9.2)
hydrodynamically developed region. The region Ac
from the tube inlet to the point at which the boundary For an incompressible fluid flow, the mean
velocity, um
z
layer merges at the centre line is called the
z
hydrodynamic entrance region or the
u(r, x) dA c
hydrodynamically developing region, and the Ac 2 ro
um = = u(r, x) r dr
length of this region is called the hydrodynamic entry Ac ro 2 0
length. Beyond this length, the viscous effects are ...(9.3)
extended over the entire cross-section and the velocity The Reynolds number for flow through circular
profile becomes parabolic for the laminar flow. tube
ρum D
ReD = ...(9.4)
µ
Laminar where µ = dynamic viscosity of fluid, kg/ms
sub-layer
D = tube diameter, m
D For flow through a circular tube, using um from
Turbulent
core eqn. (9.1), the Reynolds number is given by
4m
ReD = ...(9.5)
Fig. 9.3. Turbulent flow through a tube πDµ
When the fluid flow through the tube becomes The Reynolds number again provides convenient
turbulent a somewhat blunter profile is observed as criteria for distinguishing the flow regime in the tube.
shown in Fig. 9.3. A range of Reynolds number for transition may be
INTERNAL FLOW 295
observed, depending on surface roughness of tube and u = 0 at r = ro

velocity fluctuations in the flow. Generally, the accepted ro dp
2
critical Reynolds number is 2300, at which the transition we get C= –
4µ dx
from laminar to turbulent begins. Therefore,
2
ReD < 2300, Laminar flow, r 2 − ro dp
Thus u(r) = ...(9.10)
2300 < ReD < 4000, Transition to turbulence, 4µ dx
ReD > 4000, Turbulent flow. The velocity at the centre of the tube (r = 0) is
given by
9.2.2. Hydrodynamic Entry Length
ro 2 dp
For laminar flow, the hydrodynamic entry length xe is u0 = – ...(9.11)
4µ dx
given by
and the velocity distribution is given by
FG x IJ r2
H DK u(r)
e
= 0.05 ReD ...(9.6)
=1– 2 ...(9.12)
lam u0 ro
For turbulent flow, the hydrodynamic entry which is the parabolic distribution for laminar flow
length is independent of Reynolds number and is inside a tube.
expressed as
(xe)turb = 10D ...(9.7) The mean velocity of the flow can be obtained by
substituting eqn. (9.12) in eqn. (9.3)
U| R| F r I
z
9.2.3. Velocity Profile in Fully Developed Region 2
2u0
V| r dr S|1 − GH r JK
ro
um =
r r o
2 0
W T o
x
=
2u L
×M
r 0
−
r O
P =
u o
2
o
4
0
r MN 4r PQ 2
o
22
o
2
Substituting u from eqn. (9.11), we get

0
t(2prdx)
ro 2 dp
um= – ...(9.13)
r 8µ dx
2
2
(p + dp)(pr ) Using this result in eqn. (9.10), the velocity profile
p(pr ) becomes
dx
u(r) r LM F I OP 2
Fig. 9.4. Force balance on the fluid element for laminar,

fully developed flow in a circular tube
and
um
= 2 1−
ro MN GH JK PQ ...(9.14)
Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid inside a 9.2.4. Friction Factor

tube of radius ro, as shown in Fig. 9.4. It is assumed The shear stress at the wall is normally expressed as
that velocity at the centre of the tube is u0 and pressure du
is uniform at any section. For annular differential τs = – µ
dr r = ro
element, the pressure forces are balanced by viscous
shear forces, so that Using eqn. (9.14), we get
–πr 2dp = 2πrτ dx or

dp
=–
2τ
...(9.8) τs = – µ2um −
LM 2r
4µum OP 8µum
dx r
Substituting from Newton’s law of viscosity
MN
r = ro
ro 2
ro
=
PQ D
=
...(9.15)
du
τ=–µ ...(9.9) Further the practical definition of shear stress
dr
The eqn. (9.8) becomes at surface
dp 2µ du r dp Cf 2
= or du = dr τs = ρum ...(9.16)
dx r dr 2µ dx 2
Integrating w.r.t. r to obtain where Cf is the friction coefficient, equating eqn. (9.15)
with eqn. (9.16) and solving for Cf , we get
r 2 dp 16 µ 16
u(r) = +C 2 8µum
4µ dx Cf = 2 × = =
ρum D ρum D Re D
where C is constant of integration and is evaluated from
...(9.17)
boundary condition at the tube surface, i.e.,
The friction factor, f is a parameter of practical Note that the friction factor, f is associated with
interest, used to calculate the pressure drop of fluid flow pressure drop in fluid flow through the ducts whereas
in the tube and it is related to the friction coefficient for the friction coefficient, Cf is associated with drag force
fully developed laminar flow as on the surfaces.
64
f = 4Cf = ...(9.18)
Re D
0.1
0.09 Laminar Critical Transition
flow zone zone
0.08 Complete turbulence, rough pipes
0.07 0.05
0.04
0.06
0.03
0.05 0.02
Lam
0.015
Friction factor, f
Relative roughness e/D

inar
0.04
0.01
flow
0.008
0.006
,F=
0.03
0.004
64/R
0.025
e
0.002
0.02 0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.015
e, cm
Smooth pipes 0.0002
Concrete 0.03 – 0.3
Cast iron 0.026 0.0001
Galvanized iron 0.015
Commercial steel 0.0045 0.00005
0.01 e/D = 0.000005
Drawn tubing 0.00015
0.009
e/D = 0.000001
0.008 0.00001
3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8
10 2(10 ) 3 4 5 6 8 10 2(10 ) 3 4 5 6 8 10 2(10 ) 3 4 5 6 8 10 2(10 ) 3 4 6 8 10 2(10 ) 3 4 5 6 8 10
umD
Reynolds number ReD =
n
Fig. 9.5. Friction factor for fully developed flow in circular tubes (The Moody chart)
For fully developed turbulent flow (ReD > 4000),
m

the analysis is much more complicated and we must W pump = V ∆p = ∆p ...(9.22)
ρ
rely on the experimental results. The friction factors

m
for a wide range of Reynolds number are presented in =u A =
where V is volume flow rate of fluid through
m c
Moody diagram, Fig. 9.5. For a smooth tube, the friction ρ
factor for fully developed turbulent flow can also be the tube.
determined from
− 1/4
f = 0.316 Re D 2300 ≤ ReD ≤ 2 × 104 ...(9.19)
9.3. THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS
= 0.184 ReD –1/5 ReD ≥ 2 × 104 ...(9.20) When a fluid at a uniform temperature Ti enters a
9.2.5. Pressure Drop and Friction Factor in Fully circular tube that is maintained at some different
temperature Ts (Ti > Ts) at section A. At a short distance,
Developed Flow
in down stream at section B, the fluid particles adjacent
The pressure drop sustains an internal flow and is a to tube is cooled by tube surface and attains the tube
quantity of practical interest. It is used to calculate the temperature Ts. The fluid temperature varies from Ts
pumping power of a fan or pump. The pressure drop at the tube surface to Ti at a small distance δth from the
during flow in a tube of length L is expressed as tube surface. It will initiate the convection in fluid and
L ρum 2 development of the thermal boundary layer. The
∆p = f (N/m2) ...(9.21) boundary layer thickness, δth increases in the direction
D 2
where f is the friction factor and the pumping power to of flow, until at some location C, where it reaches the
overcome the pressure drop, ∆p is tube centre and thus fills the entire tube as shown in
Fig. 9.6(a). Upto section C, the centre line, temperature
INTERNAL FLOW 297
remains constant at Ti but beyond this section, the centre The region of unchanged temperature profile is
line temperature changes in the direction of flow. But called the thermally developed region and the region
the dimensionless temperature profile does not change of flow over which the thermal boundary develops, is
in the x direction
called the thermally developing region or thermal
∂ F T −T I =0
∂x GH T − T JK
s
s
m
...(9.23)
entrance region, and length of this region is called
the thermal entry length xeth. In the region A to C,
where Ts is tube surface temperature, T is local fluid thermal entry region, the velocity profile is fully
temperature and Tm is mean temperature of fluid over developed and temperature profile is developing. Beyond
the cross-section of the tube. section C, the flow is both hydrodynamically and
Fig. 9.6 (b) shows the thermal boundary layer thermally developed and thus this region is called the
development for a cold fluid flowing through a heated fully developed region.
tube.
Thermal boundary layer
Thermal profile
A B Ts C
dth
Ti
r
dth
Ts T(r, o) TS
x T(r, o)
Thermal entry region Thermally developed region
xeth
(a) The development of the thermal boundary layer in a cold tube.

(The fluid is hotter than tube surface)
Surface condition
qs
Ts > T(r, 0)
A B C y = ro – r
dth
ro
Ti r
dth
T(r, 0) T(r, 0) Ts T(r, 0) Ts T(r, 0) T(r)

Thermal entry region Fully developed region
xeth
x
(b) Thermal boundary layer development in a heated circular tube

Fig. 9.6. Developing and fully developed thermal boundary layer in the tube
For laminar flow the thermal entry length may and the hydrodynamic entry length is shorter than the
be expressed as thermal entry length as shown in Fig. 9.7. The inverse
FG IJ
xeth is also true for Pr < 1. In contrast for turbulent flow
H K
D lam
≈ 0.05 ReDPr ...(9.24) conditions, the thermal entry length is independent of
Comparing eqn. (9.24) with eqn. (9.6), it is evident Prandtl number and is approximated as
that, for Pr > 1, the hydrodynamic boundary layer xeth FG IJ
develops more rapidly than the thermal boundary layer D turb H K
= 10 ...(9.25)
Heat transfer section
Ti dth ro
x
0
uo
d
xe
xeth
Fig. 9.7. Development of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers for Pr > 1
9.3.1. The Mean Temperature or Bulk Temperature In other words, the mean temperature can be
The convective heat transfer rate at any location in the defined as the ratio of flow rate of enthalpy to the heat
internal flow is determined as capacity rate or
qx = hx(Ts – Tref) ...(9.26)
Rate of enthalpy flow through
where Ts = surface (wall) temperature, a cross-section
Tref = local fluid reference temperature, Tm =
Heat capacity rate through
hx = local heat transfer coefficient. a cross-section
For external flows, the reference temperature of
the fluid is the free stream temperature (T∞), which is This definition of bulk temperature is general and
constant. But in internal flows, the temperature of fluid can be applied to either laminar or turbulent flow.
varies in the direction of flow due to continuous heat
For a circular pipe dAc = 2πrdr, the eqn. (9.29)
transfer.
becomes
z
The fluid temperature varies not only in direction
of flow, but normal to direction of flow. This variation ro
ρ uC p T (2πr) dr
depends on thermal boundary conditions imposed, type 0
Tm = ...(9.30)
of fluid flow and entry length effects. ρ um (πro2 )C p
Therefore, the accepted reference temperature of
fluid for computing heat transfer coefficient is the fluid For an incompressible fluid with constant specific
bulk temperature or mean temperature. heat Cp, the bulk temperature is given by
The mean or bulk temperature of the fluid at a
given cross-section is defined in the terms of thermal
energy transported by the fluid as it moves past the
Tm =
2
um ro2 z0
ro
u(r, x) T(r, x) r dr ...(9.31)
cross-section. The rate of energy transportation is given
z
by 9.4. HEAT TRANSFER IN FULLY DEVELOPED
FLOW
E′th = ρu(r) Cp T(r, x) dAc ...(9.27)
Ac
where u(r) is axial flow velocity and Ac is cross-sectional In case of a tube flow, if there is a difference between
area perpendicular to the flow direction. the tube wall temperature and fluid temperature, the
If a mean or bulk temperature Tm is defined, then heat transfer takes place. The temperature difference
the energy transfer in terms of mean or bulk enthalpy produces a temperature profile in the direction of fluid
hm = m
E′th = m CpTm ...(9.28) flow as shown in Fig. 9.8. Here, the tube surface is hotter
than the fluid, the fluid temperature varies from the
Equating eqn. (9.27) and eqn. (9.28) to obtain
Tm =
z
Ac
ρ u C p T dA c
Cp
m
value at the surface to that at the centre line.
by
The heat flux from the surface to the fluid is given
=
z
Ac
ρ u C p T dA c
( ρ um A c )C p
...(9.29)
qs = kf
∂T(r, x)
∂r wall
...(9.32)
INTERNAL FLOW 299
where kf the thermal conductivity of the fluid and T or q

T(r, x) = local fluid temperature. Further, the heat flux
can also be expressed in terms of the local heat transfer qs = constant
coefficient hx and fluid, mean temperature, as
qs
qx = hx (Ts – Tm) ...(9.33)
Ts
Bulk
T temperature, Tm
ro Temperature profile
r
Wall
x
temperature, Ts
um
Tm Ts
Ti
0 xeth x
Fig. 9.8. Temperature distribution in fully developed tube
flow (Ts > Tm)
Ti
where Ts = local tube wall temperature, To
Tm = local bulk mean fluid temperature.
T
Equating eqns. (9.32) and (9.33), we get the local Ti Ts Ti Ts Ti Ts Ti Ts
heat transfer coefficient as
Fig. 9.9. Developing and fully developed temperature
kf ∂T(r, x) profile in tube flow for constant wall heat flux
hx = × ...(9.34)
(Ts − Tm ) ∂r wall
9.5.1. Constant Surface Heat Flux
In thermally developed region, the dimensionless
Fig. 9.9 depicts the case, in which the heat flux at the
temperature θ(r, x) is defined as
surface (qs = Q/As) remains constant. As the heat is
Ts − T(r, x) transferred to the fluid, the bulk temperature increases,
θ(r, x) = ...(9.35)
Ts − Tm but the difference between surface temperature Ts and
The eqn. (9.34) can be expressed in terms of bulk mean temperature Tm remains constant. Thus both
dimensionless temperature θ as Ts and Tm increase in flow direction, while the tempera-
ture profile (Ts – T)/(Ts – Tm) remains unchanged.
∂θ(r, x) For constant heat flux at the wall, the heat
hx = – kf ...(9.36)
∂r wall transfer rate can be expressed as
In the fully developed region, the dimensionless Q = qs As = m Cp(To – Ti) ...(9.38)
temperature θ is independent of x and eqn. (9.36) reduces where As is the surface area of tube and Ti and To are
to mean fluid temperatures at the inlet and exit of the tube,
∂θ(r) respectively. The mean fluid temperature at the exit of
h = – kf ...(9.37)
∂r wall the tube
qs A s
9.5. GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS To = Ti + ...(9.39)
m Cp
Fig. 9.9 and Fig. 9.10 show the development of thermal Note that the bulk mean temperature Tm
boundary layer for two cases, in which the wall surface increases linearly in the flow direction, since the surface
is hotter than the fluid. As flow proceeds in the tube, a area increases and it becomes To at the tube exit. The
thermal boundary layer develops at the surface, in which properties are evaluated at mean bulk temperature,
given by
the fluid temperature T varies due to heat transfer at
the surface, but the central core retains the free stream T + To
Tm = i ...(9.40)
temperature Ti. As the thermal boundary layer fills the 2
tube at thermal entry length xeth, the temperature profile 9.5.2. Constant Surface Temperature
becomes fully developed and it does not change further Fig. 9.10 depicts the case, in which the tube wall
in flow direction. temperature Ts remains constant. The bulk or mean
temperature of fluid increases in the flow direction and T

the temperature profile appears to be flatten, as Tm Ts
increases. However, the dimensionless temperature DT = Ts – Tm
DT2
To
profile (Ts – T)/(Ts – Tm) remains unchanged, but the
heat flux decreases in accordance with eqn. (9.33).
DT1 Tm
T
or q
Ti
Ts = constant
Ts x
0 L
qs
Fig. 9.11. (b) Variation of bulk mean fluid temperature
along the tube for the constant surface temperature
Consider the heating of the fluid in a tube of
constant cross-section, whose inner wall surface is
Tm maintained at constant temperature Ts. The bulk or mean
fluid temperature Tm increases in the flow direction as a
Ti
xeth x
result of heat transfer as shown in Fig. 9.11.
0
The energy balance on a differential control
volume gives.
Ti Increase in enthalpy of fluid = Heat convected to
To fluid from the surface.
m Cp dTm = h(Ts – Tm) dAs ...(9.42)
T
Ti Ts Ti Ts Ti Ts Ti Ts Substituting dAs = Pdx, where P is the perimeter
Fig. 9.10. Developing and developed temperature profile in of tube. Rearranging as
tube flow for constant wall temperature dTm hP
= dx ...(9.43)
The rate of heat transfer to or from the fluid Ts − Tm m Cp
flowing in the tube can be determined as Using ∆T = Ts – Tm and dTm = – d(∆T), then
Q = hAs ∆Tav = hAs(Ts – Tm)av ...(9.41) d(∆T) hP
where, h is an average heat transfer coefficient, As is =– dx
∆T Cp
m
the heat transfer surface area (= πDL for a circular tube
Integrating from inlet to exit conditions, treating
of length L) and ∆Tav is some appropriate average
h, Cp, m , P as constant quantities,
z z
temperature difference between surface and fluid.
Since the fluid temperature varies almost linearly ∆T2 d(∆T) hP L
=– dx
along the tube, when tube surface temperature is kept ∆T1 ∆T
mC p 0
constant. Therefore, the average appropriate
FG ∆T IJ = – hP
H ∆T K m C
2
temperature difference between fluid and surface needs we get ln L
a better evaluation of ∆Tav. 1 p
where ∆T1 = Ts – Ti and ∆T2 = Ts – To, then
F T − T I = – hPL
dQ = h(Ts – Tm)dAs
ln GH T − T JK m C
s
s
o
i p
...(9.44)
Tm Tm + dTm
T −T F hPL I
= exp G −
H m C JK
Ti . . To s o
mCpTm mCp(Tm + dTm) or ...(9.45)
T −T s i p
Ts
hPL
The quantity is a dimensionless parameter.
Cp
m
dx
Inlet, i
x
Exit, o It is called the number of transfer units, denoted by
Fig. 9.11. (a) Energy interactions for a differential control NTU. It is the measure of the effectiveness of the heat
volume in a tube flow transfer systems.
INTERNAL FLOW 301
The mean fluid temperature at the exit can be um = 0.2 m/s, q = 6000 W/m2,
determined as To = 74°C.
F hPL I To find : The distance of tube at which water is
To = Ts – (Ts – Ti) exp − GH Cp
m JK ...(9.46) heated to a temperature of 74°C.
2
q = 6000 W/m
This relation can also be used to determine mean
fluid temperature at any x by replacing L by x as
F hPx I
Tx = Ts – (Ts – Ti) exp − GH Cp
m JK ...(9.47)
Water
um = 0.2 m/s
D = 1 mm
To = 74°C
Ti = 20°C L
The eqns. (9.46) and (9.47) reveal that the mean Fig. 9.12. Schematic for example 9.1
temperature of fluid varies exponentially in the direction
Analysis : The mean fluid temperature
of flow.
T + To 20 + 74
Cp as
Further, solving the eqn. (9.44) for m Tm = i =
2 2
hPL = 47°C (320 K)
Cp =
m
F T − T IJ
ln G s i
...(9.48)
The physical properties of water at 320 K from
HT − T K
s o Table A-7
The heat transfer rate to the fluid can also be ρ = 989 kg/m3, Cp = 4180 J/kg.K,
given by µ = 577 × 10–6 kg/ms, kf = 0.640 W/m.K,
Q= m Cp (To – Ti) Pr = 3.77.
which can be arranged as Mass flow rate through tubes
Q= m Cp[(Ts – Ti) – (Ts – To)]
FG π D IJ
H4 K
2
Cp, we get = ρum Ac = ρum
m
Substituting eqn. (9.48) for m
(Ts − Ti ) − (Ts − To ) π
Q = hPL
F T − T IJ
ln G s i
...(9.49) = 989 × 0.2 ×   × (0.001)2
4
HT − T K
s o –4
= 1.55 × 10 kg/s
or Q = hPL (∆T)lm = hAs (∆T)lm ...(9.50) Surface area As = πDL = π × 0.001 L
where ∆Tlm is the log mean temperature difference and The length of tube for exit temperature To = 74°C
is given by can be determined by using eqn. (9.39)
∆T1 − ∆T2 qs A s
To = Ti +
∆Tlm =
F ∆T IJ
ln G 1
...(9.51) m Cp
H ∆T K2 or 74 = 20 +
6000 × π × 0.001
L
1.55 × 10 −4 × 4180
where ∆T1 = Ts – T1 and ∆T2 = Ts – T2 are the
or L = 1.86 m. Ans.
temperature difference between surface and fluid at the
inlet and exit of the tube, respectively. Example 9.2. Engine oil at 40°C (µ = 0.21 kg/(ms) ;
ρ = 875 kg/m3) flows inside 2.5 cm diameter, 50 m long
Example 9.1. Water at 20°C flows through a small tube, tube with a mean velocity of 1 m/s. Determine the
1 mm in diameter at a uniform speed of 0.2 m/s. The pressure drop for flow through the tube.
flow is fully developed at a point beyond which a constant (J.N.T.U., May 2004)
heat flux of 6000 W/m2 is imposed. How much farther Solution
down the tube will the water reach 74°C as its hottest Given : Flow of engine oil through a tube.
point? Tm = 40°C, µ = 0.21 kg/(ms),
Solution 3
ρ = 875 kg/m , D = 2.5 cm,
Given : Water flows through a tube of constant L = 50 m, um = 1 m/s.
wall heat flux. To find : The pressure drop for fluid flow through
Ti = 20°C, D = 1 mm, the tube.
Assumptions : Solution
1. Steady state conditions, Given :
2. Constant properties. 6 3
Do = 40 mm g0 = 10 W/m
Analysis : The Reynolds number for the fluid flow Di = 20 mm
E¢g
ρum D Ts,o = 70°C
ReD = Water Qconv
µ .
m = 0.1 kg/s
To = 60°C
(875 kg/m 3 ) × (1 m/s) × (0.025 m)
= Ti = 20°C
[0.21 kg/(m/s)]
L
= 104.16
Thus the flow is laminar through the tube. Inlet, i Outlet, o
Using eqn. (9.18) for fully developed laminar flow
64 To find :
64
f= = = 0.6144 (i) Length of the tube to achieve the water outlet
Re D 104.16
temperature 60°C,
The pressure drop during the fluid flow can be
(ii) Local convection heat transfer coefficient at
obtained by eqn. (9.21)
the outlet.
2
L ρum Assumptions:
∆p = f
D 2 1. Steady state conditions,
50 875 × 1 2. Uniform heat generation over entire length
= 0.6144 × ×
0.025 2 of the tube,
= 537600 N/m2 = 5.376 bar. Ans. 3. Constant properties of the fluid,
Example 9.3. Explain, why the Nusselt number remains 4. No heat transfer to surroundings,
constant for fully developed laminar tube flow. 5. Specific heat of water as 4180 J/kg.K.
Analysis : (i) Making the energy balance for the
Solution
heating system ;
For a fully developed flow, the temperature profile
is given by Heat generation rate = Enthalpy rise rate of
F
∂ Ts − T I =0 water
GH
∂x Ts − Tm JK Cp(To – Ti)
g0V = m
π
It indicates that the dimensionless temperature or g0 (Do2 – Di2) L = m
Cp(To – Ti)
4
gradient at the surface is constant along the flow. Hence
FG π IJ × (0.04
or 106 ×
H 4K
for fluids with constant properties, the heat transfer 2 – 0.022) L = 0.1 × 4180 × (60 – 20)
coefficient and Nusselt numbers are constant in fully
developed tube flow. or L = 17.7 m. Ans.
(ii) Local convection heat transfer coefficient at
Example 9.4. A system for heating of water from an
the tube exit :
inlet temperature of 20°C to an outlet temperature of 60°C
involves passing the water through a thick walled tube Making energy balance at the tube exit ;
of inner and outer diameters of 20 and 40 mm. The outer Heat generation rate = Heat convection rate
surface of the tube is well insulated, and electrical heating g0V = hoAs(Ts,o – To)
within the wall provides a uniform heat generation at
the rate of 106 W/m3. FG π IJ (D – D ) L = h (πD L)(T
(i) What is the length of the tube to achieve the
or g0 ×
H 4K o
2
i
2
o i s,o – To)
desired outlet temperature, if water mass flow rate is

F πI
10 × G J × (0.04 – 0.02 )L
H 4K
or 6 2 2
0.1 kg/s ?
(ii) What is the local heat transfer coefficient at
the outlet, if the inner surface temperature of the tube at = ho × (π × 0.02 × L) × (70 – 60)
the outlet is 70°C ? or ho = 1500 W/m2.K. Ans.
INTERNAL FLOW 303
9.6. HEAT TRANSFER IN LAMINAR TUBE FLOW ∂T

≈ ρ(2πrdr) uCpT + ρ(2πrdr) uCpdx
∂x
Consider the heat transfer process for a laminar flow ...(v)
system inside a tube, with a uniform heat flux at the The net heat convected out the annular element is
tube surface.
Consider an annular fluid element as shown in ∂T
qc, x + dx – qc, x = 2πrρuCp dx dr ...(vi)
Fig. 9.14. ∂x
The heat conducted into the annular fluid element The energy balance on the fluid element is
radially ∂T FG r ∂T IJ drdx
∂
qr = – kf (2πrdx)
∂T
...(i)
2πrρuCp
∂x
drdx = 2π kfH ∂r K
∂r
∂r
ρC ∂T ∂ F ∂T I
The heat conducted out the annular fluid element
∂
or ur
k ∂xf
=
p
Gr J
∂r H ∂r K
qr+dr = qr + (q ) dr + ......
∂ F ∂T I
∂r r
∂T ∂ F∂T I G r J = urα ∂∂Tx
∂r H ∂r K
≈ – kf (2πrdx)
∂r
+
∂r
− 2πrdx kf
H∂r
dr
K or ...(9.52)
...(ii) kf
where α = , thermal diffusivity of fluid, m2/s,
x
ρC p
kf = thermal conductivity of the fluid, W/m.K,
ρ = density of fluid, kg/m3,
Cp = specific heat of fluid J/kg.K,
ro u = u(r), local velocity of fluid,
r = radial coordinate,
q
T = T(r, x), function of radial and flow directions.
For constant wall heat flux, the bulk fluid
temperature increases linearly, and
∂T
dx = constant
+d
x ∂x wall
q c, x
Inserting the velocity distribution u(r) from
dr eqn. (9.12) into eqn. (9.52), we have
∂ FG
∂T r2 IJ F I r × 1 ∂T
r
qr
∂r
r
∂rH = u0 1 − 2
ro K GH JK α ∂x
Integrating w.r.t. r,
∂T uFr − r 2 4 I ∂T + C
GH 2 4r JK ∂x
qr+dr
q c,x r = 0 1 ...(9.53)
∂r α o
2
Fig. 9.14. Control volume for energy analysis in the tube flow
and second integration leads to
u Fr I ∂T
The net heat conducted into the element is 2 4
r
FG IJ α GH 4 JK ∂x + C
0
∂ ∂T T= − 2 ln r + C2
H K 16 r 1
qr – qr + dr = 2πkf r drdx ...(iii) o
∂r ∂r ...(9.54)
The heat convected into the annular element where C1 and C2 are constants of integrations and are
axially evaluated from boundary conditions.
qc, x = ρ(2πrdr) uCpT ...(iv) The boundary conditions are
The heat convected out the annular fluid element ∂T
at x + dx At r=0; =0
∂r
∂ ∂T
qc, x+ dx = qc, x + (q ) dx + ...... and kf = qs = constant.
∂x c, x ∂r r = ro
Using first boundary condition at r = 0, it gives If eqn. (9.54) for temperature distribution is
C1 = 0 solved for constant wall temperature, i.e.,
The second boundary condition is satisfied, if the T = Ts at r = ro
∂T ∂T
axial temperature gradient is constant, let the and = 0 at r = 0
∂x ∂r
temperature at the centre of the tube be Tc, then Then the corresponding analysis leads to a
T = Tc at r = 0 Nusselt number as
It leads to C2 = Tc NuD = 3.66 for Ts = constant ...(9.61)
Then the temperature distribution in the fluid It is also constant for fully developed laminar tube
element becomes flow, that is subjected to constant wall temperature.
A general relation for average Nusselt number for
u r 2 ∂T LMF r I 2
F I OP
1 r
4
hydrodynamically and/or thermally developing laminar
T – Tc = 0 o
4α ∂x MNGH r JK
o
− GH JK P
4 ro
Q...(9.55) flow in circular tube is suggested by Sieder and Tate as
F
= 1.86 GH Re
D IJ FG µ IJ
1/3 0.14
The heat transfer coefficient is given by eqn. (9.34) NuD D Pr

L K Hµ Ks
kf ∂T for Pr > 0.5 ...(9.62)
h=
Ts − Tm ∂r r = ro In eqns. (9.60), (9.61) and (9.62), the fluid
where Ts = surface temperature properties may be evaluated at mean fluid temperature,
Tm = bulk fluid temperature. FG T + T IJ
H 2 K except µs, which is evaluated at surface
i o
The temperature gradient at the wall is given by
∂T u0 ∂T rLM
−
r3 OP
u0 ro ∂T
temperature Ts.
∂r r = ro
=
MN
α ∂x 2 4 ro 2
r = ro PQ
4α ∂x
=
Example 9.5. Water entering at 10°C is heated to 40°C
...(9.56) in the tube of 0.02 m ID at a mass flow rate of 0.01 kg/s.
The bulk fluid temperature Tm, can be obtained The outside of the tube is covered with an insulated
by using eqn. (9.55) for temperature distribution in electric heating element that produces a uniform heat
eqn. (9.31). For constant heat flux at the wall, we get flux of 15000 W/m2 over the surface. Neglecting any
7 u0 ro 2 ∂T entrance effect, determine ;
Tm = Tc + ....(9.57)
96 α ∂x (a) Reynolds number ;
and wall temperature,
(b) The heat transfer coefficient ;
3 u0 ro 2 ∂T (c) The length of pipe needed for a 30°C increase
Ts = Tc + ...(9.58)
16 α ∂x in average temperature ;
Using eqns. (9.56), (9.57) and (9.58) in eqn. (9.34),
we have (d) The inner tube surface temperature at the
u0 ro ∂T outlet ;
4α ∂x (e) The friction factor ;
h = kf
FG
7 IJ
3 u0 ro 2 ∂T (f ) The pressure drop in the pipe ;
H −
96 16 K
α ∂x (g) The pumping power required, if the pump is
k
96 f 24 f k 50% efficient.
= =
44 ro 11 ro Solution
48 kf Given : Flow through pipe ;
or h= ...(9.59)
11 D = 0.01 kg/s,
Di = 0.02 m, m
and the Nusselt number for constant heat flux condition
is given by To = 40°C, Ti = 10°C,
hD 48 q = 15000 W/m2, ηpump = 0.5.
NuD = = = 4.36, ...(9.60) To find :
kf 11
It remains constant for fully developed laminar (a) Reynolds number,
tube flow, that is subjected to uniform heat flux at the (b) The heat transfer coefficient,
wall.
INTERNAL FLOW 305
(c) The length of pipe needed for a 30°C increase (e) Friction factor :
in average temperature, 64 64
(d) The inner tube surface temperature at the outlet, f= = = 0.0914. Ans.
Re D 700
(e) The friction factor, (f ) Pressure drop in pipe :
(f ) The pressure drop in the pipe,
L ρum 2
(g) The pumping power required, if the pump is ∆p = f
50% efficient. Di 2
Assumptions : 4m
where, um = since m = ρumAc
1. No heat exchange by thermal radiation and πD i 2 ρ
heat conduction, (4 × 0.01 kg/s)
=
2. The steady state heat transfer conditions, π × (0.02 m) 2 × (997 kg/m 3 )
3. Entrance and exit temperatures of water are = 0.032 m/s
different, taking the properties at mean film (1.33 m)
temperature. Hence ∆p = 0.0914 ×
0.02
Properties : The properties of water at its mean (997 kg/m 3 ) × (0.032 m/s2 )
temperature ×
2
40 + 10 = 3.1 N/m2. Ans.
Tm = = 25°C
2 (g) The pumping power :
The properties of water at 25°C (from Table A-7)
m (0.01 kg/s)
ρ = 997 kg/m3, kf = 0.608 W/m.K, = ∆p = × (3.1 N/m2)
ρ (997 kg/m 3 )
Cp = 4180 J/kgK, µ = 910 × 10–6 Ns/m2.
= 3.11 × 10–5 W
Analysis : (a) The Reynolds number:
Actual power required
um D i
4m
Re = = 3.11 × 10 −5 W
ν πD i µ = = 6.22 × 10–5 W. Ans.
0.5
4 × (0.01 kg/s)
= Example 9.6. A water heater is fabricated by a resistance
π × (0.02 m) × (910 × 10 −6 Ns/m 2 )
wire wound uniformly over a 10 mm diameter and 4 m
= 700. Ans. long tube. The resistance element maintains a uniform
It indicates the flow is laminar. heat flux of 1000 W/m2. The mass flow rate of water is
(b) Since uniform flux is on the pipe surface, hence 12 kg/h, and its inlet temperature is 10°C. Estimate the
using eqn. (9.60) ; surface temperature of the tube at exit.
NuD = 4.36 Solution
And heat transfer coefficient Given : A water heater
Nu D kf 4.36 × (0.608 W/m.K) Fluid : water Ti = 10°C
h= = m = 12 kg/h, D = 10 mm
Di (0.02 m)
q = 1000 W/m2, L = 4 m.
= 132.5 W/m2.K. Ans.
To find : The exit surface temperature, Ts,o.
(c) Length of the pipe needed for 30°C temperature
rise : Assumptions :
Q = q As = q(πDiL) = m Cp(To – Ti) 1. Steady state conditions,
(0.01 kg/s) × (4180 J/kg.K) × (30 K) 2. Constant properties.
or L=
(15000 W/m 2 ) × (π × 0.02 m) Analysis : With a known heat flux, the local
= 1.33 m. Ans. surface temperature at the exit of the tube can be
(d) Inner tube surface temperature at the outlet : obtained by
q = h(Ts,o – To) q = ho(Ts,o – To) ...(i)
q 15000 W/m 2 where ho is the local heat transfer coefficient at exit.
Ts, o = + To = + 40 The exit bulk temperature is found from
h 132.5 W/m 2 . K
= 153.6°C. Ans. Cp (To – Ti)
Q = q (π DL) = m ...(ii)
Heating element
L=4m
Water
Ti = 10°C To
.
D = 10 mm
m = 12 kg/h
Ts,o
2
q = 1000 W/m
Fig. 9.15. Water at 10°C enters a 10 mm I.D. tube subjected to a uniform heat flux of 1000 W/m2
For obtaining fluid properties assume, and local heat transfer coefficient at exit
To = 20°C and Tm = 15°C Nu D kf 4.36 × 0.595
ho = = = 259.42
Cp = 4182 at 15°C D 0.01
Using eqn. (9.39) for determination of exit and temperature of surface at the exit of tube
temperature q 1000
Ts,o = To + = 19 +
qAs ho 259.42
To = Ti + = 22.85°C. Ans.
m Cp
with numerical values Example 9.7. The oil at 20°C flows at an average
1000 × π × 0.01 × 4 velocity of 2 m/s through a pipeline, 30 cm diameter. A
To = 10 + 200 m long section of the pipeline passes through icy
(12 / 3600) × 4182
= 10 + 9 = 19°C water of a lake at 0°C. The measurements reveal that
the surface temperature of the pipe is very near to 0°C.
It is very close to assumed value. With this exit
Neglecting the thermal resistance of the pipe material,
temperature
determine,
Tm = 14.5°C and Cp = 4187 J/kg. K. (i) Temperature of oil when pipe leaves the lake,
It also gives To = 19°C, the other properties of (ii) The rate of heat transfer from the oil, and
fluid at 14.5°C (iii) The pumping power required to overcome the
pressure losses and to maintain the flow of oil in the pipe.
ρ = 999 kg/m3, kf = 0.595 W/m.K,
Solution
µ = 1167 × 10–6 kg/ms, Pr = 8.31.
Given : Ti = 20°C um = 2 m/s
ρum D 4m D = 30 cm = 0.3 m L = 200 m
ReD = =
µ πDµ Ts = 0°C.
4 × (12 / 3600)
= = 363
π × 0.01 × 1167 × 10 −6
which is less than 2300, thus the flow is laminar. The Oil
thermal entry length Ti = 20°C 2 m/s
Oil D = 0.3 m To
xeth = 0.05 ReDPr.D

= 0.05 × 363 × 8.31 × 0.01 = 1.5 m
Hence at exit of 4 m long tube, the flow is fully
developed. Icy lake at 0°C
For constant wall heat flux, eqn. (9.60) gives L = 200 m
Nu = 4.36 Fig. 9.16. Schematic of pipeline passing icy lake

INTERNAL FLOW 307
To find : which is very close to assumed value, and now

(i) The temperature of oil leaves the lake. 20 + 19.75
Tm = = 19.875°C
(ii) Heat transfer rate to lake. 2
(iii) Pumping power to overcome the frictional The physical properties of oil hardly change for
losses. temperature difference of 0.125°C. We consider it as a
temperature of oil leaving the lake. Ans.
Assumptions :
(i) Steady state conditions. (ii) The rate of heat transfer from oil can be
calculated as
(ii) The fully developed flow.
(iii) Constant properties. Q= m Cp (Ti – To)
Analysis : The temperature of oil leaving the icy = 125.5 × 1880 × (20 – 19.75)
lake is not known, hence, the mean temperature of oil = 58985 W. Ans.
cannot be evaluated, we take properties of oil at 20°C (iii) For laminar, hydrodynamically developed
from Table A-7 flow
ρ = 888 kg/m3, kf = 0.145 W/m.K, 64 64
f= = = 0.0961
µ = 0.8 kg/m/s, ν = 901 × 10–6 m2/s, Re D 666
Cp = 1880 J/kgK, Pr = 10400, Fluid pressure drop in pipe
µs = 3.85 kg/m/s (at 0°C). L ρum 2
(i) The Reynolds number ∆p = f
D 2
um D 2 × 0.3 200 888 × (2) 2
ReD = = = 666 ∆p = 0.0961 × ×
ν 901 × 10 −6 0.3 2
which is less than 2300, thus flow is laminar. The entry = 113782 Pa = 113.78 kPa
length of tube in this case The pumping power required
xeth = 0.05 ReD Pr. D = 0.05 × 666 × 10400 × 0.3 m

= 103885 m W pump = ρ ∆p
which is much greater than the total length of pipe. We 125.5

assume thermally developed flow and use eqn. (9.62) W pump = 888 × 113.78 = 16.08 kW. Ans.
FG D IJ FG µ IJ
1/3 0.14
H
NuD = 1.86 Re D Pr
L K Hµ K s
9.7. FLOW INSIDE A NON-CIRCULAR DUCT
FG 0.3 IJ 1/3
FG 0.8 IJ 0.14 The friction factor, heat transfer coefficient and other
H
= 1.86 × 666 × 10400 ×
200 K ×
H 3.85 K quantities have been discussed so far for fully developed
tube flow. Many engineering applications involve flow
= 32.47 of fluid inside ducts of non-circular cross-section. All the
Nu D kf 32.47 × 0.145 expressions and charts (like Moody chart) are equally
and h= = = 15.70 W/m2.K applicable to ducts of non-circular cross-section, if the
D 0.3
tube diameter D is replaced by the hydraulic diameter
π 2
= ρ um Ac = ρ um
m D Dh as
4 4A c
Dh = ...(9.63)
π P
= 888 × 2 × × (0.3)2 = 125.5 kg/s. where Ac = cross-sectional area of flow, and
4
The temperature of oil leaving icy lake can be P = wetted perimeter
obtained by eqn. (9.46) Dh = D for a circular tube,
F h PL I since Ac = (π/4) D2 and
m JK P = πD = 2w (= 2 width) for flow between two
parallel plates
FG 15.70 × π × 0.3 × 200 IJ 2ab
= 0 – (0 – 20) exp −
H 125.5 × 1880 K =
(a + b)
, for a rectangular duct of sides a
= 19.75°C and b.
Then the Reynolds number and Nusselt number zero near the sharp corners. Therefore, for certain
for non-circular ducts are defined as situations, the approximation for non-circular ducts, by
um D h using hydraulic diameter concept is not proper.
Re = ...(9.64)
ν The fully developed laminar flow equations for
h Dh friction factor, heat transfer coefficient, etc., can readily
Nu = ...(9.65)
kf be solved for any shape of cross-section. Shah and
For non-circular ducts, the turbulent flow occurs London discussed an outstanding number of such
for Re > 2300. With non-circular ducts, the heat transfer solution to almost every possible duct shape. A partial
coefficient varies around the perimeter and approaches list of their solutions is presented in Table 9.1.
TABLE 9.1. Nusselt number and friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in tubes of
various cross-sections
Cross-section of tube a/b Nusselt number Friction

or θ° factor f Remark
Ts = const. qs = const.
64 4A c
Circle — 3.66 4.36 Dh=
D Re P
60.2 umDh
Hexagon — 3.35 4.00 Re =
Re ν
56.92 hDh
Square — 2.98 3.61 Nu =
Re kf
a/b
Rectangle 2.98 3.61 56.92/Re
1
b
2 3.39 4.12 62.20/Re
3 3.96 4.79 68.36/Re
a 4 4.44 5.33 72.92/Re
6 5.14 6.05 78.80/Re
8 5.60 6.49 82.32/Re
∞ 7.54 8.24 96.00/Re
a/b
Ellipse 3.66 4.36 64.00/Re
1
2 3.74 4.56 67.28/Re
b
4 3.79 4.88 72.96/Re
8 3.72 5.09 76.60/Re
a
16 3.65 5.18 78.16/Re
θ
Triangle 1.61 2.45 50.80/Re
10°
30° 2.26 2.91 52.28/Re
60° 2.47 3.11 53.32/Re
90° 2.34 2.98 52.60/Re
120° 2.00 2.68 50.96/Re
INTERNAL FLOW 309
Example 9.8. Engine oil at 60°C flows at 0.5 kg/s in a The velocity of fluid
duct with constant surface temperature of 20°C.
Assuming fully developed flow, calculate (i) heat flux at
m m 0.5
um = = =
entry (ii) pressure drop per metre length for 3 cm π π
ρA c ρ D 2 876 × × (0.03) 2
diameter tube and for a 3 × 1 rectangular duct of equal 4 4
wall area. = 0.8074 m/s
Solution The Reynolds number of tube flow
Given : Flow of oil in a duct at constant surface 0.8074 × 0.03
um D
temperature ReD = = = 101
ν 0.24 × 10 −3
Ts = 20°C Re < 2300. The flow is definitely laminar.

Engine oil (i) With assumption of fully developed flow in tube
0.5 kg/s
D = 3 cm of constant surface temperature. From Table 9.1
60°C
Nu = 3.66
L
Fig. 9.17. (a) Flow through circular tube Nu kf 3.66 × 0.144
h= =
Ti = 60°C, = 0.5 kg/s,
m D 0.03
Ts = 20°C. = 17.57 W/m2.K.
To find : The heat flux at entry of tube

q = h(Ts – Ti) = 17.57 × (20 – 60)
(a) For tube (D = 0.03 m), flow
= – 702.7 W/m2. Ans.
(i) heat flux, and (ii) pressure drop per metre
length, (ii) The friction factor
(b) For rectangular duct (3 × 1), 64 64

f= = = 0.633
(i) heat flux, and (ii) pressure drop per metre Re 101
length. The pressure drop per metre length, eqn. (9.21)
Assumptions : f ρum 2
∆p 0.633 876 × (0.8074) 2
1. Steady state conditions, = . = ×
L D 2 0.03 2
2. Constant properties. = 6031 Pa/m. Ans.
Analysis : The exit temperature of fluid is not (b) Rectangular duct (3 × 1) with same wall area
known. The flow is fully developed and we consider that For duct of side a
the fluid exit temperature will be close to
As = PL = 2(a + 3a) L = π DL
Ts = 20°C,
or 8a = π × 0.03 × 1
60 + 20 or a = 0.0118 m = 1.18 mm
Thus Tm = = 40°C
2
The properties of engine oil, at 40°C from L
Table A-5 3a
ρ = 876 kg/m3, kf = 0.144 W/m.K,
Engine oil
ν = 0.24 × 10–3 m2/s. Cp = 1.96 kJ/kg.K. 0.5 kg/s
a
60°C
(a) For flow through tube of D = 0.03 m
Dh = D = 0.03 m Fig. 9.17. (b) Flow through rectangular (3 × 1) duct
Its hydraulic diameter, Comparison : The rectangular duct has more

4A c 4(a × 3a) 12a heat flux and pressure drop. For the tube
Dh = = =
P 2(a + 3a) 8 q 702.7
= 1.5 × 0.0118 = 0.0177 m = = 0.1164 W/Pa.m
(∆p/L) 6031
The fluid velocity
For rectangular duct
m m 0.5
um = = = q 1288.7
ρA c ρ(3a ) 876 × 3 × (0.0118) 2
2
= = 0.0411 W/Pa.m
= 1.367 m/s ∆p/L 31352
The corresponding Reynolds number 0.1164 − 0.411
or × 100 = 65%
u D 1.367 × 0.0177 0.1164
Re D h = m h = = 100.77
ν 0.24 × 10 −3 The rectangular duct requires 65% more power
The flow is again laminar, for fully developed flow for same pressure drop. Thus circular duct is effective.
through constant temperature duct. From Table 9.1
a 9.8. THERMALLY DEVELOPING, HYDRO-
for =3.
b DYNAMICALLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR
68.36
Nu = 3.96 and f = FLOW
ReDh
Nu kf 3.96 × 0.144 Consider a fluid flow inside a duct as shown in Fig. 9.18.
Thus h= = = 32.2 W/m2.K There is an isothermal section, in which velocity
Dh 0.0177
boundary layer develops. Then fluid enters into heat
(i) The heat flux at the entry of duct transfer zone, where thermal boundary layer begins to
q = h(Ts – Ti) = 32.2 × (20 – 60) develop. The region of thermal entry length xeth is called
= – 1288.7 W/m2. Ans. the hydrodynamically developed, thermally developing
(ii) The friction factor region. It is the representation of physical situation for
fluids such as oils, that have a large Prandtl number,
68.36
f= = 0.678 for which the hydrodynamic entry length is smaller than
100.77
the thermal entry length. A classic solution for laminar
The pressure drop per metre
forced convection inside a circular tube, in thermally
∆p f ρum 2 0.678 876 × (1.367) 2 developing region for constant wall temperature and
= = ×
L Dh 2 0.0177 2 constant wall heat flux was given by Graetz and the
= 31352 Pa/m. Ans. results are shown in Fig. 9.19.
Isothermal section Heat transfer section
u0
0 x
Ti d dth
xe xeth
Fig. 9.18. Hydrodynamically developed, thermal developing region concept
In Fig. 9.19, the local Nusselt number for laminar x/D x/D
flow inside a tube is plotted against the dimensionless (Gz)–1 = = ...(9.66)
Re. Pr Pe
parameter (x/D)/(Re.Pr), where x is the axial distance
along the tube measured from the beginning of heated where Pe = the Peclet number, a product of Reynolds
section. The inverse of this dimensionless parameter is and Prandtl numbers.
called the Graetz number, Gz : D = inside diameter of the tube
INTERNAL FLOW 311
15
Constant surface
Heat flux
D
NuD, local Nusselt number
10 0.001
Developing region Developed region
5
4.36 4.36
Constant 3.66 3.66
wall temperature
0
0.010 0.100 1.0
–1 x/D
(Gz) = ———
Re Pr
Fig. 9.19. Local Nusselt number for thermally developing, hydrodynamically

developed laminar flow inside a circular tube
For an isothermal wall, Hausen suggested an All the fluid properties are evaluated at fluid bulk
empirical relation for Nusselt number in thermally mean temperature except µs, which is evaluated at Ts.
developing region.
1 + 0.0018 Gz 1/3 9.9. HEAT TRANSFER IN TURBULENT FLOW
Local NuD = 3.66 + −2/3 2 ...(9.67)
(0.04 + Gz ) INSIDE A CIRCULAR TUBE
0.668 Gz
Mean Nu = 3.66 + ...(9.68) The fully developed laminar flow has limited applications
1 + 0.04(Gz) 2/3
to engineering problems. However, the turbulent flow is
Re Pr
where , Gz = more commonly used in practice because of the high heat
L/D
transfer coefficient associated with it.
L = distance from the inlet ...(9.69)
A qualitative illustration for turbulent behaviour
The eqns. (9.67) and (9.68) are valid for Gz < 100
and all properties are evaluated at fluid bulk mean can be understood by schematic shown in Fig. 9.20. At
temperature. As length L increases, Nu approaches the Reynolds number above 4000, the flow inside a tube
asymptotic value 3.66. becomes fully turbulent, except for a very thin layer of
fluid adjacent to the wall, called the viscous (laminar)
A rather simple empirical correlation has been
sublayer. The turbulent eddies are damped in the viscous
suggested by Sieder and Tate to predict the mean
sublayer as a result of viscous forces, and therefore, the
Nusselt number in the thermally developing region for
heat transfer through this layer is mainly by conduction.
laminar flows, for constant wall temperature,
The flow beyond this layer is turbulent in central core.
FµI 0.14
The turbulent eddies sweep the edges of layer and carry
NuD = 1.86 (Gz)1/3 GH µ JK
s
...(9.70) along them the fluid at layer temperature. The eddies
mix the hotter and colder fluids effectively and the heat
It is recommended for is transferred rapidly between viscous sublayer and
0.48 < Pr < 16,700 turbulent bulk of the fluid. It is evident that the thermal
resistance of viscous layer controls the rate of heat
µ
0.0044 < < 9.75 transfer, because most of the temperature drop takes
µs place across it, while turbulent portion of flow field offers
FµI 0.14 a little resistance to heat flow. Thus the heat transfer
(Gz)1/2 GH µ JK
s
>2 in the turbulent flow is composite of heat transfer in
viscous sublayer and turbulent core and it increases with
Ts = constant. increase in Reynolds number.
Edge of viscous The eqn. (9.75) is called the Reynolds analogy

or laminar
sublayer for tube flow. It relates the heat transfer rate to the
Edge of buffer frictional losses in the tube flow for gases with Pr ≈ 1.
or transitional
layer 9.9.2. Correlation for Turbulent Flow
Turbulent core Substituting the friction factor, f from eqn. (9.19), for
Turbulent eddies the Reynolds number range 2300 ≤ ReD ≤ 1 × 104
0.316
StD Pr2/3 = Re–1/4
Fig. 9.20. Flow structure for a fluid in turbulent 8
flow through a pipe Nu D
or Pr2/3 = 0.0395 Re–1/4
The analysis of heat transfer coefficient in Re D Pr
turbulent flow is somewhat difficult and moreover, the
or NuD = 0.0395 ReD3/4 Pr1/3 ...(9.76)
theoretical results are not very useful. Most of the
correlations for the friction factor and heat transfer A similar equation exists by substituting f from
coefficient are based on experimental studies. An eqn. (9.20) for the Re > 2 × 104
analogy between heat and momentum transfer is NuD = 0.023 ReD0.8 Pr1/3 ...(9.77)
discussed below. which is known as the Colburn equation. The accuracy
of this equation is improved by Dittus and Boelter by
9.9.1. Analogy between Heat and Momentum Transfer in
modifying it as
Turbulent Flow through Tube
NuD = 0.023 Re0.8 Prn ...(9.78)
The analogy between heat and momentum transfer for
turbulent flow inside a circular tube is very similar to where n = 0.4 for heating of fluid (Ts > Tm)
that for laminar flow over a flat plate and given by = 0.3 for cooling of fluid (Ts< Tm).
eqn. (9.71). The eqn. (9.78) is known as the Dittus-Boelter
C fx equation, and it is preferred to Colburn equation. Its
Stx Pr2/3 = ...(9.71) validity for
2
The definition of skin coefficient Cf can be L
0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 160; ReD ≥ 10,000 and ≥ 10
obtained from eqn.(9.16) D
This equation should be used only for small
Cf τs
= to moderate temperature difference (Ts – Tm), with all
2 ρ um 2 properties are evaluated at mean temperature of
and the definition of friction factor f is given by fluid i.e.,
eqn. (9.18) Ti + To
f = 4Cf Tm =
2
Cf f τs In situation of large variation in the properties
∴ = = ...(9.72) the Sieder-Tate equation should be used
2 8 ρum 2
Substituting Cf from eqn. (9.72) into eqn. (9.71), FµI 0.14
it takes the form for flow in tube as Nu = 0.027 Re0.8 Pr1/3 GH µ JK

s
...(9.79)
f Its validity is 0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 16,700
StD Pr2/3 = ...(9.73)
8 ReD ≥ 10,000
It is called the Chilton Colburn analogy for
L
turbulent flow inside a smooth tube. The dimensionless ≥ 10
quantity StD is the Stanton number for tube flow, given as D
All the fluid properties are evaluated at mean
Nu D h fluid temperature except µs, which is evaluated at wall
StD = = ...(9.74)
Re D Pr ρ um C p temperature Ts.
For gases with Prandtl number very close to A correlation similar to eqn. (9.78), but restricted
unity, (Pr = 1), the eqn. (9.73) reduces to to gases was proposed by Kays and London for long ducts
FT I n
StD =
f
8
...(9.75) NuD = C Re0.8
D Pr
0.3
GH T JK
m
s
...(9.80)
INTERNAL FLOW 313
where all the fluid properties are evaluated at bulk or The Gnielinsky eqns. (9.81) and (9.82) can be
mean fluid temperature Tm. The constant C and expressed in composite form and can be used for rough
exponent n are surface tubes.
RS0.020 for uniform surface temperature, ( f /8) (Re D − 1000) Pr
C=
T0.021 for uniform heat flux
NuD =
1 + 12.7 ( f /8) 1/2 (Pr 2 / 3 − 1)
R0.575
n= S
for heating LM1 + F D I OP
2/3
T0.150 for cooling

N H LK Q
...(9.83)
The eqns. (9.76), (9.77), (9.78) and (9.79) have
valid for 0 < D/L < 1, 0.6 < Pr < 2000, and ReD > 2300,
significant uncertainties as high as 20%. For internal
turbulent flows, the correlations suggested by Gnielinsky where the friction factor f is obtained either by using
have much better accuracy with uncertainties upto 6% the Moody chart (Fig. 9.5) or the Colebrook formula to
only. The correlations are evaluate the friction factor,
LM FG D IJ OP R|F ε I + 1.87 U|
S|GH r JK Re f V|
2/3
MN H L K PQ
NuD = 0.0214 (Re 0.8 – 100) Pr0.4 1 + f –1/2 = 1.74 – 2 log10 ...(9.84)
To D W
...(9.81) where ε = average surface asperty height.
All the fluid properties at Tm are valid for
In order to improve the accuracy by accounting
0.5 < Pr < 1.5, 2300 < ReD < 106, the variation of fluid properties due to temperature
D change, Gnielinsky suggested that NuD should be
and 0< < 1. multiplied by
L
and NuD = 0.012 (ReD0.87 – 280) Pr0.4 FT I 0.45
F Pr I 0.11
LM1 + FG D IJ OP
2/3 GH T JKm
s
for gases and G
H Pr JKs
for liquids.
MN H L K PQ ...(9.82)
The absolute temperature Ts and Prs should be
evaluated at surface temperature Ts.
The fluid properties at Tm are valid for
1.5 < Pr < 500, 2300 < ReD < 106 More complex correlations have been proposed
by Petukhov and Popov, and Sleicher and Rouse. Their
and 0 < D/L < 1
results are presented in Table 9.2.
TABLE 9.2. Heat transfer correlations for liquids and gases in incompressible
fluid flow through tubes
Name of equation Formulaa Conditions for use
Dittus-Boelter NuD = 0.023 ReD0.8 Prn 0.7 < Pr < 160

RS= 0.4 for heating
n
T= 0.3 for cooling 6000 < ReD < 107
FµI 0.14
Sieder-Tate NuD = 0.027 ReD0.8 Pr0.3 GH µ JK

s
6000 < ReD < 107
0.7 < Pr < 104
( f /8) ReD Pr
Petukhov-Popov Nu D = 0.5 < Pr < 2000
K 1 + K 2 ( f /8)1/2 (Pr 2 / 3 − 1)
where f = (1.82 log10 ReD – 1.64)–2 104 < ReD < 5 × 106
K1 = 1 + 3.4f
1.8
K2 = 11.7 +
Pr 1/3
Sleicher-Rouse NuD = 5 + 0.015 ReDa Prsb 0.1 < Pr < 105
0.24
where a = 0.88 – 104 < ReD < 106
4 + Prs
b = 1/3 + 0.5 e − 0.6 Prs
‘‘All properties are evaluated at the bulk fluid temperature Tm except properties with subscript, they are evaluated at
surface temperature Ts.”
Fig. 9.21 shows a comparison of these equations To find : The heat transfer coefficient by using
with experimental data at Pr = 0.6 for water at 26.7°C. different correlations.
10
3
Assumptions :
Sleicher - Rouse
(i) Steady state conditions,
Petukhov - Popov (ii) Conduction and radiation effects are
Dittus - Boelter negligible,
Sieder - Tate (iii) Constant Properties.
Nusselt number, NuD
5 Analysis : The properties of water at Tm = 280°C

Experimental data from Table A-7 ;
4 ρ = 756 kg/m3, Cp = 5.24 kJ/kg.K,
–6
µ = 97 × 10 kg/ms, kf = 0.580 W/m.K,
3 Pr = 0.87, µs = 106 × 10–6 kg/ms
(at 250°C).
Reynolds number
2
ρum D 756 × 3 × 0.025
ReD = = = 584536
µ 97 × 10 −6
Re > 2300, thus the flow is turbulent.
(i) Using Colburn eqn. (9.77)
2
Nu D = 0.023 Re 0.8
D Pr
1/3
10
= 0.023 × (584536)0.8 × (0.87)1/3 = 901
4 5 5
3 × 10 10 2 × 10
Reynolds number, ReD
Average heat transfer coefficient
Fig. 9.21. Comparison of predicted and measured Nusselt
number for turbulent flow of water in a tube NuD kf 901 × 0.580
h= =
(26.7°C ; Pr = 6.0) D 0.025
2
= 20917 W/m .K. Ans.
Example 9.9. Steam is generated on the surface of tubes
(ii) Using Dittus-Boelter eqn. (9.78), with n = 0.3
(surrounded by water) with pressurized water flowing
for cooling ;
inside the tubes of a heat exchanger. At a particular
section, the velocity of the water in the tubes is 3 m/s. NuD = 0.023 Re0.8
D Pr
0.3 = 906
and 2
h = 21015 W/m .K. Ans.
The inside diameter of the tubes is 25 mm and the tube
surfaces are at 250°C. Find the convective heat transfer (iii) Using Sieder-Tate eqn. (9.79)
coefficient by different correlations at a section where
FµI 0.14
the bulk temperature of the pressurized water is 280°C. NuD = 0.027 0.8
ReD Pr1/3 GH µ JK
This section is 2.5 m from the entrance of the water to s
the tube. = 0.027 × (584536)0.8 × (0.87)1/3

F 97 × 10 I −6 0.14
H 106 × 10 JK
×G
Solution
−6 = 1045
Ts = 250°C
and h = 24252 W/m2.K. Ans.
um = 3 m/s (iv) Using Gnielinsky eqn. (9.81) for 0 < Pr < 1.5
= 0.025 m
NuD = 0.0214 (ReD0.8 – 100) Pr0.4

LM1 + FG D IJ OP
D
2/3
MN H L K PQ
Ti
Water L = 2.5 m
Tm = 280°C 0.8
= 0.0214 × [(584536) – 100) × (0.87)] 0.4
Fig. 9.22. Schematic for example 9.9 L F 0.025 IJ OP = 867.6

× M1 + G
2/3
Given : For given section

um = 3 m/s, Tm = 280°C, Ts = 250°C,
MN H 2.5 K PQ
and h = 20128 W/m2.K. Ans.
D = 25 mm, L = 2.5 m.
INTERNAL FLOW 315
The Colburn, Dittus-Boelter and Gnielinsky formed between a 25 mm -OD tube and a 38 mm in-ID
equations give almost similar result, except, the result tube. The water enters at 100°C and is being cooled. The
obtained by Sieder-Tate equation which is over temperature of the inner wall is 50°C, and the outer wall
predicted. of the annulus is insulated. Neglect entrance effects and
compare the results obtained from all four equations in
Example 9.10. Determine the Nusselt number for water
Table 9.2. The properties of water are given below :
flowing at an average velocity of 3 m/s in an annulus
T (°C) µ, kg/ms kf , W/m.K ρ, kg/m3 Cp, J/kg.K Pr

50 555.1 × 10–6 0.647 988.1 4178 3.55
75 376.6 × 10–6 0.671 974.9 4190 2.23
100 277.5 × 10–6 0.682 958.4 4211 1.71
Solution The Prandtl number

Given : Flow of water through an annulus space
µC p 277.5 × 10 −6 × 4211
between two pipes as shown in Fig. 9.23 Pr = = = 1.71
kf 0.682
(i) The Nusselt number by using Dittus-Boelter
equation for cooling (n = 0.3)
Do = 38 mm Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.3
= 0.023 × (134694)0.8 × (1.71)0.3
Di = 25 mm
= 342.85. Ans.
Water 100°C (ii) The Nusselt number by using Sieder-Tate
equation
3 m/s Insulated at its outer surface
FµI 0.14
Fig. 9.23. Water flow through annulus space Nu = 0.027 Re0.8 Pr0.3 GH µ JK
s
Ti = 100°C, um = 3 m/s, = 0.027 × (134694)0.8 × (1.71)0.3
Ts = 50°C, Di = 25 mm = 0.025 m,
F 275.5 × 10 I −6 0.14
H 555.1 × 10 JK
×G
Do = 38 mm = 0.038 m. = 365. Ans.
−6
To find : The Nusselt number for water, by using
(i) Dittus-Boelter equation, (iii) The Nusselt number by using Petukhov-
Popov equation
(ii) Sieder-Tate equation,
f = (1.82 log10 Re – 1.64)–2
(iii) Petukhov-Popov equation, and
= [1.82 log10 × (134694) – 1.64]–2 = 0.0168
(iv) Sleicher-Rouse equation.
K1 = 1 + 3.4 f = 1 + 3.4 × 0.0168 = 1.0573
Analysis : The hydraulic diameter for annulus
space 1.8 1.8
K2 = 11.7 + 0.33
= 11.7 + = 13.2
Pr (1.71) 0.33
2 2
4 A c 4 × (π/4) (D o − D i )
Dh = = = Do – Di ( f /8)Re Pr
P π (D o + D i ) Nu =
K 1 + K 2 ( f /8) 1/2 (Pr 0.67 − 1)
= 38 mm – 25 mm = 13 mm = 0.013 m.
(0.0168/8) × 134694 × 1.71
Reynolds number based on Dh and bulk =
temperature properties at 100°C 1.0573 + 13.2 × (0.0168/8) 1/2
× [(1.71)0.67 − 1]
ρum D h 958.4 × 3 × 0.013
Re = = = 134694 = 370. Ans.
µ 277.5 × 10 − 6
(iv) The Nusselt number by using Sleicher-Rouse The physical properties of air (from Table A-7)
equation ρ = 1.112 kg/m3, Cp = 1007 J/kg.K,
a –7
µ = 191.68 × 10 Ns/m 2
Nu = 5 + 0.015 Re Prsb
0.24 0.24 kf = 27.41 × 10–3 W/m.K, Pr = 0.704
a = 0.88 – = 0.88 − = 0.848 The friction factor is obtained by eqn. (9.21)
4 + Prs 4 + 3.55
1 L ρum 2
1 0.5 ∆p = f
b = + 0.5 e −0.6 Prs = + 0.6 × 3.55 = 0.392 D 2
3 3 e
Nu = 5 + 0.015 × (134694)0.848 × (3.55)0.392 2∆pD 2 × 784.8 × 0.02
or f= = = 0.0313
= 556.4. Ans. ρum L 1.112 × (30) 2 × 1
2
It is over prediction. The Reynolds number

Example 9.11. Air flows with 30 m/s velocity through ρum D 1.112 × 30 × 0.02
ReD = = = 34808
a tube of 2 cm dia. and 1 m length. The air inlet µ 191.68 × 10 − 7
temperature is 20°C and its pressure is 101.3 kPa. The
pressure loss in the tube is 80 mm of water column. How which is greater than 2300, thus the flow is turbulent,
much heat is transferred from the wall to the air, when using Chilton Colburn analogy
the wall is kept at 95°C. Use Chilton Colburn analogy. h f  h 
Pr2/3 = where stD = 
Solution ρC pum 8  ρC pu∞ 
Given : Flow of air through a tube. h 0.0313
× (0.704) 2 / 3 =
To find : The heat transfer rate from tube to air. 1.112 × 1007 × 30 8
2
It gives h = 166 W/m .K.
Ts = 95°C
Now calculating exit temperature of air by using
Air eqn. (9.46) for constant wall temperature
um = 30 m/s
D = 2 cm F hPL I
Ti = 20°C
p = 101.3 kPa
m JK
L=1m
FG π IJ D
Dp = 80 mm
of
where = ρum
m
H 4K 2
H2O
FG π IJ × (0.02) = 0.010 kg/s
= 1.112 × 30 ×
H 4K 2
Assumptions : Then To = 95 – (95 – 20) exp FG − 166 × (π × 0.02) × 1IJ

H 0.010 × 1007 K
= 68.38°C
(ii) Fully developed flow.
which is very close to assumed value of 66°C. Thus
(iii) Density of water as 1000 kg/m3.
keeping it 68.38°C as exit temperature of air for any
Analysis : The pressure drop in N/m2 (Pa) further calculations.
∆p = (ρgh) H 2O Heat transfer rate by pipe = Heat gain by air
80 Q= m Cp(To – Ti)
= 1000 × 9.81 × = 784.8 Pa = 0.010 × 1007 × (68.38 – 20)
1000
The exit temperature is unknown, the mean fluid = 487 W. Ans.
temperature cannot be obtained, and thus appropriate Example 9.12. Water at 50°C enters 1.5 cm diameter
physical properties of air. and 3 m long tube with a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The tube
Assuming exit temperature of air to be 66°C wall is maintained at 100°C. Calculate the heat transfer
66 + 20 coefficient and total amount of heat transferred if the
Tm = = 43°C = 316 K water exit temperature is 70°C.
2
INTERNAL FLOW 317
Solution Example 9.13. Water at 20°C enters a 2 cm diameter

Given : Flow through tube with. tube with a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The tube is maintained
at 100°C. Find the tube length required to heat the water
Ts = 100°C to a temperature of 60°C. (Anna Univ, March 2001)
Water
um = 1.5 m/s D = 1.5 cm To = 70°C Solution
Ti = 50°C Given : Flow through tube.
L=3m Ts = 100°C
Water
um = 1.5 m/s
D = 2 cm To = 60°C
To find : Ti = 20°C
(i) The heat transfer coefficient.
L=?
(ii) Heat transfer rate.
Properties : The mean temperature Fig. 9.26. Schematic for tube flow
50 + 70 To find : Length of tube to exit temperature at
Tm = = 60°C. 60°C.
2
The properties of water at 60°C (from Table A-7) Properties : The mean water temperature
ρ = 990 kg/m3, ν = 0.517 × 10–6 m2/s, Ti + To 20 + 60
Tm = = = 40°C
Cp = 4184 J/kg.K, kf = 0.65 W/m.K, 2 2
The properties of water at 40°C from Table A-7
Pr = 3.15.
Pr = 4.31, ρ = 992.2 kg/m3,
Cp = 4174 J/kg.K kf = 0.634 W/m.K,
um D (1.5 m/s) × (0.015 m) ν = 0.659 × 10–6 m2/s.
ReD = = = 43520
ν (0.517 × 10 − 6 m 2 /s) Analysis : The Reynolds number of fluid flow
ReD > 2300, hence flow is turbulent. um D (1.5 m / s) × (0.02 m)
ReD = = = 45523.5
(i) Using Dittus Boelter equation, for ν (0.659 × 10 −6 m 2 /s)
heating of water ReD > 2300, flow is turbulent and Dittus Boelter
NuD = 0.023ReD 0.8 Pr0.4 equation can be used to obtain NuD.
NuD = 0.023 ReD0.8 Pr0.4
= 0.023 × (43520)0.8 × (3.15)0.4 = 187
= 0.023 × (45523.5)0.8 × (4.31)0.4 = 219.84
Nu D kf
187 × 0.65 And the heat transfer coefficient.
h= =
D 0.015 kf 0.634
2
= 8106 W/m .K. Ans. h = NuD × = 219.84 ×
D 0.02
(∆T)lm log mean temperature difference is calculated as = 6969 W/m2.K
The mass flow rate;
∆Ti – ∆To
(∆T)lm =
FG IJ
∆Ti = ρumAc = ρum(π/4). D2
m
ln
H K
∆To = 992.2 × 1.5 × (π/4) × (0.02 m)2
= 0.467 kg/s
(100 – 50) – (100 – 70) Using the relation (9.48) for constant tube wall
=
FG100 – 50 IJ = 39.15°C
temperature in the form
ln
H100 – 70 K FT −T I
(ii) The rate of heat transfer:
L=
Cp
m
πDh
× ln GH T − T JK
s
s
i
Q = h(πDL)(∆T)lm 0.467 × 4174 FG

100 − 20 IJ
= 8106 × (π × 0.015 × 3) × 39.15 L=
(π × 0.02) × 6969
× ln
100 − 60H K
= 44867 W ≈ 44.86 kW. Ans. = 3.08 m. Ans.
Example 9.14. A water heater consists of a 25 mm (i) Determine the exit temperature and the heat
diameter tube inside a second coaxial tube. Water at 10°C transfer rate, if the tube is 10 m long.
enters the inner tube at 0.8 kg/s. Condensing steam in (ii) What should be the length of the tube for the
the annulus maintains the temperature of the inner tube exit temperature of the water to be 70°C ?
at 90°C.
Steam
Outer tube
Water Steam
Inner tube
Steam
Condensate Water Ts = 90°C
Ti = 10°C
.
m = 0.8 kg/s 25 mm
Steam L
Condensate
Fig. 9.27. Schematic of coaxial tube for example 9.14
Solution Assuming water exit temperature to be 70°C,

Given : Fluid flow through a water heater then
Ti = 10°C 10 + 70
Tm = = 40°C,
m = 0.8 kg/s, Ts = 90°C 2
D = 25 mm = 0.025 m. and properties of water from Table A-7
To find : ρ = 992.2 kg/m3, Cp = 4175 J/kg.K,
(i) Exit temperature, To and heat transfer rate, if Pr = 4.19, µ = 633.7 × 10–6 kg/ms,
L = 10 m. kf = 0.631 W/m.K.
(ii) Length of the tube for exit temperature The Reynolds number for flow inside a tube
To = 70°C.
ρum D 4 m
Assumptions : ReD = =
µ πDµ
1. Steady state conditions,
2. Heat transfer begins at inlet to the tube, 4 × 0.8
= = 64295
3. Entrance length is small compared with the π × 0.025 × 633.7 × 10 − 6
total length of the tube, and the correlations for fully The ReD > 2300, the flow is turbulent, thus using
developed conditions are applicable, Dittus-Boelter equation for heating of water (n = 0.4)
4. The convective heat transfer coefficient, NuD = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
determined at the mean of the bulk temperatures at
= 0.023 × (64295)0.8 × (4.19)0.4 = 286.5
inlet and exit, is uniform.
Analysis : (i) Since the exit temperature of water Nu D kf286.5 × 0.631
and h= =
is unknown, it is difficult to predict the mean D 0.025
temperature of fluid, and thus calculation of heat 2
= 7232 W/m .K
transfer coefficient.
INTERNAL FLOW 319
For constant surface temperature, the exit Solution

temperature of water can be determined from eqn. (9.46) Given : Uniform heating of the tube:
F hPL I
= T – (T – T ) exp G −
2
H m C JK
q W/m
To s s i
p 200 kPa
u¥ = 10 m/s
Air D = 25 mm
= 90 – (90 – 10) 200°C DTav = 20°C
F 7232 × π × 0.025 × 10 IJ = 75.4°C
× exp G −
H 0.8 × 4175 K L=3m
which is very close to assumed value, an improvement
can be made by assuming To = 75.4°C, and Tm = 42.7°C, To find :
we get (i) Heat transfer rate per unit length of the tube.
h = 7406 and Cp = 4174 J/kg.K (ii) Bulk temperature rise over 3 m length of the
To = 76°C. Ans. tube.
The heat transfer rate Assumptions :
Q= m Cp(To – Ti) = 0.8 × 4174 × (76 – 10) 1. Steady state heat transfer conditions.
= 220387.2 W. Ans. 2. Fully developed flow through a tube.
(ii) Length of heat exchanger for To = 70°C 3. Conduction and radiation effects are negligible.
The heat transfer rate to water Properties of air : The properties of air at
temperature of 200°C (from Table A-4)
Q= m Cp(To – Ti) = 0.8 × 4175 × (70 – 10)
Cp = 1.025 kJ/kg.K, kf = 0.0386 W/m.K,
= 200400 W
The heat transfer coefficient as determined above µ = 2.57 × 10–5 kg/ms, Pr = 0.681.
for assumed exit temperature of 70°C. Analysis : The density of air at 200 kPa and
h = 7232 W/m2.K. 200°C is
∆T1 = 90 – 10 = 80°C p 200 kPa
ρ= =
∆T2 = 90 – 70 = 20°C RT (0.287 kJ/kg .K) × (473 K)
= 1.473 kg/m3
∆T1 − ∆T2 80 − 20 The Reynolds number of flow is
∆Tlm =
FG ∆T IJ =
FG IJ
80
= 43.2°C
ln
H ∆T K
2
1 ln
H K
20
ρum D
ReD =
µ
=
1.473 × 10 × 0.025
2.57 × 10 −5
= 14332
Then the length of tube can be determined by Since ReD > 2300, hence the flow is turbulent.
eqn. (9.50) Using Dittus Boelter equation ;
Q = hAs ∆Tlm = h(πDL) ∆Tlm hD
NuD = 0.8 Pr0.4
= 0.023 ReD
200400 kf
or L=
7232 × (π × 0.025) × 43.2 = 0.023 (14332)0.8 × (0.681)0.4 = 41.69
= 8.15 m. Ans. kf 0.0386
or h= NuD = × 41.69
Example 9.15. Air at 200 kPa and 200°C is heated as it D 0.025
flows through a tube with a diameter of 25 mm at a = 64.37 W/m2.K.
velocity of 10 m/s. Calculate the heat transfer rate per (i) The heat transfer rate per metre length :
unit length of the tube, if a constant heat flux condition
is maintained at the wall and the wall temperature is Q
= h(πD)∆Tav
20°C above the air temperature, all along the length of L
the tube. How much would the bulk temperature increase = 64.37 × (π × 0.025) × (20)
over 3 m length of the tube ? = 101.1 W/m. Ans.
(ii) Bulk temperature rise : Analysis : The Reynolds number of fluid flow is
Making the energy balance over 3 m length of um D 4m
4m
Re = = =
the tube ; ν π Dµ πDνρ
Heat supply rate = Enthalpy rise rate of the fluid 4m
=
Q π × 0.04 × 0.62 × 10 −6 × 995
×L= m
Cp(∆Tm)
L = 51598.3 m
where m is mass flow rate of the air and it can be µ Cp ν ρ Cp
And Pr = =
calculated by Continuity equation, kf kf
πD 2 0.62 × 10 −6 × 995 × 4174
= ρumAc = ρum
m =
4 0.64
= 4.02
π × (0.025) 2 Using relation,
= (1.473) × (10) ×
4 hD
Nu = = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
= 7.329 × 10–3 kg/s kf
Using mass flow rate in the energy balance 0.64
or )0.8 (4.02)0.4 ×
h = 0.023 × (51598.3 m
101.1 × 3 = 7.329 × 10–3 × (1025) × (∆Tm) 0.04
or ∆Tm = 40.37°C. Ans. or h = 0.023 × 5890 × 1.7451 ( m )0.8 × 16
= 3781.3 ( m )0.8 ...(i)
Example 9.16. Water at 20°C is to be heated by passing
Further using the eqn. (9.48) in the form
it through the tube. Surface of the tube is maintained at
90°C. The diameter of the tube is 4 cm, while its length
h=
m Cp
× ln
LM
Ts − Ti OP
is 9.0 m. Find the mass flow rate so that the exit πD L N
Ts − To Q
temperature of the water will be 60°C.
or h=
m × 4174
× ln
LM
90 − 20 OP
The properties of water are :
ρ = 995 kg/m3, Cp = 4.174 kJ/kg.K,
π × 0.04 × 9 N
90 − 60 Q
or h = 3127 m ...(ii)
kf = 0.64 W/m.K, ν = 0.62 × 10–6 m2/s, Equating eqns. (i) and (ii) ;
β = 4.25 × 10–3 K–1. 3127 m = 3781.3 ( m )0.8
Use relation Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4. 3781.3
(N.M.U., May 1998) or )0.2 =
(m = 1.2096
3127
Solution or m = 2.59 kg/s. Ans.
Given : The flow through tube as shown in Checking the validity of assumed turbulent flow.
Fig. 9.29. 4m 4 × 2.59
ReD = =
πDρν π × 0.04 × 995 × 0.62 × 10 −6
D = 4 cm Ts = 90°C
= 1.32 × 105
Water Water
The flow is turbulent, and above calculations are
Ti = 20°C To = 60°C
valid.
Example 9.17. A rectangular tube, 30 mm × 50 mm
L=9m carries water at a rate of 2 kg/s. Determine the length of
Fig. 9.29. Schematic tube required to heat water from 30°C to 50°C, if the
wall temperature is maintained at 90°C.
To find : The mass flow rate of water.
Use following properties of water at 40°C
Assumptions :
1. Steady state heat transfer conditions, ρ = 992.2 kg/m3, kf = 0.634 W/m.K
2. Fully developed turbulent flow, Cp = 4.174 J/kg.K µ = 6.531 × 10–4 kg/ms.
3. Conduction and radiation effects are negligible. (P.U., Nov. 2001)
INTERNAL FLOW 321
Solution Reynolds number

Given : A rectangular tube wall at constant ρum D h
temperature. Re =
µ
m = 2 kg/s, Ts = 90°C,
992.2 × 1.343 × 0.0375
Ti = 30°C, To = 50°C, = = 76557
6.531 × 10 −4
Ac = 30 mm × 50 mm.
Re > 2300, thus flow is turbulent,
To find : Length of the tube.
Prandtl number
Ts = 90°C
50 mm
µC p 6.531 × 10 −4 × 4174
Water
Pr = = = 4.3
30°C Water kf 0.634
2 kg/s 30 mm 50°C
Using Dittus Boelter Equation
T
hD h
90°C
Nu = = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
50°C kf
0.634
or h= × 0.023 × (76557)0.8 × (4.3)0.4
30°C 0.0375
L = 5628 W/m2.K.
Fig. 9.30. Schematic for example 9.17 Using numerical values in eqn. (i)
Analysis : The cross-section area of tube 166960 = 5628 × 0.16 L × 49.32
Ac = 0.03 m × 0.05 m = 0.0015 m2 or L = 3.76 m. Ans.
Perimeter, P = 2 × (0.03 + 0.05) = 0.16 m Example 9.18. A square channel of side 15 mm and
Surface area, length 2.0 m is a heat transfer problem carries water at
As = PL = 0.16 L a velocity of 6 m/s. The mean temperature of water along
Hydraulic diameter of the rectangular tube the length of channel is found to be 30°C, while the inner
channel surface temperature is 70°C. Calculate the heat
4A c 4 × 0.0015 transfer coefficient from channel wall to the water and
Dh = = = 0.0375 m heat transfer rate from channel to water. Use correlation
P 0.16
The length of the tube can be determined by using F Pr I 0.25
eqn. (9.50) Nu = 0.021 Re0.8 Pr0.43 GH Pr JK

s
Q = hAs∆Tlm ...(i)
The thermophysical properties are evaluated at
where Q= m Cp(To – Ti)
mean bulk temperature except Prs, which is evaluated
= 2 × 4.174 × (50 – 30) at channel surface temperature. Take equivalent
= 166.96 kW = 166960 W diameter as characteristic length of channel. The
∆T1 = 90 – 30 = 60°C, properties of water are :
∆T2 = 90 – 50 = 40°C ρ = 995.7 kg/m3, kf = 0.6175 W/m.K,
∆T1 − ∆T2 60 − 40 ν = 0.805 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 5.42 and
∆Tlm =
∆T1 FG=
IJ
60 FG IJ
= 49.32°C Prs = 2.55 at 70°C. (P.U., May 2000)
ln
∆T2 H
ln
K
40 H K Solution
Further, the h is not available and is to calculate. Given : Flow of water through a square channel.
The velocity of water through rectangular tube: To find :
= ρAcum
m (i) The heat transfer coefficient between channel
2 wall to flowing water.
um = = 1.343 m/s ...(ii) (ii) Heat transfer rate from channel to water.
992.2 × 0.0015
30°
C metal plates is attached to two end-plates, which are
C Tm = /s cooled by a liquid.
70° m
Ts = =6
um
z = 50 cm w = 100 cm
Water
Tm = 30°C 15 mm
Cold water
um = 6 m/s 2m
passages,
L = 1.5 m
8 mm diameter
15 mm
Fig. 9.31. Schematic of flow through square duct
Ts = 30°C
Assumptions :
(ii) Constant properties,
(iii) Smooth surface of channel. t = 6 mm End plate
(iv) No radiation heat transfer. Circuit boards mounted

Analysis : (i) For square channel, the hydraulic on metal plates
diameter Fig. 9.32. Cold water is circulated through passages in the
end plates of a computer to cool the circuit boards mounted
4A c 4 × 0.015 × 0.015 on metal plates attached to the end plate
Dh = = = 0.015 m
P 2 × (0.015 + 0.015) Consider a plate 100 cm wide, 50 cm deep, and
The Reynolds number 6 mm thick on which a circuit board is mounted
(Fig. 9.32). Several such plates are attached to two heavy
um D h 6 × 0.015
Re = = = 111801.2 end plates through each of which four, 8 mm diameter
ν 0.805 × 10 −6 passages are drilled. Cold water (with an additive to
Using given correlation suppress the freezing point) flows through the passages
Nu = 0.021 × (111801.2)0.8 × (5.42)0.43 and cools the end plates, which, in turn, cools the plates
on which the circuit boards are mounted as shown in
FG 5.42 IJ 0.25
Fig. 9.32. Water enters each passage at 0°C at 0.15 kg/s.
×
H 2.55 K = 573.4 The end plates, which are 1.5 m high, are at 30°C.
Estimate the heat transfer rate from the end plates to
The heat transfer coefficient the cooling water.
Nu kf 573.4 × 0.6175
h= = = 23605 W/m2.K. Solution
Dh 0.015 Given : Cooling arrangement for computer chips
(ii) Heat transfer rate Ti = 0°C, Ts = 30°C, t = 6 mm
Q = h (PL) (Ts – T∞) m = 0.15 kg/s, L = 1.5 m, w = 100 cm
= 23605 × (4 × 0.015 × 2) × (70 – 30) D = 8 mm, Np = 8 (passages), z = 50 cm
= 113305 W. Ans. To find : Heat transfer rate to the cooling water.
Example 9.19. In the manufacturing of modern Assumptions :
computers, one of the limiting factors is the rise in the (i) Steady state conditions.
temperature of the chips due to internal energy generation (ii) Constant Properties.
in the chips. The reliability of the chips decreases rapidly (iii) Fully developed flow of water in the tubes.
when the temperature goes above a certain value, typi-
Analysis : The exit temperature of water is
cally between 85°C and 100°C. Some high capacity
unknown and thus mean temperature of water cannot
components may require high thermal dissipation rate,
be calculated for obtaining physical properties.
which may reach 50 W/cm2 and, in some cases, even
200 W/cm2. Let us assume To = 14°C
One of the methods to cool a computer is to mount 0 + 14
Tm = = 7°C = 280 K
the circuit boards on a metal plate. An array of such 2
INTERNAL FLOW 323
The thermophysical properties of water at 280 K Solution

from Table A-7 Given : Flow of water through a rough tube
ρ = 1000 kg/m3, Cp = 4198 J/kg.K, ε = 0.075 mm, D = 15 mm = 0.015 m,
–6
µ = 1422 × 10 kg/ms, Ts = 95°C, = 0.1 kg/s,
m
kf = 0.582 W/m.K, Pr = 10.26 Ti = 10°C, To = 75°C.
The Reynolds number for tube flow
e = 0.075 mm
4m
ReD = Roughness
πDµ at the surface
4 × 0.15 Ts = 95°C
= = 16788
π × 8 × 10 −3 × 1422 × 10 −6 Water
.
m = 0.1 kg/s
It is greater than 2300, thus flow is turbulent, Ti = 10°C D = 15 mm To = 75°C
and Nusselt number for heating of water by
Dittus-Boelter equation
NuD = 0.023 ReD0.8 Pr0.4
To find : Length of tube for,
= 0.023 × (16788)0.8 × (10.26)0.4 = 140
(i) Rough tube surface,
The heat transfer coefficient (ii) Smooth tube surface.
Nu D kf 140 × 0.582 Assumptions :
h= = (i) Steady state conditions,
D 8 × 10 −3
(ii) Constant properties at Tm ,
= 10152 W/m2.K
(iii) Fully developed flow,
Before calculation of heat transfer rate, checking (iv) Heating starts as fluid enters the tube.
exit temperature of water by using eqn. (9.46) Analysis. The mean temperature of fluid
F hPL I T + To 10 + 75
m JK Tm = i
2
=
2
= 42.5°C ≈ 315 K
The properties of water, at 315 K from Table A-7
= 30 – (30 – 0)
ρ = 991 kg/m3, Cp = 4179 J/kg.K,
F 10152 × (π × 8 × 10 ) I −3
µ = 631 × 10–6 kg/ms, kf = 0.634 W/m.K,
G
× exp G −
× 1.5 J
JJ Pr = 4.16.
GH 0.15 × 4198
K
The Reynolds number
4m 4 × 0.1
ReD = = = 13452
= 13.86°C πDµ π × 0.015 × 631 × 10 −6
which is very close to assumed value of 14°C, thus taking It is greater than 2300, thus the flow is turbulent,
14°C as exit temperature of water, the heat transfer from Moody diagram, Fig. 9.5.
rate ε 0.075 U|
Q = Np m
Cp(To – Ti) D
=
15
= 0.005
V|
f = 0.036
= 8 × 0.15 × 4198 × (14 – 0)
Re D = 13452 W
(i) For rough tube surface,
= 70526 W. Ans. Using Gnielinsky eqn. (9.83) to predict the
Example 9.20. A water heater uses 15 mm diameter Nusselt number
copper pipe with a mean roughness height of 0.075 mm, ( f /8) {Re D − 1000} Pr
NuD =
which is heated electrically to a constant surface 1 + [12.7 ( f /8) (Pr 2 / 3 − 1)]
temperature of 95°C. The water enters the pipe at 0.1 kg/s (0.036/8) {13452 − 1000} × 4.16
and at a temperature of 10°C. What is the length of the =
1 + [12.7 × (0.036/8)
pipe required to achieve the water exit temperature of
× {(4.16) 2 / 3 − 1}]
75°C ? Compare the result with length required for a
perfectly smooth pipe. = 99.12
The heat transfer coefficient Assumptions :

Nu D kf 99.12 × 0.634 1. Fully developed flow.
h= = 2. Steady state conditions.
D 0.015
2 3. Constant properties.
= 4193 W/m .K
The length of the tube can be determined by using
eqn. (9.48) in the form 4m 4 × (1000/3600)
ReD = = = 0.196
Cp
m FT −T I πDµ π × 0.08 × 22.5
or L=–
hP
ln GH T − T JK
s
s
o
i
Prandtl number
µC p
0.1 × 4179 95 − 75 FG IJ Pr = =
22.5 × 2750
= 147321.42
=–
4193 × (π × 0.015)
× ln
95 − 10 H K The quantity
kf 0.42
= 3.06 m. Ans.
D 0.08
(ii) For smooth tube surface, the Dittus-Boelter ReD Pr = × 0.196 × 147321.42 = 1540
equation can be used to predict Nu (n = 0.4 for heating) L 1.5
Using given correlation
NuD = 0.023 ReD0.8 Pr0.4
= 0.023 × (13452)0.8 × (4.16)0.4 = 81.73 0.067 × 1540
Nu = 3.65 + = 74.28
1 + 0.04 × (1540) 1/3
81.73 × 0.634
h= = 3454.56 W/m2.K The average heat transfer coefficient
0.015
0.1 × 4179 95 − 75 FG IJ h=
Nu kf
=
74.28 × 0.42
= 390 W/m2.K
and L=–
3454.56 × π × 0.015
× ln
95 − 10 H K D 0.08
= 3.71 m. Ans. Using eqn. (9.46 ) for exit temperature of cheese
F h As I
Example 9.21. 1000 kg/h of cream cheese at 15°C is
pumped through 1.5 m length of 8 cm inner diameter
m JK
tube, which is maintained at 95°C. Estimate the = 95 – (95 – 15)
temperature of cheese leaving the heated section.
× exp −
LM 390 × π × 0.08 × 1.5 OP
The thermophysical properties of cheese are N (1000/3600) × 2750 Q
ρ = 1150 kg/m3, Cp = 2750 J/kg.K, = 29.0°C. Ans.
µ = 22.5 kg/ms, kf = 0.42 W/m.K. Example 9.22. Hot air flows with a mass flow rate of
0.05 kg/s through an uninsulated sheet metal duct of
Use the following correlation for laminar flow
diameter 0.15 m, which is located in a large room. The
inside the tube. hot air enters at 103°C and, after a distance of 5 m, cools
FG D Re IJ to 77°C. The heat transfer coefficient between the duct
Nu = 3.65 +
0.067
HL D Pr
K .
outer surface and ambient air at 0°C is 6 W/m2.K.
LD
1 + 0.04 M Re
O
Pr P
1/3 (i) Calculate the heat loss from the duct over its
NL D
Q length,
(ii) Determine the heat flux and the duct surface
(P.U., May 2001)
temperature at x = L.
Solution
Solution
Given : Flow of cream cheese through a heated
pipe Given : Hot air flowing in a duct :
m = 1000 kg/h, L = 1.5 m, Cold air at T¥ = 0°C 2 Duct, D = 0.15 m

ho = 6 W/m .K
Ti = 15°C D = 8 cm = 0.08 m,
Hot air Air out at
Ts = 95°C (Constant). . To = 77°C
m = 0.05 kg/s
Properties of cheese and correlation Ti = 103°C
L=5m
To find : The temperature of cheese leaving the x
pipe. Fig. 9.34. (a) Schematic
INTERNAL FLOW 325
To find : With the help of resistance network

(i) Heat loss from the duct over the length of 5 m, To − Ts,o
q(L) =
(ii) Heat flux and surface temperature at x = L. 1
Assumptions : hi
1. Steady state conditions. q(L) 304.4
or Ts,o = To – = 77 −
2. Negligible duct wall thermal resistance. hi 11.58
3. Constant properties of the fluid. = 50.71°C. Ans.
4. Negligible kinetic and potential energy changes.
9.10. HEAT TRANSFER TO LIQUID METAL FLOW
Analysis : Properties of air at mean temperature
IN TUBE
Ti + To 103 + 77
Tm = = = 90°C = 363 K
2 2 If the liquid metal flows through the tube, then the above
The specific heat, Cp = 1010 J/kg.K relations are not applicable. Since liquid metals have
very low Prandtl number, thus very small thermal entry
Properties at outlet temperature of 77°C are
length.
kf = 0.030 W/m.K, µ = 208 × 10–7 kg/ms,
For fully developed turbulent flow (L/D ≥ 10) for
Pr = 0.70.
metals in a smooth circular tube with uniform surface
(i) The heat lost by air over the entire duct ;
heat flux, Skupinski et al recommended
Q= m Cp(Ti – To)
NuD = 4.82 + 0.0185 (ReD Pr)0.287
= 0.05 × 1010 × (103 – 77)
qs = Constant ...(9.85)
= 1313 W. Ans.
Validity 3.6 × 103 < ReD < 9.05 × 105
(ii) The heat flux at x = L can be calculated from
the resistance network. 100 < ReD Pr < 10000
For constant surface temperature condition of
To Ts, o T¥ turbulent metal flow in tube, Seban and Shimazaki
q(L)
recommended the following relation for ReD Pr > 100
1 1
hi ho NuD = 5.0 + 0.025 (ReD Pr)0.8
Fig. 9.34 (b) Resistance network Ts = Constant. ...(9.86)
For inside heat transfer coefficient hi in forced
Example 9.23. The liquid metal flows at a rate of
convection
270 kg/min through a 5 cm diameter stainless steel tube.
4m 4 × 0.05 It enters at 415°C and is heated to 440°C, when it passes
ReD = = = 20404
πDµ π × 0.15 × 208 × 10 − 7 through the tube. The tube wall temperature is kept 20°C
Using Dittus-Boelter equation for air cooling higher than the liquid bulk temperature and a constant
(n = 0.3) heat flux is maintained along the tube. Calculate the
NuD = 0.023 ReD0.8 . Pr0.3 length of the tube required to effect the transfer. Use
= 0.023 × (20404)0.8 × (0.70)0.3 = 57.94 For constant wall temperature
kf Nu = 5.0 + 0.025 Pe0.8

0.030
hi = NuD × = 57.94 × For constant heat flux
D 0.15
2
= 11.58 W/m .K Nu = 4.82 + 0.0185 Pe0.827
Use the following properties
To − T∞ 77 − 0
Heat flux q(L) = = µ = 1.34 × 10–3 kg/ms, Cp = 149 J/kg.K,
1 1 1 1
+ +
hi ho 11.58 6 Pr = 0.013, kf = 15.6 W/m.K.
= 304.4 W/m2. Ans. (P.U., Dec. 1997)
Solution The heat transfer rate for ∆T = 20°C, can be

Given : Liquid metal flow through a circular expressed as
tube. Q = hAs ∆T = h(πDL)∆T
Liquid
. metal 16762.5
m = 270 kg/min. or L= = 1.56 m. Ans.
Ti = 415°C 3410 × π × 0.05 × 20
To = 440°C
D = 5 cm
Example 9.24. The liquid sodium flows with a mean
T
velocity of 3 m/s inside a smooth tube of 25 mm dia. and
460 is heated by the tube wall maintained at a uniform
all 20°C temperature of 120°C.
Tube w 440°C
435 l
Determine the heat transfer coefficient at a
meta location, where bulk mean fluid temperature is 93°C and
20°C Liquid
415°C the flow is fully developed.
Solution
0 L
Given : Liquid sodium flows through a smooth
Fig. 9.35. Schematic for liquid metal heating tube maintained at constant temperature
um = 3 m/s, D = 25 mm,
To find : Length of the tube.
Ts = 120°C, Tm = 93°C.
Assumptions. To find : Heat transfer coefficient.
(i) Steady state conditions, Analysis : The properties of liquid sodium at 93°C
(ii) Fully developed flow, (366 K) from Table A-8
(iii) Constant properties. ρ = 929.1 kg/m3, kf = 86.2 W/m.K,
Analysis : The heat transfer rate µ = 0.698 × 10–3 kg/ms, Pr = 0.011.
The Reynolds number
Cp(To – Ti)
Q= m
270 ρum D 929.1 × 3 × 0.025
= × 149 × (440 – 415) ReD = = = 99,832
60 µ 0.698 × 10 − 3
= 16,762.5 W and Peclet number

The Reynolds number PeD = ReD Pr = 99832 × 0.011 = 1098.15
For constant wall temperature, using eqn. (9.86)
4m 4 × (270/60)
ReD = = = 85,516 NuD = 5.0 + 0.025 (ReD Pr)0.8
πDµ π × 0.05 × 1.34 × 10 − 3
= 5.0 + 0.025 × (1098.15)0.8 = 11.77
The Peclet number The heat transfer coefficient
PeD = ReD Pr = 85516 × 0.013 = 1111.7
Nu D kf 11.77 × 86.2
The constant temperature difference between h= =
D 0.025
surface and fluid leads to constant wall heat flux, thus
using = 40576.5 W/m2.K. Ans.
NuD = 4.82 + 0.0185 × (1111.7)0.827 = 10.93
9.11. SUMMARY
The fluid flow through tubes or ducts for transporting,
Nu D kf 10.93 × 15.6
h= = = 3410 W/m2.K cooling, heating, etc., is of engineering importance. In
D 0.05 internal flows, the fluid is completely confined by inner
INTERNAL FLOW 327
surfaces of the tube, thus the velocity and thermal and the exit temperature of the fluid is given by
boundary layers merge at the centre of the tube, after
F hPL I
certain distance from the entrance in the direction of
flow. For hydrodynamically developed flow, the velocity
To = Ts – (Ts – Ti ) exp − GH Cp
m JK
profile becomes independent of x, i.e.,
For fully developed laminar flow, the friction
∂u factor f is expressed as
=0
∂x
Similarly, for thermally developed boundary 64
f = 4Cf =
layer, the temperature profile becomes independent of Re
x, i.e., The pressure drop during the flow in the tube is
∂ FTs − T I expressed as
GH
∂x Ts − Tm
=0 JK 2
∆p = f L . ρum (N/m2)
The hydrodynamic thermal entry lengths, in D 2
which respective profiles develop are given by The pumping power required to overcome the
xe, lam ≈ 0.05 ReD D pressure drop is given by
xeth, lam ≈ 0.05 ReD Pr D
m
× ∆p ( W )
W pump = ρ
For turbulent boundary layer
xe, turb = xeth, turb ≈ 10 D For fully developed laminar flow, the Nusselt
number and friction factor can be obtained from
The mean velocity, um is the average velocity of Table 9.1. A general relation for average Nusselt number
the fluid. The mean temperature Tm at a cross-section
for hydrodynamically and/or thermally developing
is the average temperature at that cross-section. The
laminar flow in a circular tube is
mean velocity um is considered constant, but mean
temperature, Tm changes in the direction of flow, unless
F Re Pr D IJ FG µ IJ
= 1.86 G
1/3 0.14
the fluid gets tube temperature. The heat transfer rate
H L K Hµ K
D
NuD (Pr > 0.5)
to a fluid during steady flow in tube can be expressed as s
Cp(To – Ti) (kW) For turbulent flow, in smooth circular tube, the
Q= m
most commonly used relations are
For constant surface heat flux, the energy balance
on the tube is f = 0.184ReD–0.2
Cp(To – Ti)
Q = qsAs = m F 0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 160I
where As = surface area of the tube. The exit temperature
0.8 Prn
NuD = 0.023ReD
H Re > 10000 K
of the fluid can be calculated as where n = 0.3 for cooling, and n = 0.4 for heating of
fluid.
qs A s
To = Ti + For rough surface tube, the Nusselt number can
Cp
m be determined by Gnielinsky equation
For constant surface temperature, the rate of heat
( f /8) (Re D − 1000) Pr LM1 + FG D IJ 2/3 OP
transfer is expressed as NuD =
1 + 12.7 ( f /8) (Pr 2 / 3 − 1) MN H LK PQ
Q = h As ∆Tlm
D
for ≤ 1 0.6 < Pr < 2000, ReD ≥ 2300
∆T1 − ∆T2 L
where ∆Tlm =
FG ∆T IJ
1 The fluid properties should be evaluated at bulk
ln
H ∆T K
2
mean fluid temperature
∆T1 = Ts – Ti and ∆T2 = Ts – To Ti + To

Tm = .
2
TABLE 9.3. Summary of convection heat transfer correlations for flow in tube
Correlations Conditions Remark
64
f= Laminar fully developed Friction factor
ReD
NuD = 4.36 Laminar fully developed Constant heat flux, Pr ≥ 0.6
NuD = 3.36 Laminar fully developed Constant Ts, Pr ≥ 0.6
LM Re Pr OP LM µ OP
D
1/3 0.14
NuD = 1.86 +
N L/D Q N µ Q s
Laminar combined entry length Constant Ts
–1/4
f = 0.316 ReD Turbulent fully developed ReD ≤ 2 × 104
f = 0.184 Re–1/5
D Turbulent fully developed ReD ≥ 2 × 104
0.8 Pr1/3
NuD = 0.023 ReD Turbulent fully developed 0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 160, ReD > 10000, L/D > 10
NuD = 0.023 0.8
ReD Prn Turbulent fully developed n = 0.4 for heating,
n = 0.3 for cooling
0.7 < Pr < 160, ReD ≥ 10000, L/D ≥ 10
FG µ IJ 0.14
NuD = 0.027 ReD0.8 Pr1/3
Hµ K s
Turbulent fully developed 0.7 < Pr < 16700, Re ≥ 100,00, L/D ≥ 10
NuD = 0.0214 (ReD0.8 – 100) × Turbulent 0.5 < Pr < 1.5
LM F D I OP 2/3 fully developed 2300 < ReD < 106, D/L < 1
MN GH L JK PQ
Pr0.4 1 +
0.87 – 280] ×
NuD = 0.012 [ReD Turbulent 1.5 < Pr < 500
D
LM1 + F D I 2/3 OP fully developed 2300 < ReD < 106, <1
MN GH L JK
L
Pr0.4
PQ
( f /8) (ReD – 1000) Pr
Nu = × Rough surface, turbulent 0.6 < Pr < 2000
1 + 12.7 ( f /8) (Pr 2 / 3 – 1) D
fully developed
LM1 + F D I 2/3 OP ReD > 2300,
L
<1
MN GH L JK PQ
NuD = 4.82 + 0.0185 (ReD Pr)0.827 Liquid metals, turbulent Constant heat flux
fully developed
NuD = 5.0 + 0.025 (ReDPr)0.8 Liquid metals, turbulent Constant temperature Ts

fully developed
INTERNAL FLOW 329
REVIEW QUESTIONS where umax is centre line velocity of the fluid, r is the
radial distance from the centre of tube and D is pipe
1. Prove that the Reynolds number for flow in a circular diameter :
tube of diameter D can be expressed as (i) Derive an expression for average fluid velocity at
4m the cross-section in terms of umax and D,
ReD =
πDµ (ii) Obtain an expression for mass flow rate.
where m = mass flow rate of fluid, µ is viscosity of 17. Derive an expression for the heat transfer coefficient
fluid. for the turbulent flow through a long tube in the
2. What do you mean by hydrodynamically developed moderate temperature range.
flow in a circular tube ? Explain. 18. How does the fluid flow inside the duct differ from
fluid flow over the bodies ?
3. What do you understand by thermally developed flow
in a circular tube ? Explain.
PROBLEMS
4. Explain velocity developing region and hydrodynamic
entry length for flow in a circular tube. 1. Water at 20°C with a flow rate of 0.01 kg/s enters a
5. Explain thermally developing region and thermal 2 cm diameter tube, which is maintained at 100°C.
entry length. Assume hydrodynamically developed flow, determine
6. What is the difference between friction factor and the tube length required to heat the water to 70°C.
coefficient of friction ? Show that for laminar flow in [Ans. 5 m]
a tube 2. Water at an inlet temperature of 50°C with a flow
rate of 0.01 kg/s flows through a duct 2 cm by 2 cm in
64
f = 4Cf .and f = a cross-section, which is maintained at a uniform
ReD temperature of 100°C. Assume hydrodynamically
7. What do you mean by mean velocity um and mean developed flow, determine the length of the duct
temperature Tm ? needed to heat the water to 70°C. [Ans. 1.06 m]
8. How is the friction factor related to pressure drop and 3. Water at a mean temperature of 60°C flows inside a
pumping power ? 2.5 cm ID, 10 m long tube with a velocity of 6 m/s.
9. What does the log mean temperature difference The tube wall is maintained at a uniform
represent ? temperatures of 100°C by condensing steam.
Determine the heat transfer rate to water. Assume
10. How does surface roughness affect the pressure drop
an inlet temperature of 30°C. [Ans. 670 W]
and heat transfer rate in the tube, if fluid flow is
4. Air at atmospheric pressure and 27°C enters a 12 m
turbulent ?
long, 1.5 m ID tube with a mass flow rate of 0.1 kg/s.
11. Why are heat transfer rates higher in turbulent flow, The tube surface is maintained at a uniform
inside a tube ? Explain. temperature of 80°C. Calculate the average heat
12. What is the Stanton number ? What is the Chilton transfer coefficient and the rate of heat transfer to
Colburn analogy ? air. [Ans. 5.3 kW]
13. Derive an expression for Colburn equation with the 5. Water flows at a rate of 0.01 kg/s through an
help of Chilton Colburn analogy. equilateral triangular duct with sides of 2 cm whose
walls are kept at uniform temperature of 100°C.
14. Explain the dimensional analysis for forced flow
Assume that the flow is hydrodynamically and
through a circular tube.
thermally developed. Determine the duct length
15. In a constant surface temperature tube, the fluid required to heat the water from 20°C to 70°C.
enters at temperature Ti and leaves the tube at tem- [Ans. 5 m]
perature To. Prove that
6. Water at a velocity of 15 m/s flows through a straight
Ts − To hA s F I. tube of 50 mm diameter. The tube surface is
Ts − Ti
= exp −
Cp
m
GH JK maintained at a uniform temperature of 60°C and
the flowing water is heated from an inlet temperature
16. To measure the mass flow rate of a fluid in a laminar of 20°C to an outlet temperature of 40°C. Find the
flow through a circular tube, a hot wire type velocity heat transfer coefficient from the tube surface to the
anemometer is placed in the centre of the tube. water, the heat transferred and the tube length.
Assume that the measuring station is far from the [Ans. 29715 W/m2.K, 2447.6 kW, 17.5 m]
entrance of the pipe, the velocity distribution is 7. Water at a rate of 0.5 kg/s is passed through a smooth
parabolic 25 mm inner diameter tube, 15 m long. The inlet water
u( r ) FG 2r IJ 2 temperature is 10°C and tube wall is at a constant
umax
= 1−
H DK temperature of 40°C. What is the exit water
temperature ?
Average properties of water are and velocity profiles developing or developed in 1.5 m
Cp = 4180 J/kg.K, µ = 0.8 × 10–3 Pas, length of the tube. Take following fluid properties
kf = 0.57 W/m.K. (AMIE, Summer, 1998) µs = 5.223 × 10–4 kg/ms at 38°C,
[Ans. 37.28°C] and at bulk temperature
8. A pipeline heater, 3 m long, 40 mm diameter, is µ = 5.892 × 10–4 kg/ms, kf = 0.1591 W/m2.K,
used to heat a supply of carbon dioxide from 250 K to
ρ = 874.6 kg/m3, Cp = 1757 J/kg.K,
500 K. The walls of heater are kept at constant
temperature of 600 K. Pr = 6.5 ; use correlation
OP . FG µ IJ
Determine the mass flow rate through the pipeline.
For carbon dioxide at 375 K and 1 bar, take
LM
Nu = 1.86 Re Pr .
D
1/3 0.14
. (M.U., 1997)
ρ = 1.41 kg/m3, kf = 0.023 W/m.K,
N L Q Hµ K s
Pr = 0.737, µ = 1.8 × 10–5 kg/ms. [Ans. 81.2 W/m2.K, 1.63 m, 10.62 m]

9. Calculate the Nusselt number and convection heat 14. Air at 30°C enters a rectangular duct 1 m long and 4 mm
transfer coefficient by three different correlations for by 16 mm in cross-section at a rate of 0.0004 kg/s. If the
water at a bulk temperature of 32°C, flowing at a uniform heat flux of 500 W/m2 is imposed on both the
velocity of 1.5 m/s through a 2.54 cm ID duct with a long sides of the duct, calculate
wall temperature of 43°C. Compare the results. (a) the air outlet temperature, (b) average duct surface
temperature, and (c) pressure drop.
10. A fully developed flow of air at 27°C moves at 2 m/s
in a 1 cm ID pipe. An electric resistance heater 15. Water enters a double pipe heat exchanger at 60°C.
surrounds the last 20 cm of the pipe and supplies a The water flows through inner copper tube, 2.54 cm
constant heat flux to bring the air out at Tm = 40°C. ID at a velocity of 2 cm/s. Steam flows in the annulus
What power input is needed to do this ? What will be and condenses on the outside of the copper tube at a
the wall temperature at the exit ? temperature of 80°C. Calculate the outlet tempera-
[Ans. 378 W/m2, 68.1°C] ture of water, if the heat exchanger is 3 m long.
11. A surface condenser consists of 200 thin walled [Ans. 68.4°C]
circular tubes, each 22.5 mm in diameter and 5 m 16. An electronic device is cooled by water flowing
long, arranged in parallel, through which water flows. through the small holes drilled in the casing. The
If the mass flow rate of water through the tube bank temperature of the device casing is constant at 80°C.
is 160 kg/s and its inlet and exit temperatures are The holes are 0.3 m long and 2.54 mm in diameter. If
21°C and 29°C, respectively, calculate the average water enters at a temperature of 60°C and flows at a
heat transfer coefficient associated with flow of water. velocity of 0.2 m/s, calculate the outlet temperature
[Ans. 7563 W/m2.K] of water. [Ans. 72°C]
12. The square channel of side 20 mm and length 2.5 m, 17. Atmospheric air is heated in a long annulus 25 mm
carries water at a velocity of 45 m/s. The mean ID, 38 cm OD, by steam condenses at 149°C, on the
temperature of water along the length of the channel inner surface. If the velocity of the air is 6 m/s and its
is found to be 30°C, while the inner surface of the bulk temperature is 38°C, calculate the heat transfer
channel is at 70°C. coefficient.
Calculate the heat transfer coefficient from the 18. Water at an average temperature of 27°C flowing
channel wall to water. Use correlation : through a smooth 50 mm ID tube at a velocity of 1 m/s.
Re0.8 Pr0.43
LM Pr OP 0.25 If the temperature of inner surface of the tube is 50°C,
determine (a) heat transfer coefficient, (b) the rate of
Nu = 0.021
N Pr Q
s heat flow per metre length of tube, (c) bulk
The thermophysical properties of water at 30°C temperature rise per metre, and (d) the pressure drop
ρ = 995.7 kg/m3, kf = 0.6175 W/m.K, ν = 0.805 × 10–6 m2/s, per metre.
Pr = 5.42 and Prs at 70°C = 2.55.
19. The intake manifold of an automobile engine can be
[Ans. 1770 W/m2.K] (P.U. May 1997) approximated as a 4 cm ID tube, 30 cm long. The air
13. Gasolene at a mean bulk temperature of 27°C flows at 20°C enters the manifold at a flow rate of 0.01 kg/s.
inside a circular tube, 19 mm ID. The average bulk The manifold is heavy aluminium casting and is at a
velocity is 0.061 m/s. The tube surface temperature uniform temperature of 40°C. Determine the
is kept constant at 38°C. Assume fully developed flow temperature of air at the end of the manifold.
and determine the average heat transfer coefficient
over 1.5 m length of the tube. Are the temperature 20. Engine oil at a rate of 0.02 kg/s flows through a 3 mm
diameter tube 30 m long. The oil has an inlet
INTERNAL FLOW 331
temperature of 60°C, while the tube wall temperature 26. Air enters a 7 m long section of a rectangular duct of
is maintained at 100°C by steam condensing on its cross-section 15 cm × 20 cm at 50°C at an average
outer surface. velocity of 7 m/s. If the walls of the duct are
(a) Estimate the average heat transfer coefficient, for maintained at 10°C, determine (a) outlet temperature
internal flow of the oil, of the air, (b) the rate of heat transfer from the air,
and (c) the fan power needed to overcome the pressure
(b) Determine the outlet temperature of the oil.
losses in this section of the duct.
21. Engine oil flows through a 25 mm diameter, 10 m
[Ans. (a) 32.8°C, (b) 3674 W, (c) 4.22 W]
long tube a rate of 0.5 kg/s. The oil enters the tube at
25°C, while the tube surface is maintained at 100°C. 27. Hot air at 60°C leaving a furnace of a house enters a
Determine the total heat transfer to the oil and oil 12 m long section of a sheet metal duct of a square
outlet temperature. cross-section 20 cm × 20 cm at an average velocity of
4 m/s. The thermal resistance of the duct is negligible
22. A thick walled stainless steel pipe of inside and outer
and the outer surface of the duct, whose emissivity is
radii as 20 mm and 40 mm, respectively is heated
0.3 is exposed to cold air at 10°C in the basement
electrically to provide a uniform heat generation rate
with convection heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2.K.
of 106 W/m2. The outer surface of the pipe is insulated.
Taking the walls of the basement to be at 10°C also,
The water flows through the pipe at a rate of 0.1 kg/s.
determine (a) temperature at which the hot air will
(a) If water inlet temperature is 20°C and desired leave the basement, and (b) the rate of heat loss from
outlet temperature is 40°C, what is the required the hot air in the duct to the basement.
pipe length ?
28. A device that recovers heat from the high temperature
(b) What are the location and value of the maximum combustion gases involves passing the combustion gas
pipe temperature ? between parallel plates each of which is maintained
23. Water flows at 0.25 kg/s through a thin walled, 40 mm at 350 K by water flow on opposite surface. The plate
diameter tube, that is 4 m long. The water enters at separation is 40 mm and the gas flow is fully
30°C and is heated by hot gases moving in cross flow developed. The gas may be assumed to have the
over the tube with a velocity of 100 m/s and free properties of atmospheric air and its mean
stream temperature of 225°C. Estimate the outlet temperature and velocity are 1000 K and 60 m/s,
temperature of the water. The gas properties may be respectively.
approximated to be those of atmospheric air. (a) What is the heat flux at the plate surface ?
24. Consider an air solar collector that is 1 m wide and (b) If a third plate, 20 mm thick is suspended
5 m long and has a constant spacing of 3 cm between midway between the original plates, what is the
the glass cover and collector plate. Air enters the surface heat flux for the horizontal plates?
Assume the temperature and flow rate of the gas
collector at 30°C at a rate of 0.15 m3/s through the 1 m
to be unchanged and radiation effects are
wide edge and flows along 5 m long passage way. If
negligible.
the passage temperature of glass cover and collector
plate are 20°C and 60°C, respectively, determine, 29. Consider a thin walled metallic tube, 1 m long and
3 mm ID. The water enters the tube at 97°C with a
(a) net rate of heat transfer to the air in the collector
mass flow rate of 0.015 kg/s.
and (b) the temperature rise of the air as it flows
through the collector. (a) What is the outlet temperature of water, if the
tube surface is maintained at 27°C ?
25. The water in a house is to be heated from 15°C to
(b) If 0.5 mm thick layer of insulation (k = 0.05 W/m.K)
90°C by a parabolic solar collector, flowing at a rate
is applied to the tube and its outer surface is
of 2 kg/s. The water flows through a 3 cm diameter
maintained at 27°C, what is the outlet
thin aluminium tube whose outer surface is black
temperature of water ?
anodised in order to maximise its solar absorption
(c) If the outer surface of the insulation is no longer
ability.
maintained at 27°C, but allowed to exchange the
If the solar energy is transferred to water at a rate of heat by free convection with ambient air at 27°C,
300 W per metre length of the tube, determine the what is the outlet temperature of water ? The free
required length of the parabolic collector to meet the convection heat transfer coefficient is 5 W/m2.K.
hot water requirement of this house. Also estimate 30. In a particular solar collector, energy collected by
the surface temperature of the tube at the exit. placing a tube at the focal line of parabolic collector
and passing fluid through the tube. The arrangement 0.2 m × 0.2 m, that passes through the roof of a house
resulting in a uniform heat flux of 2000 W/m2 along at a rate of 0.15 m3/s. The duct is observed to be nearly
the axis of the tube of diameter 60 mm. Determine : isothermal at 60°C. Determine the exit temperature
(i) Length of the tube required to heat the water from of air and rate of heat loss from the duct to roof.
20°C to 80°C which flows at the rate of 0.01 kg/s. [Ans. 71.2°C, 1340 W]
(ii) Surface temperature at the outlet of tube.
The properties of water are : REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
µ = 352 × 10–6 Ns/m2, Cp = 4187 J/kg.K,
kf = 0.67 W/m.K, Pr = 2.2. 1. Kays W.M. and H.C. Perkins, in “Handbook of Heat
[Ans. (i) 6.66 m, (ii) 121.08°C] Transfer”, by Rehsenow W.M., J.P. Harnett and E.N.
31. Calculate average heat transfer coefficient and Ganic, eds, 3/e, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1985.
friction factor for flow of n-butyl alcohol at a mean 2. Kays W.M. and M.E. Crawford, ‘‘Convective Heat and
temperature of 20°C through a 0.1 m × 0.1 m square Mass Transfer”, 2nd ed. McGraw Hill, New York,
duct, 5 m long with walls at 27°C, if the average 1980.
velocity is 0.03 m/s. Use physical properties of n-butyl
3. Knudsen J.D. and D.L. Katz, “Fluid Dynamics and
alcohol at 293 K. [Ans. 4.98 W/m2.K, 0.069]
Heat Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1958.
32. The water flows through a tube, 25 mm dia, and 6 m
long with a velocity of 2.40 m/s. It is observed that 4. Shah R.K. and A.L. London, “Laminar Flow: Forced
the pressure loss due to frictional losses is 1.22 m of Convection in Ducts”, Academic press, New York,
water. Determine the heat transfer coefficient by 1978.
using Chilton Colburn analogy. 5. Petukhov B.S., “Heat Transfer and Friction in
Compare the result with the Reynolds analogy. Turbulent Pipe Flow with Variable Physical
Take ρ = 998 kg/m3, Cp = 4187 J/kg.K, Pr = 6.62. Properties”, Academic Press, New York, 1970.
[Ans. 6156 W/m2.K, and 21687 W/m2.K] 6. Shah R.K., “Thermal Entry Length Solution for a
33. Air at atmospheric pressure and 120°C enters 40 mm Circular Tube and Parallel Plates, Proceeding of
diameter, and 2 m long tube with a velocity of 10 m/s. National Heat and Mass Transfer”, IIT Mumbai,
A 1 kW electric heater is wound on the outer surface Vol. I, 1975, McAdams W.M.“Heat Transmission”,
of the tube. Find (i) mass flow rate of air, (ii) exit 3rd ed. McGraw Hill, New York, 1954.
temperature of air, and the wall temperature at the 7. Jacob M. and G. A. Hawkins, “Elements of Heat
outlet. Assume that the heat absorption rate by air is Transfer”, 3rd Ed. Wiley, New York, 1957.
uniform throughout the length of the tube. 8. Krieth Frank and M.S. Bohn, “Principles of Heat
Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K and Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K for Transfer”, 5th ed., PWS Pub. Company, 1997.
air. [Ans. (i) 0.011 kg/s, (ii) 208°C and 319°C]
9. Holman J.P., “Heat Transfer”, 7th ed. McGraw Hill,
34. Liquid sodium at 180°C with a mass flow rate of 3 kg/s
New York, 1990.
enters a 2.5 cm ID tube whose wall is maintained at
a uniform temperature of 240°C. Calculate the tube 10. Incropera F.P. and D.P. Dewitt, “Introduction to Heat
length required to heat the liquid sodium to 230°C. Transfer” Z/e, John Wiley and Sons, 1990.
Use the properties of liquid sodium as : 11. Bayazitoglu Y and M.N. Ozisik “Elements of Heat
Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1988.
Cp = 1339 J/kg.K, k = 80.81 W/m.K,
12. Thomas L.C., “Heat Transfer”, Prentice-Hall,
ρ = 907.5 kg/m3, ν = 0.501 × 10–6 m2/s, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982.
Pr = 0.0075. [Ans. 1.56 m] 13. White F.M., “Heat and Mass Transfer”, Addison
Wesley, Reading, MA, 1988.
35. In a long annulus (3.5 cm ID and 5 cm OD), the water
is heated by maintaining the outer surface of inner 14. Jacob M., “Heat Transfer”, Vol. I Wiley, New York,
tube at 60°C. The water enters at 20°C and leaves at 1949.
34°C. While its flow rate is 2 m/s. Estimate the heat 15. Suryanarayana N.V., “Engineering Heat Transfer”
transfer coefficient. [Ans. 8212 W/m2.K] West Pub. Co. New York, 1998.
36. Hot air at atmospheric pressure and 80°C enters an 16. Cenzel Yunus A, “Introduction to Thermodynamics
8 m long uninsulated square duct of cross-section and Heat Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1997.
Natural Convection 10
10.1. Physical Mechanism. 10.2. Definitions—Buoyance force—Volumetric expansion coefficient—Grashof number. 10.3. Natural
Convection Over a Vertical Plate. 10.4. Empirical Correlations for External Free Convection Flow—Vertical plate—Horizontal surfaces
—Inclined plates—Free convection on a long cylinders—Free convection on a spheres. 10.5. Simplified Equations for Air. 10.6. Natural
Convection in Enclosed Spaces. 10.7. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.
10.1. PHYSICAL MECHANISM The motion that results from continuous

replacement of heated air in the vicinity of hot body by
In natural convection, the fluid motion is due to the adjacent cooler air is called a natural or free
buoyancy forces within the fluid. The buoyancy forces convection current and the resulting heat transfer is
are developed due to density variation in the fluid caused called natural convection heat transfer.
by temperature difference between the fluid and Warm
adjacent surface. The larger the temperature difference air
in adjacent fluid, the larger the buoyancy force and
stronger natural convection currents and higher the heat Heat
transfer rate. Whenever a heated object for an example transfer
a hot egg, is exposed to atmospheric air, the air adjacent
to the hot egg gets heated and becomes lighter (less Cold
dense) and thus rises up as shown in Fig. 10.1. This soda
motion leads to the formation of the boundary layer on
the surface of the egg and the heat is transferred from Cool
the warmer boundary layer to outer atmospheric air by air
natural convection. The velocity of air is zero at the Fig. 10.2. The warming up of a cold drink in a warmer
boundary surface and it is significant outside the environment by natural convection
boundary layer. The natural convection is an effective way to heat
Warm the cold surfaces in the warmer environment and to cool
air the hot surfaces in the colder environment as shown in
Fig. 10.2. Here the direction of fluid motion is reversed.
There are many situations, where the heat is
transferred by free convection to the surrounding air.
Heat transfer from a heater to heat a room, heat transfer
from pipes, transmission line, condenser coil of a
refrigerator, electric transformer, electric motors and
Heat electronic equipments are some typical examples of
transfer
Cool Hot natural convection heat transfer.
air egg In free convection, the fluid motions setup by
buoyancy forces are much smaller than those associated
with forced convection, therefore, the heat transfer rate
Fig. 10.1. The cooling of a boiled egg in a cooler environ- in natural convection is also smaller.
ment by natural convection
333
10.2. DEFINITIONS 10.2.3. Grashof Number

The flow regime in natural convection is characterised
10.2.1. Buoyancy Force
by a dimensionless number called the Grashof number,
In gravitational field, there is a net force that pushes which is defined as the ratio of buoyancy force to viscous
the light fluid upward from the heavier fluid. The force acting on the fluid. It is denoted as Gr and is given
upward force exerted by a fluid on a body that is by
completely or partially immersed in it, is called the
buoyancy force. The magnitude of buoyancy force is Hot
surface
equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the body
Fbuoyancy = ρfluid g Vbody ...(10.1)
where ρfluid is the average density of fluid, g is the Friction
acceleration due to gravity and Vbody is the volume force Cold
portion of the body immersed in the fluid. In absence of fluid
other effects, the net vertical force acting on the body is
the difference between the weight of the body and Warm
buoyancy force, fluid
i.e., Fnet = mg – Fbuoyancy

= ρbody g Vbody – ρfluid g Vbody Buoyancy
force
= (ρbody – ρfluid) g Vbody ...(10.2)
Fig. 10.3. The Grashof number measures the relative
The net force is proportional to the density
magnitude of buoyancy force and friction force acting
difference between the fluid and body immersed in it. on the fluid
Thus a body immersed in a fluid experiences a weight
loss equal to weight of the fluid it displaces. It is known Buoyancy force g∆ρV gβ∆T V
Gr = = 2 =
as Archimedes principle. Viscous force ρν ν2
10.2.2. Volumetric Expansion Coefficient ∆ρ

where β∆T = ; the fraction of volume change of fluid
The density of a fluid changes as its temperature ρ
changes. Thus the knowledge of density variation with corresponding to temperature change ∆T at constant
temperature at constant pressure is essential. The pressure.
property which relates these properties is called the Using V = Lc3 and ∆T = Ts – T∞ then it is formally
coefficient of thermal (or volumetric) expansion. It is expressed as
defined as the ratio of fractional change in volume to
g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c
change in temperature at constant pressure, and it is Gr = ...(10.5)
denoted by β and is expressed as ν2
where g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
F I
1 ∂v
β=–
H K
v ∂T p
β = coefficient of volumetric expansion, K–1
1
= for ideal gases
1 Tf
using v=
ρ Ts = surface temperature, °C,
 ∂(1/ ρ)   1 ∂ρ  T∞ = free stream fluid temperature, °C,
Then β = ρ = ρ − 2
 ∂T  p 
 ρ ∂T  p
ν = kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s,
Lc = characteristic length of geometry, m
1  ∂ρ  = height L for vertical plates and cylinders
β=–   ...(10.3)
ρ  ∂T  p = diameter D for horizontal cylinders and
For an ideal gas; spheres,
p  ∂ρ  p Surface area A
ρ= , and   =− = = s , for any other geometry
RT  ∂T  p RT2 Perimeter P
The role of Grashof number is same, that is played
1 −1
Therefore, β = (K ) ...(10.4) by Reynolds number in forced convection. The Grashof
T number provides the criteria to distinguish the type of
where T is the absolute temperature.
NATURAL CONVECTION 335
flow: laminar or turbulent in natural convection. The the plate temperature at the surface and gradually
critical Grashof number for flow over plates is considered decreases to temperature of surrounding fluid at a
to be 109. Therefore, the flow on a vertical plate becomes distance at the outer edge of the boundary layer.
turbulent, if Grashof number exceeds 109. Fig. 10.4
shows an interferometer produced map of interference Ts Temperature
fringes of constant temperature lines over a hot plate in profile
air. The smooth and parallel lines in (a) indicate the
laminar flow, whereas, the eddies and irregularities
in, (b) indicate the turbulent flow.
T
Velocity
profile
u=0 u=0
g
Boundary Stationary
layer fluid at T
Ts
x Cold
fluid
(a) Laminar flow (b) Turbulent flow Fig. 10.5. Typical velocity and temperature profile for
natural convection flow over a hot vertical plate at Ts,
Fig. 10.4. Isotherms in natural convection over a hot exposed to fluid at T∞
plate in air
Ts > T Ts < T
y
10.3. NATURAL CONVECTION OVER A VERTICAL
PLATE Turbulent
The heat transfer rate in natural convection depends x

on geometry of the surface as well as on its orientation. Laminar
T
It also depends on temperature variation on the surface Ts
and thermophysical properties of the fluid. Fig. 10.5

Wall
Wall
shows development of the velocity boundary layer for
natural convection on a vertical plate.
u
Consider a heated vertical plate at temperature
Laminar
Ts
Ts, exposed to a stagnant fluid at temperature

T
T∞ (Ts > T∞) as shown in Fig. 10.5. The fluid adjacent to x
Turbulent
the plate is heated and its density decreases. The

buoyancy force, therefore, induces a free convection
boundary layer, in which heated fluid rises up, leaving
y
the space for fluid from the cold region. This boundary
(a) Hot wall (b) Cold wall
layer grows in the flow direction. The fluid velocity is
zero at the surface of the plate (y = 0) because of no slip Fig. 10.6. Free convection on vertical plates
condition at the surface. It is also zero at outer edge of
The boundary layer developed initially is laminar,
boundary layer (y = δ), because fluid is stationary beyond but after certain distance from the leading edge,
the boundary layer. The fluid velocity increases with depending on the fluid properties and temperature
distance from the surface, reaches a maximum value difference the turbulent eddies are formed and transition
and again gradually decreases to zero at the outer edge to turbulent layer begins and further, it becomes fully
of boundary layer. The temperature of the fluid equals turbulent as shown in Fig. 10.6.
Fig. 10.6 (a) shows the natural convection 4. Since the magnitude of the velocity is small,
boundary layers on a heated vertical wall, while thus the viscous dissipation is negligible at
Fig. 10.6 (b) shows convection currents, and boundary any y.
layers on a cold vertical wall. After incorporating above assumptions in
In order to develop the governing equation, we eqn. (10.9) and (10.10), the integral momentum and
choose x coordinate along the vertical wall and y energy equations for control volume shown in Fig. 10.7
coordinate perpendicular to the wall. The new force is to become
z FG ∂u IJ
z
be considered as weight of the element fluid (gravitational
δ
force), then the momentum eqn. (7.15) derived earlier d δ
becomes ; dx 0
u2 dy = – ν
H ∂y K y=0
+βg
0
(T – T∞) dy
∂uFG ∂u IJ
∂p ∂ 2u ...(10.11)
ρ u
H
+v =–
K – ρg + µ 2 ...(10.6)
LM ∂(T − T ) OP
z
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
d δ ∞
where – ρg represents weight force exerted on the
element per unit area in downward direction.
and
dx 0
u(T – T∞) dy = – α
N ∂y Q y=0
...(10.12)
The pressure gradient at the edge of the vertical The boundary conditions for velocity profile are
boundary layer in x direction (u → 0 and ρ → ρ∞) are u=0 at y=0
due to change in density. Thus ; u=0 at y=δ
∂p ∂u
= – ρ∞ g ...(10.7) =0 at y = δ.
∂x ∂y
Substituting eqn. (10.7) in eqn. (10.6), we get ; And the boundary conditions for temperature
FG ∂u ∂uIJ ∂ 2u profile are
ρ u
H ∂x
+v
∂y K
= (ρ∞ – ρ) g + µ 2
∂y
...(10.8) T = Ts at y=0
The density difference (ρ∞ – ρ) can be expressed T = T∞ at y=δ
in term of coefficient of volumetric expansion as ∂(T − T∞ )
=0 at y=δ
1 ∂ρ FG IJ ρ∞ − ρ ∂y
β=–
ρ ∂T H K p
=
ρ (T − T∞ ) ∵ q=0
Substituting, we get l d l
rudy + rudy dx
FG ∂u + v ∂u IJ = βρg(T – T ) + µ ∂ u 2 0 dx 0
ρ u
H ∂x ∂y K ∞
∂y 2
FG u ∂u + v ∂u IJ = βg(T – T ) + ν ∂ u 2
or
H ∂x ∂y K ∞
∂y 2 ...(10.9)
dx s Control
volume
It is the equation of motion for free convection
boundary layer. l
The energy equation for the free convection is T¥
same as that for a forced convection system, eqn. (7.20) Ts
FG u ∂T + v ∂T IJ = α ∂ T
2
x r¥ l
rudy
H ∂x ∂y K ∂y 2
...(10.10)
0
Von Korman integral technique can also be

x
applied to natural convection from a vertical surface with r
the following assumptions : y
1. The density variation is within boundary layer
Fig. 10.7. Control volume in boundary layer for natural
only. The flow is laminar and steady.
convection flow over a heated plate at Ts, exposed
2. The buoyancy effects are confined to boundary to fluid at T∞
layer region only and velocity v in y direction The temperature porfile is approximated by
is almost negligible. quadratic equation
3. The analysis is made for Pr = 1 i.e., δth = δ. T = C1 + C2 y + C3 y2
and the velocity profile is assumed to be cubical parabola

LM
d u0 (Ts − T∞ ) δ (T − T∞ )
= 2α s
OP
u = u1(a1 + a2 y + a3 y2 + a4 y3) dx N 30 δ Q ...(10.21)
where u1 = u(x), reference velocity where u0 and δ are function of x.
Then the velocity and temperature profiles are Let u0 = C1 xm and δ = C2 xn
given by Solution gives the value of constants C1 and C2 as
u y y FG IJ 2
LM 20 + ν OP RS g β(T − T ) UV
–1/ 2 1/2
u0
=
δ
1−
δ H K ...(10.13) C1 = 5.17 ν
N 21 α Q T ν W
s
2
∞
...(10.22)
g β (Ts − T∞ )δ 2
where u0 = u1
4ν
...(10.14)
FG 20 + ν IJ 1/4
RS g β(T − T ) UV −1/4
FG ν IJ −1/2
H 21 α K H αK
s ∞
T − T∞ y FG IJ 2
and C2 = 3.93
T ν W 2
and
Ts − T∞
= 1−
δ H K ...(10.15) Using constant C2, the thickness of velocity
boundary layer in natural convection over a vertical
Using the velocity profile, the location of surface is given by
maximum velocity is given by
δ 1
du d y y |RS FG IJ 2
|UV x
= 3.93(0.952 + Pr)1/4
Grx 1/ 4 . Pr 1/ 2
dy
= u0
dy δ
1−
δ |T H K |W The heat flux,
...(10.23)
=0=
1 4 y 3 y2
− + 3 =0 FG ∂T IJ 2k(Ts − T∞ )
δ δ2 δ q=–k
H ∂y K y=0
=
δ
= h(Ts – T∞)
or 3y2 – 4δy + δ2 = 0 ...(10.24)
4δ ± 16δ 2 − 4 × 3δ 2 4δ ± 2δ 2k
Its solution y = = or h=
2×3 6 δ
The Nusselt number
1 hx x 2x
δ y = δ or ...(10.16) Nux = =
3 kf δ
Since u = 0 at y = δ, therefore, the velocity u will
be maximum at y = δ/3 2
=
3.93 (0.952 + Pr) 1/ 4
Pr −1/2 . Grx −1/ 4
u0 1 4 FG IJ 2
umax =
3
1−
3
= u
27 0 H
...(10.17)
K Nux = 0.508 Pr1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 . Grx1/4
...(10.25)
On solution, the individual terms in momentum The eqn. (10.23) yields to
integral equation becomes
δ ∝ x1/4
z0
δ
u2dy = z δ
0
u02
y2
δ2
FG 1 − y IJ
H δK
4
dy =
u0 2 δ
105
...(10.18)
Thus as x increases, the boundary layer thickness
δ increases, and eqn. (10.25) results into
hx ∝ x –1/4
And for energy equation As x increases, the local heat transfer coefficient
z z
decreases. The average heat transfer coefficient
FG IJ FG IJ
z z
2 2
δ δ y y y
0
u(T – T∞) dy =
0
u0
δ H
1−
δ K (Ts – T∞) 1 −
H δ K dy
h=
1 L
hx dx =
1 L
C x–1/4 dx =
4
[C x3/4]x=L
L 0 L 0 3
u0 (Ts − T∞ ) δ
= ...(10.19) 4 4
30 = h or h ...(10.26)
3 x=L 3 L
Substituting in momentum eqn. (10.11)
F
d u0 2 δ I =–ν u g β (Ts − T∞ ) δ
The average Nusselt number for plate of height
GH
dx 105 JK δ
0
+
3
...(10.20) L is given by
NuL = 0.677 Pr1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 GrL1/4
and the energy eqn. (10.12), ...(10.27)
For air, Pr ≈ 0.72, the eqns. (10.25) and (10.27) 10.4.1. Vertical Plate
reduce to 1. Uniform wall temperature. The most useful
Nux = 0.378 Grx1/4 ...(10.28) correlation for a vertical plate maintained at uniform
NuL = 0.504 GrL1/4 ...(10.29) temperature Ts and exposed to a fluid at T∞ in natural
convection is proposed by Churchill and Chu as
Some more relations extracted from above
equations are the mean fluid velocity L
Nu = M0.825 +
0.387 Ra L
1/6 OP 2
27 MN {1 + (0.492 / Pr) 9 / 16 8 / 27
} PQ
umean = u ...(10.30) ...(10.37)
48 max
It may be used for entire range of RaL.
The local velocity of fluid
Some simplified empirical correlations for
FG 20 + PrIJ FG g β(T − T ) IJ
−1/2 1/2
laminar and turbulent natural convection are given
H 21 K H ν K
ux = 5.17 ν s ∞ ...(10.31)
2 below :
Laminar free convection :
The mass flow rate of fluid in boundary layer at
any location NuL = 0.59RaL1/4 for 104 < RaL < 109
...(10.38)
ρ δ ux Turbulent free convection
x =
m ...(10.32)
12 NuL = 0.13RaL1/3 for 109 < RaL < 1013
The total mass flow rate through the boundary ...(10.39)
2. Uniform surface heat flux. For free
= 1.7 ρν
m
LM GrL OP 1/ 4
convection over a vertical plate subjected to uniform heat
N (Pr) 2
(0.592 + Pr) Q flux qs at the wall surface has been studied and empirical
correlations have been proposed for average Nusselt
...(10.33)
number in laminar and turbulent regims ;
All the fluid properties are evaluated at the film
temperature Nu = 0.75 (GrL* . Pr)1/5 ...(10.40)
for 105 < Gr*.Pr < 1011 (laminar)
Ts + T∞
Tf = ...(10.34) Nu = 0.645 (GrL* . Pr)0.22 ...(10.41)
2 for 2 × 1013 < Gr*.Pr < 1016 (turbulent)
where the modified Grashof number Gr* is given by
10.4. EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS FOR
g β qsL4c
EXTERNAL FREE CONVECTION FLOW Gr* = ...(10.42)
kν 2
Some analytical solutions for natural convection can only 10.4.2. Horizontal Surfaces
be obtained for simple geometries under some simplified The natural convection currents associated with heated
assumptions. Therefore, the correlations are developed horizontal surfaces are different from those, that
with the help of experimental data. Here some of the occurred on a vertical surface. The buoyancy force acts
recommended empirical correlations for determining normal to the surface and flow field depends on heating
natural convection heat transfer coefficient on certain configuration.
geometries are presented. The correlations are in the
1. Uniform surface temperature. Consider a
form of
horizontal heated surface at a uniform temperature Ts,
Nu = C(GrPr)n = C Ran ...(10.35) exposed to an ambient at T∞ (T∞ < Ts), as shown in
where Ra is the Rayleigh number, a product of Grashof Fig. 10.8.
and Prandtl numbers ; When heated horizontal surface is exposed to
surrounding air, the heated lighter fluid adjacent to the
g β(Ts − T∞ ) L c 3
Ra = GrPr = .Pr ...(10.36) surface tends to rise from the surface, but its motion is
ν2 supressed by the heavier, cooler fluid above it. After a
The values of constants C and n depend on the small disturbance, the natural convection currents are
geometry of the surface and flow regime. The value of n setup, then the heated fluid rises up and cooler fluid
is generally 1/4 for laminar flow and 1/3 for turbulent moves down to occupy the space vacated by the heated
flow. All the properties are evaluated at the film fluid as shown in Fig. 10.8 (a). On the contrast, if the
temperature Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2. heated surface is facing down, the transfer rate is
reduced in comparison with hot surface facing up. The The average Nusselt number for different
flow pattern of fluid on a cold horizontal surface facing configuration of horizontal plate is expressed in a form of
up is similar to that of the heated surface facing down,
Nu = C(Gr Pr)n ...(10.43)
and the flow with horizontal, cold surface facing down
is also similar to that of a heated surface facing up as h Lc g β ∆T L3c
shown in Fig. 10.8 (b). where Nu = and Gr = ...(10.44)
kf ν2
Lc = Characteristic length of the surface
As Surface area of the plate

= =
g P Perimeter of the plate
...(10.45)
The constant C and exponent n are listed in
Table 10.1. The physical properties of the fluid are
(a) Hot horizontal (b) Cold horizontal evaluated at film temperature Tf defined by eqn. (10.34).
surfaces (Ts > T¥) surfaces (Ts < T¥)
Fig. 10.8. Free convection from horizontal surfaces
TABLE 10.1. Constant C and exponent n used in eqn. (10.43) for natural convection
on a horizontal surface at uniform temperature
Orientation of plate Lc Range of Ra C n Flow regime

1. Hot horizontal surface facing As 1 < RaL < 200 0.96 1/6 Laminar
up or cold surface facing down P 200 < RaL < 104 0.59 1/4 Laminar
104 < RaL < 107 0.54 1/4 Laminar
107 < RaL < 1011 0.15 1/3 Turbulent
2. Hot horizontal surface facing As
down or cold surface facing up P 105 to 1011 0.27 1/4 Laminar
2. Uniform surface heat flux. Fujii and Imura The coefficient of volumetric expansion β is
studied the average Nusselt number for natural evaluated at T∞ + 0.25 (Ts – T∞).
convection on a horizontal surfaces subjected to uniform
heat flux qs and exposed to an ambient at T∞. The 10.4.3. Inclined Plates
following correlations are proposed for the cases in which The heat transfer coefficient for a downward facing heated
heated surface facing up and facing down. or upward facing cooled inclined plate at uniform
Horizontal surface with the heated surface facing temperature can be predicted from the correlation given
up for vertical plate by replacing gravitational term g by
gcos θ, where θ is the angle of inclination of the surface
Nu = 0.13 (GrL Pr)1/3 with vertical as defined in Fig. 10.9.
for RaL < 2 × 108 ...(10.46)
Nu = 0.16 (GrL Pr)1/3 vertical
for 5 × 108 < RaL < 1011 ...(10.47)

For downward facing heated surface or upward
facing cooled surface +q
Nu = 0.58 (GrL Pr)1/5 +q
for 106 < RaL < 1011 ...(10.48)
The physical properties of fluid are evaluated at
mean temperature defined as
Tm = Ts – 0.25 (Ts – T∞) ...(10.49) (a) Heated surface facing down (b) Cooled surface facing up
Here, for inclined surfaces, the fluid properties

are evaluated at mean temperature defined by
eqn. (10.49) as
Tf = Ts – 0.25 (Ts – T∞)
and β is evaluated at T∞ + 0.25(Ts – T∞).
–q
q
10.4.4. Free Convection on a Long Cylinders
1. Horizontal cylinder at uniform temperature. The
natural convection flow over the surface of a
horizontal cylinder shown in Fig. 10.10 is similar
(c) Upward facing heated surface, (d) Upward facing heated surface, to that occurs over a vertical wall, only the difference
GrL < Grc GrL > Grc
Fig. 10.9. Natural convection from surfaces
in various orientation
The characteristic length of the inclined plate is
the length along the plate and
g cos θ β ∆T L3
GrL = ...(10.50)
ν2
hL
RaL = GrL Pr, Nu = ...(10.51)
kf
When θ > 88°, the plate is slightly inclined with
the horizontal, and heated surface is facing downward,
then the correlations for horizontal plates may be used.
The orientation of heated surface facing up or
down affects the Nusselt number. The natural
convection from upward facing heated surface is more
complex than with downward facing heated plate. On
upward facing heated surface, for small value of GrL
(formed with g cos θ), the fluid motion parallel to plate Fig. 10.10. Natural convection around a horizontal cylinder
is similar to downward facing heated plate as shown in
Fig. 10.9 (c). But when the value of GrL exceeds a critical 50.9
value Grc, the boundary layer detaches itself from the 43.7
heated surface due to strong buoyancy force 36.5 29.3°C

perpendicular to the plate. The value of GrcPr depends
on θ and tabulated in Table 10.2. Further, the 58.1
correlations used for upward facing heated surface may

also be applied to downward facing cooled surface and
for such orientation (for angle between – 15 and – 75°), 65.3
72.5
a suitable correlation for average Nusselt number is 79.7
recommended
1 cm
86.9
Nu = 0.145 [(GrLPr)1/3 – (GrcPr)1/3] 94.1
+ 0.56 (GrcPr cos θ)1/4 ...(10.52)

11
valid for GrL Pr < 10 , GrL > Grc 101.4°C
The values of transition Grashof number Grc

depends on angle of inclination θ, it is listed in Table 10.2.
TABLE 10.2. Transition Grashof number
Grc used in eqn. (10.52)
θ, degree Grc
– 15 5 × 109
– 30 2 × 109 Fig. 10.11. Measured isotherms around a cylinder in air
– 60 108 when GrD ≈ 585 in natural convection
– 75 106
being that the surface of the cylinder is curved. Thus 2. Vertical cylinder at uniform temperature.
the Nusselt number and Grashof number are calculated The average Nusselt number for natural convection on
by using diameter D of cylinder as a characteristic a vertical cylinder is very similar to that for a vertical
length. For a wide range of Rayleigh number 10–3 < Ra plate, if the curvature effects are negligible. The
< 1013, the Churchill and Chu proposed the following correlation for vertical plate may be used for vertical
correlation for average Nusselt number for natural
cylinder given by eqns. (10.37), (10.38) or (10.39).
convection over a cylinder at uniform temperature at
Ts, exposed to ambient at T∞ ; 10.4.5. Free Convection on a Spheres
Nu = 0.6 +
LM 0.387 Ra D 1/6 OP
2
The natural convection around the spheres is very
MN {1 + (0.559 / Pr) 9 / 16 }8 / 27 PQ similar to that for horizontal cylinders. A simple
correlation for calculation of average Nusselt number
...(10.53)
for natural convection on a single sphere at uniform
gβ(Ts − T∞ ) D 3
where RaD = GrD Pr = Pr ...(10.54) temperature is given by Yuge as
ν2
Evaluate β at T∞ and all other properties at hD
Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2. NuD = = 2 + 0.43 RaD1/4 ...(10.56)
kf
A simple correlation for natural convection from
a horizontal isothermal cylinder is proposed by Morgan for 1 < RaD < 105 and Pr ≈ 1 and all properties at film
in the form temperature Tf , and characteristic length as diameter
hD D of sphere.
Nu = = C RaDm ...(10.55)
kf For a wide range of Rayleigh number Churchill
where the value of constant C and exponent m are recommended
function of RaD and are given in Table 10.3. All
properties are evaluated at film temperature Tf . 0.589 Ra D 1/4
NuD = 2 + ...(10.57)
TABLE 10.3. Constant C and exponent m used in [1 + (0.469 / Pr) 9 / 16 ]4 / 9
eqn. (10.55)
for RaD < 1011, Pr ≥ 0.7.
RaD C m All the properties at Tf except β at T∞.
10–10–10–2 0.675 0.058 The summary of correlations for average Nusselt
10–2–102 1.02 0.148 number in natural convection over various geometries
102–104 0.85 0.188 and orientations are presented in Table 10.4.
104–108 0.53 0.25
108–1012 0.13 0.333
TABLE 10.4. Summary of empirical correlations for the average Nusselt number for natural
convection over surfaces
Geometry Characteristic Range Nu

length Lc of Ra
Vertical plate 104–09 Nu = 0.59 Ra1/4
Ts 109–1013 Nu = 0.13 Ra1/3

L
L
R| 0.387 Ra 1/6 U| 2
Entire S|
Nu = 0.825 + V|
T [1 + (0.492 / Pr)9 / 16 ]8 / 27 W
range (complex but more accurate)
Inclined plate Use vertical plate equations as a

first degree of approximation
q L L Replace g by g cos θ for Ra < 109
Horizontal plate
(Surface area As and perimeter P)
(a) Upper surface of a hot plate 104–107 Nu = 0.54 Ra1/4
(or lower surface of a cold plate) 107–1011 Nu = 0.15 Ra1/3
Hot surface Ts
As
P
(b) Lower surface of a hot plate
(or upper surface of a cold plate) 105–1011 Nu = 0.27 Ra1/4
Hot surface Ts
Vertical cylinder Ts A vertical cylinder can be treated

L L as a vertical plate when
35L
D≥
Gr 1/4
Horizontal cylinder
Ts
R| 0.387 Ra 1/6 U| 2
D 105–1012 S|
Nu = 0.6 + V|
D
T [1 + (0.559 / Pr)9 / 16 ]8 / 27 W
1 0.589 Ra 1/ 4
Sphere D πD Ra ≤ 1011 Nu = 2 +
2 [1 + (0.469 / Pr)9 / 16 ]4 / 9
(Pr ≥ 0.7)
Example 10.1. Vertical door of a hot oven is 0.5 m high Ts = 200°C

and is maintained at 200°C. It is exposed to atmospheric Air
air at 20°C. Find (a) local heat transfer coefficient half
way up the door; (b) average heat transfer coefficient for
entire door ; (c) thickness of free convection boundary T = 20°C
LC = 0.5 m
layer at the top of the door.
Solution
Given : A vertical door of an oven
L = Lc = 0.5 m Ts = 200°C
T∞ = 20°C. Fig. 10.12. Schematic of vertical door
To find : The Rayleigh number

(a) Local heat transfer coefficient half way of RaL = GrL Pr = 9.76 × 108 × 0.687 = 6.71 × 108
door i.e., x = 0.25 m. Again the flow is laminar, using the eqn. (10.38)
(b) Average heat transfer coefficient. for determination of average Nusselt number
(c) Thickness of free convection boundary layer Nu = 0.59 RaL1/4 = 0.59 × (6.71 × 108)1/4
at the top of door i.e., x = Lc = 0.5 m. = 94.96
Assumptions : The average heat transfer coefficient h
(i) Heat convection from one side of the door only. Nu kf 94.96 × 0.0332
h= =
(ii) Negligible radiation heat transfer. Lc 0.5
= 6.30 W/m2.K. Ans.
(iii) Constant properties and steady state
conditions. (c) Thickness of free convection boundary layer
at x = 0.5 m using eqn. (10.23)
Analysis : The film temperature
δ 1
T + T∞ 200 + 20 = 3.93(0.952 + Pr)1/4
Tf = s = = 110°C x Grx . Pr 1/ 2
1/ 4
2 2
δ
The properties of atmospheric air at 110°C from or = 3.93 × (0.952 + 0.687)1/4
Table A-4 0.5
ρ = 0.922 kg/m3, Cp = 1000 J/kg.K, 1
× 8 1/ 4 = 0.0303
µ = 2.24 × 10–5 kg/ms ν = 2.429 × 10–5 m2/s, (9.76 × 10 ) × (0.687) 1/2
kf = 0.0332 W/m.K, Pr = 0.687 or δ = 0.01517 m = 15.17 mm. Ans.
1 Example 10.2. Derive a relationship between Grashof
β= K–1 number and Reynolds number, assuming that the heat
383
(a) Local heat transfer coefficient at x = 0.25 m transfer coefficients over vertical plate for pure forced
The Grashof number at x = 0.25 m and natural convection are equal in laminar flow.
g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c Solution

Grx = 2 Given : For laminar forced convection :
ν
1 Nu = 0.664 Re1/2 Pr1/3 ...(i)
9.81 × × (200 − 20) × (0.25) 3
383 For laminar natural convection, eqn. (10.27)
= = 12.2 × 107
(2.429 × 10 −5 ) 2 Nu = 0.677 Pr1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 GrL1/4
The Rayleigh number ...(ii)
Rax = Grx Pr where Nu = average Nusselt number and is expressed
= 12.2 × 107 × 0.687 = 8.388 × 107 as
The boundary layer is laminar (Rax ≤ 109), thus hL
using eqn. (10.25) for calculation of local Nusselt number Nu =
kf
Nux = 0.508 Pr1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 ⋅ Grx1/4 For equal heat transfer coefficients in natural
= 0.508 × (0.687)1/2 × (0.952 + 0.687)–1/4 and forced convection; equating eqns. (i) and (ii)
× (12.2 × 107)1/4 = 39.11 Gr 1/4 Pr 1/2
The local heat transfer coefficient 0.664 Re1/2 Pr1/3 = 0.667
(0.952 + Pr) 1/4
Nu x kf 39.11 × 0.0332
hx = = (0.952 + Pr)
x 0.25 or Gr ≈ Re2
= 5.2 W/m2.K. Ans. Pr 2 / 3
(b) Average heat transfer coefficient It is the required relationship between Grashof
The Grashof number at x = Lc number and Reynolds number.
1 Example 10.3. A vertical plate 15 cm high and 10 cm
9.81 × × (200 − 20) × (0.5)3
383 wide is maintained at 140°C. Calculate the maximum
GrL =
(2.429 × 10 −5 ) 2 heat dissipation rate from the both sides of the plate in
= 9.76 × 108 an ambient of at 20°C. The radiation heat transfer
coefficient is 9.0 W/m2.K. For air at 80°C, take The average convective heat transfer coefficient
ν = 21.09 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 0.692, kf = 0.03 W/m.K.
kf 0.030
Solution hc = Nu = 38.167 ×
Lc 0.15
Given : A vertical plate is exposed to air on its
both sides = 7.63 W/m2.K.
The convective heat dissipation rate from two
L = 15 cm = 0.15 m, w = 10 cm = 0.1 m
sides of the plate
Ts = 140°C, T∞ = 20°C, Qconv = hc (2wL) (Ts – T∞)
2
hr = 9.0 W/m .K ν = 21.09 × 10–6 m2/s = 7.63 × (2 × 0.1 × 0.15) × (140 – 20)
Pr = 0.692, kf = 0.03 W/m. K = 27.48 W
The radiative heat dissipation rate from two sides
T = 20°C
of the plate
Qrad = hr (2 wL) (Ts – T∞)
0.15 m
Ts = = 9.0 × (2 × 0.1 × 0.15) × (140 – 20)
140°C = 32.4 W
Total heat dissipation rate from the plate
= Qconv + Qrad = 27.48 + 32.4
0.1 m = 59.88 W. Ans.
Example 10.4. Water at the rate of 0.8 kg/s at 90°C
Fig. 10.13 flows through a steel tube having 25 mm ID and 30 mm
OD. The outside surface temperature of the pipe is 84°C
To find : Maximum heat dissipation rate from
and temperature of surrounding air is 20°C. The room
both sides of a vertical plate.
pressure is 1 atm and pipe is 15 m long. How much heat
Analysis : For a vertical plate, the characteristic is lost by free convection in the room ?
length You may use correlation
Lc = Height of plate = 0.15 m Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)0.25 for 104 < Gr Pr < 109
The film temperature = 0.10 (Gr Pr)1/3 for 109 < Gr Pr < 1012
Take properties of air as
Ts + T∞ 140 + 20
Tf = = = 80°C = 353 K ρ = 1.0877 kg/m3, Cp = 1.0073 kJ/kg.K
2 2
µ = 1.9606 × 10–5 kg/ms,
The coefficient of volumetric expansion
kf = 0.02813 W/m.K. (P.U., Dec. 2010)
1 1 Solution
β= = K–1
Tf 353 Given : A hot pipe passes through a room as shown
The Grashof number at Lc = L in Fig. 10.14.
g β (∆T) L c 3 p = 1 bar
GrL = Ts = 84°C
ν2
1 (140 − 20) × (0.15) 3
= 9.81 × × Water Ti = 90°C Di = 25 mm Do = 30 mm
353 (21.09 × 10 −6 ) 2 .
m = 0.8 kg/s
= 2.53 × 107 15 m
The Rayleigh number T = 20°C
h
RaL = GrLPr = 2.53 × 107 × 0.692
Fig. 10.14. Schematic for a pipe passing a room
= 1.751 × 107
The Rayleigh number is less than 109, thus the To find : Heat dissipation by natural convection
flow is laminar using eqn. (10.38) to room.
Nu = 0.59 RaL1/4
= 0.59 × (1.751 × 107)1/4 = 38.167 Ts + T∞ 84 + 20
Tf = = = 52°C
2 2
1 1 1 kair = 0.02814 W/m.K,

β= = = K–1
Tf + 273 52 + 273 325 1
β= = 3.077 × 10–3 K–1
The characteristic length 325
Lc = Do = 30 mm = 0.03 m Analysis : The Grashof number with characteris-
The Grashof number tic length Lc of plate :
g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c g β ∆T L3c
GrL = 2 Gr =
ν ν2
ρ g β(Ts − T∞ ) L3c
2
= (9.81) × (3.077 × 10 −3 ) × (80 − 24) × L3c
µ2 =
(1.822 × 10 −5 ) 2
1
(1.0877) 2 × 9.81 × × (84 − 20) × (0.03) 3 = 5.092 × 109 Lc3
325
= Ra = Gr Pr = (5.092 × 109 Lc3) × (0.703)
(1.9606 × 10 −5 ) 2
= 1.60 × 10 5
= 3.579 × 109 Lc3
The Prandtl number (a) When 0.2 m side is vertical : Lc = L1 = 0.2 m
µ Cp 1.9606 × 10 −5 × 1007.3
Pr = = = 0.702 Ra L 1 = 3.579 × 109 × (0.2)3 = 28.637 × 106
kf 0.02813 Thus the flow is laminar, and using eqn. (10.38)
The Rayleigh number
1/4
RaL = Gr Pr = 1.60 × 105 × 0.702 = 1.12 × 105 Nu L 1 = 0.59 (Ra L 1 )
Thus using given correlation = 0.59 × (28.637 × 106)1/4 = 43.176
Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)0.25 The average heat transfer coefficient :
= 0.53 × (1.12 × 105)0.25 = 9.70
kair 0.02814
The average natural heat transfer coefficient h1 = Nu L 1 = 43.176 ×
L1 0.2
Nu kf 9.70 × 0.02813
h= = = 9.1 W/m2.K = 6.075 W/m2.K
Lc 0.03
The heat transfer rate :
The heat dissipation rate by natural convection
Q1 = h1 As (Ts – T∞)
Q = h As (Ts – T∞) = h (π Do L) (Ts – T∞)
= 6.075 × (0.2 × 0.4) × (80 – 24)
= 9.1 × (π × 0.03 × 15) × (84 – 20)
= 823.0 W. Ans. = 27.216 W. Ans.
Example 10.5. Consider a rectangular plate 0.2 m × 0.4 m T = 24°C

T = 24°C
is maintained at a uniform temperature of 80°C. It is
placed in atmospheric air at 24°C. Compare the heat
transfer rates from the plate for the cases when the 0.2 m
Ts =
80°C
80°C
vertical height is (a) 0.2 m and (b) 0.4 m. L2 = 0.4 m
Ts =
Solution
Given : A rectangular plate of size 0.2 m × 0.4 m; 0.4
m
L1 = 0.2 m, L2 = 0.4 m 0.2 m
Ts = 80°C, T∞ = 24°C. (a) Rectangular plate with (b) Rectangular plate with
To find : Comparison of heat transfer rates when 0.2 m side vertical 0.4 m side vertical
the vertical height is Fig. 10.15. Schematic for example 10.5
(a) 0.2 m and (b) 0.4 m.
(b) For the different vertical orientation of the
Properties of fluid : The mean film temperature; plate of Lc = 0.4 m. The relevant Rayleigh number is
Ts + T∞ 80 + 24
Tf = = = 52°C = 325 K Ra L 2 = 3.579 × 109 × (0.4)3 = 229.0 × 106
2 2
The properties of air at 325 K from Table A-4 ; The boundary layer is laminar, hence using
ν = 1.822 × 10–5 m2/s, Pr = 0.703 eqn. (10.38)
Nu L 2 = 0.59 (Ra L 2 ) 1/ 4 (Q 1 − Q 2 ) (27.216 − 22.848)

× 100 = × 100 = 16%
Q1 27.216
= 0.59 × (229.0 × 106)1/4 = 72.58
Heat transfer is 16% higher when the vertical
kair 0.02814 side is 0.2 m instead of 0.4 m side. Ans.
and h2 = Nu L 2 = 72.58 ×
L2 0.4 Example 10.6. A hot plate of 15 cm2 area maintained
at temperature of 200°C is exposed to still air at 30°C.
= 5.10 W/m2.K
When smaller side of the plate is held vertical, the
The heat transfer rate : convective heat transfer rate is 14% higher than that
Q2 = h2 As (Ts – T∞) when bigger side of the plate, held vertical. Determine
the dimensions of the plate. Neglecting the internal
= 5.10 × (0.2 × 0.4) × (80 – 24)
temperature gradients of the plate. Also calculate the heat
= 22.848 W. Ans. transfer rate in both cases. Use relation
The percentage decrease in heat transfer : NuL = 0.59 (GrPr)1/4
Use air properties
Temperature °C ρ, kg/m3 Cp, kJ/kg.K µ, kg/ms kf , W/m.K
30 1.165 1.005 18.6 × 10–6 0.0267

115 0.910 1.009 22.65 × 10–6 0.0331
200 0.746 1.026 26.0 × 10–6 0.0393
(P.U., Dec. 2006)

Solution T¥ = 30°C
Given : A hot plate exposed to air ; T¥ = 30°C
A = 15 cm2 = 15 × 10–4 m2, Ts = 200°C,

T∞ = 30°C, Qs = 1.14 × Qb
where, Qs = heat transfer rate when small side is Ls Ts = 200°C
Ts = 200°C 15/Ls
vertical
Qb = heat transfer rate when bigger side is
vertical.
15/Ls Ls
To find :
(a) (b)
(i) Plate dimensions.
(ii) Heat transfer rate in both cases. Fig. 10.16
Assumption : Surface radiation effect are The Grashof number for smaller side (Ls) vertical,
negligible.
g ρ2 β ∆T L3s
Properties of fluid : The mean film temperature; Gr =
µ2
Ts + T∞ 200 + 30 FG 1 IJ × (200 − 30) × L
Tf = = = 115°C = 388 K (9.81) × (0.910) 2 ×
H 388 K
3
2 2 s
=
The properties of air at 115°C from given table (22.65 × 10 −6 ) 2
ρ = 0.910 kg/m3, kf = 0.0331 W/m.K, = 6.937 × 109 L3s
Cp = 1.009 kJ/kg.K = 1009 J/kg.K, Prandtl number:
µ = 22.65 × 10–6 kg/ms,
1 1 µC p 22.65 × 10−6 × 1009
β= = K −1 Pr = = = 0.69
Tf 338 kf 0.0331
Analysis : (i) Considering the smaller side of the Ra = Gr Pr
plate is (Ls) cm, then bigger side 15/Ls cm.
= (6.937 × 109 Ls3) × 0.69 = 4.789 × 109 Ls3
We also have, Qs = 1.14 × Qb Solution

hs A(∆T) = 1.14 hb A(∆T) Given: 2.5 kW plate heater of size 10 cm × 20 cm ;
or hs = 1.14 hb w = 10 cm = 0.1 m, Lc = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Thus using the given relation
Q = 2.5 kW = 2500 W, T∞ = 40°C.
hL
Nu = s s = 0.59 × (4.789 × 109 Ls3)1/4 To find : Surface temperature of the heater plate.
kf
Assumptions :
...(i)
kf
or hs = 0.59 × (4.789 × 109 Ls3)1/4 ...(ii) 2. No radiation heat transfer.
Ls
3. Heat transfer from one side of the plate and
Similarly, for bigger side (15/Ls) cm vertical,
other side as insulated.
LM R 15 U O
3 1/ 4
hb = 0.59
kf L s
×
MN 4.789 × 10 ST L VW PP
9 Analysis : The heat transfer rate can be given by
15 s
Q
...(iii)
Q = hAs(∆T) ...(i)
hL c
Using the values of hs and hb in equation (i), we get and given relation, Nu = = 0.13(GrPr)1/3
kf
1 L
(Ls3)1/4 = 1.14 s ×
15 RS UV 3/ 4
kf
Ls 15 Ls T W or h = 0.13
Lc
(GrPr)1/3 ...(ii)
Solving we get smaller side, Ls = 3 cm
Trial 1. Assuming the surface temperature as
15
Hence bigger side Lb = = 5 cm. Ans. 100°C
3
(ii) The average heat transfer coefficient with The properties at (100 + 40)/2 = 70°C can be used
smaller side vertical :
g β ∆T L c 3
0.0331 The Grashof number, Gr =
hs = 0.59 × × [4.789 × 109 × (0.03)3]1/4 ν2
0.03
= 12.344 W/m2.K (9.81) × 5.7 × 10 −4 × (100 − 40) × (0.2) 3
The heat transfer rate : =
(0.415 × 10 −6 ) 2
Qs = hs A (Ts – T∞)
= 12.344 × 15 × 10–4 × (200 – 30) = 1.5584 × 1010
= 3.147 W. Ans. Substituting in eqn. (ii),
The heat transfer rate with bigger side vertical : 0.668
Qs = 1.14. Qb h = 0.13 × × (1.5584 × 1010 × 2.55)1/3
0.2
Qs
or Qb = = 2.76 W. Ans. = 1480 W/m2.K
1.14
Example 10.7. A 2.5 kW plate heater of size The heat transfer rate with this value of
10 cm × 20 cm is held vertical with 20 cm side in a water convection coefficient
bath at 40°C. Assuming the properties of water remains Q = 1480 × 10 × 20 × 10–4 × (100 – 40) = 1776 W
constant and the heat transfer takes place by convection
only, find the steady state temperature attained by the which is less than the heater rating of 2500 W, hence
heater. our assumption was wrong.
Use relation Nu = 0.13(GrPr)1/3 Trial 2. Assuming heater surface temperature
The properties of water are as 120°C
Temp. Cp, kf , ν, m2/s Pr β, K–1 120 + 40

Then Tf = = 80°C
°C J/kg.K W/m.K 2
60 4179 0.659 0.478 × 10–6 2.98 5.11 × 10–4 The properties of water from given table ;
70 4187 0.668 0.415 × 10–6 2.55 5.7 × 10–4
kf = 0.675 W/m.K, ν = 0.365 × 10–6 m2/s,
80 4195 0.675 0.365 × 10–6 2.21 6.32 × 10–4
Pr = 2.21, β = 6.32 × 10–4 K–1
(P.U., Nov. 2008)
Grashof number, Solution

Given : An electrical heated plate insulated on
9.81 × 6.32 × 10 −4 × (120 − 40) × (0.2) 3
Gr = one of its side;
(0.365 × 10 −6 ) 2 L = 60 cm = 0.60 m, w = 60 cm = 0.60 m
= 2.98 × 1010 Ts = 50°C, T∞ = 30°C, θ = – 50°.
Substituting in eqn. (ii) To find : The heat transfer rate when
0.675 (i) heated surface facing up,
h = 0.13 × × (2.98 × 1010 × 2.21)1/3
0.2 (ii) heated surface facing down.
= 1771.5 W/m2.K Properties of fluid : The mean temperature
The heat transfer rate Tf = Ts – 0.25 (Ts – T∞)
Q = 1771.5 × (10 × 20 × 10–4) × (120 – 40) = 50 – 0.25 × (50 – 30) = 45°C = 318 K
= 2834.4 W The physical properties of air at 318 K from
Table A-4 ;
Which is higher than the heater rating, thus this
assumption was also wrong. ν = 1.751 × 10–5 m2/s, Pr = 0.704
Trial 3. Assuming heater surface temperature kair = 0.0276 W/m.K,
as 114°C 1
β = T + 0.25 (T − T )
114 + 40 ∞ s ∞
Then Tf = = 77°C
2 1 1
= = K–1.
The properties of water at 77°C by interpolation 30 + 0.25 × (50 − 30) + 273 308
kf = 0.673 W/m.K, ν = 0.38 × 10–6 m2/s Analysis : Characteristic length Lc = L = 0.6 m
Grashof number,
Pr = 2.312 β = 6.134 × 10–4 K–1
g β ∆T L3c
Grashof number Gr =
ν2
9.81 × 6.134 × 10 –4 × (114 − 40) × (0.2) 3 F I
1
Gr =
(0.38 × 10 −6 ) 2 =
(9.81) ×
H K
308
× (50 − 30) × (0.6) 3
= 2.467 × 1010 (1.751 × 10 −5 ) 2

= 4.487 × 108
The heat transfer coefficient from eqn. (ii)
(i) For hot surface facing up and inclined at – 50°.
0.673 From Table 10.2, we have
h = 0.13 × × (2.467 × 1010 × 2.312)1/3
0.2 Grc = 3.33 × 108
= 1684 W/m2.K Using the relation,
The heat transfer rate with this value of heat Nu = 0.145 [(Gr Pr)1/3 – (Grc Pr)1/3]
transfer coefficient
+ 0.56(Grc Pr cos θ)1/4
Q = 1684 × (10 × 20 × 10–4) × (114 – 40)
= 0.145 × [(4.487 × 108 × 0.704)1/3 – (3.33 × 108
= 2495 W × 0.704)1/3] + 0.56 × {3.33 × 108 × 0.704
Which is very nearer to the value of heater rating, × cos (– 50°)}1/4 = 71.39
thus keeping the heater surface temperature as [Note : It can also be obtained by replacing g by g cos θ
114°C. Ans. in eqn. (10.38)]
Example 10.8. Consider an electrical heated square Therefore, the value of average heat transfer
plate (60 cm × 60 cm) with one of its surface thermally coefficient,
insulated and the other surface dissipating heat by free kf 0.0276
convection into atmospheric air at 30°C. The heat flux h = Nu. = 71.39 × = 3.284 W/m2.K.
Lc 0.6
over the surface of the plate is uniform and results in a The heat transfer rate from the plate,
mean temperature of 50°C. The plate is inclined at an
Q = h As(Ts – T∞)
angle of 50° from vertical. Determine the heat loss from
the plate for the following cases: (a) Heated surface facing = 3.284 × (0.6 × 0.6) × (50 – 30)
up; (b) Heated surface facing down. = 23.64 W. Ans.
(ii) For the hot surface facing down, (θ = + 50°) ρ = 1.165 kg/m3, Cp = 1005 J/kg.K
the relation is µ = 1.865 × 10–5
kg/ms. ν = 16.0 × 10–6 m2/s,
Nu = 0.56 (Gr Pr cos θ)1/4 kf = 0.0264 W/m.K Pr = 0.72,
= 0.56 × [4.487 × 108 × 0.704 × cos (50°)]1/4 1
= 66.85 β= K–1
303
kf 0.0276 The characteristic length of the geometry
and h = Nu = 34.7 × = 3.075 W/m2.K A 0.4 × 0.5
Lc 0.6
Lc = s = = 0.111 m
P 2 × (0.4 + 0.5)
The heat transfer rate from the plate,
Grashof number
Q = h As(Ts – T∞) = 3.075 × (0.6 × 0.6)
× (50 – 30) g β ∆T L c 3
Gr =
= 22.14 W. Ans. ν2
1
Example 10.9. The size of CPU of a personal computer 9.81 × × (40 − 20) × (0.111) 3
= 303
is 40 cm wide, 50 cm deep, and 10 cm high. Its top surface
(16.0 × 10 −6 ) 2
is dissipating 25 W to its surrounding air at 20°C.
= 3.46 × 106
Calculate the temperature of the top surface.
Rayleigh number
Solution Ra = Gr Pr = 3.46 × 106 × 0.72 = 2.49 × 106
Given : T∞ = 20°C Q = 25 W L = 40 cm Thus for hot horizontal plate facing up from
w = 50 cm H = 10 cm. Table 10.1
C = 0.54, n = 1/4
L = 40 cm
Nu = 0.54(Gr Pr)1/4 = 0.54 × (Ra)1/4
= 0.54 × (2.49 × 106)1/4 = 21.45
w = 50 cm
25 W The heat transfer coefficient
Nu kf 21.45 × 0.0264
h= = = 5.10 W/m2.K.
H = 10 cm CPU Lc 0.111
Fig. 10.17. Top surface of a computer to dissipate 25 W Using values in eqn. (i)
25 = 5.10 × (0.4 × 0.5) × (Ts – 20)
To find : Ts, the top surface temperature.
we get Ts = 44.5°C
Assumptions :
which is greater than assumed value, thus repeating
calculation with 44°C
(ii) Uniform surface temperature,
44 + 20
(iii) The conduction and radiation heat transfer Tf = = 32°C (305 K)
from top and sides are negligible 2
The properties of air from Table A-4 ;
(iv) No monitor above the CPU.
ρ = 1.157 kg/m3, Cp = 1005 J/kg.K.
(v) Air as an ideal gas.
µ = 1.885 × 10–5 kg/ms, ν = 16.192 × 10–6 m2/s
Analysis : The convection heat transfer rate is
kf = 0.028 W/m.K, Pr = 0.7
given by
Q = h As (Ts – T∞) ...(i) g β (Ts – T∞ ) L c 3
RaL = Pr
ν2
The surface temperature Ts is unknown and it is
1
required to evaluate the properties of air for determi- 9.81 × × (44 − 20) × (0.111) 3
nation of heat transfer coefficient h. 305
= × 0.7
(16.192 × 10 −6 ) 2
We assume Ts as 40°C, then film temperature = 2.82 × 106
Ts + T∞ 40 + 20 Nu = 0.54(RaL)1/4 = 22.12
Tf = = = 30°C
2 2 Nu kf 22.12 × 0.028
The physical properties of air at 30°C from h= = = 5.58 W/m2.K
Table A-4 ; Lc 0.111
The heat transfer rate For four vertical surface of the cube, Lc = L = 0.1 m
Q = h As (Ts – T∞) RaL = 6.108 × 109 × (0.1)3 = 6.11 × 106
or 25 = 5.58 × (0.4 × 0.5) × (Ts – 20) Using the relation from Table 10.4
or Ts = 42.4°C NuL= 0.59 × (RaL)1/4 = 0.59 × (6.11 × 106)1/4
which is very close to the assumed value of 44°C, thus = 29.33
keeping the temperature of top surface as 42.4°C. Ans.
The average value of heat transfer coefficient on
Example 10.10. A block 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm in size vertical surfaces
is suspended in still air at 10°C with one of its surface
kair 0.03
in horizontal position. All surfaces of the block are main- hv = NuL = 29.33 × = 8.8 W/m2.K
tained at 150°C. Determine the total heat transfer rate Lc 0.1
from the block. (N.M.U., Dec. 2002) The heat transfer rate from 4 vertical faces :
Solution Qv = hv As (Ts – T∞)
Given : L = 10 cm = 0.1 m, = (8.8 W/m2.K) × (4 × 0.1 m × 0.1 m)
w = 0.1 m, z = 0.1 m, × (150 – 10)(K) = 49.28 W.
Ts = 150°C, and T∞ = 10°C. For top surface of the cube, the characteristic
length is
cm As 0.1 × 0.1
10 Ts = 150°C Lc = = = 0.025 m
P 2 × (0.1 + 0.1)
Ra = 6.108 × 109 × (0.025)3 = 95437.5
Using the relation from Table 10.4
10 cm
°C
Nu = 0.54(Ra)1/4 = 0.54 × (95437.5)1/4 = 9.49
10
= The average value of heat transfer coefficient on
T
10 cm top surfaces
0.03
hT = 9.49 × = 11.388 W/m2.K
Fig. 10.18. Schematic of cubical block 0.025
To find : The heat transfer rate from the top surface :
Heat transfer rate from the cubical block. QT = hT As (Ts – T∞)
Properties of fluid : The film temperature = 11.388 × (0.1 × 0.1) × (150 – 10) = 15.94 W.
Ts + T∞ (150 + 10) For bottom surface of the cube, the characteristic
Tf = = = 80°C = 353 K length is
2 2
The properties of air from Table A-4 ; As
Lc = = 0.025 m
ν = 2.107 × 10–5 m2/s, Pr = 0.697 P
kair = 0.03 W/m.K, Ra = 6.108 × 109 × (0.025)3 = 95437.5
1 Using the relation from Table 10.4
β= = 2.832 × 10–3 K–1.
353 Nu = 0.27(Ra)1/4 = 0.27 × (95437.5)1/4 = 4.75
Analysis : The Grashof number, The average value of heat transfer coefficient
g β ∆T L3c 0.03
Gr = hB = 4.75 × = 5.7 W/m2.K
ν 2 0.025
The heat transfer rate from the plate,
(9.81) × (2.832 × 10 −3 ) × (150 − 10) × L3c
= QB = hB As (Ts – T∞)
(2.107 × 10 –5 ) 2
= 8.763 × Lc3 109 = 5.7 × (0.1 × 0.1) × (150 – 10) = 7.97 W.
The Rayleigh number, Total heat transfer rate from the block
Ra = Gr Pr = (8.763 × 109 Lc3) × (0.697) Qv + QT + QB = 49.28 + 15.94 + 7.97
= 6.108 × 109 Lc3 = 73.2 W. Ans.
Example 10.11. A circular disc heater 0.2 m in diameter

is exposed to ambient air at 25°C. One surface of the Ts = 130°C
disc is insulated and other surface is maintained at
130°C. Calculate the amount of heat transferred from
the disc when it is (i) horizontal with hot surface facing
up, (ii) horizontal with hot surface facing down, and
(iii) vertical. T = 25°C
Solution Fig. 10.19 (i) Horizontal disc facing down
Given : A circular disc in different configuration The heat transfer rate from the disc ;
exposed to air :
Q1 = h1 As (Ts – T∞)
D = 0.2 m, Ts = 130°C, T∞ = 25°C.
= 8.98 × (π/4) × (0.2)2 × (130 – 25)
To find : The heat transfer rate from the disc when ;
= 29.64 W. Ans.
(i) horizontal with hot surface facing down,
(ii) For horizontal disc facing up :
(ii) horizontal with hot surface facing up and,
The significant length remains same.
(iii) vertical.
Hence Ra = 4.734 × 109 × (0.05)3 = 591.81 × 103
Properties of fluid : The mean film temperature
Thus the flow is laminar, and for horizontal disc
T + T∞ 130 + 25 facing up the correlation from Table 10.2
Tf = s = = 77.5°C = 350.5 K
2 2 Nu = 0.27(Ra)1/4
The physical properties of air : = 0.27 × (591.81 × 103)1/4 = 7.488
ν = 2.08 × 10–5 m2/s, Pr = 0.697 The average heat transfer coefficient,
1 1 kair 0.03
kair = 0.03 W/m.K, β= = K −1 h2 = Nu = × 7.488 = 4.493 W/m2.K
Tf 350.5 Lc 0.05
Analysis : The Grashof number with character- T = 25°C
istic length Lc :
g β ∆T L c 3
Gr =
ν2
F 1 I × (130 − 25) × L
H 350.5 K
3
(9.81) × c Ts = 130°C
=
(2.08 × 10 − 5 ) 2
= 6.79 × 109 L3c Fig. 10.19 (ii) Horizontal disc facing up
The Rayleigh number, The heat transfer rate from the disc ;
Ra = Gr Pr = (6.79 × 109 Lc3) × (0.697) Q2 = h2 As (Ts – T∞)
= 4.734 × 109 Lc3. = 4.493 × (π/4) × (0.2)2 × (130 – 25)
(i) For horizontal disc facing down : = 14.82 W. Ans.
(iii) For vertical disc :
As (π / 4) D 2 D
Lc = = = = 0.05 m Lc = D = 0.2 m
P πD 4
Hence Ra = 4.734 × 109 × (0.05)3 = 591.81 × 103
Thus the flow is laminar, and for horizontal disc
facing down, the correlation from Table 10.2
Ts = 130°C
Nu = 0.54(Ra)1/4
= 0.54 × (591.81 × 103)1/4 = 14.977
T = 25°C
The average heat transfer coefficient of air,
kair 0.03
h1 = Nu = × 14.977 = 8.98 W/m2.K
Lc 0.05
Fig. 10.19 (iii) Vertical disc
Hence RaD = 4.734 × 109 × (0.2)3 = 37.872 × 106 Rayleigh number

Thus the flow is laminar, and for vertical disc, RaL = GrLPr
from Table 10.4; = 6.404 × 103 × 0.7 = 4.483 × 103
NuD = 0.59 (RaD)1/4 Flow is laminar.
= 0.59 × (37.872 × 106)1/4 = 46.28 Nusselt number
The average heat transfer coefficient, NuL = 0.59(RaL)1/4
kair 0.03 = 0.59 × (4.483 × 103)1/4 = 4.82
h3 = NuD = × 46.28 = 6.94 W/m2.K Average heat transfer coefficient
Lc 0.2
The heat transfer rate from the disc; kf 0.03
h = Nu L × = 4.82 ×
Q3 = h3 As (Ts – T∞) Lc 0.01
= 6.94 × (π/4) × (0.2)2 × (130 – 25) = 14.48 W/m2.K
= 22.9 W. Ans. For top surface (5 cm × 5 cm) of chip
A s 0.05 × 0.05
Example 10.12. A computer chip, square in horizontal Lc = = = 0.0125 m
position, produces heat, while functioning. It was found p (4 × 0.05)
that there are two cooling solutions : (i) air, and (ii) water. 3
 0.0125 
Calculate, which is the better, when chip temperature is Then Rat = 4.483× 103 ×  
127°C and exposed in air at 27°C. The chip protrudes from  0.01 
= 8.755 × 10 3
the base. The chip is 1 cm high and 5 cm × 5 cm in size.
For hot surface facing up from Table 10.1
Solution
Nut = 0.54 Ra1/4
Given : A computer chip with
= 0.54 × (8.755 × 103)1/4 = 5.223
Lc = L = 1 cm = 0.01 m
0.03
w = 5 cm = 0.05 m, z = 0.05 m ht = 5.223 × = 12.536 W/m2.K.
0.0125
Ts = 127°C, T∞ = 27°C
Heat convection rate to air from sides and top
To find : Better solution of cooling
surface of chip
Assumptions :
Q = hL × 4 side area × ∆T +
ht × top surface area × ∆T
2. Heat transfer by natural convection from all
= 14.48 × (4 × 0.05 × 0.01) × 100
four vertical sides and top surface of chip.
+ 12.536 × (0.05 × 0.05) × 100
= 2.896 + 3.134 = 6.03 W. Ans.
Analysis :
(ii) Properties of water at 350 K.
Mean film temperature
µf = 343 × 10–6 kg/ms, ρf = 973.9 kg/m3
Ts + T∞
Tf = = 77°C or 350 K kf = 0.668 W/m.K, Prf = 2.29,
2 –6 –1
β = 624.2 × 10 K
(i) Properties of air
ν = 20.92 × 10–6 m2/s, µf 343 × 10−6
ν= = = 3.522 × 10–7
kf = 0.03 W/m.K, Pr = 0.7 ρf 973.9
1 For sides Lc = 0.01 m
β= K–1
350 9.81 × 624.2 × 10 −6 × (127 − 27) × (0.01)3
For vertical 1 cm height of computer chip, Grashof GrL =
number (3.522 × 10 −7 )2
= 4.934 × 106
g β ∆TL3c
GrL = RaL = 11.30 × 106 (Laminar flow)
ν2 NuL = 0.59(RaL)1/4
1 (127 − 27) × (0.01)3 = 0.59 × (11.30 × 106)1/4 = 34.20
= 9.81 × ×
350 (20.92 × 10−6 )2 0.668
= 6.404 × 10 3 hL = 34.20 × = 2285 W/m2.K
0.01
For top surface Lc = 0.0125 m ν = 23.18 × 10–6 m2/s

3 kf = 0.0321 W/m.K, Pr = 0.688.
 0.0125 
Rat = 11.30 × 106 ×   Assumptions :
 0.01 
= 22.07 × 10 6 1 Radiation heat transfer is negligible.
Nut = 0.54 (Rat)1/4 2. Heat transfer from both sides of plate.
= 0.54 × (22.07 × 106)1/4 = 37.012 3. Transient heat conduction.
0.668
ht = 37.012 × = 1977.94 W/m2.K Analysis : (i) The characteristic length
0.0125
Lc = L = 0.5 m
Heat transfer to water by free convection
The Grashof number,
Q = 2285 × (4 × 0.05 × 0.01) × 100
+ 1977.94 × (0.05 × 0.05) × 100 g β ∆T L c 3
GrL =
= 457 + 494.5 = 951.5 W. Ans. ν2
Hence water is better coolant. Ans. (9.81) × (2.68 × 10 −3 ) × (180 − 20) × (0.5)3
=
(23.18 × 10 −6 )2
Example 10.13. A hot plate 1 m × 0.5 m at 180°C is = 978.95 × 10 6
kept in still air at 20°C. Find :
Rayleigh number,
(i) The heat transfer coefficient.
RaL = GrL.Pr = (978.95 × 106 × 0.688)
(ii) Initial rate of cooling of the plate in °C/min. = 673.52 × 106
(iii) Time required to cool the plate from 180°C to The boundary layer is laminar, hence using the
80°C, if the heat transfer is due to convection only. relation,
Mass of the plate is 20 kg and specific heat is NuL = 0.59 (RaL)1/4 = 0.59 × (673.52 × 106)1/4 =
400 J/kg.K. Assume that the 0.5 m sides is vertical. 95
Solution The average value of heat transfer coefficient
Given : L = 0.5 m, w = 1 m, kf 0.0321
h = NuL = 95 ×
Ts = 180°C, T∞ = 20°C Lc 0.5
m = 20 kg, C = 400 J/kg K. 2
= 6.1 W/m .K. Ans.
T = 20°C (ii) The initial rate of cooling can be obtained by
energy balance as
m=
2 Rate of decrease of internal energy = Rate of heat
L = 0.5 m Ts = 0 kg
180°
C
convection from the plate
Cp =
400
J/kg dT
.K
or –mC = h As (Ts – T∞)
dt
w= dT 6.1 × (2 × 1 × 0.5 m 2 ) × (180 − 20)
1m or =
dt 20 × 400
= – 0.122°C/s
Fig. 10.20
= – 7.322°C/min. Ans.
To find :
(iii) The time taken by plate to cool to 80°C :
(i) Heat transfer coefficient,
(ii) Initial rate of cooling of plate in °C/min, T − T∞
= exp −
LM
h As t
= exp −
OP
h As t LM OP
(iii) Time required to cool the plate to 80°C. Ti − T∞ N
ρ VC Q
mC N Q
Properties of fluid : The mean film temperature
F
T − T∞ I
T + T∞
Tf = s =
180 + 20
= 100°C = 373 K
or t=–
mC
h As
ln
T
GH
i − T∞
JK
2 2
The properties of air, 20 × 400 80 − 20 LM OP
β=
1
= 2.68 × 10–3 K–1,
=–
6.1 × 2 × 1 × 0.5
× ln
180 − 20 N Q
373 = 1286 s = 21.43 min. Ans.
Example 10.14. Estimate the heat transfer rate from a The average Nusselt number
100 W incandescent bulb at 140°C to an ambient at 24°C. Nu = 0.60 (Gr Pr)1/4
Approximate the bulb as 60 cm diameter sphere.
Calculate the percentage of power lost by natural = 0.60 × (1.503 × 106 × 0.699)1/4
convection. = 19.21 W/m2.K
Use following correlation and air properties ; The average heat transfer coefficient
Nu = 0.60 (GrPr)1/4
Nu kf 19.21 × 30.38 × 10−3
The properties of air at 82°C are h= =
Lc 0.06
ν = 21.46 × 10–6 m2/s,
kf = 30.38 × 10–3 W/m.K, = 9.73 W/m2.K.
Pr = 0.699. (M.U., May 2002) The heat dissipation rate by natural convection
Solution Qconv = h (πD2) (Ts – T∞)
Given : The heat convection rate from a 100 W = 9.73 × [π × (0.06)2] × (140 – 24)
bulb (sphere)
= 12.76 W
D = 60 mm = 0.06 m, Ts = 140°C
Percentage of power lost by natural convection
T∞ = 24°C, Qgen = 100 W.
Q conv 12.76
= × 100 = × 100
Q gen 100
= 12.76%. Ans.
Example 10.15. Two horizontal steam pipes having
diameters 100 mm and 300 mm are so laid in a boiler
house that the mutual heat transfer may be neglected.
Ts = 140°C
The surface temperature of each of the steam pipe is
480°C. If these pipes are exposed in an ambient at 30°C.
Light
Calculate the ratio of heat transfer coefficients and heat
losses per metre length of the pipes.
T = 24°C
Solution
Given : Two horizontal steam pipes exposed in a
boiler house.
Fig. 10.21. Schematic of an incandescent bulb D1 = 100 mm = 0.1 m, Ts = 480°C
To find : Percentage power lost by natural convec- D2 = 300 mm = 0.3 m, T∞ = 30°C.
tion.
To find :
Assumptions :
(i) Ratio of heat transfer coefficients over two
(i) Negligible radiation heat transfer.
pipes.
(ii) Steady state condition and constant proper-
ties. (ii) Ratio of heat losses per metre length of two
steam pipes.
Analysis. The film temperature
Ts + T∞ 140 + 24 Analysis : In natural convection heat transfer,
Tf = = = 82°C = 355 K the Nusselt number is expressed as
2 2
1 1 Nu = C(Gr Pr)1/n
β= = K–1
Tf 355
Characteristic length, Lc = D = 0.06 m
L g β ∆T D
=CM
3 O
Pr P
1/ 4
g β (Ts – T∞ ) L c 3 N ν 2
Q
Gr = Nu ∝ D3/4
ν2
1 (140 − 24) × (0.06) 3 hD 1
= 9.81 × × or ∝ D3/4 or h ∝ 1/ 4
355 (21.46 × 10 −6 ) 2 kf D
= 1.503 × 10 6
(i) The ratio of heat transfer coefficients 10.5. SIMPLIFIED EQUATIONS FOR AIR
h1 FG IJ
D2
1/4
FG 300 IJ 1/4
At atmospheric pressure and moderate temperature,
h2
=
D1H K =
H 100 K range, some simplified expressions given in Table 10.5,
= 1.316. Ans. can be used for natural convection on isothermal
(ii) Similarly Q = h(πDL) ∆T surfaces exposed to air. The use of these relations can
be extended to CO, CO2, O2, N2 and the flue gases for
Q1 h1D 1 100
Ratio = = 1.316 × the temperature ranges from 20°C to 800°C. For more
Q2 h2 D 2 300 precise approximation, the expressions presented in
= 0.438. Ans. Table 10.4 must be used.
TABLE 10.5. Simplified relations for free convection to air at atmospheric pressure and
moderate temperature
Sr. Geometry Characteristic Type of Flow Range of Correlation

No. Length, Lc Gr Pr h=
1. Vertical Planes and Height, L Laminar 104 ≤ Ra ≤ 108 1.42(∆T/L)1/4

Vertical Cylinders Turbulent 108 ≤ Ra ≤ 1012 1.31(∆T)1/3
2. Horizontal Cylinder Diameter, D Laminar 104 ≤ Ra ≤ 108 1.32(∆T/D)1/4
Turbulent 108 ≤ Ra ≤ 1012 1.24(∆T)1/3
As
3. Horizontal Plates
P
(i) Heated surface facing Laminar 104 ≤ Ra ≤ 107 1.32(∆T/Lc)1/4
down or cold surface
facing up Turbulent 107 ≤ Ra ≤ 1011 1.52(∆T)1/3
(ii) Heated surface facing Laminar 105 ≤ Ra ≤ 1010 0.59(∆T/Lc)1/4
up or cold surface
facing down
Example 10.16. 1 cm O.D. horizontal copper tube carries Assumptions :

liquid freon at – 30°C. If 2 m length of this tube must (i) Negligible convection resistance at the inner
pass uninsulated through the still air at 40°C, determine side of tube.
the heat leakage when outside tube surface emissivity is (ii) Constant properties.
0.8. Use the following properties and correlations for
D = 1 cm = 0.8
determination of convection coefficient ;
Air properties : β = 3.597 × 10–3 K–1 , Pr = 0.69, Freon
ν = 1.66 × 10–5 m2/s, kf = 0.028 W/m.K –30°C
Correlation for free convection ; L=2m

T = 40°C = 313 K
h = 1.32(∆T/D)1/4 for 103 < Ra < 109
h = 1.24 (∆T/D) 1/3 for 109 < Ra < 1012. Fig. 10.22
(J.N.T.U., Nov. 2003) Analysis : The Grashof number with characteris-
Solution tic length Lc = D
Given : Horizontal copper tube carries liquid gβ∆T D3
Gr =
Freon : ν2
D = 1 cm = 0.01 m, L = 2 m,
(9.81) × (3.597 × 10 −3 ) × (40 + 30) × (0.01) 3
T∞ = 40°C = 313 K, ε = 0.8, =
(1.66 × 10 −5 ) 2
Ts = – 30°C = 243 K,
= 8963.78
To find : The heat loss from the tube.
The Rayleigh number, To find :

Ra = Gr Pr = (8963.78 × 0.69) = 6185 (i) Natural convection heat transfer rate, then
The Ra lies between 103 and 109, hence using the (ii) Emissivity of the pipe surface.
relation,
Assumptions :
1/4 1/4
 ∆T   40 + 30  1. Steady state conditions.
h = 1.32   = 1.32 ×  
 D   0.01  2. Stefan Boltzmann constant as 5.67 × 10–8
= 12.074 W/m2.K W/m .K4.
2
The heat loss rate from the horizontal pipe by 3. Room walls are at 30°C.
convection ; 4. Constant properties.
Qc = h(πDL)(Ts – T∞) Analysis : The film temperature
= 12.074 × (π × 0.01 × 2) × (40 + 30)
= 53.1 W Ts + T∞ 200 + 30
Tf = = = 115°C
The heat loss rate from horizontal pipe by 2 2
radiation ; 1 1 1
Qr = σ ε As(Ts4 – T∞4 ) β= = = K–1
Tf + 273 115 + 273 388
= 5.67 × 10–8 × (0.8) × (π × 0.01 × 2)
The characteristic length
× (3134 – 2434)
= 17.41 W Lc = D = 0.2 m
The total heat loss rate from the pipe The Grashof number
Qc + Qr = 53.1 + 17.41 = 70.5 W. Ans. g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c
Gr =
Example 10.17. A pipe carrying steam runs in a large ν2
room and is exposed to air at a temperature of 30°C. The
pipe surface temperature is 200°C. The pipe diameter is 1 (200 − 30) × (0.2) 3
= 9.81 × ×
20 cm. If total heat loss rate from the pipe per metre 388 (24.93 × 10 − 6 ) 2
length is 1.9193 kW/m, determine the pipe surface = 5.53 × 107
emissivity. Use correlation
The Nusselt number
Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)1/4
Nu = 0.53(Gr Pr)1/4
and properties of air at 115°C
= 0.53 × (5.53 × 107 × 0.687)1/4 = 41.61
kf = 0.03306 W/m2.K, ν = 24.93 × 10–6 m2/s
Pr = 0.687. (P.U., May 2001)
Nu kf 41.61 × 0.03306
Solution h= = = 6.88 W/m2.K
Lc 0.2
Given : A hot pipe is exposed in a large room.
The heat dissipation rate by free convection,
D = 20 cm = 0.2 m, L=1m
Qconv = h (πDL) (Ts – T∞)
Ts = 200°C, T∞ = 30°C
= 6.88 × (π × 0.2 × 1) × (200 – 30)
Q = 1.9193 kW/m = 1919.3 W/m
= 734.77 W/m
kf = 0.03306 W/m.K, ν = 24.93 × 10–6 m2/s
The heat dissipation rate by thermal radiation
Pr = 0.687
Qrad = Q – Qconv
and relation for Nu. = 1919.3 – 734.77 = 1184.53 W/m
Q = 1.9193 kW/m The radiation heat transfer rate is expressed as
T¥ = 30°C Qrad = σ ε As(Ts4 – T∞4 )
where T is in K, and
Steam ∴ 1184.53 = 5.67 × 10–8 × ε (π × 0.2 ×1)
× [(200 + 273)4 – (30 + 273)4]
D = 20 cm Ts = 200°C = 1482.94 ε
Fig. 10.23. Steam pipe in a room or ε = 0.798. Ans.
Example 10.18. Beer cans (diameter 65 mm, length The cooling rate,
150 mm) are to be cooled from an initial temperature of Q1 = h1 As (∆T)
20°C by placing them in a bottle cooler with an ambient = 5.47 × (π × 0.065 × 0.15) × (20 – 1)
air temperature of 1°C. Compare the initial cooling rates,
= 3.18 W. Ans.
when the cans are laid horizontally, to when they are
laid vertically. (N.M.U., Nov. 1997) (ii) For the vertical orientation, the cylindrical
cans can be approximated as vertical wall of L = 0.15 m.
Solution The relevant Rayleigh number
Given : Beer cans are to be cooled as : RaL = 2.225 × 109 × (0.15)3 = 7.51 × 106
D = 65 mm = 0.065 m, L = 150 mm = 0.15 m The boundary layer is laminar, hence using
Ts = 20°C, T∞ = 1°C. relation
To find : NuL = 0.59(RaL)1/4
(i) Heat transfer rate from horizontal cans. = 0.59 × (7.51 × 106)1/4 = 30.88
(ii) Heat transfer rate from vertical cans. kf 0.024
(iii) Comparison of heat transfer rate from cans and h2 = NuL = 30.88 × = 4.94 W/m2.K.
L 0.15
in above two orientations. The cooling rate,
Properties of fluid : The film temperature Q2 = h2 As (∆T)
Ts + T∞ 20 + 1 = 4.94 × (π × 0.065 × 0.15) × (20 – 1)
Tf = = = 10.5°C = 283.5 K
2 2 = 2.87 W. Ans.
The properties of air are :
(iii) The percentage change in cooling rate, when
ν = 15.55 × 10–6 m2/s, α = 0.19 × 10–4 m2/s cans are laid horizontally
3
ρ = 1.25 kg/m and kf = 0.024 W/m.K Q1 − Q2 3.18 − 2.87
β = 1/283.5 = 3.527 × 10 K–1.
–3 = × 100
Q1 3.18
Analysis : The Grashof number with character- = 9.6% higher. Ans.
istic length Lc ;
Example 10.19. A pipe 8 cm diameter is covered with
g β ∆T L3c 3 cm thick layer of insulation, which has surface
Gr =
ν2 emissivity of 0.9. The surface temperature of the
insulation is 80°C and the pipe is placed in air at 20°C.
(9.81) × (3.527 × 10 −3 ) × (20 − 1) × L3c
= Considering heat loss by radiation and natural
(15.55 × 10 −6 ) 2 convection, Calculate,
= 2.719 × 109 Lc3 (i) Heat loss from 5 m length of pipe,
The Prandtl number, (ii) The overall heat transfer coefficient,
ν 15.55 × 10 −6 (iii) Heat transfer coefficient due to radiation.
Pr = = = 0.818
α 0.19 × 10 −4 The properties of air are
The Rayleigh number,
Ra = Gr Pr = 2.719 × 109 L3c × 0.818 T°C ρ kg/m3 Cp kJ/kg.K µ × 106 kf W/m.K
Ns/m2
= 2.225 × 109 Lc3
(i) For horizontally laid cylinders : 20 1.205 1.005 18.1 0.0259
Lc = D = 0.065 m 30 1.1625 1.005 18.6 0.02673
50 1.092 1.007 19.57 0.02781
RaD = 2.225 × 109 × (0.065)3 = 611.0 × 103
80 1.00 1.009 21.1 0.0305
Thus the flow is laminar, and relation from
Table 10.4 90 0.972 1.009 21.5 0.0313
NuD = 0.53(RaD)1/4 The following correlations may be used :
= 0.53 × (611.0 × 10 3)1/4 = 14.82 Nu = 0.53(Gr Pr)1/4 for 104 < Gr Pr < 107
The heat transfer coefficient, = 0.15 (Gr Pr)1/3 for 107 < Gr Pr < 109
kf 0.024 = 0.22 (Re)0.6 for 103 < Re < 105.
h1 = NuD = 14.82 × = 5.47 W/m2.K.
D 0.065 (P.U., May 2002)
Solution The heat dissipation rate by radiation

Given : An insulated pipe is exposed to air : Qrad = σ ε As (T4s – T∞4)
D1 = 8 cm, L = 5 m, where T is in K and σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4
D2 = 8 cm + 2 × 3 cm = 14 cm = 0.14 m Qrad = 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.9 × (π × 0.14 × 5)
ε = 0.9, Ts = 80°C = 353 K, (3534 – 2934) = 915.42 W
T∞ = 20°C = 293 K. The total heat dissipation rate by natural
To find : convection and radiation
(i) The heat dissipation rate by natural Q = Qconv + Qrad = 875.23 + 915.42
convection and thermal radiation for 5 m long insulated = 1790.66 W. Ans.
surface of pipe.
(ii) The overall heat transfer coefficient
(ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient, and
Q = U As(∆T)
(iii) Radiation heat transfer coefficient.
1790.66 = U × (π × 0.14 × 5) × (80 – 20)
or U = 13.57 W/m2.K. Ans.
T + T∞ 80 + 20
Tf = s = = 50°C (iii) Radiation heat transfer coefficient.
2 2
The properties of air at 50°C from Table A-4 are Qrad = hr As (Ts – T∞)
ρ = 1.092 kg/m3, Cp = 1.007 kJ/kg.K, 915.42 = hr (π × 0.14 × 5) × (80 – 20)
–6 2
µ = 19.57 × 10 Ns/m , kf = 0.02781 W/m.K. or hr = 6.94 W/m2.K. Ans.
1 1 1 Example 10.20. A two stroke motor cycle petrol engine
β= = = K–1 cylinder consists of 15 annular fins. If outside and inside
Tf + 273 50 + 273 323
diameters of each fin are 200 mm and 100 mm,
(i) The characteristic length of the geometry respectively. The average fin surface temperature is
Lc = D2 = 0.14 m 475°C and they are exposed in air at 25°C. Calculate the
The Grashof number heat transfer rate from the fins for the following
conditions :
ρ2 g β (Ts − T∞ ) L c 3
Gr = (i) When motorcycle is at rest.
µ2
1 (ii) When motorcycle is running at a speed of
(1.092) 2 × 9.81 × × (80 − 20) × (0.14)3 60 km/h.
= 323
(19.57 × 10 −6 ) 2 The fin may be idealised as a single horizontal
= 15.569 × 106 flat plate of the same area.
The Prandtl number Solution
µC p −6
19.57 × 10 × 1007 Given : Fins as horizontal flat plate
Pr = = = 0.708
kf 0.02781 Nfin = 15, Do = 200 mm, Di = 100 mm
Rayleigh number Ts = 475°C, T∞ = 25°C.
Ra = Gr Pr = 15.569 × 106 × 0.708 = 11.03 × 106
To find : Heat dissipation rate from fins in
which is greater than 107, thus using
(i) natural convection, and
Nu = 0.15(Gr Pr)1/3
(ii) forced convection.
= 0.15 × (15.59 × 106 × 0.708)1/3 = 33.4
Nu kf Ts + T∞ 475 + 25
33.4 × 0.02781 Tf = = = 250°C = 523 K.
h= = = 6.63 W/m2.K. 2 2
Lc 0.14
The heat dissipation rate by natural convection. The thermophysical properties of air at 250°C
Qconv = hAs (Ts – T∞) kf = 0.0427 W/m.K, ν = 40.61 × 10–6 m2/s
= 6.63 × (π × 0.14 × 5) × (80 – 20) 1 1
Pr = 0.677, β= = K–1.
= 875.23 W. Tf 523
Case I : Motorcycle at rest : Nu = 0.027 Re0.805 Pr1/3

The characteristic length for horizontal fin = 0.027 × (41.04 × 103)0.805 × (0.677)1/3
= 122.02
As π (D o 2 − D i 2 )
Lc = =2× kf 0.0427
P 4 π (D o − D i ) h = Nu = 122.02 ×
Dh 0.1
D + D i 0.2 + 0.1 = 52.1 W/m2.K
= o = = 0.15 m
2 2 The heat dissipation rate from fins surface
The Grashof number Q = h [2 × (π/4) (Do2 – Di2)] Nfin (Ts – T∞)
Gr =
g β ∆T L3c LM 2 × π × (0.2 2 OP
– 0.12 ) × 15 × (475 – 25)
ν 2 = 52.1 ×
N 4 Q
1 (475 − 25) × (0.15) 3 = 16.572 × 103 W = 16.57 kW. Ans.
= 9.81 × ×
523 (40.61 × 10 −6 ) 2 Example 10.21. In a wind tunnel, 15°C air at 5 m/s
= 17.27 × 106 flows over a flat plate, 1 m × 0.8 m in size. The plate
The Rayleigh number temperature is 35°C. One of the side of the plate is
Ra = Gr Pr = 17.27 × 106 × 0.677 arranged parallel to the flow direction, such that the heat
= 11.694 × 106 transfer is lesser, estimate :
which is less than 109, thus the flow is laminar. For (i) Rate of heat transfer from the one side of plate.
horizontal surface : 104 < Ra < 107, from Table 10.1 (ii) Initial rate of cooling per hour of the plate, if
Nu = 0.54 Ra1/4 mass of the plate is 5 kg and specific heat is 875 J/kg.K.
= 0.54 × (11.694 × 106)1/4 = 31.58 (iii) If the flow is turned off, compute the heat flow
The heat transfer coefficient rate from the upper surface of the plate in still air at
15°C.
kf 0.0427
h = Nu = 31.58 × = 9.0 W/m2.K (iv) What is the percentage change in heat flow
Lc 0.15
rate ?
The heat dissipation rate from both sides of fin
Use the following thermophysical properties of air
Q=h 2× LM π OP
(D o 2 − D i 2 ) Nfin (Ts – T∞) and correlations
N 4 Q ρ = 1.1707 kg/m3, Cpf = 1007 J/kg.K,
LM π OP
× (0.2 2 − 0.12 ) × 15 ν = 15.712 × 10–6 m2/s kf = 0.02614 W/m.K
= 9.0 × 2 ×
N 4 Q Pr = 0.7075
× (475 – 25) Nu = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 for forced convection
= 2859.36 W. Ans. = 0.27 (GrL Pr)1/4 for natural convection.
Case II : When motorcycle is running at a speed (P.U., Dec. 2001)
of 60 km/h
Solution
3 Given : Flow over a flat plate
60 × 10
um = = 16.67 m/s
3600 u∞ = 5 m/s, T∞ = 15°C, L=1m
The hydraulic diameter w = 0.8 m Ts = 35°C m = 5 kg,
Cp = 875 J/kg.K.
4 A c 4 × (π/4) (D o 2 − D i 2 ) and fluid properties.
Dh = =
P π (D o + D i ) To find :
= Do – Di = 0.2 – 0.1 = 0.1 m (i) Rate of forced convection heat transfer from
The Reynolds number one side of the plate.
(ii) Initial rate of cooling of plate.
um D h 16.67 × 0.1
Re = = = 41.04 × 103 (iii) Heat flow rate for natural convection
ν 40.61 × 10 −6 condition.
For Re > 4 × 104 (iv) Percentage change in heat flow.
Assumptions : 1
9.81 × × 20 × (0.222) 3
(i) For lesser heat transfer rate in forced 298
GrL = = 2.926 × 107
convection, the side with longer length to be consider (15.712 × 10 −6 ) 2
as flow length. RaL = Gr Pr = 2.926 × 107 × 0.7075
(ii) Steady state conditions. = 20.70 × 106
(iii) Constant properties. Using given relation
(iv) No radiation heat transfer. h Lc
Nu = = 0.27(Gr Pr)1/4
Analysis : kf
= 0.27 × (20.70 × 106)1/4 = 18.21
(i) The Reynolds number
and heat transfer coefficient
u∞ L 5×1 kf 0.02614
ReL = = = 318228.1 h = Nu = 18.21 ×
ν 15.712 × 10 −6 Lc 0.222
which is less than Recr = 5 × 105, the flow is laminar, = 2.144 W/m2.K.
using correlation for average Nusselt number The rate of heat convection from the plate
Nu = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 Qnatural = h(wL) (Ts – T∞)
= 0.664 × (318228.1)1/2 × (0.7075)1/3 = 2.144 × (1 × 0.8) × (35 – 15)
= 333.77 = 34.31 W. Ans.
The average heat transfer coefficient (iv) Percentage change in heat flow
Q forced − Q natural
kf 0.02614 = × 100
h = Nu = 333.77 × Q forced
L 1
2 139.6 − 34.31
= 8.725 W/m .K. = × 100 = 75.42%. Ans.
139.6
The rate of heat transfer from one side of plate Example 10.22. A 12 cm-wide and 18 cm-high vertical
Qforced = h(wL) (Ts – T∞) hot surface in 25°C air is to be cooled by a heat sink with
= 8.725 × (1 × 0.8) × (35 – 15) equally spaced fins of rectangular profile. The fins are
= 139.6 W. Ans. 1 mm thick, 18 cm long in the vertical direction, and
have a height of 2.4 cm from the base. Determine the
(ii) Initial rate of cooling
optimum fin spacing, and the rate of heat transfer by
dT natural convection from the heat sink, if the base
Qforced = mCp
dt temperature is 80°C.
dT Use following relation for fin spacing and heat
139.6 = 5 × 875 × transfer coefficient
dt
L
dT Sopt = 2.714
or = 0.0319°C/s ~
− 114.86°C/h. Ans. Ra 1/4
dt kf
(iii) Heat flow rate in natural convection from Convection coefficient h = 1.31 .
heated surface facing up. Sopt
The Grashof number
w = 0.12 m
3
g β ∆T L c
GrL = H = 2.4 cm
ν2
1 35 + 15
where β= and Tf =
Tf 2 L = 0.18 m
= 25°C = 298 K
∆T = 35 – 15 = 20°C
Ts = 80°C
As 0.8 × 1 t = 1 mm S
Lc = = = 0.222 m T¥ = 25°C
P 2 × (1 + 0.8)
Solution 0.12
Given : A vertical hot surface with rectangular = = 15 fins
0.00724 + 1 × 10 −3
fins.
Lc = 0.18 m, Ts = 80°C, H = 2.4 cm,
T∞ = 25°C, w = 0.12 m, t = 1 mm. kf 0.0279
h = 1.31 = 1.31 ×
To find : S opt 0.00724
(i) Optimum fin spacing, and = 5.04 W/m2.K.
(ii) Heat transfer rate from heat sink. Then heat transfer rate by natural convection
Assumptions : Q = Heat transfer from two sides of fins
(i) The fin thickness is very small as compared + Heat transfer from unfinned surface
to fin spacing. Q = h (2Nfin LH) (Ts – T∞)
(ii) Fins are as vertical plate. + h (wL – Lt Nf) (Ts – T∞)
(iii) Constant properties and steady state = [5.04 × (2 × 15 × 0.18 × 0.024)
conditions.
× (80 – 25) + 5.04 × (0.12 × 0.18 – 0.18)
× 1 × 10–3 × 15] × (80 – 25)
Ts + T∞ 80 + 25 = 35.925 W + 5.24 W = 41.16 W. Ans.
Tf = = = 52.5°C = 325.5 K
2 2
At this temperature, the properties of air 10.6. NATURAL CONVECTION IN ENCLOSED
kf = 0.0279 W/m.K SPACES
ν = 1.82 × 10–5 m2/s
Pr = 0.709 The heat transfer through enclosures is of practical
interest. The typical examples are natural convection
1 1 in wall cavity, between window glazing and flat plate
β= = = 0.003072 K–1
Tf 325.5 K solar collectors. The heat transfer in enclosed spaces is
(i) The characteristic length for vertical fin complicated, due to movement of fluid in the enclosure.
In a vertical enclosure, the fluid adjacent to hotter
Lc = L = 0.18 m
surface rises and fluid adjacent to cooler surface falls
The Grashof number
setting of rotationary motion within the enclosure, that
g β (∆T) L3c increases the heat transfer rate through the enclosure.
GrL =
ν2 The typical flow pattern in vertical rectangular cavity
9.81 × 0.003072 × (80 − 25) × (0.18) 3 is shown in Fig. 10.25.
=
(1.82 × 10 −5 ) 2
= 29.18 × 106
The Rayleigh number Cold
RaL = GrLPr = 29.18 × 106 × 0.709 surface Hot
surface
= 2.609 × 107
Q
The optimum fin spacing
L 0.18
Sopt = 2.714 1/ 4 = 2.714 ×
Ra (2.609 × 10 7 ) 1/ 4
= 0.00724 m = 7.24 mm. Ans.
(ii) The number of fins LC
Width of plate w Fig. 10.25. Convection currents in vertical

Nfin = =
Fin spacing + Fin thickness S + t rectangular cavity
The flow pattern of fluid in a horizontal enclosure The empirical correlations for Nusselt number for
depends on the position of hotter surface. When the various enclosures are presented in Table 10.6.
hotter surface in a horizontal rectangular enclosure is The heat transfer rate
at the top, the convection current does not develop in
FT −T I
the cavity, since the lighter fluid is always at the top of
heavier fluid. Thus the heat is transferred in such a
Q = hAs (T1 – T2) = kf Nu As GH L JK
1
c
2
situation by pure conduction. But when the hotter ...(10.59)

surface is at the bottom of enclosure, then the fluid
adjacent to surface is heated and becomes lighter, thus
rises up and comes in contact of cooler surface at top,
R|H w Rectangular cavity
where it cools down. If RaL < 1708, the heat transfer is || πL(D − D )
2 1
where A =S F I Concentric cylinders
essentially by pure conduction. For RaL > 1708, the
buoyancy force overcomes the fluid resistance and
s
|| lnGH DD JK
2
1
convection current starts in the cavity. The two |T πD D
1 2 Concentric spheres
situations of horizontal cavity are shown in Fig. 10.26.
...(10.60)
Light fluid Hot surface
where, w = width of rectangular cavity
H = height of cavity
(No convection currents)
L = length of cylinder
D1 = inner diameter
Cold surface
Heavy fluid D2 = outer diameter.
(a) Hot surface at the top of a rectangular cavity
Heavy fluid Cold surface
Light fluid Hot surface

(b) Hot surface at the bottom of a rectangular cavity
Fig. 10.26. Convection current in a horizontal enclosure

The Rayleigh number for an enclosure is Fig. 10.27. Isotherms in natural convection between
calculated as concentric cylinders
Inclined cavity. For an inclined rectangular
g β (T1 − T2 ) L c 3
Ra = Pr ...(10.58) cavity, the complex correlation are available in the lit-
ν2
erature for accurate value of Nusselt number. But in
where the characteristic length Lc is the distance Table 10.6, the Nusselt number for inclined rectangular
between hot and cold surfaces at temperature T1 and
cavities heated from the below and inclined upto 20° is
T2, respectively. All the fluid properties are evaluated
determined from correlations for vertical rectangular
at average temperature
cavity with the replacement of g by gcos θ in Rayleigh
1 number (Ra) relation given by eqn. (10.58).
Tf = (T + T2)
2 1
TABLE 10.6. Empirical correlations for the average Nusselt number for natural convection in
enclosures (the characteristic length Lc is as indicated on the respective diagram)
Range of hLc
Geometry Fluid H/Lc Range of Ra Nusselt number =
Pr kf
Vertical rectangular enclosure Gas or — — Ra < 2000 Nu = 1

(or vertical cylindrical enclosure) liquid
F H I −1/9
11–42 0.5–2 2 × 103–2 × 105 Nu = 0.197 Ra1/4 × GH L c JK
Lc
×G
F HI
−1/9
H L c JK
H Gas 11–42 0.5–2 2 × 105–107 Nu = 0.073 Ra1/3
Ra × G
F H I −0.3
104–107 Nu = 0.42 Pr0.012
H L c JK
Liquid 10–40 1–20,000 1/4
1–40 1–20 106–109 Nu = 0.046 Ra1/3

Inclined rectangular enclosure Use the correlations
for vertical enclosures
Cold as a first-degree
Lc approximation for
θ ≤ 20° by replacing
q
g in the Ra
relation by g cos θ
Hot
Horizontal rectangular enclosure Gas or — — — Nu = 1

(hot surface at the top) liquid
Horizontal rectangular enclosure Gas or — — Ra < 1708 Nu = 1

(hot surface at the bottom) liquid
Cold — 0.5–2 1.7 × 103–7 × 103 Nu = 0.059 Ra0.4
Gas — 0.5–2 7× 103–3.2 × 105 Nu = 0.212 Ra1/4
— 0.5–2 Ra > 3.2 × 105 Nu = 0.061 Ra1/3
Lc
— 1–5000 1.7 × 103–6 × 103 Nu = 0.012 Ra0.6
Liquid — 1–5000 6× 103–3.7 × 104 Nu = 0.375 Ra0.2
— 1–20 3.7 × 104–108 Nu = 0.13 Ra0.3
Hot
— 1–20 Ra > 108 Nu = 0.057 Ra1/3
Concentric horizontal cylinders Gas or — 1–5000 6.3 × 103–106 Nu = 0.11 Ra0.29

Lc liquid 1–5000 106–108 Nu = 0.40 Ra0.20
Concentric spheres Gas or — 0.7–4000 102–109 Nu = 0.228 Ra0.226

liquid
Lc
Effective thermal conductivity. We know that 2πN

the steady state heat conduction rate, Q, in a stationary ω = angular velocity of disc =
60
fluid layer is given by
N = rotation per minute (r.p.m.)
kf A (T1 − T2 ) Lc = characteristic length of disc
Q= ...(10.61)
Lc = ro for horizontal disc
where kf = thermal conductivity of the fluid, 1
A = area normal to heat transfer, = πr for vertical disc
2 o
Lc = thickness of the fluid layer, where, ro = radius of the disc.
T1, T2 = temperature on two sides of the fluid
Example 10.23. A vertical 0.8 m high, 2 m wide, double
layer.
pane window consists of two sheets of glass separated by
The comparison of eqn. (10.61) with eqn. (10.59), 2 cm air gap at atmospheric pressure. If the glass surface
indicates that convection heat transfer in an enclosure temperatures across the air gap are measured to be 12°C
or cavity is identical to heat conduction across the fluid and 2°C, determine the rate of heat transfer through the
layer, if thermal conductivity of the fluid kf is replaced window.
by kfNu as a result of convection current. Therefore, the
Solution
quantity kf Nu is called the effective thermal
conductivity of the cavity. That is Given : A vertical rectangular enclosure.
keff = kf Nu ...(10.62) H = 0.8 m, w=2m
when Nu = 1, then Lc = 2 cm = 0.02 m, T1 = 12°C
keff = kf T2 = 2°C.
It indicates pure conduction in the fluid layer.
The heat transfer rate by natural convection between
two long, horizontal concentric cylinders at constant
Glass Glass
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively is expressed as Air
2πL keff (T1 − T2 )

Q=
FG D IJ
2
...(10.63)
H = 0.8 m
ln
HD K
1 Lc = 2 cm
and for two concentric spheres.
π D 1D 2 keff
Q= (T1 – T2) ...(10.64)
Lc
1 Fig. 10.28. Schematic of double pane glass window
where Lc = (D2 – D1).
2 To find : Rate of heat transfer through the
Rotating disc. The rotating disc provides a good window.
example of fluid flow that changes from pure natural
Analysis : The average temperature of two
convection when disc is at the rest to mixed and forced
surfaces.
convection, when disc is rotating. For a disc at uniform
surface temperature and exposed to air (Pr = 0.72) the T1 + T2 12 + 2
Tf = = = 7°C = 280 K
correlation is suggested in the form 2 2
Nu = 0.47(Reω2 + Gr)1/4 ...(10.65) The properties of air at 7°C from Table A-4
g β ∆T L3c kf = 0.0246 W/m.K
where Gr =
ν 2 ν = 1.40 × 10–5 m2/s
Pr = 0.717
ω ro2
Reω = ...(10.66)
ν 1 1
β= = = 0.00357 K–1
Tf + 273 280
h ro
Nu =
kf The characteristic length Lc = 2 cm = 0.02 m
The Grashof number To find : Convective heat transfer rate.

g β ∆T L3c Analysis : The film temperature.
Gr =
ν2 T1 + T2 120 + 100
Tf = = = 110°C = 383 K
9.81 × 0.00357 × (12 − 2) × (0.02) 3 2 2
=
(1.40 × 10 −5 ) 2 p 200 kPa
ρ= =
= 14.29 × 103 RT (0.287 kJ / kg. K) × (383 K)
The Rayleigh number = 1.819 kg/m3
Ra = Gr Pr = 14.29 × 103 × 0.717 and other properties at 110°C are
= 10.25 × 103 kf = 0.0319 W/m.K, µ = 2.22 × 10–5 kg/ms.
Then from Table 10.6, the Nusselt number is
1 1
given by Pr = 0.703, β= = K–1
F HI −1/9 Tf + 273 383
Nu = 0.197 Ra1/4 GH L JK
c
The characteristic length,
1 1
F 0.8 IJ
×G
−1/9
Lc = (D2 – D1) = × (0.12 – 0.1) = 0.01 m
= 0.197 × (10.25 × 103)1/4
H 0.02 K 2
The Grashof number
2
= 1.315
The heat transfer coefficient ρ 2 g β ∆T L c 3
Gr =
kf 0.0246 µ2
h = Nu = 1.315 ×
Lc 0.02 1
= (1.819)2 × 9.81 ×
= 1.62 W/m2.K 383
The convection heat transfer rate (120 − 100) × (0.01) 3
Q = hwH(T1 – T2) × = 3441
(2.22 × 10 −5 ) 2
= 1.62 × (0.8 × 2)× (12 – 2) The Rayleigh number
= 25.9 W. Ans. Ra = Gr Pr = 3441 × 0.703 = 2419
Using equation from Table 10.6,
Example 10.24. A 10 cm diameter sphere is maintained
Nu = 0.228 Ra0.226
at 120°C. It is enclosed in a 12 cm diameter concentric
= 0.228 × (2419)0.226 = 1.326
spherical surface maintained at 100°C. The space
between two spheres is filled with air at 200 kPa. kf 0.0319
h = Nu = 1.326 × = 4.23 W/m2.K
Calculate the convective heat transfer rate from inner Lc 0.01
sphere. The convective heat transfer rate from inner
Solution sphere
Given : Two concentric sphere and air in the Q = h(πD12) (T1 – T2)
annular gap. = 4.23 × π × (0.1)2 × (120 – 100)
D1 = 10 cm, D2 = 12 cm = 2.65 W. Ans.
T1 = 120°C, T2 = 100°C Example 10.25. A flat plate solar collector has 8 cm
p = 200 kPa high and 1 m wide and 1.6 m depth is tilted at 40° to the
T2 = 100°C horizontal. The inner wall is at 70°C and the outer wall
at 10°C and the enclosure is filled with air at 1 atm.
Estimate the heat loss.
Solution
Air at Given : An inclined flat plate solar collector with
T1 = 120°C
200 kPa air as working fluid
D1 = 10 cm Lc = 8 cm = 0.08 m, w = 1 m
D2 = 12 cm H = 1.6 m, θ = 40° (with horizontal)
Fig. 10.29. Schematic of two isothermal concentric spheres T1 = 70°C, T2 = 10°C.
To find : Heat loss from the solar flat plate The heat dissipation rate
collector. Q = h(wH) (T1 – T2)
= 2.05 × (1 × 1.6) × (70 – 10)
= 197.7 W. Ans.
10°C
H 10.7. SUMMARY
70°C
Lc
In natural convection heat transfer, the fluid motion is
induced by buoyancy effects, developed due to density
variation in the fluid. The fluid velocity associated with
natural convection is usually much lower, therefore, the
40° heat transfer rate is also much lower than in forced
convection.
Fig. 10.30
The buoyancy force is upward force exerted by a
Assumptions : fluid on a body that is immersed in it. Its magnitude is
(i) The bottom plate and sides of solar collector equal to weight of fluid displaced by the body. The
are well insulated. coefficient of volumetric expansion β of fluid represents
(ii) Heat transfer by natural convection only. the variation of density of fluid with temperature at
(iii) Steady state conditions. constant pressure.
(iv) Constant properties. Ts + T∞
where Tf is absolute film temperature = .
Analysis : The film temperature 2
The flow regime in natural convection is
70 + 10
Tf = = 40°C characterised by a dimensionless number, called the
2 Grashof number, which represents the ratio of buoyancy
The properties of air at 40°C, force to viscous force acting on the fluid and is expressed
ρ = 1.128 kg/m3, Cp = 1005 J/kg.K as
µ = 1.91 × 10–5 kg/ms, ν = 16.96 × 10–6 m2/s g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c
Gr =
1 ν2
kf = 0.0276 W/m.K Pr = 0.699, β = K–1
313 where g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
The Rayleigh number β = coefficient of volumetric expansion, for an
1 –1
g β (T1 − T2 ) L c 3 ideal gas, β = K
RaL = Pr Tf
ν2
Ts – T∞ = temperature difference between surface
1 and its ambient, °C or K
9.81 × × (70 − 10) × (0.08) 3
= 313 × 0.699 Lc = characteristic length of the geometry, m
(16.96 × 10 –6 ) 2
ν = kinematic viscosity, m2/s.
= 2.34 × 106 The Rayleigh number is also a dimensionless
Raθ = RaL sin (40°) = 1.504 × 106 number given as
The average Nusselt number (Table 10.6) g β (Ts − T∞ ) L c 3
Ra = Gr Pr = Pr
F HI −1/9 ν2
Nu = 0.073 Raθ1/3 GH L JK
c
The empirical correlations for average Nusselt
number for natural convection over surfaces given in
FG 1.6 IJ −1/9 the form
= 0.073 × (1.504 × 106)1/3 ×
H 0.08 K = 5.97 Nu = C(Gr Pr)n
The average heat transfer coefficient The average heat transfer coefficient is obtained
as
kf 0.0276 k
h = Nu = 5.97 × = 2.05 h = Nu f (W/m2.K)
Lc 0.08 Lc
where kf = thermal conductivity of fluid, W/m.K 10. How does the effective thermal conductivity of an
The convection heat transfer rate between a enclosure define ?
surface and its surrounding is expressed as 11. Beginning with the natural convection correlation
Q = hAs(Ts – T∞) of the form
where As = the heat transfer surface area, m2. hL
Nu = = C RaLn
For various enclosures, the simple correlations kf
to obtain average Nusselt number are presented in
Show that for air at atmospheric pressure and a film
Table 10.6. The heat transfer through an enclosure is
temperature of 400 K, the average heat transfer
given by
coefficient for a vertical plate can be expressed as
(T1 − T2 )
Q = hAs(T1 – T2) = kf Nu As FG ∆T IJ 1/ 4
Lc h = 1.40
HLK 104 < RaL < 109
R| H w Rectangular cavity = 0.98 (∆T)1/3 109 < RaL < 1013.
A =S
πL(D − D )
2 1
where Concentric cylinders
s
|| πDln(DD /D ) PROBLEMS
T
2 1
1 2 Concentric spheres. 1. A vertical plate 4 m high and 1 m wide is maintained
at 60°C in an ambient of still air at 10°C. Determine
The quantity kfNu is called effective thermal the value of heat transfer coefficient.
conductivity of the enclosure.
[Ans. 4.82 W/m2.K]
REVIEW QUESTIONS 2. Water is heated in a tank using horizontal pipes,

50 mm diameter with wall temperature of 60°C
1. What is the natural convection ? How does it differ maintained by condensing steam on the inside of the
from the forced convection ? What force causes natural tubes. The water in the tank is at 20°C. Calculate
convection currents ? the value of natural convection coefficient, if the
2. Show that the coefficient of volumetric expansion for water is stagnant. [Ans. 795 W/m2.K]
an ideal gas is 3. Consider a object of characteristic length of 0.01 m
1 and a situation for which the temperature difference
β=, where T is absolute temperature of gas. is 30°C. Evaluate the thermophysical properties at
T
3. What is Rayleigh number ? the given conditions and determine the Rayleigh
number for the following fluids : (i) air at 1 atm and
4. Why the heat transfer coefficient for natural
400 K, (ii) helium at 1 atm and 400 K, and (iii) water
convection is much less than that for forced convec-
at 310 K. [Ans. (i) 615.3, (ii) 12, (iii) 1.658 × 106]
tion ?
4. Estimate the coefficient of free convection on a wire,
5. How is the velocity field developed for natural flow
2 mm in diameter, immersed in water at 20°C, if the
of fluid over a vertical plate when its surface is
wire surface is maintained at 300°C.
maintained at temperature (i) higher, and (ii) lower
than its surroundings ? [Ans. 3366 W/m2.K]
6. Show that for a laminar flow of air with Pr = 0.72, 5. A flat square electrical heater of 0.5 m × 0.5 m is
the local and average value of Nusselt numbers are placed vertically in still air at 20°C. The heat
given by generated is 1200 W/m2. Determine the value of
Nux = 0.378 Grx1/4 and Nu = 0.504 GrL1/4. natural convection coefficient and average
temperature of the plate.
7. What is the modified Grashof number ? Where does
it use ? [Ans. 33.02 W/m2.K, 56.5°C]
8. Explain the heat transfer mechanism in a vertical 6. A plate heater 0.4 m × 0.4 m, using electrical
rectangular cavity consisting of two isothermal elements, has a constant heat flux of 1.3 kW/m2. It
parallel planes. is placed in a room air at 20°C with hot side facing
9. Why does heat transfer rate decrease drastically if up. Determine the value of heat transfer coefficient
double pane window with an air gas is used instead and average temperature of the plate.
of a single wheel window ? [Ans. 9.13 W/m2.K, 151.4°C]
7. A vertical pipe of 10 cm diameter and 3 m long, at a 16. A flat horizontal plate 0.5 m × 3.5 cm is exposed to
surface temperature of 100°C, is in a room where atmospheric air at 6°C. The plate receives a net
the air is at 20°C. What is the rate of heat loss per radiant energy flux from the sun of 750 W/m2. The
unit length of the pipe ? [Ans. 119.7 W/m] surface emissivity of the plate is 0.85. There is
8. A circular disk of 0.2 m diameter with a constant convection heat transfer from both upper and lower
heat generation rate of 1.2 kW/m2, is kept in ambient surface of the plate. What average temperature, will
air at 20°C, with its heated surface facing downward be attained by the plate ? [Ans. 61°C]
and the plate is inclined at 15 degree to the 17. A 50 mm × 50 mm plate is maintained at 50°C and
horizontal. Determine the value of convection inclined at 60° with the horizontal. Calculate the
coefficient. heat loss from both sides of the plate to water at
9. The heat transfer rate per unit length due to free 20°C. [Ans. 1.18 W]
convection from a horizontal tube is 200 W/m, when
18. A 1 m × 1 m plate is maintained at 150°C and inclined
its surface is maintained at 70°C in the ambient air
at 45° with the horizontal. Calculate the heat loss
at 20°C. Estimate the heat transfer rate per unit
length, when the tube surface is maintained at from both sides of the plate to air at 20°C.
145°C. Neglect the heat transfer rate by radiation [Ans. 913.3 W]
and any influence of temperature on thermophysical 19. A thin, 16 cm diameter horizontal plate is
properties of air. [Ans. 625 W/m]
maintained at 130°C in a large body of water at 70°C.
10. Air flows through a long 0.3 m square duct maintains The plate convects heat from both its top and bottom
the outer duct surface temperature at 10°C. If the surfaces. Determine the rate of heat input into the
duct is uninsulated and exposed to air at 35°C, what plate necessary to maintain the temperature of
is the heat gain per unit length of the duct ? 130°C. [Ans. 3.41 kW]
[Ans. 109.25 W]
20. Solar energy at a rate of 280 W/m2, is incident on a
11. The warm air in a heating system is circulated roof inclined at an angle of 40° with the horizontal.
through a sheet metal duct of size 60 cm × 40 cm
Assume that the back of the roof is insulated and
× 7 cm. The duct carries the warm air at 60°C and
the surface of the roof behaves as a blackbody.
the air surrounding the duct is at 15°C. Determine
Determine the equilibrium temperature of the roof,
the heat loss from the duct surface to the
if the ambient air is at 0°C and length of the roof is
surroundings. [Ans. 2677.5 W]
3 m. [Ans. 94°C]
12. Beer in cans 160 mm long and 75 mm in diameter is
initially at 30°C and is to be cooled in a refrigerator 21. The dimension of the brick made in a factory are
to 2°C. In the interest of maximizing the cooling rate, 7.5 cm (height) by 22.5 cm by 15 cm. The temperature
should the cans be laid horizontally or vertically in of the brick leaving the kiln is 350°C and the brick
the compartment ? As a first approximation, neglect is exposed to still air at 35°C. Calculate the
the heat transfer from ends. instantaneous rate of cooling as the brick leaves the
[Ans. 5.57 W horizontally] kiln. [Ans. 445.3 W]
13. A horizontal tube of 125 mm diameter with an outer 22. A 25 mm OD electrical transmission line carries
surface temperature of 240°C is located in a large 100 A and having a resistance of 400 × 10–5 ohms
room with an air temperature of 20°C. Estimate the per metre length is situated horizontal in the
heat transfer rate per unit length of the tube due to atmosphere. Neglect the radiation losses, determine
free convection. [Ans. 705 W] the temperature of the surface of the cable, if the
14. A horizontal uninsulated steam pipe passes through ambient temperature is (a) 26°C, (b) –26°C.
a large room, whose walls and ambient air are at [Ans. (a) 83°C]
30°C. The pipe of the 150 mm diameter has an
23. A vertical plate 10 cm high and 5 cm wide is cooled
emissivity of 0.85 and an outer surface temperature
by natural convection. The rate of heat transfer is
of 170°C. Calculate the heat loss per unit length from
the pipe. [Ans. 1153.2 W] 5.55 W and air temperature is 38°C. Calculate the
maximum temperature of the plate. Assume uniform
15. A sphere of 15 mm diameter contains an embedded
heat flux. [Ans. 175°C]
electrical heater. Calculate the power required to
maintain its surface temperature at 94°C, when the 24. Calculate the rate of convection heat loss from top
sphere is exposed to an ambient at 20°C for (a) air and bottom of flat 1 m2 horizontal restaurant grill
at atmospheric pressure, (b) water. heated to 227°C in an ambient of 27°C.
[Ans. (a) 0.66 W] [Ans. 2268 W]
25. One surface of a panel 0.915 m × 0.915 m is insulated walls which face the window are maintained at 22°C,
and other surface is kept at a uniform temperature and the average temperature of the inner surface of
of 65.5°C. Calculate the mean heat transfer the window is measured to be 4°C. If the temperature
coefficient due to free convection between heated of the outdoor is – 6°C, calculate
surface of panel and the atmospheric air at 10°C, (a) the convection heat transfer coefficient on the
when inner surface of the window
(a) Heated surface is vertical, (b) the rate of total heat transfer through the window
(b) Panel is horizontal with heated surface facing (c) the combined natural convection and radiation
up, heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface of
(c) Panel is horizontal with hot surface facing down. the window.
26. A thin vertical plate 3 m high and 1 m wide is 31. A vertical 1.2 m high and 2 m wide double pane
thermally insulated on one side and exposed to solar window consists of two sheets of glass separated by
radiation flux qs = 750 W/m2 on otherside. The 2.5 cm air gap at atmospheric pressure. If the glass
exposed surface has an absorptivity of 0.8 for solar surface temperatures across the air gap are
radiation. Assuming that the energy absorbed by the measured to be 18°C and 5°C, calculate the rate of
plate is dissipated by free convection into an ambient heat transfer through the window by
at 300 K, calculate the surface temperature of the (a) natural convection and
panel.
(b) radiation. Also calculate the effective thermal
The physical properties of ambient air are conductivity of the air space of this double paned
ν = 2.076 × 10–5 m2/s, kf = 0.03 W/m.K, window, which also accounts the radiation effect.
Pr = 0.697 The effective emissivity for two glass plates may
be taken as 0.82.
Use correlation
[Ans. (a) 49.6 W, (b) 134 W, 0.147 W/m°C]
Nux = 0.568 (Grx Pr )0.22 [Ans. 87.7°C]
32. A large box containing ethylene glycol is heated by
27. The heat transfer rate due to free convection from a
an electric heating element that consists of a square
vertical surface, 1 m high and 0.6 m wide to stagnant
horizontal plate 15 cm × 15 cm in size. The glycol is
air, which is 20°C colder than the surface is known.
at 0°C. Find the power input to the heating element
What is the ratio of heat transfer rate for the
required to maintain its top and bottom surface at
situation of vertical surface 0.6 m high and 1 m wide,
40°C.
when stagnant air is 20°C warmer than the surface ?
Neglect any radiation effect and influence of As
temperature on the properties of air. [Hint. Lc = , NuT = 0.54 Ra1/4, NuH = 0.27 Ra1/4,
P
28. An aluminium alloy (k = 190 W/m.K) plate, heated Q = (hT + hB) A(∆T)] [Ans. 253 W]
to a uniform temperature of 227°C, is allowed to cool, 33. A vertical plate 0.5 m high and 1 m wide is maintained
while vertically suspended in a room where the at uniform temperature of 124°C. It is exposed to
ambient air and surroundings are at 27°C. The plate ambient air at 30°C. Calculate the heat transfer rate
is 0.3 m square and 15 mm thick and has an from the plate. [Ans. 252.774 W]
emissivity of 0.25.
34. Estimate the electrical power required to maintain a
(a) Develop an expression for the rate of change of
vertical plate resistance heater at 130°C in an
plate temperature, assuming the temperature to
ambient air at 20°C. The plate is 15 cm high and
be uniform at any time.
10 cm wide. Compare result with 450 cm high plate.
(b) Determine the initial rate of cooling (°C/s), when The radiation heat transfer coefficient is 8.5 W/m2.K
the temperature is 227°C. for specified surface temperature.
29. An electrical heater in the form of horizontal disc of [Ans. 52.87 W, 1346 W]
400 mm diameter is used to heat the bottom of a tank
filled with engine oil at 5°C. Calculate the power 35. A helicopter plateform for a hospital is 12 m square
required to maintain the heater surface temperature and covered with a non-slip coating with a solar
at 70°C. absorptivity of αs = 1 and thermal emissivity of ε = 1.
Estimate the surface temperature, when it is
30. A 1.2 m high and 2 m wide glass window, whose
subjected to incident solar flux of 1 kW/m2 and sur-
thickness is 6 mm and has thermal conductivity of
0.78 W/m.K and emissivity ε = 0.9. The room and the rounding air temperature is 20°C. [Ans. 87.16°C]
36. Two vertical plates each 80 mm high and at 85°C are 41. A horizontal 40 W fluorescent tube which is 3.8 cm
placed in a tank of water at 15°C. Calculate the in diameter and 120 cm long stands in still air at
minimum spacing which will prevent interference of 1 atm and 20°C. If the surface temperature is 40°C
free convection boundary layer. [Ans. 3.22 mm] and radiation is neglected, what percentage of power
37. An ornament space heater is in the form of a 60 cm is being dissipated by convection ? [Ans. 46.5%]
diameter sphere, which is freely suspended in a large 42. Calculate the cooling capacity by natural convection
room. The surface of the sphere is maintained at in air of a heat sink, having four rectangular thin
100°C and the room air is at 20°C. Calculate the con- fins of size 20 mm × 25 mm. The fins may be assumed
vective heat transfer rate. [Ans. 371.5 W] to have a constant surface temperature of 60°C in
38. A copper heating coil is used to heat a large cylinder ambient air at 20°C. Take the fin efficiency as 60%.
of water. The coil may be considered to be a horizontal
[Ans. 0.875 W]
cylinder, 1.5 m long and an outer diameter of
0.025 m. It has uniform surface temperature of 80°C.
Estimate the heat transfer to water at 10°C.
w = 25 mm
[Ans. 70.65 W]
39. Air flow through a long rectangular heating duct of
width and height 0.75 m and 0.3 m, respectively,
maintains the outer duct surface temperature at 45°C.
If the duct is uninsulated and exposed to air 15°C, L = 20 mm 0°C
=6
what is the heat loss from the duct surface per metre Ts
length ? [Ans. 142 W/m]
40. Compare the rate of heat loss from a human body
with a typical energy intake from consumption of food Air T = 20°C
(5440 kJ/day). Consider the body as a vertical cylinder
30 cm in diameter and 175 cm high in still air. Assume Fig. 10.32
the skin temperature to be 37°C. Consider the emis-
43. Determine the coefficient of heat transfer by free
sivity at the skin surface as 0.4 and neglect, sweat- convection convection heat transfer rate per mere
ing and effect of clothing. The ambient air is taken at length and maximum current density for a nichrom
13ºC. [Ans. 233.18 W] wire 0.5 mm in diameter. The surface of the wire is
maintained at 300ºC. The wire is exposed to still air
at 20°C and resistance per metre length of the wire
is 6 Ω/m.
Ts = 37°C Use relation : Nu = 1.18(Gr Pr)1/8
Use properties of air at 160°C
kf = 0.0361 W/m.K,
ν = 30.35 × 10–6 m2/s,
Pr = 0.687
(Anna. Univ., May 2003)
[Ans. 79.77 W/m2.K, 35 W/m and 2.41 A]
L = 1.75 m
T = 13°C REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1. Jaluria Y., “Natural Convection Heat and Mass

Transfer”, Pergamon Press, New York, 1980.
2. Sehlichting H., “Boundary Layer Theory”, McGraw
Hill, New York, 1968.
3. Gebhart B., “Heat Transfer”, 2nd ed, McGraw Hill,
New York, 1970.
4. Churchill S.W. and H.H.S. Chu, “Correlating
Equations for Laminar and Turbulent Free
Convection from a Vertical Plate”, Int. J. of Heat and
Fig. 10.31. Schematic of a human body Mass Transfer vol. 18, 1975.
5. McAdams W.H., “Heat Transmission”, 3rd ed, 10. Bayazitoglu Y and M.N. Özisik, “Elements of Heat
McGraw Hill, New York, 1954. Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1988.
6. Fujii T. and H. Imura, “Natural Convection Heat 11. M.M. Rathore, “Thermal Engineering”, McGraw Hill
Transfer from a Plate with Arbitrary Inclination”, Education, 2010.
Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer vol. 15, 1972. 12. Adrian Bejan, “Convective Heat Transfer”, 3rd ed.
7. Moran W.R. and J.R. Lloyd,“Natural Convection John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
Mass Transfer Adjacent to Vertical and Downward 13. Welty J.R, Wicks C.E., Wilson R.E. and Rorrer G.L.,
Facing Surfaces”, J. Heat Transfer, vol. 94C, 1974. “Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass
8. Özisik M.N., “Heat Transfer—A Basic Approach”, Transfer”, 5th ed. John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
McGraw Hill, 1985. 14. Raithby G.D. and Hollands K.G. Terry. “Convective
9. Suryanarayana N.V., “Engineering Heat Transfer”, Heat Transfer”, CRC Press, 1999.
West Pub. Co. New York, 1999.
Condensation and Boiling 11
11.1. Condensation—Filmwise condensation—Dropwise condensation. 11.2. Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate.
11.3. Condensation on a Single Horizontal Tube—Condensation on horizontal tube banks—Calculation of reynolds number. 11.4. Turbulent
Filmwise Condensation. 11.5. Condensate Number. 11.6. Dropwise Condensation. 11.7. Film Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes.
11.8. Boiling—Boiling modes. 11.9. Pool Boiling Regimes—Critical heat flux—Leidenfrost point. 11.10. Mechanism of Nucleate Boiling—
Critical diameter of a bubble. 11.11. Pool Boiling Correlations—Correlation for nucleate boiling—Correlation for critical heat flux—Pool film
boiling—Minimum heat flux. 11.12. Forced Convection Boiling. 11.13. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—References and
Suggested Reading.
The condensers and boilers are widely used heat transfer

Ts < Tsat
equipments in the industries. The condensation and Ts < Tsat
boiling involve convection processes associated with Vapour
Vapour
change of phase of fluid. Because there is a phase change Drop
during the process, the fluid transfers the latent heat
only at its saturation temperature.
The determination of heat transfer coefficient is Film
more complex than that of the convection without phase
change. All the variables associated with convection also
play role along with those associated with phase change. (a) Filmwise condensation (b) Dropwise condensation
on a surface on a surface
The variables affecting the phase phenomenon are the Fig. 11.1. Modes of condensation
surface tension, latent heat of phase change, density
difference, buoyancy forces, etc. 11.1.1. Filmwise Condensation
If the condensation takes place continuously over a
surface cooled by some process and the condensate film
11.1. CONDENSATION covers entire condensing surface and falls down under
the action of gravity, the situation is called filmwise
The condensation is a phase change process from vapour
condensation. The presence of condensate layer acts as
to liquid. It occurs when the vapour strikes a surface a resistance to heat transfer between vapour and
which is at temperature below the vapour saturation surface. This resistance increases with condensate
temperature, the vapour releases its latent heat and thickness, which increases in the flow direction, hence
immediately converts into liquid phase. it is desirable to use short vertical surfaces of horizontal
The condensation may occur in two possible ways cylinders in situations involving film condensation.
depending on the condition of the surface : filmwise 11.1.2. Dropwise Condensation
condensation, and dropwise condensation, as shown in If traces of oil are present during the condensation on
Fig. 11.1. highly polished surface, the film of condensate is broken
372
CONDENSATION AND BOILING 373
into droplets and the condensation is called dropwise y

condensation. The droplets grow, collapse, and increase
in size and they run off the surface under the action of
gravity and carry other droplets in their path. Therefore, .
with dropwise condensation, the condensing surface m(x)
almost exposed to condensing vapour, hence, the heat
transfer rate with dropwise condensation is several x .
times higher than that with filmwise condensation. dx
dQ = dm hfg
.
dm
Film and dropwise condensation of steam on a dx
vertical copper surface are shown in Fig. 11.2. A thin y–d
coating of cupric oleate was applied to left portion of the
surface to promote drop wise condensation. A thin m du dx
d dy rvg(d – y)dx
thermocouple probe extends in the photograph.
rg(d – y)dx
u Liquid velocity boundary layer
du
dy =0
y=d
Fig. 11.3. Film condensation on a vertical plate
The condensation problem was first analysed by

Nusselt under the following assumptions :
1. The plate is maintained at constant
temperature Ts, that is less than the
saturation temperature of vapour.
2. The vapour has low viscosity and it does not
exert viscous shear force at liquid, vapour
interface (i.e., at y = δ).
3. The downward flow of condensate under the
(a) Dropwise (b) Film action of gravity is laminar.
Fig. 11.2. Condensation on a vertical surface 4. Fluid properties are constant.
Although, it is desirable to have dropwise 5. Heat transfer across the condensate layer is
condensation, but it is very difficult to maintain this by pure conduction, hence the liquid tempera-
type of condensation. The heat transfer coefficient for ture distribution is linear.
film wise condensation is comparatively small, still the
6. Unit depth in z direction.
condenser design calculations are based on the
assumption of film condensation. The weight of the fluid element of thickness dx
between y and δ is balanced by viscous shear force at y
and buoyancy force due to displaced vapour. Thus
11.2. LAMINAR FILM CONDENSATION ON A
VERTICAL PLATE du
ρg(δ – y) dx = ρv g(δ – y) dx + µ dx ...(11.1)
dy
11.2.1. Nusselt Analysis where, ρ = density of condensate (liquid) ;
Consider a cold vertical plate at a surface temperature, ρv = density of vapour ;
Ts is exposed to saturated vapours at temperature Tsat
µ = viscosity of the condensate (liquid) ;
(Ts < Tsat). The condensate film starts at the top of the
plate and flows downward under the influence of gravity δ = thickness of boundary layer at any x ;
and its thickness δ(x) and condensate mass rate m (x) u = local velocity of condensate.
increase with increasing the distance x, along the du
surface. The velocity and temperature profiles are shown or (ρ – ρv) g (δ – y) = µ
dy
in Fig. 11.3.
Integrating both sides, we get kf dx (Tsat − Ts ) ρ (ρ − ρv ) g δ 2 dδ

F y2 I = µu + C δ
=
µ
hfg
GH
(ρ – ρv) g δy −
2 JK kf (Tsat − Ts ) µ
or δ3 dδ = dx
where C is constant of integration and can be evaluated ρ (ρ − ρv ) g hfg
with boundary condition at y = 0, u = 0, we get Integrating both sides as
z z
C=0
kf (Tsat – Ts ) µ
F y I = µu
δ x
2 δ 3 dδ = dx
(ρ – ρ ) g G δy −
H 2 JK
0 0 ρ (ρ – ρu ) g hfg
v
F yI
(ρ − ρ ) g G δy −
2
Hence u=
H 2 JKv
...(11.2) Vapours
µ
The mass flow rate of condensate per unit width
position of the film
=
m z0
δ
ρu dy
Ts
LM (ρ − ρ ) g F δy − y I OP 2
GH 2 JK P
= ρ M z v Tsat
δ
or m
0MN µ PQ dy
Fig. 11.4. Thermal boundary layer in
ρ(ρ − ρ ) g L δ δ O ρ(ρ − ρ ) gδ
3 3 3 laminar condensation
It gives =
m
µ
M
N 2 6 PQ
v
− =
3µ
v
Treating kf , hfg , ρ, ρv, Tsat, Ts and µ as constant
...(11.3) quantities, then integration leads to
Since the liquid temperature distribution is δ4 kf (Tsat − Ts ) µ x
linear, the elemental heat flux at the wall =
4 ρ (ρ − ρv ) g hfg
LM dT OP (Tsat − Ts )
qs = kf
N dy Q
= kf L 4k (T − T ) µ x OP 1/ 4
δ= M
δ f sat s
or
MN ρ (ρ − ρ ) g h PQ ...(11.5)
y=0
v fg
The negative sign is omitted, since heat flows in
opposite y direction. The heat transfer rate : It gives δ ∝ x1/4 ...(11.6)
kf dx (Tsat − Ts ) The surface heat transfer rate per unit width of
Q= ...(11.4) the plate by convection can be expressed as :
δ
Q = hx dx (Tsat – Ts) ...(11.7)
The amount of condensate added between x and
Equating it with eqn. (11.4), we get
x + dx, can be obtained by differentiating eqn. (11.3) with
respect to x ; kf
hx =
R|S
d ρ (ρ − ρv ) g δ 3 U|V δ
=
dm
dx|T 3µ
dx
|W Substituting δ, we get
d |R ρ (ρ − ρ ) g δ
S 3µ
3
|UV dδ dx R| ρ (ρ − ρ ) g h k
=S
3 U| 1/4
=
dδ T|
v
W| dx hx
|T 4µ x (T − T )
v fg f
V| ...(11.8)
sat s W
ρ (ρ − ρv ) g δ 2 dδ It gives hx ∝ x–1/4 ...(11.9)
=
µ The average heat transfer coefficient on entire
For the element, plate
The heat transfer rate Q at the wall = Heat transfer
rate during condensation (= d m hfg) h=
1
L z0
L
hx dx =
4
h
3 x=L
It gives,
L ρ gh
h = 1.13 M
2
fg kf
3
OP 1/4
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) g h k
h = 0.943 M
v fg f
OP
3 1/4
...(11.10) MN µL(T sat − T ) PQ s
...(11.13)
MN µ L (T − T ) sat s PQ which can be arranged in the form

where, µ = viscosity of liquid, or kg/ms Ns/m2
F
hG
µ2 I 1/3
kf = thermal conductivity of liquid, W/m.K

Hk 3
ρ2
J
gK
= 1.76 Re–1/3 for Re > 1800
ρ = density of liquid, kg/m3 f
ρv = density of vapour, kg/m3 ...(11.14)

Fig. 11.5 shows the variation of film thickness
L = height of the plate, m
and film coefficient for film wise condensation on a ver-
hfg = latent heat of vapour; J/kg tical plate.
Ts = plate surface temperature °C Condensation on inclined plates
Tsat = saturation temperature of vapour °C If a surface is inclined at angle θ with the hori-
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 zontal as shown in Fig. 11.6, the average convection co-
The physical properties of liquid film should be efficient is given by
Ts + Tsat y
evaluated at an effective film temperature Tf =
2
The average Nusselt number can be expressed as
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) gh L OP
x
3 1/ 4
= 0.943 M
hL v fg
Nu = ...(11.11)
k MN µk (T − T ) PQ
f f sat s
The laminar condensation eqn. (11.10), presented

above match experimental data very well as long as the

film remains smooth and well behaved. But for low value
of Reynolds number less than 1800, experiments has Fig. 11.6. Filmwise condensation on
shown that the measured heat transfer coefficient is 20% an inclined surface
higher than the theoretical value. Therefore, McAdams
recommendation : L ρ (ρ − ρ ) h k
h = 1.13 M
v fg f
3
O
g sin θP
1/4
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) gh k
h = 1.13 M
v
3 1/ 4
fg f
OP MN µL(T − T ) sat s PQ ...(11.15)
MN µL(T − T ) sat s PQ for Re < 1800

If ρv << ρ then
...(11.12)
y L ρh
h = 1.13 M
2
fg kf
3
O
g sin θP
1/4
MN µL (T PQ ...(11.16)
Film
coefficient sat −T ) s
h
Film
thickness,
11.3. CONDENSATION ON A SINGLE HORIZONTAL
Film coefficient
Film thickness
(x) TUBE
The analysis of condensation on outside surface of a hori-
zontal tube as shown in Fig. 11.7 (b) is more complicated
than that on a vertical surface. Nusselt analysis for
laminar filmwise condensation on the surface of a
horizontal tube of outside diameter D gives the average
x
0 Plate height heat transfer coefficient as
Fig 11.5. Film thickness and film coefficient
for condensation on a vertical plate
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) g h k OP
h = 0.725 M
v fg f
3 1/4
Generally ρv << ρ, therefore, ρv is neglected from MN µD (T − T ) PQ sat s

...(11.17)
above expression, and For ρv << ρ, the eqn.(11.17) reduces to

L ρ gh
h = 0.725 M
2
fg kf
3
OP 1/4 Surface
temperature
MN µD (T sat − T ) PQ s
...(11.18) Ts
Vertical
pitch
D
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 11.7. Film condensation on (a) a sphere, (b) a single

Vapour
horizontal tube, (c) a vertical tier of horizontal tubes
with a continuous condensate sheet
Horizontal
Comparing eqns.(11.10) and (11.17) for filmwise pitch water
condensation on vertical tube of length L and a
horizontal tube of diameter D, yields to Fig. 11.8. Condensation on horizontal tube bank
For Re > 1800, then analysis yields to
hvert D FG IJ 1/ 4
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) gh k OP 3 1/4
hhorz
= 1.30
L H K ...(11.19)
h = 0.725 [1 + 0.2(N – 1)Ja] M
v fg f
If L = 2.87D, then
MN µND (T − T ) PQ
sat s
...(11.22)
hvert = hhorz C p (Tsat − Ts )
where Ja = is the Jacob number, a
The laminar condensation on outside surface of hfg
a sphere of diameter D is expressed as ratio of sensible heat to evaporation heat.
Cp = specific heat of liquid
L ρ(ρ − ρ ) g h k
h = 0.815 M
v fg f
OP
3 1/ 4
...(11.20) hfg = enthalpy of evaporation.
MN µ D (T − T ) sat s PQ 11.3.2. Calculation of Reynolds Number
11.3.1. Condensation on Horizontal Tube Banks When a plate, on which condensation takes place is
sufficiently large or there is sufficient amount of
If the condensation occurs on N number of horizontal condensate flow, the turbulence may appear in the
tubes so arranged that the condensate from one tube condensate film. This turbulence increases heat transfer
flows directly on to the next tube below it as shown in rate. Reynolds number characterises the type of flow
Fig. 11.7 (c), the average heat transfer coefficient for (laminar or turbulent) as in forced convection. For
such system can be estimated by replacing the tube condensation system, the Reynolds number is defined as
diameter D in eqn. (11.17) by ND, we get ρum D h 4 A c ρ um
Re = = ...(11.23)
µ Pµ
hN tubes = 0.725
LM ρ (ρ − ρ v ) ghfg kf3
1/ 4
OP 4A c
MN µND (T sat − T ) PQ
s
...(11.21) where Dh = hydraulic diameter =
P
Ac = flow area, (cross-sectional area),
This equation generally gives a conservative P = shear or wetted perimeter,
result, because condensate does not fall in smooth sheets um = average velocity of condensate flow.
from one tube row to another, but it drips from tube The mass flow rate of condensation at any section
to tube and adds some turbulence and disturbances in is given by
the phenomenon. = ρAcum
m
Substituting in eqn. (11.23), we get For a plate of height L and width w

4m As = wL and P = w
∴ Re = ...(11.24)
Pµ
4hL (Tsat − Ts )
The mass flow rate may be related to total heat Then Re = ...(11.28)
transfer rate during condensation as hfg µ
Q= m hfg = hAs(Tsat – Ts) ...(11.25)

where As = total heat transfer area, thus 11.4. TURBULENT FILMWISE CONDENSATION
Q hA s (Tsat − Ts ) If the Reynolds number exceeds 1800, during filmwise
=
m = ...(11.26)
hfg hfg condensation, then the empirical relation proposed by
4hA s (Tsat − Ts ) Kirkbridge can be used
and Re = ...(11.27)
hfg Pµ
h
LM µ 2 OP 1/3
= 0.0077 (Re)0.4 ...(11.29)

where the wetted perimeter defined earlier as
MN ρ g k
2 3
PQ
R|πD = for vertical tube of outside diameter D, f
P= S
| w = for vertical or inclined plate of width w, Fig. 11.9 shows a plot of eqns. (11.14) and (11.29)
||2L = for horizontal tubes, each of length L and as a function of Reynolds number for condensate flow
T arranged in vertical tiers . in laminar and turbulent regimes, respectively.
1.00
0.80
Laminar Turbulent
0.60
1/3
– 1/3
0.40 y = 1.76x 0.4
3
gkf
y = 0.0077x
ded
2
Rec om men
2
omm Rec
end
ed
y=h
0.20
0.10
100 200 400 600 1000 2000 10,000 40,000
x = Re
Fig. 11.9. Average heat transfer coefficient for filmwise condensation on a vertical surface for
laminar and turbulent flows
11.5. CONDENSATE NUMBER

h 3/ 4
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) g sin θ k
=CM
v
3
f As OP 1/ 4
...(11.32)
The Reynolds number signifies the condensation MN µm L PQ
behaviour : laminar or turbulent. It is convenient to It may be arranged as
express the heat transfer coefficient directly in terms of
Reynolds number Re. Reconsider eqn. (11.15) in the form L ρ (ρ − ρ ) g k
=CM
v
3
f µP As FG IJ OP
1/ 4
H K PQ
3/ 4
h × × 4 sin θ
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) g sin θ h kf3 OP 1/ 4 MN µ 2
4m PL
h=CM
v fg
MN µ L (T − T ) sat s PQ ...(11.30)
Using
µP
= Re–1, then

4m
where constant C is evaluated for vertical plate or a
horizontal cylinder. From eqn. (11.25) ; LM ρ (ρ − ρ ) g k v
3
f FG A IJ OP
1/3
h = C 4 /3 × Re –1 × 4 sin θ
H PL K PQ
s
Tsat – Ts =
hfg
m
...(11.31)
MN µ 2
hA s ...(11.33)
where As = heat transfer surface area. Substituting We may now define a new dimensionless group,
eqn. (11.31) in eqn. (11.30), we get called condensation number Co, as
L µ
Co = h M
2 OP 1/3
...(11.34)
MN ρ (ρ − ρ ) g k
v f
3
PQ
Then the expression (11.33), takes the form
LM FG A IJ OP 1/3
H PL K Q
s
Co = C4/3 4 sin θ Re–1/3 ...(11.35)
N
For a vertical plate, C = 0.943
As
= 1.0
PL
Co = 1.47 Re–1/3 ...(11.36)
For a horizontal cylinder, C = 0.725, and
As (b) Typical photograph of dropwise condensation
= π and Co = 1.514 Re–1/3 ...(11.37) under ideal conditions
PL
For turbulent flow, the empirical relation Fig. 11.10. Dropwise condensation
proposed by Kirkbridge, can be rearranged as
Many of the surface fluid systems are studied for
Co = 0.0077 (Re)0.4 for Re > 1800. dropwise condensation. Most of them are for steam
condensation on well promoted copper surfaces as shown
11.6. DROPWISE CONDENSATION in Fig. 11.10 (b). At atmospheric pressure, the data can
be expressed in the form
In dropwise condensation, the condenser surface does h = 51,104 + 2044 Ts for 22°C < Ts < 100°C
not wet by condensate, the vapour condenses in drops. ...(11.39)
These droplets grow and merge into one large drop and and h = 255,510 for 100°C < Ts
falls down under the action of gravity as shown in However, the dropwise condensation can be
Fig. 11.10 (a). During such condensation process, a large expected only under controlled conditions, that cannot
part of condenser surface is not covered by condensate be always maintained in practice. Therefore, it is a
film, therefore, the heat transfer coefficient is four to conservative approach to calculate the heat transfer
eight times higher than that results in filmwise coefficient for filmwise condensation.
condensation. The ratio of condensate mass flux for drop-
wise condensation, mD on outside surface of tube of 11.7. FILM CONDENSATION INSIDE HORIZONTAL
diameter D to that for film condensation, mf can be TUBES
related as
D
m F
ρ2 D 2 g I 1/9 The condensers used for refrigeration and air-
f
m
= GH
24 µ mf JK ...(11.38)
conditioning system usually involve vapour condensa-
tion inside horizontal or vertical tubes. Unfortunately,
the phenomena of condensation inside the tubes is very
Before A moment complex and strongly depends on velocity of vapour
later flowing through the tube. If the velocity is small, the
vapour condensation occurs in the manner as shown in
Droplets grow Fig. 11.11(a) for a horizontal tube, where the condensate
and merge flows from upper portion of the tube to the bottom and
until one drop
is large enough
then in longitudinal direction with vapour. For low
to fall vapour velocities :
FG ρ u D IJ < 3500
v m, v
Rev, i =
H µ K
Drop slides off
wiping the plate
v
dry in its wake
where i refers to tube inlet and v pertains to vapour,
(a) The process of liquid removal condensation
during dropwise condensation
the Chato proposed and presented expression in the
form of
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) g k h′
h = 0.555 M
v
3
f fg
OP 1/ 4 0.08 m
MN µ D (T − T ) sat s PQ ...(11.40)
Saturated
steam at 1 atm
3
where h′fg = hfg + C (T – Ts) ...(11.41)
8 p sat
Condensate
Condensate L=1m
Vapour
Vapour
Condensate Ts = 50°C
Fig. 11.12
(a) Cross-section of condensate (b) Longitudinal section of condensate
flow for low vapour velocities flow for large vapour velocities
To find :
(i) Heat transfer rate on tube surfaces.
Fig. 11.11. Film condensation in a horizontal tube (ii) Steam condensation rate.
At higher vapour velocities, the two phase flow Assumptions :
regime becomes annular as shown in Fig. 11.11 (b). The 1. Laminar film condensation.
vapour flows in the core of tube, while the condensate
2. Negligible convection and radiation heat
occupies annular space and its thickness grows in flow
transfer.
direction. For higher flow rates, the approximate
Properties of saturated vapour and water
empirical expression is given by Akers, Deans, and
Crosser as hfg = 2257 kJ/kg, ρ = 975 kg/m3,
hD ρv = 0.596 kg/m3, kf = 0.668 W/m.K,

= 0.026 (Rem)0.8 Prf1/3 ...(11.42) µ = 375 × 10–6 kg/ms.
kf
Analysis : The heat transfer coefficient for
DL F ρ I OP1/ 2
where Rm = MG
µ M
+ Gv GH ρ JK P ...(11.43)
laminar filmwise condensation on a vertical tube surface
can be calculated by eqn. (11.12).
N Q
f
v
R| g ρ (ρ − ρ ) h k U|
h = 1.13 S
3 1/ 4
|T µ L (T − T ) V|W
and G = ρum (mass velocity) v fg f
The mass velocity for liquid Gf and vapour Gv can sat s

be approximated, when
DG v R| (9.81) × (975) × (975 − 0.596) U| 1/ 4
Rev =
µv
> 20,000
h = 1.13 × S
| × (2257 × 10 ) × (0.668) 3 3
|V
DG f || 375 × 10 × 1 × (100 − 50)
−6
||
Ref =
µ
> 5000. T W
= 4832.21 W/m2.K
Example 11.1. The outer surface of a vertical tube
80 mm in outer diameter and 1 m long is exposed to satu- (i) The heat transfer rate :
rated steam at atmospheric pressure. The tube surface Q = hAs(Tsat – Ts) = h(πDL)(Tsat – Ts)
is maintained at 50°C by flow of water through the tube. = (4832.21 W/m2.K) × (π × 0.08 m × 1 m)
What is the rate of heat transfer to coolant and what is × (100 – 50)(K)
the rate of condensation of steam ?
= 60,723 W = 60.723 kW. Ans.
Solution (ii) The condensation rate :
Given : Condensation of saturated steam on a
vertical condenser : Q 60.723 kW
=
m = = 0.0269 kg/s. Ans.
Tsat = 100°C, L = 1 m, Ts = 50°C, hfg 2257 kJ/kg
D = 80 mm = 0.08 m.
Example 11.2. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of

2.45 bar condenses on the surface of a vertical tube of =
LM (943) × 9.81 × 2183.5 × 10 × (0.686) OP
2 3 3 1/ 4
height 1 m. The tube surface temperature is kept at

117°C. Estimate the thickness of condensate film and
N 4 × 237 × 10 × 0.2 × (126.7 − 117) Q
−6
= 7604 W/m2.K. Ans.

local heat transfer coefficient at a distance of 0.2 m from
the upper end of the tube. (V.T.U., May 2009) Example 11.3. A vertical plate 350 mm high and
420 mm wide, at 40°C, is exposed to saturated steam at
Solution
1 atm. Calculate:
Given : Condensation of steam over a vertical tube
(i) Film thickness at the bottom of the plate,
L = 1 m, x = 0.2 m (ii) Maximum velocity at the bottom of the plate,
Ts = 117°C, p = 2.45 bar. (iii) Total heat flux to the plate.
Assume vapour density is small compared to that
of the condensate.
0.2 m
Solution
Given : Condensation on a vertical plate
d 1m L = 350 mm, w = 420 mm
Ts = 40°C, p = 1 atm (Tsat = 100°C).
To find :
(i) Film thickness at bottom of the plate,
(ii) Maximum velocity at the bottom of the plate,
Fig. 11.13. Schematic of condensation over (iii) Total heat flux to plate.
vertical surface Properties of steam and condensate from
To find : Table A-7 ;
(i) Thickness of condensate at x = 0.2 m At Tsat = 100°C, hfg = 2257 × 103 J/kg
(ii) Local heat transfer coefficient at x = 0.2 m. 100 + 40
Properties of steam at p = 2.45 bar At Tf = = 70°C
2
Tsat = 126.7°C
µ = 406 × 10–6 kg/ms, kf = 0.668 W/m.K
hfg = 2183.5 × 103 J/kg
ρ = 977.8 kg/m3
126.7 + 117
Tf = = 121.85°C Analysis : (i) Film thickness δ at the bottom of
2 the plate
ρ = 943 kg/m3 x = 350 mm = 0.35 m
µ = 237 × 10–6 kg/ms,
kf = 0.686 W/m.K. L 4k µ (T − T ) x OP
δ(x) = M
f sat s
1/4
Analysis : (i) The thickness of condensate at

x = 0.2 m
MN g (ρ − ρ ) ρ h PQ
v fg
Neglecting ρ , v
L 4k (T − T ) µ x OP 1/ 4
LM 4 × 0.668 × 406 × 10 OP −6 1/ 4
δ(x) = M
f sat s
δ(x) = M
MN ρ (ρ − ρ ) g h PQ MM 9.81 × (977.8) × 2257 × 10 PPP
× (100 − 40) × 0.35
v fg
2 3
Neglecting ρv from expression, then
MN PQ
δ( x) =
LM 4 × 0.686 × (126.7 – 117) × 237 × 10 –6
× 0.2 OP = 1.82 × 10–4 m = 0.182 mm. Ans.
N 2
(943) × 9.81 × 2183.5 × 10 3
Q (ii) The maximum velocity at the bottom of the
plate, umax :
= 9.02 × 10–5 m = 0.09 mm. Ans.
(ii) Local heat transfer coefficient
RS
(ρ − ρ v ) g δy −
y2 UV
T 2 W
3 1/ 4
u=
µ
= M
v fg f
hx
MN 4µ x (T − T )
sat s PQ At y = δ, u = umax , neglecting ρv ,
Neglecting ρv,
ρ g δ2 977.8 × 9.81 × (1.82 × 10 − 4 ) 2
umax =
2µ
=
2 × 406 × 10 − 6 L (989.1) × 9.81 × 2358 × 10 × (0.640) OP
h = 0.725 M
2 3 3 1/ 4
= 0.391 m/s. Ans.

(iii) Total heat flux to the plate, q
N 577 × 10 × 0.05 × (60 − 34) Q
−6
= 6837 W/m2.K
The average heat transfer coefficient
(i) Condensation rate of steam
LM ρ(ρ − ρ ) g h k OP
h = 1.13
v fg f
3 1/4
=
m
Q
=
8888.1
MN µL(T − T ) PQ
sat s hfg 2358 × 10 3
Neglecting = 3.77 ×10–3 kg/s = 13.56 kg/h. Ans.
LM (977.8) × 9.81 × 2357

2
OP 1/4 (ii) The heat transfer rate
Q = h As(Tsat – Ts)
h = 1.13 × M
M × 10 × (0.668) P 3 3
0.35 × (100 − 40) PP

ρv = 6837 × 0.05 × 1 × (60 – 34)
MM 406 × 10 × −6
PQ
= 8888.1 W. Ans.
N Example 11.5. Compare the values of heat transfer
= 5958 W/m2.K coefficient for laminar film wise condensation, when a
The heat flux pipe 6.25 cm in diameter and 1 m long is used as
q = h(Tsat – Ts) = 5958 × (100 – 40) condenser ; when it (i) vertical, (ii) horizontal.
= 357485 W/m2 = 357.485 kW/m2. Ans. (P.U., May 2002)
Example 11.4. A horizontal tube 50 mm in diameter Solution

with a surface temperature of 34°C is exposed to steam For vertical tube condensation
at 0.2 bar. Estimate the condensation rate and heat
R| ρ (ρ − ρ ) g h k 3 U| 1/ 4
= 1.13 S V|
transfer rate per unit length of the tube. v fg f
hv ...(i)
Solution T| µ L (T − T )
sat s W
Given : Condensation on horizontal tube : For horizontal tube condensation
D = 50 mm = 0.05 m, Ts = 34°C,
h = 0.725 S
R| ρ (ρ − ρ ) g h k 3 U| 1/ 4
L=1m p = 0.2 bar = 20 kPa. v fg f

V| ...(ii)
h
T| µ D (T − T )
sat s W
0.725 F L I
0.25
G J
m
50 m h
1.13 H D K
Dividing (ii) by (i), h
=
h
v
Using the given values ;

hh 0.725 1FG IJ 0.25
To find : hv
=
1.13
×
H
0.0625
= 1.283
K
(i) Condensation rate, and (ii) Heat transfer rate. The horizontal position provided 28.3% more
Properties of steam at p = 0.2 bar = 20 kPa : condensation rate. Ans.
Tsat = 60°C, hfg = 2358 × 103 J/kg Example 11.6. A steam condenser consist of 16 tubes
60 + 34 arranged in 4 × 4 array. The tubes are 25 mm in diameter
Tf = = 47°C
2 and 1.2 m long. Water flows through the tube at 65°C
At 47°C (320 K) while steam condenses at 75°C over the tube surface. Find
ρ = 989.1 kg/m3, µ = 577 × 10–6 kg/ms the rate of condensation, if (a) tubes are horizontal ;
(b) tubes are vertical.
kf = 0.640 W/m.K.
Take latent heat of steam as 2300 kJ/kg and
Analysis : The heat transfer coefficient for
properties of water at 70°C
condensation on horizontal tube
ρ = 977.8 kg/m3, Cp = 4.187 kJ/kg.K
3 1/ 4
h = 0.725 M
v fg f kf = 0.668 W/mK, ν = 0.415 × 10–6 m2/s
MN µ D (T − T )
sat s PQ β = 5.7 × 10–3 K–1, (P.U., May 2008)
Solution (b) For condensation on vertical tubes;

Given : A vertical condenser with
R| ρ g h k U|
h = 1.13 S
2 3 1/ 4
|T µL(T − T ) V|W
Tsat = 75°C, L = 1.2 m, fg f
Ts = 65°C, D = 0.025 m. s sat

N2 = 16 in 4 × 4 array and properties of fluid.
hfg = 2300 × 103 J/kg R| (977.8) × 9.81 × (2300 × 10 ) U|
2 3 1/4
| × (0.668) |
To find : The rate of condensation, if 3
(a) The tubes are horizontal. h = 1.13 × S
|| (0.415 × 10 × −6
977.8)
V
× 1.2 |
× (75 − 65) |W
(b) Tubes are vertical.
T
= 6811.85 W/m2.K
The surface area
As = πDLN2 = 1.508 m2
Q = hAs (∆T) = 6811.85 × 1.508 × (75 – 65)
= 102,722.2 W. Ans.
Fig. 11.15 The condensation rate :
Assumptions : Q 102,722.2 W
=
m = = 0.446 kg/s
1. Laminar film wise condensation. hfg 2300 × 10 3 kJ/kg
2. Negligible film thermal resistance. = 160.78 kg/h. Ans.
3. Vapour density ρv negligible.
Example 11.7. A condenser is designed to condense
Analysis : (a) For horizontal tube bank, the
500 kg/h of dry and saturated steam at 0.1 bar. A square
eqn. (11.21) may be used in the form
array of 400 tubes, 6 mm in diameter is used. The tube
R| ρ g h k
h = 0.725 S
2 3
U| 1/ 4
surface is maintained at 24°C by flowing water. Calculate
fg f
V (∵ µ = ρν)
T| µND(T − T
s sat ) W| the heat transfer coefficient and length of the each tube.
Solution
using µ = ρν in above equation;
Given : A square array for condensation of steam
R| (977.8) × (9.81) × (2300 × 10 ) U|
2 3 1/4
on tubes in square array
| × (0.668) | 3 m = 500 kg/h, Array = 400 tubes ; p = 0.1 bar
|| (0.415 × 10 × 977.8) × 4 × 0.025 V||

h = 0.725 × S −6 D = 6 mm = 0.006 m ; Ts = 24°C.
To find :
T × (75 − 65) W
(i) Heat transfer coefficient.
= 8134.5 W/m2.K (ii) Length of each tube.
The surface area of tubes : Assumptions :
As = πDLN2 = π × (0.025 m) × (1.2 m) 1. Laminar film wise condensation.
× 16 tubes 2. Effect of thermal resistance of film thickness
= 1.508 m2 is negligible.
The heat transfer rate : 3. Negligible vapour density.
Q = hAs(∆T) = (8134.5 W/m2.K) Properties of fluid : At pressure of 0.1 bar ;
× (1.508 m2) × (75 – 65)(K) hfg = 2393 kJ/kg, Tsat = 45.74°C
= 122,669.1 W. Ans. 45.74 + 24
Tf = ≈ 35°C
The condensation rate : 2
The properties of saturated water at 35°C from
Q 122,669.1 W
=
m = = 0.053 kg/s Table A-7.
hfg 2300 × 10 3 J/kg
ρ = 993.95 kg/m3, kf = 0.625 W/m.K
= 192 kg/h. Ans. µ = 728.15 × 10–6 kg/ms.
Analysis : Number of horizontal tubes in a column : (iii) The average heat transfer coefficient, if plate
is inclined at 30 degree with the horizontal.
N = 400 = 20 tubes in a row column.
(i) The heat transfer coefficient for horizontal tube 28°C
bank
R| ρ g h k U|
h = 0.725 S
2 3 1/4 Steam at 42°C
|T NDµ (T − T ) V|W
fg f
sat s
R| (993.95) × (9.81) × (2393 × 10 ) U|

2 3 1/4 L = 0.6 m
| × (0.625) | 3
|| 20 × (0.006) × (728.15 × 10 ) V||

h = 0.725 × S −6
T × (45.74 − 24) W
= 5357 W/m2.K. Ans.

Fig. 11.16 (a) Vertical plate
(ii) The length of the tubes :
Assumptions :
The heat transfer rate during condensation is
1. Laminar film wise condensation ;
given by
RS 500 kg/sUV × (2393 × 10 ) 3
2. Negligible film resistance ;
Q= m
hfg =
T 3600 W 3. Constant properties.
Properties of fluid : The properties of steam at
= 332,361.11 W 42°C ;
The heat transfer rate can also be given by hfg = 2402 kJ/kg, ρv = 0.0561 kg/m3
Q = hAs (Tsat – Ts) = h(π N2DL)(Tsat – Ts) 42 + 28
332361.11 = (5357 W/m2.K) × (π × 400 × 0.006 m × L) Tf = = 35°C
2
× (45.74 – 24)(K) The properties of saturated fluid at 35°C from
332,361.11 Table A-7;
or L= = 0.376 m. Ans. ρ = 994 kg/m3, kf = 0.625 W/m.K
878,089
µ = 728.15 × 10 kg/m3.
–6
Example 11.8. The dry and saturated steam at 42°C is
Analysis : (i) (A) The thickness of condensate film
condensed over a 60 cm square vertical plate maintained
can be calculated by using eqn. (11.5) ;
at 28°C. Calculate the following :
(i) Film thickness, local heat transfer coefficient R| 4k (T − T ) µ x U|V
δ= S
f sat s
1/4
T| ρ (ρ − ρ ) gh W|
at 30 cm from the top edge.
(ii) Average heat transfer coefficient and total heat v fg
transfer rate.
(iii) What would be the heat transfer coefficient, if R| 4 × 0.625 × (42 − 28) × 728.15 U| 1/ 4
plate is inclined at 30 degree with the horizontal ?

=S
| × 10 × 0.3 | −6
Solution
Given :
|| 994 × (994 − 0.0561) × 9.81 V||
1. For vertical plate : T × 2402 × 10 W 3
Tsat = 42°C, L = w = 60 cm = 0.6 m = 1.346 × 10–4 m

Ts = 28°C, x = 0.3 m. or δ = 0.134 mm. Ans.
2. Inclined plate at 30 degree with horizontal.
(B) The local value of heat transfer coefficient
To find :
(i) (A) Film thickness δ, (B) heat transfer coeffi-
kf 0.625
hx = =
cient hx at 30 cm from the top edge. δ 1.346 × 10 − 4
(ii) Average heat transfer coefficient, h and total = 4642.74 W/m2.K. Ans.
heat transfer rate.
(ii) Average value of heat transfer coefficient : 40 mm
4 4 L RS UV 1/4
h=
3
hx = L =
3 x T W hx
Ts = 60°C
4
×
RS UV
0.6
1/ 4
=
3 T W
0.3
× 4642.74
Tsat = 100°C
= 5521.2 W/m2.K. Ans.
y
Fig. 11.17 Schematic for example 11.9
x
To find : Mass of condensate in
(i) Vertical tube
(ii) Horizontal tube
(iii) If mass changes in horizontal position tube,
then percentage change in condensation rate.
30°
Assumptions :
Fig. 11.16 (b) Inclined plate
(i) Laminar condensation over the tube surface.
(ii) Negligible convection and radiation.
Q = hAs(Tsat – Ts)
Analysis : (i) For laminar condensation, the
= 5521.2 × (0.6 × 0.6) × (42 – 28) average heat transfer coefficient on vertical tube is given
= 27.82 × 103 W = 27.82 kW. Ans. by
(iii) If the plate is inclined at 30 degree with hori-
zontal then g is replaced by g sin θ, hence
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) gh k
h = 1.13 M
v fg f OP
3 1/4
hinclined = hvertical × (sin θ)1/4 MN µL (T − T )

sat s PQ
= 5521.2 × (sin 30)1/4 Neglecting ρv ;
= 4642.75 W/m2.. K. Ans. LM (971.8) × 9.81 × 2257 × 10 OP
2 3 1/4
Example 11.9. A vertical tube 40 mm diameter and 1 m

= 1.13 × M
M × (0.675) P 3
long is used for condensing dry steam at atmospheric

pressure. The tube surface temperature is 60°C. MM 355 × 10 × 1 × (100 − 60) PPP
−6
(i) Determine the mass of condensate.

N Q
= 1.13 × 4613.1 = 5212 W/m2.K.
(ii) If the tube is held in horizontal position, will
there be any change in mass of condensate ? If yes, The heat transfer rate
calculate the value and change. Q = hAs(Tsat – Ts) = 5212 × (0.04 × 1)
Use the properties of the fluid as × (100 – 60) = 8340.5 W
kf = 0.675 W/mK, ρ = 971.8 kg/m3. The condensation rate
hfg = 2257 kJ/kg, µ = 355 × 10–6 kg/m.s Q 8340.5
=
m = = 3.69 × 10–3 kg/s
hfg 2257 × 10 3
(P.U., May. 2008)
= 13.3 kg/h. Ans.
Solution
(ii) If tube orientation changes to horizontal, then
Given : Condensation on a vertical tube : the heat transfer coefficient will also change. It can be
D = 40 mm = 0.04 m, L=1m related by eqn. (11.19)
p = 1 atm, Tsat = 100°C hvert DLM OP 1/ 4
Ts = 60°C. hhorz
= 1.30
L N Q
5212 LM
0.04 OP 1/4 under various conditions. The various modes of boiling
or
hhorz
= 1.30 ×
N1 Q = 0.581 are
(i) pool boiling, (ii) forced convection boiling,
or hhorz = 8965 W/m2.K. (iii) sub-cooled or local boiling, and (iv) saturated boiling.
Heat transfer rate, (i) Pool boiling. It refers to a situation in which
Q = 8965 × (0.04 × 1) × (100 – 60) the heated surface is submerged below the free surface
= 14,344 W of a stagnant liquid and its motion near the surface is
and condensation rate due to free convection only and the mixing is induced
14,344 by bubble growth and its detachment.
m = = 6.355 kg/s
2257 × 10 3 (ii) Forced convection boiling. It refers to a
= 22.88 kg/h. Ans. situation of boiling, in which the fluid motion is induced
(iii) Percentage change in condensation rate artificially by an external means as well as by natural
22.88 − 13.3 convection and the bubble induced mixing. This type of
= × 100 = 72%. Ans. boiling occurs in high pressure water tube boilers
13.3
The horizontal orientation i.e., short length of involving forced convection.
condensation results into better condensation of steam. (iii) Sub-cooled or local boiling. It refers to a
situation of boiling, in which the temperature of the
liquid is below its saturation temperature and the
11.8. BOILING bubbles formed at the heated surface are condensed in
The phase change from liquid to vapour at liquid vapour the liquid as they leave the surface.
interface is called the boiling. Actually boiling is a (iv) Saturated boiling. It refers to a situation
convective heat transfer process that involves phase of boiling, in which the temperature of the liquid is equal
change at a constant temperature from liquid to vapour. to its saturation temperature. The bubbles formed at
During the boiling, the heat added to liquid for its phase the heated surface are pushed through the liquid by
change is the latent heat. The boiling is sometimes buoyancy effects to escape from free surface of the
termed as evaporation when the vapour pressure is less liquid.
than the saturation pressure of liquid at the liquid
vapour interface and then liquid itself extracts its latent 11.9. POOL BOILING REGIMES
heat for phase change from its surroundings. For
examples, the drying of moisture from the wet clothes When boiling occurs as the pool boiling or forced
exposed to air, cooling of our body by evaporation of convection boiling, there are six definite regimes of
sweat etc. boiling associated with progressive increasing heat
Sometimes, the boiling process is referred as fluxes. These different regimes are shown in
vaporisation, when the latent heat of liquid is supplied Fig. 11.18 (a), where the heat flux q from an electrically
for its phase change such as process of steam generation heated platinum wire submerged in the water is plotted
in the boiler. against temperature excess, ∆Te .
The boiling takes place, when the temperature
Tsat, 2 atm
Ts, of solid surface in contact of a liquid exceeds the
saturation temperature Tsat, of the liquid. The heat flux I
during boiling depends on temperature excess ∆Te V
(= Ts – Tsat) and is given by
q = h(Ts – Tsat) = h∆Te ...(11.44)
As temperature excess ∆Te increases, the liquid
boiling rate also increases.
11.8.1. Boiling Modes
The boiling is mode of heat transfer that involves the
formation of vapour bubbles at the solid-liquid interface. Heat wire, DTe = Ts – Tsat
The growth of vapour and its dynamics depend on q = VI/wire area
temperature excess, nature of surface and
thermophysical properties of liquid, such as its surface
tension, latent heat etc. Thus the boiling may occur Fig. 11.18. (a) Nukiyama’s power-controlled heating
apparatus for demonstrating the boiling curve
Burnout point
or boiling crisis
qmax C E
P
qs (W/m )
2
qmin
D
Boiling curve with
Platinum wire
qmin
Te, (°C) = Ts – Tsat
Fig. 11.18. (b) Nukiyama’s boiling curve for saturated water
Nucleate
Free
boiling Transition Stable Radiation and
convection
film film boiling
I II III IV V VI
enhancement
Radiation
7
10
C Critical heat
6
flux, qmax
10
boiling
2
Film
q(W/m ) P
5
10
B
D
4
10
Leidenfrost
A point, qmin
3
10
1 5 10 30 120 1000
Temperature excess, Te = (Ts – Tsat) (°C)
Fig. 11.19. Typical boiling curve for saturated water at 1 atmosphere

In practical situations, the nucleate boiling nearer

to point P is desirable, because large heat is transferred
with small temperature difference. In the nucleate
(i) Natural convection (ii) Onset of boiling boiling regime, the heat flux increases rapidly with
increasing temperature difference until the peak heat
flux is reached.
Transition boiling. It is also called unstable film
boiling or partial film boiling (C – D). In this region IV,
(iii) Individual bubble regime (iv) Regime of slugs and bubbles
∆Te,C ≤ ∆Te ≤ ∆Te,D ≅ 120°C. Bubble formation is so high
that the vapour film form on the fraction of surface as
shown in Fig. 11.20(v). At any point on the surface, the
film and nucleate boiling may appear alternatively but
the growth of film increases with increase in ∆Te. This
film prevents the inflow of fresh liquid taking their place.
(v) Transition film boiling (vi) Stable film boiling Further this film also offers strong thermal resistance
in path of heat flow, hence the heat transfer rate
Fig. 11.20. Schematic representation of each boiling regime
decreases.
Free convection boiling. In the region I, the Film boiling. It appears in region V, when
temperature excess ∆Te ≤ ∆Te, A ≅ 5°C, the free convection ∆Te ≥ 120°C, the surface is completely covered by vapour
currents, shown in Fig. 11.20(i) are responsible for fluid blanket, Fig. 11.20(vi). The heat flux becomes minimum
motion and heat transfer. The liquid near the heated at point D. The heat transfer from the surface to the
surface is slightly superheated and evaporates when it liquid occurs by conduction through the stable vapour
rises the surface. The heat transfer in this region can film. As the surface temperature increases, the heat flux
be calculated from relations for free convection. slowly increases due to increase in h. Then the heating
Nucleate boiling. The nucleate boiling as shown surface becomes glowing bright due to large temperature
in Fig. 11.20(ii) exists when ∆Te,A ≤ ∆Te ≤ ∆Te, C ≅ 30°C. excess and the thermal radiation from the surface
In this range, the two different flow regimes may be becomes gradually dominant and heat flux again
distinguished. In the region II, the bubbles begin to form increases with increasing ∆Te.
at some nucleation sites on the surface of the wire and In this film boiling region V and VI, the heating
are collapsed in the liquid after detaching from the surface is separated from the liquid by a vapour layer,
surface as shown in Fig. 11.20(iii). This region II is across which heat must be transferred by conduction
referred as unstable or isolated nucleate boiling (A – B). only. Since the thermal conductivity of vapour is very
As the temperature excess is increased further low, its layer offers strong thermal resistance, thus large
in the region III, more nucleation sites become active temperature differences are needed for transfer of heat
and the bubbles form more rapidly and rise to free energy in this region.
surface of the liquid and form slugs of vapour as shown 11.9.1. Critical Heat Flux
in Fig. 11.20(iv). It is stable nucleate boiling (B – C). The peak of curve at point C is the locus of maximum
The interference between the densely populated bubbles heat flux, where the excess temperature is raised to
retard the motion of the liquid near the surface. The about 35°C. After this point, any increase in temperature
point P corresponds to an inflection point in the boiling excess, causing the heat flux to decrease. At this point,
curve at which the heat transfer coefficient h reaches the temperature of the surface exceeds the melting point
maximum value. of solid and thus the melting of wire may occur. For this
After this point P, the heat transfer coefficient h reason the locus (Point C) is often termed as burnout
begins to decrease with increasing ∆Te causing point or boiling crisis. The heat flux (maximum heat
imbalance in the heat transfer rate and heat generation flux) at this point is called critical heat flux, qmax. The
rate, thus the ∆Te increases at a faster rate. In this corresponding temperature excess is referred as the
region, the increase in ∆Te is balanced by reduction in critical temperature excess ∆Te, cr. We are always
the heat transfer coefficient h. The heat flux q reaches interested to operate the heating surface of an
to its maximum value at point C, which is called the
evaporator or a boiler close to this peak to get maximum
critical heat flux and in water at atmospheric pressure
heat transfer from minimum area with smaller
it is generally more than 1 MW/m2.
temperature difference.
11.9.2. Leidenfrost Point The rate of bubble formation is large at the spots,
It is point D in the film boiling region, where the vapour where the liquid superheat is maximum. As the
completely covers the surface and the heat flux reaches temperature excess increases the number of nucleation
sites increase resulting into increase in the rate of bubble
to its minimum value. This point is referred as the
formation.
Leidenfrost point. The J.G. Leidenfrost pointed out that
the water droplets on a very hot metal surface, dance Once the nucleation process is completed, then
about and boil away very slowly and thus being insulated the heat transfer from the surface to bubble promotes
bubble growth. The bubble departure size is another
by a thin blanket of vapour.
important parameter that affects the heat transfer in
nucleate boiling. The mechanisms of bubble growth and
11.10. MECHANISM OF NUCLEATE BOILING its collapse are discussed below.
In the boiling heat transfer, the nucleate boiling has its Consider a spherical vapour bubble in thermal
own importance. The nucleate boiling induces good fluid equilibrium with the liquid surrounding it. The bubble
of radius r is split into two halves as shown in Fig. 11.22.
mixing near the heated surface, resulting into increase
The pressure force on the bubble must be balanced by
in heat transfer coefficient and heat flux. The nucleate
the surface tension at the interface. Thus
boiling involves two separate processes–the formation
of bubbles, and subsequent growth and motion of these Liquid
pressure pl
bubbles as shown in Fig. 11.21(a).
s s
Vapour, pv
s s Surface
tension
(a) Formation of bubbles, their growth and departure
r
109.1°C
110°C
Fig. 11.22. Force balance on a spherical bubble
2σ
πr2(pv – pl) = 2πrσ or pv – pl = ...(11.45)
Temperature of liquid °C
r
where pv = vapour pressure inside the bubble,
100°C pl = liquid pressure over the surface of bubble,
and
σ = surface tension at vapour liquid interface.
The liquid gets superheated at the heated surface
90°C and the vapour bubbles formed are also superheated.
1 2 3 4 5 6 cm For superheated vapour Claussius-Clapeyron equation
Distance from heated surface, cm
with the ideal gas approximation, relates T and v along
(b) Temperature distribution in nucleate boiling
the saturation line as
Fig. 11.21. Nucleate boiling of water at 1 atm
dp hfg ρv hfg pv
The formation of bubbles is called the nucleation. = = ...(11.46)
dT Tsat R v Tsat 2
As the surface temperature exceeds few degree the
temperature of liquid, the nucleation starts at some where Rv = gas constant for vapour,
favoured spots, called nucleate sites on the heated hfg = latent heat of vaporisation,
surface. The liquid layer immediately adjacent to heated
Tsat = saturation temperature of liquid.
surface becomes superheated as shown in Fig. 11.21(b).
The eqn. (11.46) can be rearranged as (v) Viscosity of liquid, µ, kg/ms

dp p − pl pv hfg (vi) Surface tension at liquid-vapour interface, σ,
= v = ...(11.47)
dT Tv − Tsat R v Tsat 2 N/m
(vii) Density of saturated liquid, ρ, kg/m3
where Tv = vapour temperature inside the bubble,
(viii) Density of saturated vapour, ρv, kg/m3
Combining eqn. (11.45) with eqn. (11.47), we get
Tv – Tsat =
LM2
2σ R v Tsat OP ...(11.48)
(ix) Acceleration due to gravity, g, m/s2 and
(x) Length of heater surface, L, m.
MN
r pv hfg PQ Therefore, heat flux during the boiling process is
If (Tliq – Tsat) > (Tv – Tsat), the bubble of radius r will
grow, otherwise it will collapse. q = f(∆Te, L, (ρ – ρv) g, hfg , σ, kf , Cp, µ)
...(11.50)
11.10.1. Critical Diameter of a Bubble The dimensional analysis gives
The size of bubble formed on a heated surface depends
on the followings: C p ∆Te
=f
LM q ,
σ
L,
µC p OP
(i) Surface tension at liquid-vapour interface, σlv. hfg MN µh
fg g(ρ − ρv ) kf PQ ...(11.51)
(ii) Surface tension at solid-liquid interface, σsl.

g (ρ − ρv ) 2
(iii) Surface tension at vapour-solid interface, σvs. where, L = Bond number,
σ
(iv) The angle formed by bubbles with the solid
surface, β C p ∆Te
= Jakob number,
(v) Buoyancy force, g(ρl – ρv). hfg
Vapour bubble µC p
= Prandtl number.
kf
Liquid
r
Va
pou
lv The Bond number represents the ratio of
dcr
b buoyancy forces to surface tension force. The Jacob
vs sl number represents the ratio of sensible heat to the latent
Fig. 11.23. Critical radius of bubble
q
If dcr is critical diameter of bubble, then heat and the quantity is an unnamed
µhfg
dcr = f{β, σlv, σsl, σvs, g(ρl – ρv)}
dimensionless quantity. The combination of these
The dimensional analysis gives us dimensionless quantities makes Nusselt number.
Fσ I σ lv
dcr = Cβ GH σ JK
sl g
lv
( ρ − ρv )
...(11.49) qL
µ hfg
×
µ Cp
kf
×
hfg
=
q
×
C p ∆Te ∆Te kf
L hL
=
kf
where C is a constant and its value is evaluated experi- = Nusselt number.
mentally. For water bubbles, Fritz suggested During the pool boiling in natural convection
C = 0.0148. region A-B in Fig. 11.19, the correlations for natural
convection are applicable.
11.11. POOL BOILING CORRELATIONS 11.11.1. Correlation for Nucleate Boiling
The factors which affects the pool boiling process are In the nucleate boiling region B-C of Fig. 11.19, the
analysis requires prediction of nucleation sites and the
(i) Specific heat of saturated liquid, Cp, J/kg. K
rate at which the bubbles orginate from each side. An
(ii) Latent heat of vaporisation, hfg, J/kg alternate form of correlation obtained by manipulating
(iii) Temperature excess between surface and different dimensionless parameters of eqn. (11.51) had
saturated liquid ∆Te = (Ts – Tsat), (K) developed by the Rehsenow, most successful relation
(iv) Prandtl number of saturated liquid, Pr which is widely used in nucleate boiling regimes.
C p ∆Te
= C sf
LM q σ OP 1/3 11.11.2. Correlation for Critical Heat Flux
The point C represents the maximum heat flux on the
hfg Pr n MN µ h fg g (ρ − ρv ) PQ ...(11.52)
pool boiling curve in Fig. 11.19, it is referred as the
critical point. The Zuber had obtained the following
where Csf is an empirical constant, depends on nature relation through hydraulic stability. It may be used for
of heating surface-fluid combination and to be the determination of the peak heat flux.
determined from experimental data.
It gives FG π IJ ρ LM ρ + ρ OP 1/ 2
H 24 K
1/2 v
qmax = hfg [σ g (ρ – ρv)]1/4 ×
R|L g (ρ − ρ ) O U|
v
N ρ Q
1/2 F C ∆T I 3
...(11.54)
q = µhfg S|MN σ PQ v
×G
H h C Pr
p e
n JK V| where, qmax = critical heat flux, W/m2.
T fg sf
W σ = surface tension on liquid-vapour
...(11.53) interface, N/m.
In eqn. (11.53) the exponent n and constant Csf ρ = density of saturated liquid, kg/m3.
are provisionally adjusted. The value of n for water is ρv = density of saturated vapour, kg/m3.
approximately 1.0 and for other surface-fluid
hfg = latent heat of evaporation, J/kg.
combination the value of constant Csf are given in
The Zuber constant (π/24) = 0.131 is replaced by
Table 11.1.
an experimental value of 0.149 and approximating the
TABLE 11.1. Value of constant Csf for ρ + ρv
surface-fluid combinations last term ≈ 1, the relation takes the form
ρ
Liquid-surface combination Csf Exponent n qmax = 0.149 ρv1/2 hfg [σ g (ρ – ρv)]1/4
...(11.55)
Water-scored copper 0.0068 1.0
The properties of vapour should be taken at mean
Water-copper 0.0130 1.0
temperature as
Water-emery polished copper 0.0128 1.0
Water-brass 0.0060 1.0 Ts + Tsat
Tf = .
Water-emery polished paraffin 0.0470 1.0 2
treated copper
11.11.3. Pool Film Boiling
Water-teflon coated steel 0.0058 1.0
At the excess temperature greater than the Leidenfrost
Water-ground and polished 0.0080 1.0
stainless steel
point D, a continuous film blankets the heated surface
and there is no direct contact between liquid and surface.
Water-chemically etched 0.0133 1.0
Similar to the film vwise condensation on vertical
stainless steel
surfaces, the following expression for stable film boil-
Water-mechanically polished 0.0132 1.0
ing on the outside of horizontal cylinder and sphere in
stainless steel
absence of any radiation may be used.
Water-platinum 0.0130 1.0
Water-nickel 0.0060 1.0
Nu =
hD
=C
|RS
ρv (ρ − ρ v ) g h′fg D 3 |UV 1/4
n-pentane-lapped copper
n-pentane-emery rubbed copper
0.0049
0.0074
1.7
1.7
kv |T
kv µ v ∆Te |W
...(11.56)
n-pentane-emery polished copper 0.0154 1.7 where, Suffix v indicates properties of vapour,
n-pentane-emery polished nickel 0.0127 1.7
ρ = density of saturated liquid,
n-pentane-chromium 0.0150 1.7
h′fg = corrected latent heat of evaporation,
Isopropyl alcohol-copper 0.0025 1.7
Benzene-chromium 0.0100 1.7 D = diameter of the cylinder or sphere,
Ethyl alcohol-chromium 0.0027 1.7 ∆Te = Ts – Tsat, temperature excess.
Carbon tetrachloride-copper 0.0130 1.7 The value of constant
Carbon tetrachloride-emery 0.0070 1.7 C = 0.62 for cylinders,
polished copper
and C = 0.67 for spheres.
The liquid properties are evaluated at Tsat and 11.11.4. Minimum Heat Flux
vapour properties should be taken at mean temperature Fig. 11.24 shows actual boiling curve in nucleate
as transition and film transition boiling region. With start
Ts + Tsat of transition boiling, the liquid-solid contact decreases.
Tf =
2 The transition boiling regime is of little interest and it
Thus for stable film boiling on the horizontal is not used in engineering applications and thus no
cylinders, the average heat transfer coefficient is given sufficient theory has been developed for this regime.
by However, the upper portion of the regime is still
R| ρ
h = 0.62 S
(ρ − ρv ) gh′fg kv 3 U| 1/4 important, because it corresponds to formation of a
v
V| ...(11.57) stable vapour blanket or film and to minimum heat flux
T| D µ v ∆Te W condition. If the heat flux drops below this minimum
value, the film will collapse and causing the surface to
The corrected latent heat of vaporisation is
calculated as cool and nucleate boiling to be re-established. The
expression for the minimum heat flux in the film boiling
h′fg = hfg + 0.4Cpv ∆Te ...(11.58)
regime, derived by Zuber
The eqn. (11.56) can be rearranged as
hD
Nu = = C(Ra′)1/4 ...(11.59) qmax
kv Nucleate-transition
boiling
where Ra′ represents the modified Rayleigh number and
ρ v (ρ − ρ v ) gh′fg D 3
Heat flux, q
Ra′ = ...(11.60)
µ v kv ∆Te
Film-transition boiling
For the film boiling from the large (infinite) with liquid-solid contact
horizontal surfaces
Nu =
hL*
= 0.425
|RS
ρ v (ρ − ρv ) gh′fg L∗3 |UV 1/4
qmin
kv |T
kv µ v ∆Te |W Film boiling with
no contact
...(11.61) 0
0 Wall superheat, DTe
where, L* =
LM σ OP 1/ 2
...(11.62)
Fig. 11.24. The transition boiling regime
N g (ρ − ρ ) Q
v
LM σ (ρ − ρ ) g OP
v
1/ 4
At the elevated temperatures (Ts > 300°C), the

radiation heat transfer across the vapour film becomes
qmin = C ρvh′fg
MN (ρ + ρ ) PQ
v
2 ...(11.64)
significant. The radiation heat transfer causes the film where h′fg = hfg +0.4 Cpv ∆Te
thickness to increase. The thicker vapour film results For infinite horizontal surfaces, the constant
into reduced convective heat transfer. On account for C = 0.09 and correlation for minimum heat flux for
the interaction between radiative and convective heat infinite horizontal surfaces in the film boiling regime
transfer, Bromley suggested becomes
qtotal = qconv + 0.75 qrad
qmin = 0.09 ρv h′fg
LM σ (ρ − ρ ) g OPv
1/ 4
...(11.65)
or htotal = hconv + 0.75 hrad ...(11.63)
where hconv is computed from eqn. (11. 57). The radiation
MN (ρ + ρ ) PQ v
2
heat transfer coefficient hrad is evaluated as Combining eqn. (11. 61) with eqn. (11.65) and
solving for ∆Te corresponding to qmin, we get
ε σ (Ts 4 − Tsat 4 )
hrad =
Ts − Tsat ρ v h′fg LM µ v (ρ − ρ v ) g L∗3 OP 1/3
where ε is the emissivity of the solid surface and σ is

∆Tmin = 0.127
kv MN (ρ + ρ v ) 2 PQ
the Stefan Boltzmann constant (= 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4). ...(11.66)
L σ OP
= M
1/2 Solution
Given : An electric wire :
where L*
N g(ρ − ρ ) Q
v D = 1.5 mm = 0.0015 m, L = 20 cm = 0.2 m
For horizontal wire of radius ro, Licnhard and I = 40 A, ∆V = 16 V.
Wong suggested To find :
q = 0.0464 ρ h′ M
L σ (ρ − ρ ) g OP v
1/ 4
(i) The heat flux ;
min
N (ρ + ρ ) Q
v fg
v
2
(ii) Heat transfer coefficient ; and
×M
L 18 OP (iii) The temperature excess.
N R′ (2 R′ + 1) Q
2 2 ...(11.67) Analysis : The surface area of the wire, As = πDL
= π × (0.0015 m) × (0.2 m)
where R′ = r M
L (ρ − ρ ) g OP
v
1/ 2
...(11.68) = 9.42 × 10–4 m2
N σ Q
o
Electrical power input to wire,
Example 11.10. A nickel wire of 1 mm diameter and Q = ∆V.I = 16 V × 40 A = 640 W
400 mm long, carrying current is submerged in a water (i) The heat flux,
bath open to atmospheric air. Calculate the voltage at
the burnout point, if at this point the wire carries a Q 640 W
q= =
current of 190 A. A 9.42 × 10 − 4 m 2
= 6.79 × 105 W/m2. Ans.
Solution
(ii) The heat transfer coefficient can be calculated
Given : Boiling of water from submerged heated by given correlation
nickel wire
h = 1.54 (Q/A)3/4 = 1.54 × (6.79 × 105)3/4
D = 1 mm, L = 400 mm
= 36,429.42 W/m2.K. Ans.
p = 1 atm, Tsat = 100°C (iii) The temperature excess can be calculated as
I = 190 A h = 5.58(∆Te)3
To find : Voltage Vb at the burnout point.
LM 36,429.42 OP 1/3
Properties : The saturated water at 100°C ∆Te =

N 5.58 Q = 18.68°C. Ans.
ρ = 957.9 kg/m3, ρv = 0.595 kg/m3
Example 11.12. Calculate nucleate boiling heat transfer
hfg = 2257 × 103 J/kg, σ = 58.9 × 10–3 N/m. coefficient for water boiling on the tube, whose wall
Analysis : At burnout point, the critical heat flux temperature is maintained at 20°C, above saturation
is given by Zuber, eqn. (11.55) temperature. Assume water to be at 20 bar.
qmax = 0.149 hfg ρv1/2 [σ g (ρ – ρv)]1/4 Also calculate the heat transfer coefficient, when,
(a) Temperature is reduced by 10°C at 20 bar.
= 0.149 × (2257 × 103) × (0.595)1/2
(b) Pressure is reduced by 10 bar at 20°C
× [58.9 × 10–3 × 9.81 × (957.9 – 0.595)]1/4 temperature difference.
= 12,58,012.5 W/m2 Comment on the result.
The electrical energy input to the wire Use correlation : hA = 5.56 (∆T)3 W/m2.K
Q = qAs = VbI ⇒ 12,58,012.5
and hp = hA
RS p UV 0.4
W/m2.K
× (π × 0.001 × 0.4) = Vb × 190
Tp W0
Vb = 8.32 V. Ans. Suffix, A corresponds to atmospheric pressure ;
Example 11.11. An electric wire of 1.5 mm diameter p corresponds to fluid pressure
and 20 cm long is laid horizontally and submerged in Assume atmospheric pressure to be 100 kPa.
water at atmospheric pressure. The current flowing (P.U., May 2002)
through the wire is 40 A, while voltage drop is 16 V. Solution
Calculate the heat flux, heat transfer coefficient and Given : ∆T = 20°C, p1 = 20 bar = 2000 kPa
excess temperature.
(a) ∆T = 10°C, p1 = 20 bar,
Use correlation : h = 1.54 (Q/A)3/4 = 5.58(∆Te)3.
(b) ∆T = 20°C, p1 = 10 bar = 1000 kPa
(P.U., May 1998)
Correlations as above. Example 11.13. Water is boiled at a rate of 30 kg/h in

To find : Nucleate heat transfer coefficient in a copper pan, 30 cm in diameter, at atmospheric pressure.
given conditions and Estimate the temperature of bottom surface of the pan,
(a) When temperature excess is 10°C at 2000 kPa. assuming nucleate boiling conditions. Also determine
peak heat flux. (V.T.U., April 1999)
(b) When pressure is reduced by 1000 kPa at
20°C. Solution
Analysis : When the temperature excess is 20°C Given : The evaporation of water in a copper pan.
at atmospheric pressure ;
e = 30 kg/h,
m D = 30 cm = 0.3 m
The air heat transfer coefficient at 20°C :
hA = 5.56 (∆T)3 W/m2.K p = 1 atm, Tsat = 100°C.
hA = 5.56 × (20)3 W/m2.K
Tsat = 100°C .
= 44,480 W/m2.K. Ans. me = 30 kg/h
and at 20 bar, hp = hA
RS p UV 0 .4
Tp W
0 Ts
= 44,480 W/m2.K ×
RS 20 UV 0.4
Electric
T1W D = 0.3 m heater
= 1,47,427 W/m2.K. Ans.
Electric power input
(a) When temperature excess is reduced to 10°C
at 20 bar. Fig. 11.25. Schematic of water heating in a pan
∆T = 10°C
To find :
The heat transfer coefficient of air at 10°C ; (i) The temperature of bottom surface of the pan.
hA = 5.56 × (10)3 W/m2.K (ii) Critical heat flux.
= 5560 W/m2.K. Ans. Assumptions :
The fluid heat transfer coefficient at 20 bar and (i) Steady state conditions.
10°C : (ii) Pan bottom surface is polished copper.
hp = hA
RS p UV 0 .4 (iii) Pan bottom surface at uniform temperature.
Properties : Saturated water at 100°C, (from
Tp W
0 Table A-7)
= 5560 W/m2.K ×
RS 20 UV 0.4
ρ = 957.9 kg/m3, ρv = 0.595 kg/m3,
T1W Cp = 4217 J/kg.K, hfg = 2257 × 103 J/kg.K,
= 18,428.36 W/m2.K. Ans. –6
µ = 279 × 10 kg/ms, Pr = 1.76
(b) When pressure is reduced by 10 bar at 20°C σ = 58.9 × 10–3 N/m.
Now the new pressure, p1 = 10 bar, Analysis : (i) The heat transfer rate is
and temperature difference, ∆T = 20°C Q= m e hfg
Hence, at 20°C the heat transfer coefficient hA = (30 kg/h) × (2257 × 103 J/kg)
remains unchanged ; = 6771 × 104 J/h = 18,808.3 W
or hA = 5.56 × (20)3 W/m2.K The heat flux is
= 44,480 W/m2.K. Ans. Q Q 18,808.3
= =
The heat transfer coefficient of fluid, hp ;
q=
A b g
π / 4 D 2 (π/4) × (0.3) 2
hp = hA
RS p UV 0 .4 = 266,083.5 W/m2
During nucleate boiling, the heat flux is given by
Tp W
0 eqn. (11.53)
RS10 UV 0.4
LM g (ρ − ρ ) OP 1/ 2 L C ∆T OP 3
×M
= 44,480 W/m2.K ×
T1W q = µ hfg
N σ Q
v
MN C h Pr
p e
n
PQ
= 1,11,728.7 W/m2.K. Ans. sf fg
Using numerical values and taking Csf = 0.0130 To find : Power dissipation per unit length for
for water-polished copper interface, and n = 1, from the cylinder.
Table 11.1, Properties : Saturated water liquid at 100°C (from
266,083.5 = 279 × 10–6 × (2257 × 103) Table A-7)
L 9.81 × (957.9 − 0.595) OP

×M
1/2 ρ = 957.9 kg/m3, hfg = 2257 × 103 J/kg
N 58.9 × 10 −3
Q Saturated water vapour at
250 + 100
L
×M
4217 × ∆T e OP 3 Tf ≈
2
= 175°C = 448 K
N 0.0130 × 2257 × 10 3
× 1.76 Q ρv = 4.808 kg/m3
or 266,083.5 = 629.703 × 399.30 × 5.445 × 10–4 ∆Te3 Cpv = 2.56 kJ/kg.K,
or ∆Te3 = 1943.27 or ∆Te = 12.47°C kv = 0.0331 W/m.K
The temperature of the bottom heated surface µv = 14.85 × 10–6 Ns/m2.
Ts = Tsat + ∆Te = 100 + 12.47 Analysis : The excess temperature
= 112.47°C. Ans. ∆Te = Ts – Tsat = 250 – 100 = 150°C
According to pool boiling curve, at ∆Te = 150°C,
(ii) The peak (critical) heat flux for nucleate
heat transfer is due to both convection and radiation
boiling is determined by using relation
and the heat transfer rate is given by
qmax = 0.149 ρv1/2 hfg [σ g(ρ – ρv)]1/4 Q = hA∆Te = h(πDL) ∆Te
= 0.149 × (0.595)1/2 × 2257 × 103 × [58.9 The heat transfer coefficient h is combined heat
× 10–3 × 9.81 × (957.9 – 0.595)]1/4 transfer coefficient for convection and radiation effects
= 259403.78 × 4.85 = 1258012.5 W/m2 and it is calculated as
= 1.258 MW/m2. Ans. h = hconv + (0.75) hrad
The convection coefficient by eqn. (11.57) in com-
Example 11.14. A metal clad heating element 8 mm in bination with eqn. (11.58)
diameter and emissivity ε = 0.95 is horizontally
submerged in a water bath. The surface temperature of LM k ρ (ρ − ρ ) g (h OP
v
3
v v fg
1/4
the metal is maintained at 250°C under steady state

conditions. Estimate the power dissipation per unit h = 0.62 M
M + 0.4 C ∆T ) P
PP pv e
length of the heater. Assume the water is exposed to
atmospheric pressure and is at a uniform temperature.
conv
MM µ D ∆T
PQ
v e
Solution
N
Given : The boiling from submerged horizontal LM (0.0331) × 4.808 × (957.9 − 4.808) × 9.81OP
3 1/4
metal clad (cylinder)

D = 8 mm = 0.008 m, ε = 0.95 = 0.62 × M
M × (2257 × 10 + 0.4 × 2.56 × 10 × 150) PP
3 3
MM 14.85 × 10 × 0.008 × 150 −6

PP
Ts = 250°C = 523 K,
Tsat = 100°C = 373 K,
p = 1 atm
L = 1 m.
N Q
= 425 W/m2.K
Ambient air The radiation coefficient
p = 1 atm
ε σ (Ts 4 − Tsat
4
)
hrad =
Water at 100°C Electric heater
Ts − Tsat
D = 8 mm
0.95 × 5.67 × 10 − 8 × (523 4 − 373 4 )
Ts = 250°C =
523 − 373
Fig. 11.26. Schematic = 19.91 W/m2.K
Then h = hconv + 0.75 hrad = 157.6 × 10–6 × (2049.5 × 103)

= 425 + (0.75) × 19.91 = 440 W/m2.K
×M
L 9.81 × (897.3 − 4.119) OP 1/2
Hence the heat transfer rate is N 0.04406 Q

Q = 440 × (π × 0.008 × 1) × 150
L
×M
4340 × 5 OP 3
= 1658.76 W/m. Ans.

N 0.0132 × 2049.5 × 10 × 1Q
3
Example 11.15. The heater for a steam boiler to produce = 74,325 W/m2
saturated steam at 170°C is made of an electrical heating
The heat transfer rate is given by
element inside a 15 mm OD mechanically polished
stainless steel tube. The power input to the heater is 5 kW. Q = q πDL
If the surface temperature of heater not to exceed 175°C, or 5000 = 74325 × π × 0.015 L
find the length of the heater. or L = 1.43 m. Ans.
Solution Example 11.16. The long 3 cm diameter carbon steel
Given : Boiling of water on polished stainless cylindrical rods (ε = 0.66) at 300°C are rapidly cooled by
heater immersing them (one at a time) horizontally in a water
Tsat = 170°C, D = 15 mm bath at atmospheric pressure. Determine
P = Q = 5 kW, Ts = 175°C. (a) The minimum heat flux, in the film boiling
region and the temperature at which it occurs.
To find : Length of the heating element.
(b) The heat flux, when the surface temperature
Assumptions : of the cylinder is 300°C.
(i) Steady state conditions, (c) Maximum heat flux.
(ii) Pool boiling. Solution
Given : Water : p = 1 atm, D = 3 cm
Tsat = 100°C, ε = 0.66
Ts = 300°C.
L
Ts = 300°C
Ts = 175°C
Fig. 11.27
Properties : Properties of saturated water and Water
steam at 170°C from Table A-7
ρ = 897.3 kg/m3, Cp = 4340 J/kg.K D
kf = 0.681 W/m.K µ = 157.6 × 10–6 Ns/m2

Pr = 1.0, hfg = 2049.5 × 103 J/kg Fig. 11.28. Cooling of horizontal cylinders
ρv = 4.119 kg/m3, σ = 0.04406 N/m To find :
For mechanically polished stainless steel (i) qmin and Ts during film boiling,
Csf = 0.0132 and n = 1. (ii) q when Ts = 300°C, and
Analysis : The temperature excess is (iii) Maximum heat flux.
∆Te = Ts – Tsat = 175 – 170 = 5°C Analysis : (i) At the time of minimum heat flux,
the surface temperature of horizontal rods is not known.
The heat flux during nucleate boiling
We assume Ts = 180°C
RS g (ρ − ρ ) UV
v
1/2 L C ∆T
×M
p e
OP 3 and ∆T = Ts – Tsat = 180 – 100 = 80°C
q = µhfg
T σ W MN C h Pr
sf fg
n
PQ Tf =
180 + 100
2
= 140°C
The properties of vapour at 140°C from Table A-7 ρv = 0.4156 kg/m3, Cpv = 2837 J/kg.K
ρv = 0.5296 kg/m3, Cpv = 2243 J/kg.K kv = 0.0317 W/m.K, µv = 15.65 × 10–6 N.s/m2
kv = 0.0258 W/m.K, µv = 13.54 × 10–6 N.s/m2 The corrected latent heat
Prv = 1.177 h′fg = hfg + 0.4 Cpv ∆Te
At 100°C, for water = 2257 + 0.4 × 2837 × (300 – 100)
σ = 0.06106 N/m, ρ = 958.3 kg/m3 = 2.484 × 106 J/kg
3
hfg = 2257 × 10 J/kg ρ v (ρ − ρ v ) g h′fg D 3
The corrected latent heat Ra′ =
µ v kv ∆Te
h′fg = hfg + 0.4 Cpv (Ts – Tsat)
0.4156 × (958.3 − 0.4156) × 9.81
= 2257 × 103 + 0.4 × 2243
× (180 – 100) × 2.484 × 10 6 × 0.033
=
6
= 2.329 × 10 J/kg 15.65 × 10 − 6 × 0.0317 × (300 − 100)
The minimum heat flux by using eqn. (11.65) = 2.639 × 109
For horizontal cylinders
qmin = 0.09 ρv h′fg

LM g σ (ρ − ρ ) OP
v
1/ 4
hD
MN (ρ + ρ ) PQ
v
2 NuD =
kv
= 0.62 [Ra′]1/4
= 0.62 × [2.639 × 109]1/4 = 140.5
= 0.09 × 0.5296 × 2.329 × 106
140.5 × 0.0317
L 9.81 × 0.06106 × (958.3 − 0.5296) OP
×M
1/ 4 and h=
0.03
= 148.5 W/m2.K
N (958.3 + 0.5296) Q 2
Total heat flux
= 17,545 W/m2. Ans. q = qconv + 0.75 qrad = h ∆Te + 0.75 σ ε
The corrected length (Ts4 – Tsat4)
= 148.5 × (300 – 100) + 0.75 × 5.67
L*
L σ OP
=M
1/2
=
LM 0.06106 OP 1/2
× 10–8 × 0.66 × (5734 – 3734)
N g (ρ − ρ ) Q
v N 9.81 × (958.3 − 0.5296) Q = 32,182.2 W/m2. Ans.
= 0.00255 m (iii) The critical heat flux, [ρv (100°C, 100 kPa)
The minimum temperature, by eqn. (11.66) = 0.5977 kg/m3]
qmax = 0.149 hfg ρv1/2 [σ g(ρ – ρv)]1/4
0.127 ρv h′fg LM g (ρ − ρ ) µ
v v L∗3 OP 1/3
= 0.149 × 2257 × 103 × 0.5977
∆Tmin =
kv MN ( ρ + ρ ) v
2
PQ × [0.06106 × 9.81 × (958.3 – 0.5977)]1/4
= 1.27 × 106 W/m2. Ans.
0.127 × 0.5296 × 2.329 × 10 6
=
0.0258 11.12. FORCED CONVECTION BOILING
LM 9.81 × (958.3 − 0.5296) OP 1/3
In the pool boiling, the fluid flow is governed by the
×M PP
× 13.54 × 10 × 0.00255 −6 3 buoyancy driven motion of bubbles originated from
MM (958.3 + 0.5296) 2
PPQ
heated surface. In contrast, for the forced convection
MN boiling, the fluid is forced to flow on the heated surface.

The forced flow boiling is of two types—external forced
= 80.1°C convection boiling and internal forced convection boiling.
and Ts, min = Tsat + ∆Tmin = 100 + 80.1 The internal forced convection boiling is also called two
phase flow and is characterised by rapid changes from
= 180.1°C. Ans.
liquid to vapour in the flow direction.
which approaching the assumed value, thus no more
computations are required. Two phase flow. The internal forced convection
boiling is associated with bubble formation at the inner
(ii) At 300°C film boiling, the properties of vapour
surface of a heated tube, through which the liquid is
300 + 100 forced to flow. The growth of bubbles and its separation
at = 200°C
2
from the heated surface are strongly influenced by flow form plugs or slugs of vapour. This is known as slug
velocity and hydrodynamic effects. The process depends flow regime. The fluid velocity in the slug flow regime
on a large number of variables and the complexity of increases and the bubble formation produces oscillations
two phase flow pattern, thus, is very complicated. within the tube, thus the heat transfer rate and heat
Consider the flow development in a heated transfer coefficient increase.
vertical tube as shown in Fig. 11.29 (a). The fluid at a As the fluid flows further along in the tube, the
temperature below its boiling enters the tube, in which volume of bubbles increases continuously and the
it is heated so that the progressive vaporisation occurs. annular flow regime appears, in which the wall of the
The heat transfer coefficient at the tube inlet can be tube is covered by a thin film of liquid and the heat is
evaluated from the correlation of forced convection. As transferred through this liquid film. The vapour is
fluid proceeds in the tube, its temperature in surface flowing in the centre of the tube, at a higher velocity
vacinity increases to saturation temperature and the and there may be a number of nucleation sites at the
bubbles begin to form at nucleation sites and they enter wall and the vapour is generated by vaporisation at the
into main stream of the liquid. This regime is known as liquid vapour interface inside the tube. In addition, there
the bubbly flow regime. There is a sharp increase in the may be a significant liquid dispersion through the
heat transfer coefficient due to start of nucleate boiling vapour core as droplets and dry spots appear on the inner
as shown in Fig. 11.29 (b). As the vapour volume fraction surface until the surface is completely dry. It is the
increases, the individual bubbles coalesce (merge) to transition to the mist flow regime.
Heat transfer Flow
regions patterns
Single-
Forced phase
convective vapour
to vapour
Liquid Mist Forced

droplets flow convection
vapour
Mist
Dryout
point
Saturated
vapour
Transition
Forced
convective Annular
through
flow
liquid film
Distance
from inlet
Annular
Saturated Slug
flow Bubbly
nucleate
boiling and slug
Bubbly
flow Saturated
Subcooled liquid
boiling Forced
convection
Single- liquid
Force
convective phase
to liquid liquid Heat transfer coefficient
(a) The development of a two-phase flow in (b) Heat transfer coefficient versus type of flow
a vertical tube with a uniform wall heat flux
Fig. 11.29. Forced convection boiling inside a tube

The heat transfer coefficient experiences a sharp decrease in the mist flow regime, because the wall is
covered by relatively low conductivity vapour and tube wall is no longer wetted by liquid. The vapour is then
superheated by forced convection from the surface. The point in the system where the maximum heat flux appears
is known as critical point and corresponding heat flux is called critical heat flux.
Forced convection Forced convection

(liquid) Annular mist (Vapour)
transition
Heat transfer coefficient, h

c
d
a, b Annular
Mist
flow
flow
hc
hc
Bubble and
slug flow regimes
0 100
Subcooled Quality (%) superheat
Fig. 11.29 (c) Heat transfer coefficient versus quality and type of flow regime
11.13. SUMMARY
TABLE 11.2. Summary of the relations
Correlation Remark
ρ (ρ − ρv ) g δ3 The mass flow rate of the condensate on a vertical

m
= plate for laminar condensation.
3µ
L 4k (T − T ) µ x OP 1/ 4
δ= M
sat s The thickness of condensate film on a vertical plate
MN ρ (ρ − ρ ) g h PQ
v fg for laminar condensation.
h= S
|R ρ (ρ − ρ ) gh k |UV
v fg f
3 1/4
Local value of heat transfer coefficient on a vertical
x
|T 4µ x (T − T ) |W
sat s
plate for laminar condensation.
h = 1.13 M
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) gh k OP
v fg f
3 1/4 Average value of heat transfer coefficient for laminar
film condensation on a vertical surface.
MN µ L (T − T ) PQ
sat s
h = 1.13 M
L ρ (ρ − ρ ) h k g sin θOP
v fg f
3
1/4 Average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film
condensation on an inclined surface at angle θ.
MN µ L (T − T )sat PQ s
h = 0.725 M
L g ρ (ρ − ρ ) h k OP
v fg f
3
1/4
Average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film
MN µ (T − T ) D PQ
sat s
condensation on a horizontal cylinder.
h = 0.725 M
L g ρ (ρ − ρ ) h k OP
v fg f
3 1/4 Average heat transfer coefficient for laminar cond-
densation on horizontal tube banks.
MN µ (T − T ) ND PQ
sat s
ho = 0.62 ×
R| ρ (ρ − ρv ) g hfg kv3 F 1 + 0.4 C ∆Te I U| 1/4 Average heat transfer coefficient for stable film
S| v
GH pv
JK V| boiling on out side of a horizontal cylinder.
T µ v ∆Te D h fg W
C p ∆Te
= Csf
LM q ρ OP 0.33 Heat flux in nucleate pool boiling, coefficient Csf is
is given in Table 11.1, n = 1 for water, n = 1.7 for
hfg Pr n MN µ h fg g (ρ − ρv ) PQ other liquids.
qmax = 0.149 hfg ρv1/2 [σ g(ρ – ρv)]1/4 Maximum heat flux in pool boiling.
qmin = 0.09 ρv hfg

LM σ g (ρ − ρ ) OP v
1/4
Minimum heat flux for large horizontal surfaces.
MN (ρ + ρ ) PQ v
2
REVIEW QUESTIONS 19. What is an excess temperature ?

20. Distinguish the pool boiling from forced convection
1. Explain, why are heat transfer rates high for phase boiling.
change process ?
21. Explain the film boiling, why is it avoided in
2. Discuss the following dimensionless number used in practice ? What is the boiling crisis ?
condensation.
(i) Jacob number (ii) Condensation number.
PROBLEMS
3. Explain bond number with its physical significance.
4. Discuss modes of condensation. Why is dropwise 1. Saturated steam at 50°C and 12.35 kPa condenses
condensation preferred ? What are the practical on outside surface of a condenser tube 2.5 cm OD,
difficulties in retaining dropwise condensation on a 2 m long vertical. The tube surface is maintained at
surface ?
30°C by flow of cooling water. Assuming filmwise
5. Discuss the conditions under which the dropwise condensation calculate :
condensation can take place. Why the rate of heat (a) Average heat transfer coefficient,
transfer in dropwise condensation is many time that
(b) Rate of condensation.
of film condensation ?
[Ans. (a) 4350 W/m2.K, (b) 5.685 × 10–3 kg/s]
6. State the assumption made in deriving Nusselt’s 2. Saturated steam at 80°C (p = 47.39 kPa) condenses
equation for film condensation. on outer surface of 1.2 m long, 0.1 m diameter vertical
7. Using Nusselt’s theory of laminar film condensation tube maintained at room temperature of 40°C.
show that δ ∝ x1/4 for a flat vertical surface. Where x (a) Calculate average heat transfer coefficient,
is the distance from the leading edge of the film and (b) Rate of condensation,
δ is the film thickness. (c) Condensate thickness at the bottom of the tube.
8. Explain the mechanism of laminar film condensation [Ans. (a) 4600 W/m2.K, (b) 0.03 kg/s, (c) 0.189 mm]
on a vertical plate. 3. A chilled water pipe of 6.25 cm OD with outside
9. Derive an expression for Nusselt number for laminar surface at 5°C passes through an area where steam
film condensation on a vertical surface. is saturated at 35°C. Determine the condensation
10. Prove that the local heat transfer coefficient during rate per metre length. [Ans. 45.76 kg/h]
filmwise condensation is 4. Ammonia vapour at 35°C is to be condensed on
outside of horizontal tubes of 2.5 cm OD with a
L k ρ g h OP
3 2 1/ 4
surface temperature of 25°C. A square array of
= M
f fg
hx
MN 4µ x (T − T ) PQ
sat s
. 10 × 10 tubes of 1.2 m long is used. Determine the
rate of condensation of ammonia.
11. Discuss (a) filmwise and dropwise condensation, Use properties :
(b) pool boiling phenomenon. ρ = 596 kg/m3, kf = 0.5071 W/m.K
12. Distinguish between µ = 2.086 × 10–4 kg/ms, hfg = 1123.46 × 103 J/kg,
(a) Subcooled and saturated boiling. ρv = 1.042 kg/m3. [Ans. 1224.2 kg/h]
(b) Nucleate and film boiling. 5. R—12 is condensed at the rate of 10000 kg/h at 35°C
13. Discuss the various regimes of pool boiling. using water at 25°C. The condenser uses a square
14. Explain critical heat flux and Leidenfrost point array of 25 × 25 tubes of 12 mm OD. Calculate the
length of the tube bundle. Use properties of
during pool boiling process.
refrigerant R—12 as
15. Why radiation heat transfer plays dominant role
ρ = 1295 kg/m3, kf = 0.0709 W/m.K
during film boiling process ?
µ = 2.5123 × 10–4 kg/ms, hfg = 133.22 × 103 J/kg
16. What are the effects of superheat of vapour on the ρv = 48.08 kg/m3. [Ans. 2.17 kg/h]
condensation parameters ? 6. A vertical plate 0.3 m wide and 11.2 m high is
17. The steam condenses on a vertical plane wall, derive maintained at 70°C and exposed to saturated steam
expression for the followings: at 100 kPa. Calculate the heat transfer rate and mass
(i) average heat transfer coefficient, flow rate of the condensate.
(ii) film thickness, 7. A condenser is to design to condense 1.3 kg/s of steam
(iii) rate of condensation, and at atmospheric pressure. A square array of 12.5 mm
OD tubes is to be used with the outside tube walls
(iv) rate of heat flow.
maintained at 93°C. The spacing of the tube is 19 mm
18. Assuming laminar film condensation, calculate the between centres and their length is 3 times the
ratio of the heat transfer on a vertical tube to that square dimension. How many tubes are required for
for a horizontal tube of same diameter D and the condenser and what are the outside dimensions
length L. of square array ?
8. Saturated Freon-12 vapour condense on outside of a 12. Estimate the heat transfer coefficient for the tube,
bank of 25 horizontal tubes having OD of when it is (i) in horizontal position, and (ii) in vertical
1 cm arranged in 5 × 5 square array. Calculate the position. The tube is 1.7 m long and has 1.25 cm outer
rate of condensation per metre length of the array, diameter. It is used to condense steam at 0.4 bar.
if its surface temperature is maintained at 40°C. The water flows through the tube maintaining the
Use properties of Freon-12 as wall surface at 54°C.
ρ = 1218 kg/m3, kf = 0.0686 W/m.K 13. Saturated steam at 90°C and 70 kPa is condensed
µ = 0.0248 kg/ms, hfg = 128.12 × 103 J/kg. on outer surface of a 1.5 m long, 2.5 m diameter
[Ans. 68.81 kg/h] vertical tube maintained at uniform temperature of
9. Steam condenser at 0.08132 bar is arranged to 70°C. Assuming film wise condensation, calculate the
condense over a 60 cm square vertical surface. The heat transfer rate on the tube surface.
surface temperature is maintained at 28°C. Use properties of water at 80°C
Calculate the following : hfg = 2309 kJ/kg, ρ = 974 kg/m3
(a) Film thickness, local heat transfer coefficient and kf = 0.668 W/mK, µ = 0.355 × 10–3 kg/ms.
mean flow velocity of the condensate at 30 cm from (P.U., May 2003)
the top of the plate.
[Ans. 1318.5 kW]
(b) Average heat transfer coefficient and total heat
transfer from the entire plate. 14. A tube 13 mm in outer diameter and 1.5 m long is
used to condense the steam at 40 kPa (Tsat = 76°C).
(c) Total steam condensation rate.
Calculate the heat transfer coefficient for this tube
(d) What would be the heat transfer coefficient, if the
in (a) horizontal position, and (b) vertical position.
plate is inclined at 30 degree with the horizontal
Take average tube wall temperature as 52°C.
plane ?
[Ans. (a) 0.04256 mm, 14692.2 W/m2. K, [Ans. (a) 10,328 W/m2.K; (b) 5330 W/m2.K]
0.808 × 10–2 m/s; (b)16477.2 W/m2.K, 15. A vertical plate 500 mm high and 200 mm wide is
100662.1 W; (c) 0.0419 kg/s ; (d) 16626.74 W/m2.K] used to condense saturated steam at 1 atm.
10. The saturated steam at 0.1 bar condenses with At what surface temperature must the plate be
convection coefficient of 6800 W/m2.K on the outside maintained to achieve a condensation rate of
of a vertical brass tube (k = 110 W/m.K) having 24.4 kg/h ? [Ans. 80°C]
inner and outer diameters of 16.5 mm and 19 mm, 16. A vertical cooling fin approximates a flat plate 40 cm
respectively. The convection coefficient for water in height is exposed to saturated steam at 100°C
flowing inside the tube is 5200 W/m2.K. (h fg = 2257 kJ/kg). The fin is maintained at a
Estimate the steam condensation rate per unit temperature of 90°C. Calculate :
length of the tube, when the mean water temperature (i) Thickness of film at bottom of the fin,
is 30°C. [Ans. 3.72 kg/h]
(ii) Average heat transfer coefficient, and
(iii) Heat transfer rate, after incorporating McAdam’s
correction,
The relevant properties are
ρ = 965.3 kg/m3, kf = 0.68 W/m.K,
Steam at
Water µ = 3.153 × 10–4 kg/ms.
0.1 bar
at 30°C (A.M.I.E., Summer, 1999)
Tsat = 45.81°C
[Ans. (i) 0.1135 mm; (ii) 7984.4 W/m2.K;
(iii) 38.32 kW]
17. A horizontal copper electric heater 30 cm long and
1 cm in diameter is submerged below the free layer
of water at 100°C.
Fig. 11.30. Condensation on a vertical brass tube
(i) Calculate the maximum power input to heater for
11. Steam at 110°C condenses on the outside of a tube nucleate boiling, and
having 80 mm outside diameter. The tube wall
temperature is 96°C. Calculate the ratio of heat (ii) Heat flux corresponds to a ∆Te = 10°C.
transfer coefficient for condensing of steam when [Ans. (i) 9520 W, (ii) 1.513 × 105 W/m2]
tube is horizontal position and when tube is in 18. A pool of saturated water at 130°C boils off a
vertical position. The properties of condensate are horizontal brass plate at a temperature of 140°C.
ρ = 960 kg/m3, hfg = 2255 kJ/kg Assume the nucleate boiling, calculate the heat flux.
µ = 0.29 × 10–3 kg/ms, ρv = 0.6 kg/m3 Take for water
kf = 0.68 W/m.K. (N.M.U., Nov. 2000) ρv = 1.50 kg/m3 [Ans. 2.735 × 106 W/m2]
19. A vessel with a flat bottom 0.1 m2 in area is used for 23. A 10 cm diameter ground and polished stainless steel
boiling water at atmospheric pressure. Calculate the tube (ε = 0.05) is maintained at a surface temperature
temperature, at which the vessel must be maintained of 300°C, while the boiling water at atmospheric
for the boiling rate of 80 kg/h. Assume nucleate pressure. Identify the regime of pool boiling and
boiling and take ρv = 0.6 kg/m3 and Csf = 0.01. calculate the heat transfer coefficient and heat flux.
[Ans. 111.7°C] [Ans. Film boiling, 461 W/m2.K, 92.2 × 103 W/m2]
20. (a) Calculate the heat flux and heat transfer
coefficient associated with the pool boiling of 24. The bottom of a copper pan, 300 mm in diameter is
water at 100°C and 1 bar, with an excess maintained at 120°C by an electric heater. Calculate
temperature of 10°C, in a stainless steal the power required to boil water in this pan. What is
container with a ground and polished surface. the evaporation rate ? Estimate the critical heat flux.
Take σ = 0.058 N/m, hfg = 2257 kJ/kg.
(b) Compare this with maximum heat flux and [Ans. 77.43 kW, 123.5 kg/h, 1.258 MW/m2]
(c) repeat the calculation for mechanically polished 25. An aluminium cylinder, 2 cm diameter and 15 cm
surface. long is heated to a temperature of 500°C and
[Ans. (a) 1.03 × 106 W/m2, 103 × 103 W/m2.K; immersed horizontally in a liquid nitrogen bath at –
(b) 1.25 × 106 W/m2, 14.7 × 103 W/m2.K] 196°C. Neglect the heat transfer from end faces,
21. The surface temperature of the horizontal surface calculate the initial heat transfer rate. Take emissivity
in problem 13 is increased to 300°C. Calculate the of the aluminium surface to be 0.4. Take density and
heat transfer coefficient for teflon coated stainless latent heat of liquid nitrogen as 800 kg/m 3 and
steel surface (ε = 0.9). [Ans. 8.18 × 104 W/m2.K] 201 kJ/kg, respectively. [Ans. 636 W]
22. A design for refrigerator, where the condensate is
pumped through tubes and condenses inside them,
has thermal load of 400 Watts. Calculate the length REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
of 5 mm diameter tube required for two different
refrigerants. In each case, the saturation 1. R.G., Goldsten et.al., “Heat Transfer”—A review of
temperature of the refrigerant is 30°C and tube wall 2003 litrature Int. Journal of Heat and Mass
temperature is 26°C. Transfer, vol. 49, 2006.
(a) Freon—12 2. M.Kemal Atesman, “Every day Heat Transfer
ρ = 1295 kg/m3, Cp = 984 J/kg.K Problems”, ASME, 2009.
µ = 2.47 × 10–4 kg/ms, kv = 0.071 W/m.K
3. William S. Janna, “Engineering Heat Transfer”, 2/e,
hfg = 135 × 103 J/kg. [Ans. 3.2 m] CRC Press, 2000.
(b) Ammonia :
ρ = 602 kg/m3, Cp = 4900 J/kg.K 4. Incropera F.P. and Dewitt-D.P., “Fundamentals of
µ = 1.31 × 10–4 kg/ms kv = 0.51 W/m.K Engineering Heat and Mass Transfer”, 7/e John
hfg = 1.146 × 106 J/kg. [Ans. 0.53 m] Wiley & Sons, 2007.
Thermal Radiation:
Properties and Processes
12
12.1. Theories of Radiation—Maxwell’s theory—Max Planck’s theory. 12.2. Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation. 12.3. Black body
Radiation. 12.4. Spectral and Total Emissive Power. 12.5. Surface Absorption, Reflection and Transmission. 12.6. Black body
Radiation Laws—Black body spectral emissive power—Wien’s displacement law—Stefan Boltzmann law—Radiation function and band
emission. 12.7. Emissivity—Hemispherical and total emissivity—Spectral emissivity—Directional emissivity—Kirchhoff’s law—Gray and
diffuse surfaces : Gray Lambert body approximation. 12.8. Radiation From a Surface—Solid angle—Spectral intensity of radiation (Ibλ)—
Radiation intensity (Ib). 12.9. Radiosity. 12.10. Solar Radiation—Solar radiation on the earth—Atmospheric emission—Green house effect—
Selective surfaces. 12.11. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.
Thermal radiation or radiation heat transfer is a distinct 12.1. THEORIES OF RADIATION

separate mechanism from conduction and convection for
transfer of heat energy. It refers to the heat energy The actual mechanism of radiation propagation is not
emitted by the bodies because of their temperatures. All fully understood, but two theories; Maxwell theory and
bodies at a temperature above absolute zero tempera- Max Planck’s theory are in use. Both concepts are used
ture emit energy by a process of electromagnetic in study of thermal radiation.
radiation. The intensity of such radiation depends upon
the temperature and nature of the surface. The energy 12.1.1. Maxwell’s Theory
transfer by radiation does not require any medium According to Maxwell electromagnetic theory, the energy
between hot and cold surfaces. The energy transfer by is transferred from a hot body to cold body in the form
radiation is the fastest (at the speed of light) and it does of electromagnetic waves. The electromagnetic waves
not suffer any attenuation even in the vacuum. In fact, possess the energy emitted by a body as a result of the
the heat transfer through an evacuated space can occur change in electronic configuration of atoms or molecules.
only by radiation. When a person sits infront of a fire, These electromagnetic waves transport energy like other
he gets most of the heat energy by radiation as shown waves and these electromagnetic waves travel with the
in Fig. 12.1. Further, it is also interesting that the speed of light.
radiation heat transfer can also occur between two bodies The electromagnetic waves are characterised by
separated by a medium that is colder than the both their frequency ν and wavelength λ, in a medium as:
bodies. For an example, the energy emitted by sun
c
reaches the earth surface after travelling through space λ= ...(12.1)
and extremely cold air layers at high altitudes. ν
Fire at where c is the speed of light in the medium. In vacuum,
Air at 5°C
500°C c = c0 = 2.998 × 108 m/s. This concept is useful in studies
Body for the prediction of the radiation properties of the
at surfaces and materials.
37°C
Radiation 12.1.2. Max Planck’s Theory
According to Max Planck’s concept, the propagation of
thermal radiation takes place in form of discrete quanta
called photons, each quantum having an energy of
hc
Fig. 12.1. Radiation heat transfer between two bodies E = hν = ...(12.2)
λ
separated by a colder medium
402
THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 403
Where h is Planck’s constant = 6.6256 × 10–34 J-s, portion of radiation spectrum is shown in Fig. 12.2. The
ν is frequency of photons, and c is a constant. It is also bulk of thermal energy emitted by a body lies in wave-
revealed that the energy of the photons is inversely length between λ ≈ 0.1 and λ ≈ 100 µm. For this reason,
proportional to its wavelength. Therefore, the shorter this portion of the spectrum is generally referred as
wavelength radiation possesses the larger photon thermal radiation. The sun emits thermal radiation at
energy. This theory is used to predict the magnitude of an effective surface temperature of 5760 K and bulk of
emitted energy by a body at a given temperature under this energy lies between λ = 0.1 to λ = 3 µm, therefore,
ideal conditions. this spectrum is referred as the solar radiation. The
radiation energy emitted by the sun is in wavelength
12.2. SPECTRUM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC between λ = 0.4 to λ = 0.76 µm, is visible to human eye,
therefore, this spectrum is referred as the visible radia-
RADIATION
tion (light). Almost half of the solar radiation is light,
The radiation energy in form of electromagnetic waves, falls in the visible range and remaining being ultraviolet
is emitted at all wave length from λ = 0 to λ = ∞. A and infrared.
Thermal radiation
Infrared Solar
Visible (0.4 – 0.76 m)
0.76 – 100 m 0.1 – 3 m –2
Ultraviolet (0.4 – 10 m)
X rays
Microwave rays
(m) 5 4 3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3 –4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
–1
(s ) 10
11
10
12
10
13
10
14
10
15
10
16
10
17
Fig. 12.2. Typical spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
The visible spectrum (light) consists of narrow The radiation emitted by bodies at atmospheric
bands of colour from violet (0.40–0.44 µm) to red (0.63– temperature falls into infrared region, (0.76 ≤ λ
0.76 µm) as shown in Table 12.1 below : ≤ 100 µm). The bodies emit radiation in the visible range
TABLE 12.1. Wavelength ranges of usually at temperature above 800 K. The ultraviolet
different colours in light radiation is low wavelength (0.1 ≤ λ ≤ 0.4 µm) radiation
in the thermal radiation range. These rays are harmful,
Colour Wavelength band since they can kill micro-organisms and cause serious
Violet 0.40–0.44 µm damage to human, and other living beings. The solar
Blue 0.44–0.49 µm radiation contains about 12% ultraviolet rays and it
Green 0.49–0.54 µm would be extremely harmful, if it will reach to earth’s
surface. Fortunately, the ozone (O3) layer in the
Yellow 0.54–0.60 µm
atmosphere absorbs most of the ultraviolet solar
Orange 0.60–0.63 µm
radiation. Ultraviolet rays remaining in the sunlight is
Red 0.63–0.76 µm still sufficient to cause sun burn, skin cancer etc.
The colour of a surface depends on its ability to
reflect the radiation in certain wavelength. For an 12.3. BLACK BODY RADIATION
example, a surface that reflects a fraction of radiation
in the wavelength ranges from 0.63 µm to 0.76 µm, while A black body is defined as a body which is a perfect
absorbing rest of the visible radiation appears red to emitter and absorber of radiation. It has an ideal surface
human eye. Similarly, if a surface reflects all the with the following properties :
radiation in the visible range (0.4 µm to 0.76 µm) appears
1. A black body absorbs all incident radiation
white and a surface that absorbs all the light incident
from all directions at all wavelengths.
on it, appears black.
2. At a specified temperature and wavelength, where ε = emissivity, a surface characteristics,

nobody can emit energy more than a black λ = wavelength of radiation, µm,
body.
T = absolute temperature of the surface, K.
3. Although the radiation emitted by a
blackbody depends upon wavelength and tem- Spectral or monochromatic emissive power.
perature, but it is independent of direction. The amount of radiation energy emitted from a surface
4. A black body neither reflects nor transmits at a given temperature also varies with the wavelength.
any amount of incident radiation. The spectral or monochromatic emissive power is
In actual, no surface has all the properties defined as amount of radiation energy emitted by a
mentioned above for a blackbody. The term black is surface at an absolute temperature T, per unit time,
different from visual observations. A surface is coated per unit surface area and per unit wavelength dλ about
with lampblack appears to be black-in colour to the the wavelength λ. It is designated as Eλ and measured
human eye in visible range of spectrum, but turns out in W/m2. µm.
to be black for thermal radiation in certain range of
E
wavelength. On the other hand, the ice and snow appear
quite bright to human eye but almost black to thermal E(T)
radiation at all wavelength from λ = 0 to λ = ∞.
Consider a radiation beam enters the cavity of
dE
an enclosure as shown in Fig. 12.3. It experiences many
reflections within the enclosure and almost entire beam
is absorbed by the cavity and the black body behaviour
0
is experienced. d
Fig. 12.4. Area under the curve for a given temperature

Fourth reflection and represents the total emissive power of the surface
partial absorption Radiation beam
The radiation is emitted over the wavelength
ranges from λ = 0 to λ = ∞. The emissive power of surface
over the wavelength ranges from λ to λ + d λ is given by
Third reflection and
partial absorption Isothermal dE = Eλdλ
enclosure
where dE = emissive power in given wave band
between λ to λ + dλ, (W/m2)
First reflection and Eλ = monochromatic emissive power,
Second reflection and partial absorption (W/m2.µm).
partial absorption
The total emissive power of a surface over entire
Fig. 12.3. The concept of a blackbody radiation spectrum of wavelength is
12.4. SPECTRAL AND TOTAL EMISSIVE POWER

E= z
0
∞
Eλdλ ...(12.4)
All surfaces at a temperature above absolute zero 12.5. SURFACE ABSORPTION, REFLECTION AND
temperature emit energy in all directions over a wide
TRANSMISSION
range of wavelength. At a given temperature, the total
amount of heat energy emitted by a surface in all The irradiation is the total radiation energy incident
direction over entire wavelength per unit area, per unit per unit area per unit time over entire wave length from
time is called the emissive power. The emissive power all directions. It is denoted by G and measured in W/m2.
depends on characteristics and temperature of the For most of the surfaces, when the radiation
surface. It is designated as E and measured in W/m2, incidents on a body, part of it is absorbed, part of it is
and reflected and remaining part is transmitted as shown
E = f(ε, λ, T) ...(12.3) in Fig. 12.5.
Incident radiation Normal
2 Incident
G, W/m Reflected Reflected
ray rays
G
Semitransparent Absorbed
material G
Transmitted, G
(c) Reflection which is between
diffuse and specular
Fig. 12.5. Reflection, Absorption and transmission
(a real surface).
of incident radiation
Absorptivity. The total or average or hemispheri- Fig. 12.6. Types of reflections from a surface
cal absorptivity α is defined as fraction of radiation If the surface has some roughness, the incident
energy incident on the surface from all directions, over radiation is scattered in all directions after reflection,
entire wavelength spectrum, that is absorbed by the such reflection is called the diffuse reflection as shown
surface. Mathematically in Fig. 12.6 (b).
Gα The reflection from real surfaces is neither
α= ...(12.5) specular nor diffuse but combination of diffuse and
G
where, Gα = energy absorbed by the surface, W/m2, and specular behaviour as shown in Fig. 12.6 (c).
G = irradiation, W/m2. Transmissivity. When radiation is incident on
a semi-transparent surface, a part is reflected, a part is
A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, hence
absorbed and remaining is transmitted. Hence the
its absorptivity is considered unity. But real surfaces
transmissivity, τ is the fraction of incident energy
do not absorb all energy incident on it.
transmitted through the surface. Mathematically
Reflectivity. When radiation is incident on a non
black surface, a fraction is always reflected by the Gτ
τ= ...(12.7)
surface. The reflectivity of a surface is defined as the G
fraction of radiation energy incident on a surface from where Gτ is energy transmitted by the surface.
all directions over entire wavelengths, that is reflected. With above considerations, for a surface, the sum
It is designated as ρ and is expressed as : of absorbed, reflected and transmitted radiation energy
is equal to the radiation energy incident on the surface;
Gρ
ρ= ...(12.6) Gα + Gρ + Gτ = G ...(12.8)
G
Dividing each term in above relation by G, we
where Gρ is energy reflected by the surface. If the surface
get
is perfectly smooth and the angle θ of incident and
reflected rays is equal, then the reflection is called the α+ρ+τ=1 ...(12.9)
specular (or mirror like) reflection as shown in Monochromatic irradiation. The irradiation
Fig. 12.6 (a). G defined above is total hemispherical property. Thus
α, ρ, and τ are average properties of a surface for all
Incident
Normal directions and all wavelengths. However, for a specific
Normal
Incident
ray
wavelength or direction, the irradiation is referred as
ray monochromatic irradiation. It is also called spectral
Reflected irradiation and is defined as the radiant heat flux
Reflected
ray rays incident on a surface per unit wavelength about a
wavelength λ from all directions. It is denoted by Gλ
q q and measured in W/m2.µm. Mathematically it is
expressed as :
dG
Gλ = ...(12.10)
(a) Specular or mirror-like (b) Diffuse reflection dλ
reflection of incoming ray. Total hemispherical irradiation may be evaluated
as:
G= z
0
∞
Gλ dλ
The spectral absorptivity, reflectivity and
...(12.11)
Example 12.1. The spectral distribution of surface
irradiation is shown in Fig. 12.7.
transmissivity of a surface are defined in a similar

manner as
1000
1. Spectral absorptivity αλ is the fraction of
G W/m . m
monochromatic irradiation absorbed.
2
500
2. Spectral reflectivity ρλ is the fraction of
monochromatic irradiation reflected.
3. Spectral transmissivity τλ is the fraction of 0 5 10 15 20 25
monochromatic energy transmitted. , m
G λ, α G λ, ρ G λ, τ Fig. 12.7. Spectral distribution of irradiation

αλ = ρλ = αλ = ...(12.12)
Gλ Gλ Gλ What is the total irradiation ?
where Gλ,α, Gλ,ρ and Gλ,τ are the absorbed, reflected and Solution
transmitted portion of spectral irradiation Gλ. Similar Given : Spectral distribution of the surface
to average properties, the sum of spectral properties is irradiation.
always equal to unity as : G λ 1 = 0, G λ 2 = 1000 W/m2.µm, G λ 3 = 0.
αλ + ρλ + τλ = 1 ...(12.13) To find : Total irradiation on the surface.
The average absorptivity, reflectivity and Analysis : Total irradiation on the surface may
transmissivity of a surface can also be expressed in terms be obtained by using eqn. (12.11).
z
of their spectral counterparts as :
z z
∞
∞ ∞ G= Gλdλ
α λ G λ dλ ρ λ G λ dλ 0
z z
0 0 Evaluating the integral into parts
α= , ρ=
z z
∞ ∞
G λ dλ G λ dλ 5 µm 20 µm
0 0
z
G= Gλdλ + Gλ dλ
0 5 µm
z z
∞
τ λ G λ dλ
z
25 µm ∞
0
τ= ∞ ...(12.14) + Gλ dλ + Gλ dλ
20 µm 25 µm
G λ dλ
0 Each integral represents area under the curve,
Opaque body. For an opaque surface, there is first and third integral has trapezoid and its area
no transmission thus the reflectivity and absorptivity 1
= × height × width.
are : 2
α+ρ=1 ...(12.15) 1
Thus, G = × 1000 × (5 – 0) + 1000 × (20 – 5)
and αλ + ρλ = 1 ...(12.16) 2
White body. A body is called white body which 1
+
× 1000 × (25 – 20) + 0
reflects almost all radiation incident upon it and does 2
not absorb or transmit any part of it. For white body : = 2500 + 15000 + 2500
α=0; τ=0 ...(12.17) = 20,000 W/m2. Ans.
thus ρ≡1
Black body. A black body neither reflects nor
12.6. BLACK BODY RADIATION LAWS
transmits any part of the incident radiation but it 12.6.1. Black body Spectral Emissive Power
absorbs all of it, i.e.,
The spectral or monochromatic emissive power for a
ρ = 0 ; τ = 0 and α = 1 ...(12.18) black surface is highest at every wavelength at any given
temperature and it is given by Max Planck’s distribution 3. Each curve has a peak value of emissive
law, based on quantum theory, as : power.
C1 4. As temperature increases the peaks shift
Ebλ(T) = 5 ...(12.19) toward smaller wavelengths.
λ {exp [C 2 /(λT)] − 1}
5. The peak of the solar radiation (a black body
where C1 and C2 are constant ;
radiation) at T ≈ 5800 K reaches in visible range of the
C1 = 2πhc02 = 3.742 × 108 W.µm4/m2, and spectrum. Therefore, the sun is in tune with our eye.
C2 = hc0/kB = 1.438 × 104 µm.K ; On the other hand, the surfaces at temperatures
kB = 1.3805 × 10–23, Boltzmann constant. T ≤ 800 K emit almost entirely in the infrared region
and thus the radiation is not visible to eye.
T = absolute temperature, K
λ = wavelength, µm ; 12.6.2. Wien’s Displacement Law
Ebλ(T) = spectral black body emissive power at Fig. 12.8 shows spectral blackbody emissive power
absolute temperature T, W/m2.µm. distribution over a certain range of wavelength. It is
observed that, for a given temperature, there is a definite
This relation is valid for black body spectral
peak, at a particular wavelength. The relationship
emission in a vacuum or a gas. For other mediums, the
between the wavelength λmax and absolute temperature
constant C1 should be replaced by C1/n2, where n is the
T at which Ebλ reaches a maximum value is given by
index of refraction of the medium.
the Wien’s displacement law. “It can be derived from
The Fig. 12.8 is a plot of black body spectral Planck’s distribution law by applying the condition of
emissive power Ebλ(T) against the wavelength λ of maxima, i.e., differentiating Ebλ with respect to λ and
radiation for some selected temperatures. setting it to zero ;
9 dE bλ (T)
=
d LM C 1λ−5
=0
OP
N Q
10
10
8 Visible spectral region dλ dλ exp [C 2 /(λT)] − 1
7
lmax T = 2898 mm.K
FG C IJ
H λT K FG − C IJ = 0
Spectral emissive power, Eb W/m . mm
10
Solar radiation −6 C1λ−5 exp 2
5C λ
H λ TK
6
1
F C I
– – 2
H λT JK − 1 LMNexp FGH CλT IJK − 1OPQ

10
2
exp G
2 2
5
5800 K 2
10 2
l
2000 K
4
10 1000 K
Simplifying and rearranging, we get
FG IJ
3
10
C
10
2
exp 2
H K
λT 5λT
FG IJ =
1
800 K
10 C C2
10
0
H K
exp 2 − 1
λT
–1 C2
10
Using x = , we get
–2 300 K λT
10
50 K ex 5
10
–3
100 K = or x = 5(1 – e–x)
–4 ex − 1 x
10
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100 It is a transcendental equation and its solution
Wavelength, l, mm by trial and error method converges to
Fig. 12.8. Spectral black body emissive power C2
x= = 4.9651
The plot indicates the following facts. λ max T
1. The spectral emissive power of a blackbody Substituting constant C2 = 1.438 × 104 µm, we
is continuous function of wavelength. At any given get
temperature, it increases with wavelength, reaches a λmaxT = 2897.6 µm.K. ...(12.20)
maximum value and then decreases with increasing where λmax represents wavelength corresponding to
wavelength. maximum spectral black body emissive power at a given
2. At any given wavelength, the emissive power temperature T. The eqn. (12.20) is valid for entire
increases with increase in absolute temperature. spectrum of wavelength for black body.
Substituting λmax as 2897.6/T in eqn. (12.19) to between the plate and ambient air is 10 W/m2.K. The
obtain maximum spectral emissive power at surface emissivity of the plate is 0.8. The surrounding
temperature T, and ambient air are at 27°C. Determine the temperature
C 1T 5 of the plate under steady state conditions.
Ebλ(T) =
LM F C I − 1OP Solution
(2897.6) 5 × exp
N H 2897.6 K Q
2
Given : qr = 900 W/m2, hc = 10 W/m2.K
Using C1 and C2 ; ε = 0.8, T∞ = 27°C = 300 K.
3.742 × 10 8 T 5 To find : The temperature of the plate.
Ebλ(T) =
LM F 1.438 × 10 I − 1OP 4
MN GH 2897.6 JK PQ
(2897.6) 5 exp Assumptions :
Ebλ max = 12.87 × 10–10 T5 (W/m2.µm) 2. One side of the plate is adiabatic.
...(12.21) 3. Constant properties.
12.6.3. Stefan Boltzmann Law Analysis : The radiant heat flux absorbed by the
The total emissive power of a blackbody Eb may be plate, will be dissipated by convection and radiation.
obtained by integrating Planck’s distribution
z
Thus, qr = hc(Ts – T∞) + ε σ (Ts4 – T∞4)
∞
eqn. (12.19) over entire wavelength as Eb = Ebλ dλ Using the numerical values,
z
0
900 = 10 × (Ts – 300) + 0.8 × 5.67 × 10–8
∞ C1
or Eb = 5 dλ ...(12.22) × (Ts4 – 3004)
0 λ [exp (C2 /λT) − 1]
z
It gives, Ts = 354.8 K. Ans.
∞ C1Tdλ
= T4 Example 12.3. A hot water radiator of overall
(λT) 5 [exp (C2 /λT) − 1]
0
Put λT = x, Tdλ = dx, then dimensions 2 × 1 × 0.2 m is used to heat the room at
z
18°C. The surface temperature of radiator is 60°C and
∞ dx
Eb = C1T4 its surface is black. The actual surface of the radiator is
5
0 x [exp (C2 / x) − 1] 2.5 times the area of its envelope for convection for which
dy the convection coefficient is given by hc = 1.3(∆T)1/3
Using C2/x = y, and dx = – C2 . , then
y2 W/m2.K.
Eb = –
C 1T 4
C2 4 z ∞
0
y 3 dy
ey − 1
Calculate the rate of heat loss from the radiator
by convection and radiation.
Solution
Its integration yields to :
∞ Given : Radiation and convection heat transfer
C1 1
Eb =
C2 4
T4 × 6 ∑
n=1
n4
from a radiator.
Radiator Dimensions :
∞ 4
1 π
We have ∑
n=1
=
n 4 90
H = 2 m, L = 1 m,
Ts = 60°C = 333 K,
w = 0.2 m
T∞ = 18°C = 291 K
C1 6π 4 For convection As = 2.5 Arad
which gives Eb = 4
T4
C2 90 hc = 1.3(∆T)1/3.
Eb = σ T4 ...(12.23) To find : Rate of heat transfer by convection and
C1 π 4
3.742 × 10 π4 8 radiation.
where σ= × = × Assumptions :
C2 4 15 (1.438 × 10 4 ) 4 15
= 5.672 × 10–8 W/m2.K4 ...(12.24) (i) The radiator as a blackbody.
The constant σ is called the Stefan Boltzmann (ii) Steady state conditions.
constant. (iii) Uniform heat transfer coefficient.
Example 12.2. One side of metallic plate is insulated, Analysis : The area of the radiator ;
while the other side absorbs a radiant heat flux of Arad = 2 × {2 × 1 + 2 × 0.2 + 1 × 0.2} = 5.2 m2
900 W/m2. The convective heat transfer coefficient
Radiation heat transfer rate ; Substituting the values,

Qrad = Arad σ (Ts4 – T∞4)
3.742 × 10 8
= 5.2 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (3334 – 2914) Ebλ =
LM F 1.438 × 10 I − 1OP
4
MN GH 1.2 × 2923 JK PQ
= 1511.2 W (1.2) 5 × exp
The convection heat transfer coefficient,
hc = 1.3(∆T)1/3 = 2.53 × 106 W/m2.µ
µm. Ans.
= 1.3 × (60 – 18)1/3 (ii) The wavelength at which the emissive power
= 4.51 W/m2.K is maximum :
The convection heat transfer area, Using Wien’s displacement law, eqn.(12.20)
As = 2.5 × Arad = 2.5 × 5.2 = 13 m2 λmax T = 2897.6 µm.K
The convection heat transfer rate ; 2897.6
λmax = = 0.9913 µm. Ans.
Qconv = hc As(Ts – T∞) 2923
= 4.51 × 13 × (60 – 18) = 2462.24 W (iii) Maximum spectral emissive power, by
The total heat transfer rate from the radiator, eqn.(12.21)
Q = Qrad + Qconv Ebλ max = 12.87 × 10–10 T5 W/m2.µm
= 1511.2 + 2462.24 = 12.87 × 10–10 × (2923)5
= 2.746 × 108 W/m2.µ µm. Ans.
= 3973.67 W. Ans.
(iv) Total emissive power
z
Example 12.4. Calculate the following quantities for
∞
an industrial furnace (black body) emitting radiation at Eb = Ebλ dλ = σ T4
2650°C. 0
(i) Spectral emissive power at λ = 1.2 µm, = 5.67 × 10–8 × (2923)4

(ii) Wavelength at which the emissive power is = 4.139 × 106 W/m2. Ans.
maximum, (v) Total emissive power with ε = 0.9
(iii) Maximum spectral emissive power, E = εEb = ε σ T4
(iv) Total emissive power, = 0.9 × 4.139 × 106
(v) Total emissive power of the furnace, if it is = 3.725 × 106 W/m2. Ans.
treated as gray and diffuse body with an emissivity of
0.9. Example 12.5. The average solar radiation flux on the
earth’s atmosphere is 1353 W/m2 and it is known as solar
Solution constant. Calculate the temperature of sun (a black body),
Given : An industrial furnace as black body 1.392 × 106 km in diameter, when it has mean distance
radiating at of 1.496 × 108 km from the earth’s atmosphere.
T = 2650°C = 2923 K. Solution
To find : Given : Average solar constant for determination
(i) Ebλ at λ = 1.2 µm of temperature of sun
(ii) λmax (Q/A)sun = 1353 W/m2
(iii) Ebλ max D = 1.392 × 109 m
(iv) Eb (Total emissive power) s = 1.496 × 1011 m
(v) ε Eb.
Analysis : (i) The spectral emissive power at 6 n2
D = 1.392 × 10 km
λ = 1.2 µm : dA2
f2
The Planck’s distribution law, eqn. (12.19)
2
C1 s
Ebλ = 5
λ [exp (C2 /λT) − 1] f1
where C1 = 3.742 × 108 W.µm4/m2 dA1 n1

C2 = 1.438 × 104 µm.K. Fig. 12.9
To find : The temperature of sun. = Convection flux + Radiation flux

Assumptions : (Emissive power)
(i) The negligible emissive power of earth in Q
αsun sun = h(T – T∞) + ε σ (T4 – T∞4) ...(1)
comparison of sun. A
(ii) Due to large distance, all rays of sun falling (a) When the plate is coated with white paint :
on the earth’s surface. αsun = 0.12 ; αplate = 0.9 or εplate = 0.9
(iii) Sun has spherical surface. (By Kirchhoff ’s law)
Analysis : The energy radiated by sun (black body) 0.12 × 700 = 10 × (T – 298) + 0.9 × 5.67
4 4 × 10–8 × (T4 – 2984)
Qsun = Asun σ Tsun = π (Dsun)2 σ Tsun
4 84 = 10 T – 2980 + 5.103
= π × (1.392 × 109 m)2 × 5.67 × 10–8 Tsun
× 10–8 T4– 402.43
4
= 3.45 × 1011 Tsun ...(1) or T4 + 195.963 × 106 T – 67.929 × 109 = 0
The sun is considered as source at a distance It is a non linear equation and its numerical
s = 1.496 × 1011 m from earth’s surface.
(Newton Raphson method) solution gives ;
Mean area, which receives solar radiation
T = 303.40 K or 30.4°C. Ans.
A = 4πs2 = 4π × (1.496 × 1011)2
(b) When plate is coated with black paint :
= 2.812 × 1023 m2
αsun = 0.96 ; αplate = 0.95
The solar flux incidence on the earth is :
Using these values in eqn. (1) ;
Q sun 3.45 × 10 11 Tsun
4
q= or 1353 = 0.96 × 700 =10 × (T – 298) + 0.95 × 5.67
A 2.812 × 10 23 × 10–8 × (T4 – 2984)
or 4
Tsun = 1.102 × 1015 672 = 10 T – 2980 + 5.3865
or Tsun = 5762.2 K. Ans. × 10–8 T4 – 424.787
or T4 + 185.65 ×106 T – 75.6852 × 109 = 0
Example 12.6. Calculate the equilibrium temperature
It is a non linear equation and its numerical
for a plate, exposed to a solar flux of 700 W/m2 and
convection environment at 25°C, with convection (Newton Raphson method) solution gives ;
coefficient of 10 W/m2.K. If the plate is coated with T = 337.65 K or 64.65°C. Ans.
(a) White paint : αsun = 0.12 ; αplate = 0.9. 12.6.4. Radiation Function and Band Emission
(b) Flat black paint : αsun = 0.96 ; αplate = 0.95. Eqn. (12.23) gives the total amount of radiant energy
(N.M.U., Nov. 2000) emitted by a blackbody at temperature T over
Solution wavelength λ = 0 to λ = ∞. There are often situations,
Given : A plate exposed to solar flux and (Fig. 12.10) when it is necessary to evaluate the energy
convection environment ; over certain wavelength band, like 0 to λ or λ1 to λ2.
Solar flux = 700 W/m2,
l1
T∞ = 25°C = 298 K, h = 10 W/m2.K,
(a) αsun = 0.12 ; αplate = 0.9
T
ò0
Ebl dl
(b) αsun = 0.96 ; αplate = 0.95.

To find : The equilibrium temperature in above
two cases.
Assumptions :
2. Plate surface is gray, opaque and diffused.
Analysis : Making the energy balance for the
plate : 0 1 l
Considering T is the temperature of plate, then Fig. 12.10. Radiation emission from a black body
Solar flux on the plate in spectral band of 0 to λ1
The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per 3000 0.273248 7700 0.843671 50000 0.998994
unit area, over a wavelength band from λ = 0 to λ is 3100 0.295797 7800 0.848042 55000 0.999259
determined as : 3200 0.318120 7900 0.852258 60000 0.999444
z
3300 0.340130 8000 0.856325 65000 0.999579
λ1
E b, 0 − λ 1 = Ebλ dλ (W/m2) ...(12.25) 3400 0.361755 8100 0.860251 70000 0.999678
0 3500 0.382937 8200 0.864040 75000 0.999754
The eqn. (12.25) is evaluated numerically by using 3600 0.403628 8300 0.867699 80000 0.999812
3700 0.423794 8400 0.871232 85000 0.999857
eqn. (12.19). But the integration does not have simple
3800 0.443406 8500 0.874645 90000 0.999893
closed form solution and therefore, performing 3900 0.462446 8600 0.877943 95000 0.999922
integration is not practical solution. Therefore, a 4000 0.480902 8700 0.881129 100000 0.999946
dimensionless quantity f0 – λ called the black body 4100 0.498767 8800 0.884210
radiation function is used, which is defined as : 4200 0.516040 8900 0.887188
z
4300 0.532723 9000 0.890068
λ 4400 0.548823 9100 0.892853
Ebλ dλ 4500 0.564348 9200 0.895548
0
f0 – λ = ...(12.26) 4600 0.579309 9300 0.898156
σ T4
4700 0.593718 9400 0.900680
The function f0 – λ represents fraction of radia-
tion energy emitted from a black body at temperature T The fraction of radiation energy emitted by a
in the wavelength band from λ = 0 to λ. A table of black body at a temperature T over a finite wavelength
band from λ = λ1 to λ = λ2 (Fig. 12.11) is evaluated as :
z
computed black body radiation function f0 – λ as a
function of λT is given in Table 12.2. λ2
E bλ 1 − λ = Ebλ dλ
2 λ1
TABLE 12.2. Black body radiation functions
λT
(µm K)
f0–λ λT
(µm K)
f0–λ λT
(µm K)
f0–λ = z
0
λ2
E bλ dλ − z
0
λ1
E bλ dλ ...(12.27)
l2
100
200
0.000000
0.000000
4800
4900
0.607589
0.620937
9500
9600
0.903124
0.905490
T
òl E
1
bl dl
300 0.000000 5000 0.633777 9700 0.907782

400 0.000000 5100 0.646127 9800 0.910002
500 0.000000 5200 0.658001 9900 0.912153
600 0.000000 5300 0.669417 10000 0.914238
700 0.000002 5400 0.680392 11000 0.931929
800 0.000016 5500 0.690940 12000 0.945138
900 0.000087 5600 0.701079 13000 0.955179
1000 0.000321 5700 0.710824 14000 0.962938
1100 0.000911 5800 0.720192 15000 0.969021
1200 0.002134 5900 0.729196 16000 0.973855 l1 l2 l
1300 0.004317 6000 0.737852 17000 0.977741
1400 0.007791 6100 0.746173 18000 0.980901 Fig. 12.11. Black body radiation in wavelength band
1500 0.012850 6200 0.754174 19000 0.983494 λ = λ1 to λ = λ2
1600 0.019720 6300 0.761869 20000 0.985643 In terms of black body radiation function
z z
1700 0.028535 6400 0.769268 21000 0.987437
λ2 λ1
1800 0.039344 6500 0.776386 22000 0.988947 Ebλ dλ − E bλ dy
1900 0.052111 6600 0.783234 23000 0.990227 fλ 1 − λ 2 = 0 0
2000 0.066733 6700 0.789823 24000 0.991319 σ T4
z z
2100 0.083058 6800 0.796164 25000 0.992256
λ2 λ1
2200 0.100895 6900 0.802268 26000 0.993064
Ebλ dλ Ebλ dλ
2300 0.120037 7000 0.808144 27000 0.993765 0 0
= −
2400 0.140266 7100 0.813803 28000 0.994376 σ T4 σ T4
2500 0.161366 7200 0.819253 29000 0.994911
2600 0.183132 7300 0.824504 30000 0.995381 or fλ 1 − λ 2 = f0 − λ 2 − f0 – λ 1 ...(12.28)
2700 0.205370 7400 0.829563 35000 0.997044
2800 0.227904 7500 0.834439 40000 0.998008 where f0 − λ 1 and f0 − λ 2 are the black body radiation func-
2900 0.250577 7600 0.839139 45000 0.998605 tions corresponding to λ1T and λ2 T, respectively.
Example 12.7. The temperature of a filament of an Analysis : The total radiation emitted from the
incandescent light bulb (a black body) is maintained at sun in visible spectrum
2500 K. Calculate the fraction of radiant energy emitted
by the filament in the visible spectrum. Also calculate
the wavelength at which the emission from the filament
z 0.7 µm
0.4 µm
Ebλdλ = σ T4[f0 – 0.7 – f0 – 0.4]
= 5.67 × 10–8 × (5800)4
reaches a maximum value.
× [0.4914 – 0.1245]
Solution = 23.54 × 106 W/m2. Ans.
Given : Radiation from a filament of an incan-
Example 12.9. Determine (a) the wavelength at which
descent light bulb in visible range.
the spectral emissive power of a tungsten filament
T = 2500 K  at 1400 K is maximum, (b) the spectral emissive power

λ1 = 0.4 µm  For visible range. at that wavelength, and (c) the spectral emissive power
 at 5 µm.
λ2 = 0.76 µm 
To find : Solution
(i) Fraction of radiation energy emitted in visible Given : For a radiating surface
range. Ts = 1400 K.
(ii) Wavelength corresponding to maximum To find :
emissive power. (a) λmax corresponds to peak emissive power,
Analysis : (i) The black body radiation function (b) Peak spectral emissive power corresponding
corresponds to λ1T and λ2T are : to λmax
λ1T = (0.4 µm) × (2500 K) (c) Spectral emissive power at λ = 5 µm.
= 1000 µm.K → f0 − λ 1 = 0.000321 Assumption : Black body radiation and σ = 5.67
λ2T = (0.76 µm) × (2500 K) × 10–8 W/m2. K4.
Analysis : (a) The wavelength corresponds to
= 1900 µm K → f0 − λ 2 = 0.052111
maximum emissive power.
fλ 1 − λ 2 = f0 − λ 2 − f0 − λ 1 λmaxT = 2897.6 µm.K
= 0.052111 – 0.000321 = 0.05179 2897.6
or λmax = = 2.07 µm. Ans.
It indicates that only 5.18% of the radiation 1400
energy emitted falls in the visible range. Ans. (b) Spectral emissive power at λ = λmax can be
(ii) Wavelength corresponding to maximum obtained from eqn. (12.21) ;
emissive power is obtained by using Wien’s Ebλ, max = 12.87 × 10–10 T5
displacement law = 12.87 × 10–10 × (1400)5
λmaxT = 2897.8 µm.K = 69.23 × 103 W/m2.µ µm. Ans.
2897.8 (c) Monochromatic emissive power at 5 µm.
or λmax = µm = 1.16 µm. Ans. λT = 5 × 1400
2500
= 7000 µm.K → f0 – λ = 0.808144
Example 12.8. Solar radiation has approximately same
spectral distribution as an ideal radiating body at Ebλ = σ T4 . f0 – λ
temperature of 5800 K. Determine the amount of solar = 5.67 × 10–8 × (1400)4 × 0.808144
radiation, which is in the visible range of 0.4 µm to = 1.76 × 105 W/m2.µ µm. Ans.
0.7 µm, use following data : Example 12.10. A window glass 0.3 cm thick has a
Range Black body radiation function monochromatic transmissivity of 0.9 in the range of
0 ≤ λ ≤ 0.4 f0 – 0.4 = 0.1245 0.3 µm to 2.5 µm and nearly zero elsewhere. Estimate
0 ≤ λ ≤ 0.7 f0 – 0.7 = 0.4914. the total transmissivity of the window for (a) near black
(Pune Univ., Dec. 1999) solar radiation at 5800 K, and (b) black room radiation
at 300 K.
Solution
Solution
Given : Solar radiation at Ts = 5800 K, and
blackbody radiation functions with wavelengths. Given : Transmission through a glass window
To find : Amount of solar radiation in visible τλ = 0.9, λ1 = 0.3 µm, λ2 = 2.5 µm
spectrum. (a) T = 5800 K, (b) T = 300 K.
To find : Transmissivity in range of λ1 = 0.3 µm To find : The effective absorptivity of the surface
to λ2 = 2.5 µm for (i) T = 5800 K, and (ii) T = 300 K. for
Assumptions : (i) Solar radiation, and
(i) Black body behaviour, (ii) Source radiation.
(ii) Stefan Boltzmann constant, Anslysis : (i) For solar radiation
λ1T = 3 µm × 5800 K
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2. K4.
Analysis : The transmissivity of a surface is = 17400 µm.K → f0 − λ 1 = 0.98
defined as : and fλ 1 – ∞ = 1 – f0 − λ 1 = 1 – 0.98 = 0.02
Energy transmitted through body Thus 98% solar radiation falls below 3 µm and
τ=
Energy incident on the body the remaining 2% between λ = 3 µm to λ = ∞.
The effective absorptivity of the surface
z z
For a black body
z
3 µm ∞
λ2
τ λ Ebλ dλ α λ 1 G λ dλ + α λ 2 G λ dλ
z
0 3 µm
τ=
λ1
= 0.9 × [ f0 − λ 2 – f0 − λ 1 ] αsolar = ∞
σ T4 G λ dλ
0
(i) At 5800 K For black surface (sun)
λ1T = 0.3 × 5800
= 1740 µm.K → f0 − λ 1 = 0.03285 αsolar =
α λ1 z
0
σ T4
3µ
Ebλ dλ
+
α λ2 z
3 µm
∞
σ T4
Ebλ dλ
λ2T = 2.5 × 5800

= α λ 1 f0 − λ 1 + α λ 2 f λ 1 − ∞
= 14500 µm.K → f0 − λ 2 = 0.96597
= 0.4 × 0.98 + 0.8 × 0.02 = 0.408. Ans.
∴ τ = 0.9 × [0.96597 – 0.03285] = 0.834. Ans. (ii) Source condition, Tsource = 527°C = 800 K
(ii) At T = 300 K λ1T = 3 µm × 800 K
λ1T = 0.3 × 300 = 90 µm.K → f0 − λ 1 = 0.000 = 2400 µm.K → f0 − λ 1 = 0.140266
λ2T = 2.5 × 300 and fλ 1 − ∞ = 1 – f0 − λ 1 = 1 – 0.140266 = 0.859734
= 750 µm.K → f0 − λ 2 = 0.000005 Absorptivity of the surface for source
∴ τ = 0.9 × (0.000005 – 0) αsource = α λ 1 f0 − λ 1 + α λ 2 f λ 1 − ∞
≈ 4.5 × 10–6 ≈ 0.0. Ans. = 0.4 × 0.140266 + 0.8 × 0.859734
= 0.7439. Ans.
Example 12.11. The aluminium paint is used to cover
the surface of a body that is maintained at 27°C. In one
installation this body is irradiated by the sun, in another 12.7. EMISSIVITY
by a source at 527°C. Calculate the effective absorptance
The radiation emitted by a real surface at temperature
of the surface for both conditions, assuming the sun is a
T is always less than that of blackbody. Therefore, the
black body at 5800 K. blackbody emission is considered as reference. The
Take α = 0.4 for 0 ≤ λ < 3 µm. emissivity is defined as the ratio of the radiation energy
α = 0.8 for 3µ ≤ λ < ∞. emitted by a surface to that emitted by a black body at
the same temperature. It is a dimensionless quantity, a
Solution property of a radiating surface to measure of how closely
Given : Irradiation on a aluminium painted cover a surface approximates a black surface for which ε = 1.
surface. It is designated as ε and varies between 0 and 1.
Ts = 27°C = 300 K, Tsun = 5800 K The emissivity of a real surfaces is not constant.
Tsource = 527°C = 800 K It varies with temperature of the surface, as well as
α λ 1 = 0.4 for 0 ≤ λ < 3 µm wavelength and direction of the emission. Therefore,
different emissivities may be defined for a surface,
α λ 2 = 0.8 for 3 µm ≤ λ < ∞. depending upon the effect considered.
12.7.1. Hemispherical and Total Emissivity The total, normal emissivities for some selected
The emissivity of a surface that is averaged over all materials are shown in Figs. 12.12 and 12.13. and listed
directions is called the hemispherical emissivity and the in Table 12.3. The following observations are listed
emissivity averaged over all wavelengths is called the below :
total emissivity. Thus the total hemispherical emissivity 1. The emissivity of the metallic surfaces is very
ε(T) of a surface is defined as ratio of the radiation heat small having the values as low as 0.02 for
flux emitted over all wavelengths into a hemispherical highly polished gold and silver.
space (all directions) to that which would have been 2. The presence of oxide layers may improve the
emitted by a blackbody at same temperature. emissivity of metallic surfaces.
Mathematically 3. The non conductors have the large value of
z
E(T) E(T) E(T) emissivity, generally exceeding 0.6.
ε(T) = ∞ = = ...(12.29)
E b (T) σ T 4 4. The emissivity of conducting materials
E (T) dλ
bλ
0
increase with increase in temperature, but
For a given value of emissivity, the emissive power
emissivity of non-conducting materials may
of a real surface at a temperature T is determined by either increase or decrease with increasing
E(T) = ε Eb(T) = ε σ T4 ...(12.30) temperature.
Highly polished metals like gold, silver, foils, and films

Polished metals
Metals as received
0 0.05 0.10 0.15

Metals as received and unpolished
Metals oxides
Oxides ceramics
Carbon, graphite
Minerals, glasses
Vegetation, water, skin
Special paints, anodised finishes
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fig. 12.12. Total, normal emissivity of selected materials
The value of emissivity strongly depends on the nature of the surface, which can be influenced by the method
of fabrication, thermal cycling and chemical reaction with the environment.
1.0
Silicon carbide
0.8
Total, normal emissivity, en
Stainless steel
heavily oxidized
0.6
Aluminium oxide
0.4
Stainless steel
lightly oxidized
0.2
Tungsten
0
300 700 1100 1500 1900 2300 2700 3100
Temperature (K)
Fig. 12.13. Temperature dependence of the total, normal emissivity εn of selected materials
12.7.2. Spectral Emissivity

z∞
ε λ E bλ ( T ) d λ
z
The emissivity of a surface at a specified wavelength is ε=
0
∞
called the spectral emissivity. It is the ratio of spectral E bλ dλ
z z
emissive power of a real surface to that of black surface 0
∞ ∞
at the same temperature. It is denoted by ελ and ε λ Ebλ (T) dλ ε λ E bλ (T) dλ
0 0
expressed as : = =
...(12.32)
Eb σ T4
E (T) The spectral emissivity from a real surface
ελ(T) = λ or Eλ(T) = ελ Ebλ(T) ...(12.31)
E bλ (T) depends upon temperature and wavelength. The
Average value or hemispherical emissivity : spectral distribution of the emissivity against
wavelength is shown in Fig. 12.14.
1.0
Spectral, normal emissivity, el,n
0.8
Aluminium
Silicon oxide,
carbide 1400 K
0.6 1000 K
0.4
Stainless steel,
1200 K heavily
oxidized
0.2
Stainless steel, 800 K
2800 K
lightly oxidized
Tungsten
1600 K
0
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100
Wavelength, l(mm)
Fig. 12.14. Spectral dependence of the spectral, normal emissivity ελ, n of selected materials
TABLE 12.3. Total emissivity for a variety of surfaces
Metals Nonmetals
Surface Temp. (°C) ε Surface Temp. (°C) ε
Aluminium Asbestos 40 0.93–0.97
Polished, 98% pure 200–600 0.04–0.06 Brick
Commercial sheet 90 0.09 Red, rough 40 0.93
Heavily oxidized 90–540 0.20–0.33 Silica 980 0.80–0.85
Brass Fireclay 980 0.75
Highly polished 260 0.03 Ordinary refractory 1090 0.59
Dull plate 40–260 0.22 Magnesite refractory 980 0.38
Oxidized 40–260 0.46–0.56 White refractory 1090 0.29
Copper Carbon
Highly polished 90 0.02 Filament 1040–1430 0.53
electrolytic
Slightly polished 40 0.12–0.15 Lampsoot 40 0.95
to dull
Black oxidized 40 0.76 Concrete, rough 40 0.94
Gold : Pure, polished 90–600 0.02–0.035 Glass
Iron and steel Smooth 40 0.94
Mild steel, polished 150–480 0.14–0.32

Steel, polished 40–260 0.07–0.10 Gypsum 40 0.80–0.90
Sheet steel, rolled 40 0.66 Ice 0 0.97–0.98
Sheet steel, strong 40 0.80 Limestone 40–260 0.92–0.95
rough oxide
Cast iron, oxidized 40–260 0.57–0.66 Marble 40 0.93–0.95
Iron, rusted 40 0.61–0.85 Mica 40 0.75
Wrought iron, smooth 40 0.35 Paints 40
Wrought iron, dull 20–360 0.94 Black glass 40 0.90
oxidized
Stainless, polished 40 0.07–0.17 White paint 40 0.89–0.97
Lead Various oil paints 40 0.92–0.96
Polished 40–260 0.05–0.08 Red lead 90 0.93
Oxidized 40–200 0.63 Paper
White 40 0.95–0.98
Mercury : pure, clean 40–90 0.10–0.12 Other colours 40 0.92–0.94
Platinum Roofing 40 0.91
Pure, polished plate 200–590 0.05–0.10 Plaster, rough lime 40–260 0.92
Oxidized at 590°C 260–590 0.07–0.11 Quartz 100–1000 0.89–0.93
Silver 200 0.01–0.04 Rubber 40 0.86–0.94
Tin 40–90 0.05 Snow 10–20 0.82
Tungsten Water, thickness ≥ 0.1 mm 40 0.96
Filament 540–1090 0.11–0.16 Wood 40 0.80–0.90
Filament 2760 0.39 Oak, planed 20 0.90
12.7.3. Directional Emissivity directional emissivity εθ of a surface in normal direction

The emissivity in a specified direction is called the (θ = 0) represents the hemispherical emissivity of the
directional emissivity. It is denoted by εθ, where θ is the surface.
angle between the direction of radiation and normal of
the surface. The variation of emissivity with direction 12.7.4. Kirchhoff’s Law
for conductors and non conductors is shown in Fig. 12.15. It states that at thermal equilibrium, the ratio of the
It is observed that the directional emissivity εθ is almost total emissive power to the total absorptivity is constant
constant for about θ < 40° for conductors such as metals, for all bodies.
and for θ < 70° for non conductors such as plastics. The
G
T
1 a2 G
,e2
,
Nonconductor
A2 T
e0
A1, e1, a1 e 3, a3
A 3,
E2
0.5 E3
G = Eb E1
eq
q
Conductor
Fig. 12.16. Radiation exchange by small bodies in

0
0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°
an isothermal enclosure
q Consider a small body 1 of surface area A1,
emissivity ε1 and absorptivity α1 at temperature T
Fig. 12.15. Variations of emissivity with direction for
within a large radiating (black) enclosure at the same
electrical conductors and nonconductors
temperature as shown in Fig. 12.16. The energy incident
on the small body is Eb (= σ T4) and of this energy, the It differs from Planck’s distribution and it has large
radiation absorbed by the small body per unit surface variation with wavelength and consists of several peaks
area at temperature T is : and valleys. Further, the spectral emissivity also varies
Gabs = α1Eb = α1 σ T4 ...(12.33) with temperature. Thus, its evaluation to average
The radiation emitted by the small body is : emissivity becomes very complicated. A useful
E1 = ε1 σ T4 ...(12.34) simplification is to replace the wiggly line by an average
Thus at thermal equilibrium, the radiation emissivity line as shown by dashed line in Fig. 12.17. It
emitted by the body must be equal to the radiation is the gray body approximation. The effect of
absorbed by it, or approximation on emissive power is shown in Fig. 12.18.
A gray surface should emit same radiation as the real
E1 = α1Eb
surface. That is :
Similarly, if small body 1 is replaced by a small
body 2 with absorptivity α2 in the enclosure, then energy el
incident on the body is again Eb, energy absorbed is α2Eb
and at thermal equilibrium, the energy emitted E2 is :
E2 = α2Eb Black body eb = e = 1
1.0
Similarly, for other bodies, it can be shown that at Gray surface el = e = const.
thermal equilibrium, the energy emitted by a surface
must be equal to energy absorbed by the surface. There-
fore, we may write 0.6
E1 E2 E3 Real surface, el
= = = Eb ...(12.35)
α1 α2 α3
E1 T = const.
or = α 1 or ε1 = α1 ...(12.36) 0
Eb l
Thus the total emissivity of a surface at
Fig. 12.17. Comparison of the emissivity of a real surface, a
temperature T is always equal to its total absorptivity gray surface and a black body at the same temperature
for radiation coming from a blackbody at the same
temperature. This relation simplifies the radiation
analysis and is developed by Gaustav Kirchhoff in 1860, 1.0 T = 2000 K
and thus known as Kirchhoff’s law.
Hence it is also true at a specific wavelength that Black body
the spectral emissivity is equal to spectral absorptivity 0.8
(e = el =1)
at thermal equilibrium for all bodies. This law is
applicable when the radiation properties are
Spectral emissive power, el
independent of wavelength i.e., for graybodies or when

Gray body
incident and emitted radiation have same spectral 0.6
(e = el = 0.6)
distribution.
12.7.5. Gray and Diffuse Surfaces : Gray Lambert Body Real
0.4 surface
Approximation
The radiation properties of a real surface such as
absorptivity, emissivity etc. depend on wavelength and
direction of radiation. Most emissivity data are either 0.2
averaged over direction or over wavelength. But for some
real surfaces, the spectral emissivity ελ is a complex func-
tion of wavelength λ and its calculation for all wave-
0
lengths becomes very tedious. Therefore, the gray and 1 2 3 4 5 6
diffuse approximations are commonly used in radiation Wavelength, l, mm
calculations. A surface is called to be diffuse surface, if Fig. 12.18. Comparison of hemispherical spectral emission
its properties are independent of directions, and a gray for black, gray and real surfaces
z
surface, if its properties are independent of wavelength.
∞
Consider the spectral emissivity of a real surface ε(T) σ T4 = ελ(T) Ebλ(T) dλ ...(12.37)
is represented by a wiggly line as shown in Fig. 12.17. 0
Then the average emissivity for a gray surface Example 12.12. In an isothermal enclosure at uniform
z
can be expressed as : temperature, two small surfaces A and B are placed. The
∞ irradiation to the surface by the enclosure is 6200 W/m2.
ε λ (T) E bλ (T) dλ
0 The absorption rates by the surfaces A, and B are
ε(T) = ...(12.38)
σ T4 5500 W/m2 and 620 W/m2. When steady state is estab-
If the variation of spectral emissivity is quite lished, calculate the following :
large, but it is constant over certain wavelength as (i) What are the heat fluxes to each surfaces ?
shown in Fig. 12.19, then ε(T) is expressed as step What are their temperatures ?
function and eqn. (12.38) is integrated by dividing the (ii) Absorptivity of both surfaces,
spectrum into a number of wavelength bands and (iii) Emissive power of each surface, and
assuming the emissivity ε(T) remains constant over each
wavelength band. Then the average emissivity can be (iv) Emissivity of each surface.
determined as : Solution
el
Given : Two small body A, and B are placed in an
enclosure.
G = 6200 W/m2
e2
Actual GαA = 5500 W/m2
variation
GαB = 620 W/m2.
el(T)
e1 To find :
(i) Heat flux to each surface and surface
e3 temperatures.
(ii) αA and αB
(iii) EA and EB
(iv) εA and εB.
0 l1 l2 l Analysis : (i) At steady state, the net heat flux is
zero. The enclosure is considered to be a black body and
R|
ε 1 = constant ; 0 ≤ λ < λ1 isothermal, thus TA = TB = T
S|
ε λ = ε 2 = constant ; λ1 ≤ λ < λ2 Irradiation to the surface = Emission from the
T
ε 3 = constant ; λ2 ≤ λ < ∞ surface
Fig. 12.19. Approximation of actual variation of spectral 6200 = σ T4 = 5.67 × 10–8(T)4
emissivity with wavelength by a step function or T = 575 K. Ans.
ε(T) =
z
0
λ1
ε λ (T) E bλ (T) dλ
σ T4
qA = 0, qB = 0. Ans.
(ii) Absorptivity of surface, A,
G αA 5500
z z
αA = = = 0.887. Ans.
λ2 ∞ G 6200
ε λ (T) E bλ (T) dλ ε λ (T) Ebλ (T) dλ Absorptivity of surface B,
λ1 λ2
+ + G 620
σ T4 σ T4 αB = αB = = 0.1. Ans.
G 6200
or ε(T) = ε1 f0 −λ (T) + ε2 fλ 1 − λ 2 (T) + ε3 fλ −∞ (T) (iii) Emissive power of each surface
1 2
...(12.39) According to Kirchhoff ’s law, at thermal
equilibrium
Thus a gray surface is considered for which the Energy absorbed = Energy emitted
spectral emissivity ελ is independent of the wavelength
∴ EA = αAG = 5500 W/m2. Ans.
and the spectral emissivity is equal to total emissivity ε
EB = αBG = 620 W/m2. Ans.
ε(T) = ελ(T) ...(12.40) (iv) Emissivity of each surface
Further, for a gray surface, the absorptivity, According to Kirchhoff ’s law
reflectivity and transmissivity are also independent of ε=α
wavelength. For such a surface ; ∴ εA = αA = 0.887. Ans.
ε(T) = α(T) ...(12.41) εB = αB = 0.1. Ans.
Example 12.13. A solar collector surface has an 12.8.1. Solid Angle

absorptivity of 0.85 for wavelength 0 ≤ λ < 3 µm and a A solid angle is defined as a ratio of area of spherical
value of 0.15 for wavelength λ > 3 µm. (i) Calculate the surface enclosed by a conical surface with the vertex of
energy absorbed from the source at 5000 K, (ii) If the the cone at the centre of the sphere to the square of
flux is 800 W/m2, calculate the energy radiated by the radius of the sphere. Consider the emission from the
body, if its temperature was 350 K. differential area dA1 towards the normal area dAn as
Solution shown in Fig. 12.20. The differential area dAn, through
Given : A solar collector which the emission passes, subtends an angle called the
solid angle when viewed from dA1. Mathematically it is
(i) α λ 1 = α1 = 0.85 for 0 ≤ λ ≤ 3 µm expressed as :
α λ 2 = α2 = 0.15 for λ > 3 µm dA n
dω = ...(12.42)
Ts = 5000 K. r2
(ii) Ts = 350 K, G = q = 800 W/m2 where An = normal area
To find : r = radius of sphere
(i) Energy absorbed by solar collector surface.
(ii) Emissive power, if surface at 350 K. Normal, n Emitted
Assumptions : radiation
(i) Diffuse, gray surfaces. dAn
(ii) Kirchhoff’s law holds good.
Analysis : (i) At temperature 5000 K, from
Table 12.2. q
λ1T = 3 µm × 5000 r
= 15000 µm.K → f0 −λ 1 = 0.969 dA1 dw
The average absorptivity is
α = α 1 f0 − λ 1 + α 2 (1 − f0 − λ 1 ) dA1 dAn dAn
dw = ——
= 0.85 × 0.969 + 0.15 × (1 – 0.969) f
r
2
= 0.8283
For flux of 800 W/m2. (a) Emission from a differential area dA1 (b) Definition of solid angle
The energy absorbed into a solid angle subtended by dAn
= α G = 0.8283 × 800
= 662.64 W/m2. Ans. Fig. 12.20
(ii) When surface temperature is 350 K The solid angle is measured in steradian (sr). The
λ1T = 3 µm × 350 K solid angle subtended by hemisphere from its centre is
= 1050 µm → f0 −λ 1 = 0.00057 2πr 2
= 2π
From Kirchhoff ’s law r2
α1 = ε1 and α2 = ε2 F as 4πr I .2
Energy radiated and by full sphere is 4π GH r JK 2
= [ ε 1 f0 − λ 1 + ε 2 (1 − f0 − λ 1 ) ] σ T4
12.8.2. Spectral Intensity of Radiation (Ibλλ)
= [0.85 × 0.00057 + 0.15
× (1 – 0.00057)] × 5.67 × 10–8 × (350)4 It is the radiant energy emitted by a black body at a
temperature T, streaming through a unit area normal
= 128 W/m2. Ans.
to direction of propagation per unit wavelength about a
wavelength per unit solid angle about the direction of
12.8. RADIATION FROM A SURFACE propagation of beam. It is denoted by Ibλ and can be
expressed as :
The radiation emitted from a surface propagates in all
F W I
possible direction. Similarly, the radiation incident on
a surface may come from different directions. In both
Ibλ =
Energy emitted
(Projected area) × (Wavelength)
GH m . µm.sr JK
2
cases, effect of radiation on the surface depends on the

(Solid angle)
directional distribution. Such directional effect may be ...(12.43)
treated by introducing the concept of radiation intensity.
12.8.3. Radiation Intensity (Ib) The spectral intensity of radiation according to

It is the radiation emitted by a blackbody at temperature its definition eqn. (12.43).
T over all wavelength per unit projected area per unit (dQ/dλ)
Ibλ = ...(12.46)
solid angle. Mathematically, dA
z
dA1 cos θ 2 n
∞ r
Ib = Ibλ dλ [W/(m2.sr)] ...(12.44) dQ
0
where = dQλ is the rate of spectral radiation energy
Consider the emission from an elemental area dA1 dλ
located at the centre of the hemisphere as shown in emitted by the surface dA1 and passes through dAn = r2
Fig. 12.21. Let this emission is absorbed by elemental sin θ dθ dφ.
area dAn, a portion of hemisphere. The area dAn Rearranging eqn. (12.46), we get
subtends an angle dθ from the perpendicular line joining dQλ = Ibλ dA1cos θ (sin θ dθ dφ) (W/µm) ...(12.47)
dA1. The spectral emissive power associated with dA1
The solid angle subtended by dAn is
dA n dQ λ
dω = 2 dEλ = = Ibλ sin θ cos θ dθ dφ ...(12.48)
r dA 1
where the normal area, dAn = r2 sin θ dθ dφ If spectral and directional distribution of Ibλ is
∴ dω = sin θ dθ dφ known, then the spectral emissive power associated with
...(12.45) the emission into a hemisphere shown in Fig. 12.21 (b)
is given by
z z
The element dAn subtends
dw = dq df sin q φ =2π θ= π / 2
Its area is Ebλ = Ibλ sin θ cos θ dθ dφ (W/m2.µm)
φ =0 θ=0
2
(r) sin q dq df q r
...(12.49)
The total hemispherical emissive power Eb(W/m2)
is given by
dq
Eb =
Then
z λ=∞
λ=0
Ebλ dλ
f
df
dA1
Eb = z z z
λ=∞
λ=0
φ = 2π
φ=0
θ = π/2
θ=0
Ibλ (λ, φ, θ)
sin θ cos θ dθ dφ dλ ...(12.50)
(a) Radiation intensity through a unit sphere For a diffuse surface, the intensity of radiation is
independent of direction for such a surface
n Ibλ (λ, φ, θ) = Ibλ(λ),
2
dAn = r sin q dq df Then eqn. (12.50) is rearranged as
θ=π/2 θ = 2π λ=∞
rdq
dAn Eb = ∫θ = 0 ∫θ = 0 sin θ cos θ d θ dφ × ∫λ = 0 Ibλ ( λ ) dλ
...(12.51)
r sin q r The total intensity of blackbody radiation is
r defined as
q r sin q df λ=∞
dA1
Ib = ∫λ = 0 Ibλ ( λ ) dλ
dq dAn and integration of remaining part of eqn. (12.51), yields

dw = 2 to
r θ=π/2 φ = 2π
df ∫θ = 0 ∫φ = 0 sin θ cos θ dθ dφ
θ=π/2
= π ∫θ = 0 2 sin θ cos θ dθ = π
(b) Solid angle subtended by dAn at a point on dA1
Fig. 12.21 using in eqn. (12.51), we get
Eb = πIb ...(12.52)
The projected area on a plane normal to the line Thus the total emissive power of a black body is
joining dA1 and dAn = dA1 cos θ equal to π times the intensity of radiation (Ib).
n
12.8.4. Lambert Cosine Law
It states that the total emission from a surface in any
direction is directly proportional to the cosine of the q = 60
°
angle of the emission.
The angle of emission θ is the angle subtended
by the normal to the radiating surface and the direction
vector of emission of the receiving surface.
If En is total emissive power in normal direction,
then the emissive power is : Black body
at 1500 K
E = En cos θ ...(12.53)
It is true only for diffuse radiating surfaces. For Fig. 12.22. Schematic
the surfaces, obey Lambert cosine law, the intensity of From Table 12.2.
radiation in any direction is same, i.e.,
λ1T = 2 µm × 1500 K
In = I = const. ...(12.54)
= 3000 µm K → f0–2 = 0.273
Example 12.14. A surface emits as a blackbody at
λ2T = 4 µm × 1500 K
1500 K. Calculate the rate of emission per unit area, if
radiation corresponds to 0° ≤ θ ≤ 60° and wavelength = 6000 µm K → f0–4 = 0.738
interval 2 µm ≤ λ ≤ 4 µm. ∆Eb = 0.75 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (1500)4
Solution × (0.738 – 0.273)
Given : Black body emission = 100.16 × 103 W/m2. Ans.
Ts = 1500 K
λ1 = 2 µm, λ2 = 4 µm 12.9. RADIOSITY
π
φ1 = 0° and φ2 = 60° = Radiosity, J, is the total radiant energy leaving a surface
3
To find : Rate of emission per unit area. per unit area per unit time. The total radiant energy
leaving a surface consists of the emitted energy and the
Analysis : The emission from the black surface
reflected part of the incident energy shown in Fig. 12.23.
may be obtained by using eqn. (12.50) within limits
Thus, radiosity is defined by the relation.
λ1 = 2 µm to λ2 = 4 µm, θ = 0° to 2π, and φ = 0 to π/3.
∆Eb = z zz
4 µm
2 µm
For diffuse black body

0
2π π /3
0
Ibλ cos θ sin θ dθ dφ dλ
Radiosity
J = eEb + rG
z zz
Inc
de G
4 µm 2π π /3
itte d r
ide
∆Eb = I bλ dλ cos θ sin θ dθ dφ

b
E
Em lecte
nt
2 µm 0 0
G
z LMN
f
Re
4 µm
I bλ d λ 2 π
sin 2 θ OP π /3
=
2 µm 2 Q 0
z
Fig. 12.23. Definition of radiosity of a surface (specular
4 µm reflection not implied)
= 0.75 π I bλ dλ
2 µm J = ε Eb + ρG ...(12.55)
We know Ebλ = πIbλ . Thus where J = radiosity of the surface (W/m2),
∆Eb = 0.75 z 4 µm
2 µm
Ebλ dλ
ε = emissivity of the surface,
Eb = black body emissive power at the
z
= 0.75 Eb
4 µm
2 µm
E bλ d λ
Eb
temperature of the surface (W/m2),
ρ = reflectivity of the surface,
G = incident radiant flux (W/m2),
= 0.75 Eb (f0–4 – f0–2 )
For a gray, diffuse opaque surface (τ = 0), Analysis : (i) The radiosity of the surface
α + ρ = 1 or ρ = 1 – α J = εEb + ρG
and at thermal equilibrium For a gray, diffuse and opaque surface, α = ε
α=ε τ = 0, α + ρ = 1
Thus J = ε Eb + (1 – ε)G or ρ = 1 – α = 1 – 0.8 = 0.2
J − εEb ∴ J = α σ T4 + ρG
or G= ...(12.56)
1− ε = 0.8 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (373)4 + 0.2 × 1000
The total rate of energy leaving the surface = AJ
= 1078 W/m2. Ans.
The total rate of energy incident on the surface
(ii) The net heat transfer rate using eqn. (12.58)
= AG
Thus the net radiant energy leaving the surface Qnet = A(J – G)
Q = AJ – AG = A(J – G) = 0.1 × (1078 – 1000)
= 7.8 W/m2. Ans.
LM
J − εEb
=A J− =
OP
Aε(Eb − J) Alternatively using eqn. (12.57)
N
1− ε Q
1− ε
...(12.57) Qnet =
Aε(Eb − J)
1− ε
This equation is not valid for black surface for
which ε = α = 1 ; ρ = 0 [5.67 × 10 −8 × (373) 4 − 1078]
= 0.1 × 0.8 ×
For a black surface, J = Eb 1 − 0.8
Q = A(Eb – G) ...(12.58) 2
= 7.81 W/m . Ans.
Example 12.15. A gray, diffuse opaque surface (α = 0.8) (iii) For black surface ε = α = 1
is at 100°C and receives an irradiation 1000 W/m2. If (a) Radiosity J = Eb = σ T4
the surface area is 0.1 m2. Calculate
= 5.67 × 10–8 × (373)4
(i) Radiosity of the surface, and = 1097.5 W/m2. Ans.
(ii) Net radiative heat transfer rate from the (b) The heat transfer rate, eqn. (12.58)
surface.
Q = A(Eb – G)
(iii) Calculate above quantities, if surface is black.
= 0.1 × (1097.5 – 1000)
Solution = 9.753 W/m2. Ans.
Given : A gray, diffuse opaque surface Example 12.16. A plane , gray, diffuse and, opaque
α = 0.8, G = 1000 W/m2 surface (absorptivity = 0.7) with a surface area of 0.5 m2,
is maintained at 500°C and receives radiant energy at a
Ts = 100°C = 373 K, As = 0.1 m2.
rate of 10,000 W/m2. Determine per unit time
(i) The energy absorbed.
J (ii) The radiant energy emitted.
(iii) The total energy leaving the surface per unit
G
area.
(iv) The radiant energy emitted by the surface in
rG
b
the wave band 0.2 µm to 4 µm.

eE
(v) The net radiative heat transfer from the

surface.
Q
Solution
Fig. 12.24. Surface energy balance with radiant energy
Given : Plane, gray, diffuse, opaque surface
To find : α = 0.7
(i) Radiosity J, As(surface area) = 0.5 m2
(ii) Net heat transfer rate, G = 10000 W/m2
(iii) For black surface J and Qnet. Ts = 500°C = 773 K
λ2T = 4.0 × 773
Inc
ide = 3092 µm.K → f0 −λ 2 = 0.294
W
Eλ 1 − λ 2 = 0.7 × [0.294 – 0] × 5.67 × 10–8 × (773)4
nt
W
00
en
15
91
= 4166.2 W/m2.
er
70
y=
gy
y=
rg
Rate of radiant energy on surface area As = 0.5
=5
ne
rg
00
m2 is :
de
ne
0W
de
cte
= AEλ 1 − λ 2 = 0.5 × 4166.2
itte
fle
Re
Em
Energy absorbed = 3500 W = 2083.13 W. Ans.
(v) From an energy balance on the surface
from an external source
Net radiative heat transfer rate from the surface

= Total energy leaving the surface
3591 W
– Energy reaching the surface

= 0.5 × 17182 – 0.5 ×10000 = 3591 W. Ans.
12.10. SOLAR RADIATION
Fig. 12.25. Schematic for energy transactions on the surface The sun is our primary source of energy. The energy
coming out the sun is called solar energy and it reaches
To find :
to earth in the form of electromagnetic waves. The sun
(i) Rate of energy absorbed, is considered as a nuclear reactor, where the heat being
(ii) Emitted radiant energy, generated due to continuous fusion reaction of hydro-
(iii) Total radiant energy leaving the surface per gen atoms to form helium. The sun experiences very
unit area large temperature in its core region, but its tempera-
(iv) Emitted radiant energy in the wave band ture drops to approximately 5800 K in its outer region,
0.2 µm–4 µm due to continuous dissipation of energy by radiation.
(v) Q(net radiative heat transfer rate from the
surface). Normal
Analysis : (i) Rate of energy absorbed = αAG

ys
= 0.7 × 0.5 × 10000 = 3500 W. Ans. Earth’s Go = Gs cos q ra
atmosphere un
(ii) Rate of radiant energy emitted = A ε σ T4 S
q
(For a gray surface, ε = α = 0.7) Earth's
= 0.5 × 0.7 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (773)4 surface
= 7091 W. Ans.
(iii) Total energy flux leaving the surface is the
sum of the emitted energy flux and the reflected en-
ergy flux
J = εEb + ρG
where ρ = 1 – α = 1 – 0.7 = 0.3 Fig. 12.26. Solar radiation reaching the earth’s atmosphere,
solar constant Gs, and extraterrestrial solar irradiation G0
∴ Radiosity,
J = 0.7 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (773)4 + 0.3 × 10000 The sun is nearly spherical body of diameter of
1.392 × 106 km and a mass of 2 × 1030 kg. It is located at
= 17182 W/m2. Ans.
a mean distance of 1.496 × 108 km from the earth. The
(iv) Rate of radiant energy emitted in the wave
earth has its mean diameter of 1.27 × 104 km and its
band 0.2 µm to 4 µm is given by
surface gets only small fraction of sun’s energy, because,
E λ 1 − λ 2 = ε[ f0 − λ 2 − f0 − λ 1 ]Eb W/m2 the sun subtends only an angle of 32 minute at the
At λ1 and λ2, T = 773, from Table 12.2 earth’s surface. The intensity of solar radiation reaches
λ1T = 0.2 × 773 outside the earth’s atmosphere is almost constant. The
= 154.6 µm.K → f0 −λ 1 = 0.0 solar constant Gs is the rate at which the solar radiation
flux is received on a surface normal to the sun rays just 2500 Ultra-Visible
Infrared
outside the earth’s atmosphere, when the earth is its mean violet range
5800 K Black body
distance from the sun. The radiation coming from the
Solar irradiation
sun is equivalent to blackbody radiation. Using the
2000
Stefan Boltzmann law, the solar constant can be calcu-
lated as :
L r OP
Spectral irradiation, W/m .mm

2
G = M
2
sun Extraterrestrial solar radiation
σ Ts4 = 1353 W/m2 ...(12.59)
s
Nr Qorbit
1500
where, rsun = radius of sun = 6.9598 × 108 m. O3
rorbit = distance between sun and earth O2

= 1.496 × 1011 m. 1000
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2-K4, Stefan Boltzmann Earth’s surface
constant. H2O
H2O
Ts = effective temperature of sun = 5762 K
500
Due to very small eccentricity in the earth, the H2O H2O
O3
distance between the earth and sun varies throughout CO2
the year. Therefore, solar constant also varies from its
maximum value of 1399 W/m2 on December 21 to a H2O
minimum of 1310 W/m2 on June 21 and on any day of 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
year, it can be calculated as : Wavelength, mm
LM 360n OP Fig. 12.27. Spectral distribution of solar radiation
N
Gs = 1367 1 + 0.033 cos
365 Q
...(12.60)
The solar energy reaching the earth’s surface is
where n is the day of year. also weakened by scattering or reflection when it passes
The extraterrestrial solar irradiation G0 incident through the atmosphere. The scattering or reflection
normal to the outer surface of the earth’s atmosphere is occurs due to all gaseous molecules as well as particulate
calculated as : matter in the atmosphere. The radiation at wavelength
G0 = Gs cos θ (W/m2) ...(12.61) corresponding to violet and blue colours is scattered
most. These scattered radiation is redistributed in all
The spectral distribution of solar radiation on the
directions and gives bluish colour sky. The same
earth’s atmosphere and physical significance of Gs and
phenomenon is responsible for red sunrise and sunset.
G0 are illustrated in Fig. 12.27. The solar radiation
Early in the morning and late in evening, the sun rays
travels in atmosphere about 30 km outside the earth’s
pass through a larger thickness of atmosphere.
surface. As solar radiation passes through this
Therefore, the violet and blue colours of light experi-
atmosphere, it is absorbed and scattered by atmospheric
ence a large number of scattering and thus do not reach
material. The absorption occurs mainly due to presence
the earth’s surface. While the colours correspond to
of ozone, water vapours, CO2, NO2, CO, O2 and CH4 etc.
longer wavelength such as yellow, orange and red reach
The ozone absorbs complete ultraviolet radiation at
the earth’s atmosphere and making sunset and sunrise
wavelength below 0.3 µm and considerably in the range
as reddish. Similarly, the red traffic light can be seen
of 0.3 to 0.4 µm and some radiation in the visible range.
from longer distance as compared to green light.
Thus the ozone layer in the upper regions of atmosphere
guards biological systems on the earth from the harmful 12.10.1. Solar Radiation on the Earth
ultraviolet radiation. In turn the ozone layer must be The Fig. 12.28 shows the distribution of solar energy on
protected from the destructive chemicals commonly used the earth’s surface. Actually 45% of sun’s energy reaches
as refrigerants, cleaning agents and propellants in the the earth’s surface. The lower left hand figure shows
aerosol cans. The carbon dioxide and water vapour how this sun energy is in turn returned to atmosphere
absorb mainly longer wavelength radiation (infrared and space.
radiation).
The solar energy reaches the earth surface is sum
As a results of these absorption, the solar energy of direct and scattered (diffused) components. The part
reaching the earth surface is weakened considerably. of solar radiation that reaches the earth’s surface
Its absorption is large as 950 W/m2 on a clear day and without being scattered or absorbed is called the direct
much less on cloudy or smoggy days. solar radiation GD. The scattered part (diffuse solar
radiation Gd) reaches the earth surface uniformly from 4

Gsky = σ Tsky W/m2.K ...(12.63)
all directions and it varies from about 10% of total on
clear day to almost 100% on totally cloudy day. Then where Tsky = effective atmospheric temperature. It
the total solar radiation that reaches the horizontal ranges from 230 K for cold, clear sky conditions to a
earth’s surface per unit area is shown in Fig. 12.29 and high of 285 K for warm, cloudy-sky conditions.
is expressed as :
12.10.3. Green House Effect
Sensible heat transfer The surface of the earth warms up during the day as
to atmosphere
a result of absorption of solar radiation and cools down
during night by radiating its energy back into deep
45%
45% is 33% is atmosphere as infrared radiation. The sun emits most
reaches
the earth’s
transmitted reflected of its energy in shorter wavelength (λ = 0.3 – 3 µm),
back to
Net Evaporation surface
to the earth
directly and space while earth’s surface and other objects are relatively
radiation by diffuse at much lower temperature, and thus emit radiation
from radiation 22% is
surface absorbed in in longer wavelength infrared regions (λ > 5 µm). The
the
atmosphere constituents of atmosphere, carbon dioxide, water
vapour, methane, and pollutants are practically
The flow of energy from the earth’s Radiation that reaches the transparent for shorter wavelength radiation, while
surface back to and through the outer atmosphere from the sun
earth’s atmosphere they are opaque for longer wavelength radiation.
Therefore, they easily pass on the short wavelength
Fig. 12.28. The approximate distribution of sun’s radiation that the earth receives from the sun, but
energy to the earth’s surface
they absorb the longer wavelength radiation remitted
Gsolar = GD cos θ + Gd ...(12.62) by the surface of the earth, when it cools. This absorbed
where θ is the angle of incidence of direct solar radiation. energy is once again reradiated to the earth surface
Further, the quantity of solar energy reaching a Fig. 12.30. In this process an additional amount of
surface on the earth depends on its orientation angle in heat energy is retained within the lower atmosphere,
relation to sun, the hour of the day, the day of year and thus causing a slight temperature increase of the earth.
latitude of the place and atmospheric conditions. In the Such warming up and remission of radiation is called
early morning and late afternoon, the solar radiation the green house effect and these effects eventually
reaches the earth surface follows an oblique, longer path resulting in global warming.
through atmosphere thus reduces the intensity of
radiation. Solar
radiation
Normal
e
ous
en h
Diffuse Gre
solar ct
re r
radiation Di la Infrared radiation
so n
at
io Fig. 12.30. Green house traps energy by allowing solar
di radiation to enter but not allowing infrared
ra
2 radiation to leave
Gd W/m
2 q GD W/m
The coastal areas are humid and therefore, there
is no drastic change between day and night temperature,
Fig. 12.29. Direct and diffuse radiation incident because the humidity acts as a barrier in the path of
on horizontal earth’s surface infrared radiation coming from the earth’s surface. A
similar trend is also followed for large pollutant places,
12.10.2. Atmospheric Emission where CO2 affects the natural cooling process. In clean
Since the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere areas with clear sky such as deserts, there is large
undergoes through absorption and scattering, thus the variation in day and night temperature, because absence
atmospheric emission is due to temperature of gas of such barriers for infrared radiation. The causes of
constituents like CO2 and H2O molecules and suspended green house effect are :
particle in atmospheric. The emission of atmosphere to 1. Excessive deforestation,
the earth surface Gsky can be obtained as: 2. Industrialisation and burning of fuel.
The average global temperature has been risen (ii) Flat reflector. It has low absorptivity and
up by about 0.3°C to 0.6°C over last 100 years due to transmissivity over entire spectrum of wavelength, such
green house effect (Fig. 12.31) as a result of a surface reflects most of irradiation and is obtained by
concentration of CO2, methane, CFCs etc. in the bare or polished metals and foils, electroplated or
atmosphere and the rate of rise is increasing alarmingly vacuum deposited metal coatings, aluminium films and
due to increasing atmospheric pollution. In this metallic paints.
directions, some corrective measures are taken seriously. (iii) Solar absorber. It is a truly selective
The production of CFCs has been banned worldwide. surface, and it absorbs low wavelength solar irradiation
Pollution norms are set to automobiles, and industries. but highly reflective (with low emission) in the infrared
However, the efforts put for normal climatic conditions range. Such surfaces are commonly used in solar
are not sufficient and need to be more effective enhance, collector surfaces and for satellite temperature control.
because a small increase in global temperature may lead The typical designs use thin oxide coatings, sprayed or
to series of catastrophic consequences. baked on finishes and vacuum deposited films.
(iv) Solar reflector. It has high absorptivity and
0.8 emission in infrared range, but reflects most of the low
wavelength solar irradiation. It is obtained by white or
0.6
light coloured paints, enamels, or ceramic coatings or
Temperature anomaly, °C
0.4 anodised aluminium. Such surfaces cool the exterior

structure such as building, a fuel tanks or cryogenic
0.2 containers by reflecting solar irradiation and emitting
low temperature heat from within.
0.0
– 0.2
1.0 1.0
– 0.4
Annual mean
5-year mean
– 0.6
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 al al
Year
Fig. 12.31. Global surface temperature over last 120 years

0 3 mm l 0 3 mm l
12.10.4. Selective Surfaces
(a) Flat absorber (b) Flat reflector
Most of the sun’s energy lies at wavelength near the
visible region of electromagnetic spectrum and most of
the radiation from the objects and earth’s surface is
1.0 1.0
coming on much longer infrared wavelength. Thus
engineers are often interested to use a selective radiating
surface to promote specific spectral or directional
characteristics. The Table 12.4 shows some infrared al al
emittance and solar absorptance for several materials. Solar infrared
region
There are four basic types of selective surfaces. region
(i) Flat absorber, (ii) flat reflector, (iii) solar 0 3 mm l 0 3 mm

absorber, and (iv) solar reflector.
(c) Solar absorber (d) Solar reflector
(i) Flat absorber. It has high absorptivity over
entire spectrum of wavelength. It is intended to capture Fig. 12.32. Selective radiating surfaces
all incident radiation. The black paints, enamels and The surface shown in Fig. 12.32 are assumed to
black or dark oxides or black anodised coating are some be opaque. Transparent or semitransparent material can
flat absorber. also be selective with somewhat different designs.
TABLE 12.4. Solar absorbance and infrared To find :

emittance for several surfaces near 300 K (i) Useful heat removal rate per unit area, W/m2.
Surface αsolar ε
(ii) Efficiency of the collector.
Assumptions :
Aluminium, pure 0.09 0.1 (i) Steady state conditions.
Carbon black in acrylic binder 0.94 0.83
(ii) Bottom of the collector is well insulated.
Copper, polished 0.3 0.04
Selective solar absorbers (iii) Diffuse absorber surface.
Black Cr on Ni plate 0.95 0.09 (iv) Sky radiation is in approximately same
CuO on Cu (Ebanol C) 0.90 0.16 spectral region that of surface emission i.e.,
Nickel black on steel 0.81 0.17 ε = αsky = 0.1.
Sputtered cermet on steel 0.96 0.16 Analysis : (i) The rate of incoming energy on the
Selective solar reflectors absorber surface/m2
Magnesium oxide 0.14 0.7
Snow 0.2–0.35 0.82 E′in
= αsGs + αsky Gsky
White paint A
Acrylic 0.26 0.90 = 0.95 × 750 + 0.1 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (263)4
Zinc oxide 0.12–0.18 0.93 = 739.62 W/m2
The energy outgoing the absorber surface per unit
Example 12.17. A flat plate solar collector with no cover area
has a selective absorber surface with ε = 0.1 and αs = 0.95.
At a particular time of the day, the absorber surface E ′out
= qconv + qrad + quse
temperature Ts is 120°C, when the solar irradiation is A
750 W/m2, the effective sky temperature is – 10°C and = h(Ts – T∞) + E + quse
ambient air temperature T∞ is 30°C. Assume the natural = 0.22 × (Ts – T∞)4/3 + ε σ Ts4 + quse
convection is given by = 0.22 × (120 – 30)4/3 + 0.1 × 5.67
q = 0.22(Ts – T∞ )4/3 W/m2. K.
× 10–8 × (393 K)4 + quse
Calculate the useful heat removal rate (W/m2)
= 88.73 + 135.25 + quse = 223.98 + quse
from the collector for these conditions. What is the
corresponding efficiency of the collector ? In steady state conditions,
Solution E′in E′
= out
Given: A flat plate solar collector with its A A
operating conditions. or 739.62 = 223.98 + quse
ε = 0.1, αs = 0.95 or quse = 515.65 W/m2. Ans.
Ts = 120°C = 393 K, T∞ = 30°C (ii) The collector efficiency is defined as the
Tsky = – 10°C = 263 K, Gs = 750 W/m2 fraction solar radiation extracted as useful energy.
and relation for calculation of h.
quse 515.65
η= = = 0.687
2
Gs 750
Gs = 750 W/m
− 68.7%.
~ Ans.
Tsky = – 10°C
Gsky Sky
Example 12.18. The white paint on a roof as a selective
solar absorber (αs = 0.26). Consider now a bare roof under
= 0.1 Air
s = 0.95 T
= 30°C a sunlight sky. The solar radiation on the plane of the
Ts = 120°C h = 0.22 (Ts – T
)
4/3 roof is 600 W/m2, the air temperature is 35°C, and a
light breeze produces a convective heat transfer coeffi-
cient of h = 8 W/m2.K. The sky temperature is 18°C.
2
Find the temperature of the roof, if it is painted with
quse W/m either white acrylic paint or a non-selective black paint
Fig. 12.33. Schematic having ε = 0.9.
Solution Solution
Given : A roof surface with operating condition Given : A satellite around the earth ;
Gs = 600 W/m2, T∞ = 35°C = 308 K Gs = 1500 W/m2,
2
h = 8 W/m .K, αs = 0.26 To find : Satellite surface temperature if
Tsky = 18°C = 291 K, ε = 0.9 (i) αs = 0.2 and ε = 0.1
for non-selective black or white acrylic paint. (ii) Surface of the satellite is gray, and
To find : The surface temperature of roof with (iii) αs/ε ratio for Ts = 30°C.
(i) White acrylic paint, and
Analysis : For steady state conditions, the energy
(ii) Non-selective black paint. balance
Assumptions : Heat gain by incident radiation = Heat lost by
(i) Steady state conditions. emission
(ii) No heat transfer to interior of roof. αs Aproj G = εAs σ Ts4
(iii) For non-selective black paint αs = ε. where Aproj = projected area of satellite for solar
Analysis : In steady state condition, the energy irradiation = πr2
balance yields to As = surface area of satellite for emission = 4πr2
Incident (solar + sky radiation) energy on the roof
Therefore,
surface = Heat loss by (convection + radiation) from the
(i) 0.2 × πr2 × 1500 =0.1 × 4πr2 × 5.67 × 10–8 Ts4
roof surface
or Ts4 = 1.3227 × 1010
For 1 m2 surface area
4 = h(T – T ) + ε σ T 4 or Ts = 339.13 K = 66.13°C. Ans.
αsGs + ε σ Tsky s ∞ s
(ii) For gray surface α = ε = 0.2
(i) For white acrylic paint αs = 0.26, ε = 0.9
0.2 × πr2 × 1500 = 0.2 × 4πr2 × 5.67
0.26 × 600 + 0.9 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (291)4
× 10–8 Ts4
= 8 × (Ts – 308) + 0.9 × 5.67 × 10–8 × Ts4 4 9
or Ts = 6.6137 × 10
or 5.103 × 10–8 Ts4 + 8Ts – 2986 = 0
or Ts = 285.17 K
or Ts4 + 156.77 × 106 Ts – 5.851 × 1010 = 0
= 12.17°C. Ans.
It is a transcendental equation and its solution
(iii) For given temperature
by iterative technique converge to
Ts = 30°C = 303 K
Ts = 312 K = 39°C. Ans.
αs × πr2 × 1500 = ε × 4πr2 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (303)4
(ii) For non-selective black paint, αs = ε = 0.9 and
then above equation leads to or αs/ε = 1.27. Ans.
Ts4 + 156.77 × 106 Ts – 6.6038 × 1010 = 0 Example 12.20. In the process of estimating the emission
Its solution converges to from the sun, it may be treated as blackbody with the
surface temperature of 5800 K at a mean distance of
Ts = 338K = 65°C. Ans. 15 × 1010 m from the earth. The diameter of the sun is
Example 12.19. An artificial spherical satellite flies 1.4 × 109 m and that of the earth is 12.8 × 106 m.
around the earth. Calculate the temperature of the Estimate the following :
satellite surface, assuming that there is no heat sources (i) The total energy emitted by the sun.
and surface temperature is uniform all over the surface. (ii) The emission received per m2 just outside the
The solar radiation reflected from the earth and earth’s surface.
radiation emitted from the earth should also be ignored. (iii) The total energy received by the earth, if no
(i) If αs = 0.2 and ε = 0.1 ; radiation is blocked by the earth’s atmosphere.
(ii) If surface of the satellite is gray ; (iv) The energy received by a 1.5 m × 1.5 m, solar
collector, whose normal is inclined at 45° to the sun.
(iii) Find the ratio αs/ε , when the temperature of
The energy loss through the atmosphere is 40% and the
the satellite surface becomes 30°C.
diffused radiation is 20% of the direct radiation.
The incident solar radiation is 1500 W/m2. (N.M.U., Nov. 1999)
Solution = 4π × (15 × 1010 m)2 = 2.8274 × 1023 m2

Given : Average solar constant for determination The radiation received per m2 outside the earth’s
of temperature of sun surface
Tsun = 5800 K, Dsun = 1.4 × 109 m
10 Q 3.95 × 10 26
rorbit = 15 × 10 m, Dearth = 12.8 × 106 m Gs = =
A orbit 2.8274 × 10 23
A = 1.5 × 1.5 = 2.25 m2, φ 2 = 45°,
Energy loss through the atmosphere = 40% = 1397 W/m2. Ans.
Diffuse radiation = 20% of direct radiation. (iii) The earth may be assumed as a spherical body
To find : and energy received by the earth will be proportional
to the projected area i.e., area of the earth ;
(i) Total energy emitted by the sun.
(ii) Emission received by the earth per m2, just Energy received by the earth
outside the earth surface. = Gs × Aearth
(iii) Total energy received by the earth, if no = 1397 × (π/4) × (12.8 × 106 m)2
radiation is blocked by the earth’s atmosphere. = 1.797 × 1017 W. Ans.
(iv) Energy received by solar collector.
(iv) Energy received by a solar collector :
Assumptions :
The direct energy blocked by atmosphere = 40%
(i) The negligible emissive power of earth in
comparison of sun. Hence, the direct energy reaching the earth
surface = 60% = 0.6 Gs
(ii) No convection and conduction effects.
= 0.6 × 1397 = 838.2 W/m2
9
Dsun = 1.4 × 10 m
n2 Dearth The diffuse radiation
= 12.8
6 = 0.2 × 838.2 = 167.64 W/m2
f2 × 10 m
The total radiation energy reaching the collector
dA2
rorbit = 15 × 10
10
m = Projected area of collector (cos φ2)
f1
× (838.2 + 197.64) W/m2
n1
dA1 = 1.5 × 1.5 cos (45°) × (1005.84)
Fig. 12.34 = 1600.28 W. Ans.
Analysis : (i) Total energy emitted by the sun :
2
Surface area of the sun = 4 π rsun 2
= π D sun 12.11. SUMMARY
= π × (1.4 × 109 m)2 = 6.1575 × 1018 m2 The radiation refers to the energy emitted in form of
The energy emitted by the sun, electromagnetic waves by the bodies because of their
4
temperature.The radiation energy emitted in
Q = σATsun = 5.67 × 10–8 × 6.1575 wavelength between λ ≈ 0.1 and λ ≈ 100 µm is referred
× 1018 × (5800)4 thermal radiation. The sun emits thermal radiation at
= 3.95 × 1026 W. Ans. an effective surface temperature of 5760 K and bulk of
this energy lies between λ = 0.1 to λ = 3 µm, therefore
(ii) Emission received by 1 m2, just outside the
earth’s atmosphere : this spectrum is referred as the solar radiation. The
radiation emitted by the sun is in wavelength between
The sun emits radiation in all direction over a
λ = 0.4 to λ = 0.76 µm, is visible to human eye, therefore,
distance of 15 × 1010 m from the earth. The orbit area,
this spectrum is referred as the visible radiation (light).
just out side the earth’s atmosphere :
The glossary of radiation terms and their
Aorbit = 4π (rorbit)2
definition are given in Table 12.5.
TABLE 12.5. Glossary of the radiation terms
Terms Definition
Absorption The process of converting the radiation intercepted by the matter to internal thermal energy.
Absorptivity, α Fraction of the incident radiation absorbed by the surface.
Black body An ideal body which absorbs all incident radiation and emits maximum energy.
Black body radiation Fraction of radiation energy emitted by a black body at temperature T in
function wavelength band λ = 0 to λ.
Diffuse A surface, whose properties are independent of directions.
Directional The property pertains to a particular direction, denoted by θ.
Emission The process of radiation production by the surface at a finite temperature.
Emissive power, E The rate of radiant energy emitted by a surface in all direction per unit area of the surface. It
is measured in W/m2.
Emissivity, ε Ratio of the emissive power of a surface to the emissive power of the blackbody at the same
temperature.
Gray surface A surface for which the spectral absorptivity and emissivity are independent of the wavelength
over the spectral region of the surface irradiation and emission.
Green house effect The warming up process due to remission between earth’s surface and atmosphere.
Hemispherical The quantity pertains to all directions above the surface.
Irradiation The rate at which the radiation is incident on a surface from all direction per unit area of the
surface, G(W/m2).
Kirchhoff ’s law Relation between emission and absorption properties of a surface at thermal equilibrium.
Planck’s law It is associated with spectral distribution of emission from a black body.
Radiation intensity The rate of radiation energy propagation in a particular direction, per unit area normal to the
direction, per unit solid angle about the direction, I (W/m2.sr).
Radiosity Rate at which energy leaving the surface due to emission and reflection in all directions per
unit area per unit time, J (W/m2).
Reflection The process of redirection of radiation energy incident on a surface.
Reflectivity, ρ The fraction of incident radiation energy reflected by the surface.
Semitransparent It is a medium in which radiation absorption is the volumetric process.
Solar energy It is energy coming out the sun.
Solar constant Rate at which the solar radiation flux is received on a surface normal to sun’s rays just outside
the earth’s atmosphere, Gs(W/m2).
Solid angle, ω Ratio of area of spherical surface enclosed by a conical surface with vertex of the cone at the
centre of sphere to square of radius of sphere. It is measured in straradian (sr).
Spectral It refers to a single wavelength (monochromatic) radiation. The quantity is denoted by subscript
λ.
Spectral distribution It refers to properties variation with wavelength.
Specular It refers to the surface for which the angle of reflected radiation is equal to the angle of incident
radiation.
Stefan Boltzmann law The emissive power of the blackbody is directly proportional to fourth power of the absolute
temperature ; Eb = σ T4, where σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4, is Stefan Boltzmann constant, and T is
an absolute temperature in K.
Thermal radiation It is the electromagnetic energy emitted by a matter at a finite temperature in the spectral
region from approximately from 0.1 to 100 µm.
Total solar radiation Sum of direct and diffuse solar radiation.
Transmission It is process of the thermal radiation passing through the matter.
Transmissivity It is the fraction of radiation energy transmitted by the matter.
Wien’s displacement Relation between wavelength λmax and absolute temperature T at
law which Ebλ reaches a maximum ; λmax T = 2897.6 µm.K.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 26. Explain why sky is blue in the day and sunset is
yellow orange ?
1. What is an electromagnetic wave ? How does it differs 27. What is an effective sky temperature ?
from a sound wave ?
28. What is a green house effect ? Discuss its importance.
2. What are the ranges of wavelengths of
electromagnetic waves covering ultraviolet, visible, 29. Why the ozone layer in the atmosphere must be
infrared and thermal radiation ? protected ?
3. What is the speed of energy propagation between 30. How does solar radiation attenuate as it passes
two bodies when the space between them is through the atmosphere ?
evacuated ?
4. What do you mean by ultraviolet, visible and infrared PROBLEMS
radiation ?
1. Calculate the heat flux emitted due to thermal
5. What is a black body ? What are its properties ? Why
radiation from a black surface at 6000°C. At what
does a cavity with a small hole behave as a black
wavelength is the monochromatic emissive power
body ?
maximum and what is the maximum value ?
6. Why are microwave oven suitable for cooking ? [Ans. 87, 798 kW/µ2 ; 0.462 µm ; 1.25 × 1014 W/m2]
7. What are the total and spectral emissive power of a 2. A 10 cm diameter peephole in the side of a furnace
black body ? acts as a blackbody. The furnace interior is at 500°C,
and the surrounding temperature is 25°C, what is
8. What do you mean by spectral, terms used in thermal
the net radiant heat loss from the furnace through
radiation ?
the peephole ? [Ans. 155.2 W]
9. State Planck’s distribution law and list down its
3. Estimate the rate at which the sun emits the radiant
features.
energy. What fraction of this energy is absorbed by
10. What is Wien’s displacement law ? Derive an the earth and in what amount ? If effective
expression for its relation. What is a diffuse body ? temperature of the sun is 560 K and surface of the
sun is treated black. The diameter of the sun is
11. State and explain Stefan Boltzmann law. Derive an
1.39 × 10 6 km. The diameter of the earth is
expression for total emissive power of a black body.
1.27 × 104 km and the distance between sun and
12. What is radiation intensity ? How do you distinguish earth is 1.5 × 108 km.
between spectral emissive power and spectral
[Ans. 3.81 × 1026 W ; 4.48 × 10–10 ; 1.71 × 1017 W]
radiation intensity ?
4. A cubical body of 20 cm side at 1200 K is suspended
13. What do you mean by spectral, total emissivity ?
in air. Assuming body closely approximates a
14. Discuss the effect of temperature on emissivity of blackbody, Calculate (a) rate of radiation energy
surfaces. emitted from the body, in W, (b) spectral black body
15. What is directional emissivity ? emissive power at a wavelength of 4 µm.
16. Explain Kirchhoff ’s law. [Ans. (a) 28.21 × 103 W, (b) 19.23 × 103 W/m2.µm]
17. What do you mean by gray body approximation ? 5. The sun can be treated as a blackbody at an effective
surface temperature of 5762 K. Determine the
18. What is a blackbody radiation function ? Why is it fraction of radiation energy emitted by sun that
important ? falls in
19. Define the terms irradiation and radiosity. Establish (a) ultraviolet range (λ = 0.01 mm–0.4 mm), and
a relationship between them.
(b) visible range (λ = 0.4 µm–0.76 µm). Also calculate
20. Define solid angle. the wavelength at which the emission of radiation
21. Define total emissive power and intensity of from the sun reaches a maximum value.
radiation and show that E = πI. [Ans. (a) 0.121, (b) 0.425, 0.503 µm]
22. State and explain Lambert cosine law. 6. A balck body at 727°C emits radiation. Calculate the
wavelength at which the radiation from the body
23. Define absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity.
becomes maximum. [Ans. 2.897 µm]
24. What do you mean by opaque body and white body ?
7. The sun is located at 150 × 106 km from the earth
25. What is solar constant ? How is it used to determine and it has radius of 0.7 × 106 km and its temperature
effective temperature of sun ? How would the value of 6000 K. Calculate the mean temperature of earth.
of solar constant change, if the distance between the Assume that the rate of radiative heat transfer from
earth and sun doubled ?
the sun to the earth is equal to rate of radiant R| ε = 0.3 0 ≤ λ < 1.5 µm
S| ε
1
transfer from earth to outer space at 0°C. Consider = 0.5 1.5 ≤ λ < 4 µm
ελ = 2
earth and sun as black body. [Ans. 289.82 K]
Tε 3 = 0.4 4 µm ≤ λ < ∞
8. A gray body at 2500 K has total emissive power of
Calculate
2.0 × 106 W/m2. What is maximum spectral emissive
power and at what wavelength does it occur ? (i) Total hemispherical emissivity,
(ii) Total hemispherical emissive power,
[Ans. 1.145 × 107 W/m2, 1.16 µm]
(iii) The average wavelength at which the body has
9. Radiant energy with an intensity of 700 W/m2 strikes maximum emissive power.
a flat plate normally. The absorptivity is twice the [Ans. (i) 0.445, (ii) 2.523 W/m2, (iii) 2.898 µm]
transmissivity and 2.9 times its reflectivity. 14. A pipe carrying steam runs in a large room and exposed
Determine the rate of absorption, transmission and to air at 30°C. The pipe surface temperature is 200°C.
reflection of energy in W/m2. Diameter of the pipe is 20 cm. If the total heat loss per
[Ans. 379.5 W/m2, 189.7 W/m2, 130.8 W/m2] metre length of the pipe is 1.9193 kW/m, determine
the emissivity of the pipe surface.
10. A black body is at 1000°C ; calculate
Given that
(a) The wavelength at which the body has the
NuD = 0.53(GrD Pr)1/4
maximum spectral emissive power, and the cor-
responding emissive power. and air properties at 115°C are
(b) The total emissive power of the black body. kf = 0.03306 W/m.K, ν = 24.93 × 10–6 m2/s,
Pr = 0.687. [Ans. 0.8]
(c) The fraction of total radiant energy emission
15. The emissivity of a tungsten filament can be
between the wavelength 2.0 and 4.5 µm.
approximated to be 0.5 for radiation at wavelength
(d) The percentage reduction in the emissive power less than, 1 µm and 0.15 for radiation at greater than
when the temperature of the body falls down to 1 µm. Calculate the average emissivity of the
900°C. filament at (a) 1500 K, and (b) 3000 K. Also deter-
(e) Hemispherical emissive power. mine the absorptivity and reflectivity of the filament
at both temperature.
[Ans. (a) 2.276 µm, (b) 1.489 × 105 W/m2,
16. Solar irradiation of 1100 W/m2 is incident on a large
(c) 0.5422, (d) 28%, (e) 1.489 × 105 W/m2]
flat horizontal metal roof on a day when air flowing
11. A black body has a total emissive power of over the roof causing a heat transfer coefficient of
1000 W/m2, calculate 25 W/m2.K. The outside air temperature is 27°C, the
(a) Its surface temperature metal surface absorptivity for solar radiation is 0.6,
and the metal surface emissivity is 0.2. If roof is well
(b) The wavelength above which (i) 50% (ii) 75%
insulated from below, calculate the roof temperature
radiant energy occurs, and
under steady state condition. [Ans. 48.5°C]
(c) The wavelength at which the body has maximum
17. Consider an opaque, horizontal flat plate, that is well
spectral emissive power.
insulated on its backside. The irradiation on the plate
[Ans. (a) 364.4 K, (b) (i) 9.45 µm, (ii) 11.24 µm, is 2500 W/m2, of which 500 W/m2 is reflected. The
(c) 7.95 µm] plate is at 227°C and has an emissive power of
12. The spectral emissivity function of an opaque surface 1200 W/m2. Air at 127°C flow over the plate with
at 1000 K is approximated by h = 15 Wm2.K. Calculate emissivity, absorptivity, re-
flectivity and radiosity of the plate. What is the net
R| ε = 0.4 0 ≤ λ < 2 µm heat transfer rate per unit area ?
S| ε
1
ελ = 2 = 0.7 2 µm ≤ λ < 6 µm
Tε 3 = 0.3 6 µm ≤ λ < ∞ [Ans. ε = 0.338, α = 0.80, ρ = 0.2,
J = 1700 W/m2, q = – 700 W/m2 ]
Calculate average emissivity and the emissive power
18. A 10 cm diameter spherical ball emits radiation at a
of the surface. [Ans. 0.575, 32.6 kW/m2]
rate of 30 W when its surface temperature is 400 K.
13. The spectral emissivity for a gray surface at 1000 K Calculate the average emissivity of the ball at this
is approximated as temperature. [Ans. 0.658]
19. A surface at 365 K has an absorptivity of αs = 0.85 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
for solar radiation and an emissivity 0.5 at room
temperature. The direct and diffuse components of 1. J.A. Duffy and W.A. Backman, ‘‘Solar Energy
solar radiation are 350 and 400 W/m2, respectively. Thermal Process’’ Wiley, New York, 1974.
The direct radiation makes and angle of 30° with 2. Rehsenow W.M, J.P. Harnett and E.N. Ganic, eds.
normal of the surface. Taking the effective sky tem- ‘‘Handbook of Heat Transfer’’, 2/e, McGraw Hill,
perature of 280 K, calculate the net rate of radiation NewYork, 1985.
to the surface at that time. 3. F. Krieth and M.S. Bohn, ‘‘Principles of Heat
20. Solar radiation is incident on the outer surface of a Transfer’’, 5th ed. PWS Pub. Company, 1997.
spaceship at a rate of 1320 W/m2. The surface has 4. J.P. Holman, ‘‘Heat Transfer’’, 7th ed. McGraw Hill,
an absorptivity of 0.1 for solar radiation and an New York, 1990.
emissivity of 0.8 at room temperature. The outer 5. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, ‘‘Introduction to
surface radiates heat into a space at 0 K. If there is Heat Transfer’’, 2/e, John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
no heat transfer to the spaceship, calculate the 6. M.N. Ozisik, ‘‘Heat Transfer–A Basic Approach’’,
equilibrium temperature of the surface. McGraw Hill, New York, 1985.
7. Y. Bayazitoglu and M.N. Ozisik, ‘‘Elements of Heat
[Ans. 232.3 K]
Transfer’’, McGraw Hill, New York, 1988.
21. A central heating radiator has a surface temperature 8. Suryanarayana N.V., ‘‘Engineering Heat Transfer’’,
of 70°C and heats a room maintained at 20°C. West Pub. Co. New York, 1998.
Calculate the contribution of convection and 9. F.M. White, ‘‘Heat and Mass Transfer’’, Addison-
radiation to heat transfer from the radiator. Wesley, Reading, MA, 1998.
Use following correlation for determination of 10. M. Jacob, ‘‘Heat Transfer’’, Vol. 1, Wiley, New York,
natural convection coefficient. 1949.
NuL = 0.118(GrL Pr)1/3 11. L.C. Thomas, ‘‘Heat Transfer’’, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982.
The properties of fluid in the room are
12. Chapman Alan. J., ‘‘Fundamentals of Heat Transfer’’,
ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, µ = 1.8 × 10–5 kg/ms
Macmillan, New York.
kf = 0.026 W/m.K, Pr = 0.71
13. Christopher Long, ‘‘Essential Heat Transfer’’,
[Ans. 634 W/m2] Addison Wesley Longman, 2001.
22. The spectral emissivity as a function of an opaque 14. McAdams W.M., ‘‘Heat Transmission’’, 3rd ed.
surface at 800 K is approximated by step function McGraw Hill, New York, 1954.
and is given below :
15. Jacob M. and G.A. Hawkins, ‘‘Elements of Heat
ε1 = 0.3 for 0 ≤ λ ≤ 3 µm
Transfer’’, 3rd ed. Wiley, New York, 1957.
ελ = ε2 = 0.8 for 3 µm ≤ λ ≤ 7 µm
16. John H. Lienhard IV and J.H. Lienhard, ‘‘A Heat
ε3 = 0.1 for 7 µm ≤ λ ≤ ∞ . Transfer Textbook’’, 3/e, Phlogiston Press, 2003.
Calculate the average emissivity of the surface and
17. Robert Siegel and John R. Howell, ‘‘Thermal
the emissive power.
Radiation Heat Transfer’’, 3/e, Hemisphere Pub.
[Ans. 0.5206, 12.09 × 103 W/m2] Corporation, 1992.
Radiation Exchange
between Surfaces 13
13.1. Radiation View Factor—View factor integral—The view factor relations—The cross string method. 13.2. Black body Radiation
Exchange. 13.3. Radiation from Cavities. 13.4. Radiation Heat Exchange between Diffuse, Gray Surfaces—The net radiation exchange
by a surface—Radiation exchange between two gray surfaces—Radiation heat exchange between two parallel infinite planes. 13.5. The
Radiation Exchange between Three Surfaces Enclosure. 13.6. Radiation Heat Transfer in Three Surface Enclosure. 13.7. Radiation
Shields. 13.8. Temperature Measurement of a Gas by Thermocouple: Combined Convective and Radiation Heat Transfer
13.9. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.
In the previous chapter, our discussion was restricted View factor,

to radiation properties, physical relation, and radiation Radiation energy leaving surface i and
that reaches the surface j directly
processes that occur at a single surface. In this chapter, Fi–j =
we will consider the radiation heat exchange between Total energy leaving the surfaces i
two or more surfaces. Such type of radiation exchange Therefore, the view factor F1 – 2 represents the
fraction of radiation energy leaving surface 1 and that
depends on the surface geometries, surface orientation
strikes the surface 2 and view factor F2–1 represents
as well as their temperatures and radiative properties.
the fraction of radiation energy leaving surface 2 and
We will consider that the surfaces are separated by non- that strikes the surface 1 directly. For a special case
participating medium. Such medium neither emits, Fi – i = the fraction of radiation energy leaving
absorbs nor scatters any amount of radiation energy. surface i that strikes itself directly.
Moreover, such medium has no effect on radiative heat
13.1.1. View Factor Integral
transfer between bodies.
Initially, the geometrical features of radiating Consider the arbitrarily oriented surfaces A1 and A2 of
surfaces is considered by introducing a new parameter, Fig. 13.1. The elemental areas on each surface dA1 and
dA2 are joined by a line of length s, which form the angles
called the view factor. Then radiation heat transfer
β1 and β2, with the surface normals n1 and n2,
between blackbodies and thereafter between diffuse,
respectively. The value of s, β1 and β2 may vary with
gray surfaces are discussed. position of the elemental area on A1 and A2.
A2,T2
13.1 RADIATION VIEW FACTOR
b2 dA2
It is also known as shape factor, angle factor, geometric
factor and configuration factor. It is purely a function
geometry of two surfaces, the orientation of one surface n2
with respect to other and the space between the two dQnet = dQ1 – 2 – dQ2 – 1
radiating surfaces. It is independent of surface proper- n1

ties and temperature. b1 Distance of heat travels = s
The view factor of surface i with respect to surface

j is denoted by Fi – j and is defined as the ratio of the
A1, T1
radiation energy leaving surface i and that reaches the dA1
surface j directly, to the total energy leaving the Fig. 13.1. Radiation heat exchange between two elemental
surface i. surfaces of area dA1 and dA2
434
RADIATION EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 435
The projection of dA1 on the line joining the centre β2 = angle between normal to surface A2 and
is line joining dA2 and dA1.
dA1 cos β1 The value of view factor ranges between zero and
From the definition of radiation intensity, the rate one.
at which radiation energy leaving dA1 and strikes the Either eqn. (13.1) or eqn. (13.2) may be used to
dA2 may be expressed as determine the view factor associated with any two black
dQ1 – 2 = Ib1 dA1 cos β1 dω1 – 2 surfaces. The net radiation heat exchange between two
blackbodies then may be expressed as
where Ib1 is the intensity of radiation leaving surface 1
Qnet = Q1 – 2 – Q2 – 1
and dω1 – 2 is the solid angle subtended on dA2, when
viewed from dA1, i.e., or Qnet = A1F1 – 2 [E b1 − Eb2 ] – A 2 F2 − 1 [E b1 − Eb2 ]
dA 2 cos β 2 ...(13.3)
dω1 – 2 = 2
s The concept of view factor F1– 2 may also be
It follows extended for calculation of radiation heat exchange
among diffuse, nonblack bodies ; which is only the
d A 1 dA 2
dQ1 – 2 = I b1 cos β1 cos β2 correction to the Stefan Boltzmann law, that we use
s2 frequently for blackbodies. Thus the net heat exchange
The intensity of radiation Ib may be expressed in between two gray, diffuse surfaces
terms of emissive power Eb. Eqn. (12.52), as
Qnet = A1F1 – 2 (J1 – J2) – A2F2 – 1 (J1 – J2)
Eb ...(13.4)
Ib =
π where J1 and J2 are radiosities for surface 1 and surface
dA 1 dA 2 2, respectively.
Then dQ1 – 2 = Eb1 cos β1 cos β2
π s2 13.1.2. The View Factor Relations
The total rate of radiation energy, which leaves 1. Some evident results. For flat and convex surfaces,
the surface 1 and is intercepted by surface 2, may then the view factor F1 – 1 or Fi – i with respect to itself is
be obtained by integrating the above equation over the always zero, i.e., the energy once leaving the surface
two surfaces, i.e., never returns to same surface.
Q1 – 2 =
E b1
π zz A1 A2
cos β 1 cos β 2 dA 1 dA 2
s2
F1 – 1 = Fi – i = 0
From the definition of view factor

Q1 − 2 Fi – i = 0 Fi – i = 0
F1 – 2 =
A 1 Eb1
(a) Flat surface (b) Convex surface
It follows
zz
Fi – i ¹ 0
1 cos β 1 cos β 2
F1 – 2 = dA 1 dA 2
A1 A1 A2 π s2
...(13.1)
(c) Concave surface
Similarly, the view factor F2 – 1 is defined as the
fraction of radiation energy that leaves A2 and strikes Fig. 13.2. The view factor from surface to itself is zero for
A1. By same token, we get flat and convex surfaces, and non-zero for concave surface
F2 – 1 =
1
A2 zz A1 A2
cos β 1 cos β 2
π s2
dA 1 dA 2
For the concave surface, the shape factor with
respect to itself is never zero i.e., radiation energy coming
out a portion of the surface will be absorbed by other
...(13.2) portion or
where s = distance between two elemental surfaces F1 – 1 ≠ 0
dA1 and dA2. Fig. 13.3 shows three elementary situations in
β1 = angle between normal to surface A1 and which the value of F1– 2 is evident by using just the
the line joining dA1 and dA2. definition:
F1 – 2 = fraction of field of view of (1) occupied by (2). where N is the number of surfaces of an enclosure. The
When the surfaces are isothermal and diffuse, summation rule can be applied to each surface of an
this corresponds to enclosure by varying i from 1 to N. Therefore, the
summation rule applied to each of N surfaces and gives
F1 – 2 = fraction of energy leaving (1) that reaches (2)
N equations for determination of N2 view factors. These
equations are
¥ ¥ to ¥
TN T1
TN–1
T2
1
1 2 2 Ti T3
¥ ¥
2
1
F1 – 2 = — , F2 – 1 ® 0
2
Fig. 13.4. Radiation exchange in an enclosure of N surfaces
¥ ¥ 1
F 1 – 2 = F2 – 1 = 1
1 F
F1 – 2 = —, ®0 F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 + F1 – 3 + ................. + F1 – N = 1
2 2–1
(a) (b) (c) F2 – 1 + F2 – 2 + F2 – 3 + ................. + F2 – N = 1
F3 – 1 + F3 – 2 + F3 – 3 + ................. + F3 – N = 1
Fig. 13.3. Some configurations for which the value of the
view factor is immediately apparent ...............................................................
..............................................................
A second apparent result in Fig. 13.3 (b) and (c)
in regard to the view factor is that half the energy leaving FN – 1 + FN – 2 + FN – 3 + ................. + FN – N = 1
surface-1 reaches the surface-2. While two infinite 1
The 2 N(N – 1) view factors may be obtained from
surfaces facing each other in Fig. 13.3 (a) will have 1
F1 – 2 = F2 – 1 = 1 since all the energy leaving one surface 2
N(N – 1) reciprocity relations. Accordingly, the total
will be intercepted by other one. number of view factors are to be evaluated directly for
N surfaces enclosure are
2. Reciprocity rule. Comparing eqns. (13.1) and
1 1
(13.2) yields to N2 – [N + 2 N(N – 1)] = 2 N(N – 1) ...(13.7)
A1F1 – 2 = A2F2 – 1 ...(13.5) The remaining view factors may be obtained from
This expression is termed as reciprocity rule and summation rule.
it is very useful in determining one view factor from the 4. Superposition or additive rule. Sometimes
knowledge of other. the view factors for given geometries are not available
with standard tables and graphs. In such cases the given
3. The summation rule. If an enclosure
geometry is approximated as sum or difference of some
consisting of N surfaces, interacting radiatively as
geometries with known view factors and then to apply
shown in Fig. 13.4. In such enclosures, the opening is the superposition rule.
treated as an imaginary surface with radiation
The view factor F1 – 2 between the two surfaces
properties equivalent to those of opening.
A1 and A2 is equal to the sum of the view factors F1 – 3
The conservation energy principle requires that and F1 – 4, if two areas A3 and A4 together make up the
the entire radiation leaving a surface i must be absorbed area A2 as shown in Fig. 13.5. It is expressed as additive
by all surfaces of the enclosure. Therefore, the sum of relation.
view factors from surface i of an enclosure with respect F1 – 2 = F1 – 3 + F1 – 4 ...(13.8)
to all surfaces of the enclosure including to itself must
and if both sides are multiplied by A1, then
be unity. This is known as the summation rule for an
enclosure, and is expressed as A1F1 – 2 = A1F1 – 3 + A1F1 – 4
N And by reciprocity rule;
∑F
i=1
i− j =1 ...(13.6) A2F2 – 1 = A3F3 – 1 + A4F4 – 1
A 3 F3 − 1 + A 4 F4 − 1 Since entire radiation leaving the inner sphere

or F2 – 1 = ...(13.9) surface 1 will be intercepted by inner surface of outer
A2
sphere 2.
∴ F2 – 1 ≠ 1
A3 Because entire radiation leaving outer surface, 2
A2
does not fall on inner surface 1, but a fraction of energy
=
A3
also strikes the surface 2. Therefore, F2 – 2 ≠ 0
+
A4
A1
A4
Outer
sphere, 2
Fig. 13.5. Additive relation between shape factors

Suppose area A2 is divided into N parts,
A2 = A3 + A4 + ............. + AN
Inner
then eqn. (13.9) becomes sphere, 1
A 3 F3 − 1 + A 4 F4 − 1 + ............. + A N FN − 1
F2 – 1 =
A2 F 1–2 = 1
F2 – 1 ¹ 1
...(13.10)
5. Symmetry rule. If geometry involves some
symmetry then the determination of view factor is rather Fig. 13.7. View factor for the enclosure formed by two
concentric spheres
simplified. The presence of symmetry can be judged by
inspection, keeping the definition of view factor in mind. From summation rule ;
The identical surfaces 2 and 3 that are oriented in an
F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 = 1
identical manner with respect to surface 1 shown in
Fig. 13.6, will intercept identical amount of radiation F2 – 1 + F2 – 2 = 1.
leaving the surface 1. That is F1 – 2 = F1 – 3 By reciprocity relation
A1F1 – 2 = A2 F2 – 1
using F1–2 = 1; which leads to
1
H
A1 A1
2 F2 – 1 = and F2 – 2 = 1 –
3 A2 A2
L=H For complicated geometries, the view factor must

Fig. 13.6. Radiation exchange with identical surfaces be determined by solving the double integral of
Therefore, the symmetry rule states that two (or eqn. (13.1). However, this approach is not practical, to
more) surfaces that possesses symmetry about a third evaluate the complicated integration for each geo-
surface will have identical view factors with respect to metries. The solutions have been obtained for different
third surface. surface arrangements and are available in analytical,
For, illustration of determination of view factor, graphical and tabular forms. The view factors for some
consider a simple two surface enclosure involving the selected geometries are presented in Table 13.1 and
spherical surfaces as shown in Fig. 13.7. Then enclosure Table 13.2 in analytical form and in Figs. 13.8 to 13.12
is characterised by N2 view factors (F1 – 1, F1 – 2, F2 – 1 in graphical form.
and F2 – 2). Here N(N – 1)/2 = 1 view factor need to be The view factors in Table 13.1 for geometries that
determined directly. It is also evident from inspection. are infinite long in direction perpendicular to the plane
Since,
of paper and therefore, are two-dimensional. The view
F1 – 1 = 0 (convex surface) factors in Table 13.2 and Figs. 13.8 to 13.11 are for three-
F1 – 2 = 1 dimensional geometries.
TABLE 13.1. View factors for a variety of two-dimensional configurations

(infinite in extent normal to the paper)
Configuration Analytical equation for view factor

w
1 FG H IJ − FG H IJ
2
1.
H
F1 – 2 = F2 – 1 = 1+
H wK H wK
2
w
W 1
2. a F1 – 2 = F2 – 1 = 1 – sin (α/2)
W
w 2
2
1
LM H Η FG IJ OP 2
3. H
1
F1 – 2 =
2 MN
1+
w
− 1+
w H K PQ
w
1 (A1 + A 2 − A 3 )
4. F1 – 2 =
2 2A1
3
r
2
c
a
r LM
tan − 1
b
− tan − 1
FG IJ
a FG IJ OP
5. 1 F1 – 2 =
b−a N c cH K H KQ
b
. 1 2 s
Let X = 1 + . Then
6 D
1 LM X 2 − 1 + sin − 1
FG 1 IJ − X OP
D
s
D
F1 – 2 = F2 – 1 =
π N H XK Q
r1
r2 F1 – 2 = 1, F2 – 1 = ,
r2
Fr I
7.
r1
1 and F2 – 2 = 1 – F2 – 1 = 1 – GH r JK
1
2
2
TABLE 13.2. View factors for some three-dimensional configurations
Configuration Analytical equation for view factor
1. Let X = a/c and Y = b/c. Then

2
R| L
(1 + X 2 ) (1 + Y 2 ) OP 1/ 2
2
S| MM
c
F1 – 2 = ln
a πXY
T N
1 + X2 + Y2 PQ
– X tan–1 X – Y tan–1 Y
U|
b
1
+ X 1 + Y 2 tan–1
X
+ Y 1 + X 2 tan − 1
Y
V|
1 + Y2 1 + X2 W
w L
2. Let H = and w = . Then
D D
D
f = 90 1 RS
w tan – 1
1
− H 2 + w2 tan −1 (H 2 + w2 ) −1/ 2
2
F1 – 2 =
πw T w
R|L (1 + w ) (1 + H ) O 2 2
S|MM 1 + w + H PP
1 1
1
w + H tan–1 + ln
TN H 4 Q 2 2
L w (1 + w + H ) OP LM H (1 + H + w ) OP U|U|
L
W2 H2
2 2 2 2 2 2
×M
MN (1 + w )(w + H ) PQ MN (1 + H )(H + w ) PQ V|WV|W
2 2 2 2 2 2
3. 2 Let R1 = r1/H, R2 = r2/H, and X = 1 + 1 + R 2

2
e j R 12 .
LM OP
r2
1
Then F1 – 2 = X − X 2 − 4(R 2 / R 1)2
1
H
2 N Q
r1
L A1 r2 L
4. Let R = r , M = r , A = M2 + R2 – 1, B = M2 – R2 + 1
1 1
r1
4(R2 − 1) + (M2 / R2 ) (R2 − 2)
and X =
r2 M2 + 4(R2 − 1)
A2 1 1  −1  B  1  2 2 −1  B 
F1–2 = R − πR cos  A  − 2M  (A + 2) − 4R cos  RA 
 
 1  πA  
+ B sin −1   − 
R 2  
 2 R2 − 1   2 2
F2–1 = 1 −
1
+
2
tan −1   − M  4R + M sin −1
R πR  M  2πR  M
 R 2 − 2  π  4R 2 + M2 
− sin −1   +  − 1  
 R2  2  M 
F I
5. L1 F1 – 2 =
1
GG X
tan −1
Y
+
Y
tan −1
X
JJ
A2 2π
H 1 + X2 1 + X2 1 + Y2 1 + Y2 K
L2 where X = L1/D and Y = L2/D are in radians.
D
dA1
Differential surface parallel
to a finite rectangular surface
1
LM 1 1 1
OP
6. L A2
F1 – 2 =
2 MN
tan −1
X
−
1 − ( Y/X) 2
tan −1
X 2 + Y2
PQ
H
where X = D/L and Y = H/L are in radians.
D
dA1
Differential surface perpendicular

to a rectangular finite surface
1 XY
7. F1 – 2 = sin −1
L1 4π 1 + X 2 + Y2 + X 2Y2
A2
where X = L1/D and Y = L2/D are in radians.
L2
D
dA1
A differential spherical surface
and a finite rectangular surface
1.0 ¥
10
4
0.7
2 2
0.5 L
0.4 1.0
Y 1
0.3
X 0.6
2 0.2 0.4
D
F1 – 2
L 0.1 0.2
1
w 0.07
x = L/D 0.05
Y/L = 0.1
y = w/D 0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 2 3 4 5 10 20
X/L
Fig. 13.8. View factors for two identical, rectangular surfaces directly facing each other
1.0
8 r2
6
0.8 r1 L
5
4
2 r2 0.6
3
L F1 – 2
1 r1 r2/L = 2
1.5 1.25
0.4
R1 = r1/L 1.0
R2 = r2/L
0.8
0.2
0.6 0.4
0.3
0
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10
L/r1
Fig. 13.9. View factor for coaxial parallel circular disks
0.5
y = 0.05
0.4 0.1
0.2
0.3
2 0.4
w 1 F1 – 2 0.6
D 0.8 1.0
L 0.2
1.5
x = w/D 2.0
y = L/D 3.0
0.1 4.0
6.0
10.0
20.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
x
Fig. 13.10. View factors for two rectangular surfaces sharing a common side
1.0
A2
L
0.8 r1 r2 1.0
0.9
A1 0.8
L/r2 = ¥
0.6 0.7
4
L/r2 = ¥ F2 – 2 0.6
F1 – 2 2 0.5
1 2
0.4 0.4
0.5 1
0.3
0.25 0.5
0.1 0.2 .
0.2 0.25
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0 r1/r2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
r1/r2
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.11. View factors for two concentric cylinders of finite length :
(a) outer cylinder to inner cylinder ; (b) outer cylinder to itself
0.3 ¥
0.2 2
1
0.6
0.1 0.4 a
0.3
0.06 b 2
0.04 0.2
F1– 2 0.15
0.02 c
b/c = 0.1
0.01
0.006
1
0.004
0.003
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 10 20 ¥
a/c
0.20
0.10
b
0.06
a
0.04
F1– 2
0.02 2
Linear
¥ c
0.01 scale
a/b = 0.1 0.2 0.40.6 1.0 2 4 6 10 20
0.006 1
0.004
0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 8 10 20
c/b
0.5
1.0
0.4 0.975
2
0.95
0.9
0.3
F1– 2
r=b
b/c = 0.8 c
0.2 0.7
0.6
0.1 0.5
0.4 1
0.3
0.2 a
0
0.01 0.020.040.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4
a/c
Fig. 13.12. The view factor for three very small surfaces ‘‘looking at’’ the large surfaces (A1 << A2)
13.1.3. The Cross String Method Consider a geometry as shown in Fig. 13.13. The
view factor F1–2 between surface 1 and 2 can be
The view factor between very long surfaces can be evaluated by following procedure. First identify the end
determined by a very simple crossed string method points of the surface as A, B, C and D. Connect them
developed by H.C. Hottel in the 1950s, the surfaces of with tightly stretched string, which are indicated by
the geometry do not need to be flat ; they may be convex, dashed line. Hottel has proved that the view factor F1–2
concave, or any irregular shape. can be expressed in terms of lengths of these stretched
strings which are straight lines as
2 Since the area A1 is small, hence assuming it as

2 constant.
z
L2
D C C D
cos 2 β (2π r) dr
L6 F1–2 =
π s2
L5
A2
L3
L3 L4 L5 L6 L4 L2
where s2 = r2 + L2 and cos2 β =
L2 + r 2
L1
A B and limits for A2 (or r) are from r = 0 to r = R
Substituting in above relation,
z
A B
1
Two curved surfaces
1
Two infinitely long parallel planes
R RS L UV 2rdr
2
Fig. 13.13
F1 – 2 = 0 T L + r W (L + r )
2 2 2 2
Put r2 + L2 = t ; 2rdr = dt
(L 5 + L 6 ) − (L 3 + L 4 ) and limits : t = 0 + L2 to R2 + L2
F1 – 2 = ...(13.11)
2L 1 Then the integration :
where L5 + L6 is sum of lengths of crossed strings and
L3 + L4 is sum of lengths of uncrossed strings attached
to the end points. Therefore, Hottel cross string method
F1 – 2 = L
2
L2 z
R 2 + L2 dt
t 2 =1– 2
L2
L + R2
R2
can be expressed as = = sin β. Ans.
L2 + R 2
Σ (crossed strings) − Σ (uncrossed strings)
Fi – j = . Example 13.2. Determine the view factor between a
2 × (string on surface i) small area dA1 and a rectangular surface of dimension
Example 13.1. Calculate the view factor F1 – 2 between a and b, where the rectangular surface is in horizontal
a small area dA1 and a parallel circular disc A2. The plane and the small area dA1 lies in the vertical plane
elemental area dA1 is located at the axis of the disc A2, and below one corner of the rectangle at a height H.
at a distance L. (P.U., May 2000)
Solution
Solution
The elemental area of the disc dA2 = 2πrdr The view factor between two surfaces is given by
Here β1 = β2 (due to symmetry)
Using the relation
FA 1 – A 2 or F1 – 2
F1 – 2 =
1
A1 zz A1 A2
cos β 1 cos β 2 dA 1 dA 2
π s2
zz
For element dA1 = A1 ;
zz
1 cos β 1 cos β 2 dA 1 dA 2
= 1 cos β 1 cos β 2 dA 2
A1 A1 A2 π s2 F1 – 2 =
π A1 A2 s2
dr
R r A2 a
dx
dA2 dy
b
b2
b2
L 2 2 2
n1
s =L +r n2
s
H
b1 b1
dA1 dA1
Fig. 13.14 Fig. 13.15

For given geometry (i) Sphere of diameter D inside a cubical box of

H b length D.
cos β1 = , cos β2 = (ii) Diagonal partition within a long square duct.
s s
(iii) End and side of a circular tube of equal length
and s= H 2 + a 2 , dA2 = dx dy and diameter.
Then, Solution
F1–2 =
1
π zz
a
0
b
0
Hb
(H 2 + a 2 ) 2
dx dy
Given : Surface geometries.
To find : The view factors F1 – 1 and F2 – 1.
z
Analysis : (i) Sphere within a cube :
Hab b Hab 2 By inspection
= dy = . Ans.
π (H 2 + a 2 ) 2 0 π (H 2 + a 2 ) 2 F1 – 2 = 1
Example 13.3. A flat surface, 1 is completely enclosed By reciprocity rule,
by a second surface, 2 Fig. 13.16. Determine the view A1 πD 2 π
F2 – 1 = F1 – 2 = × 1 = . Ans.
factors F1 – 2 , F2 – 1 and F2 – 2 . A2 6L 2 6
Solution (ii) Partition within a square duct :
As no part of surface 1 “sees” itself, all the en- From summation rule,
ergy leaving surface 1 reaches surface 2, and from the F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 + F1 – 3 = 1
definition of view factor, Where for flat surface,
F1–2 = 1 F1 – 1 = 0
By symmetry,
F1 – 2 = F1 – 3
2 Hence,
F1 – 2 = 0.5
By reciprocal theorem,
1
A1 L 2
F2 – 1 = F = × 0.5 = 0.71. Ans.
A2 1 – 2 L
(iii) Circular tube :
Fig. 13.16. A flat surface, 1, completely enclosed From Fig. 13.9 with r3/L = 0.5
by a second surface, 2.
and L/r1 = 2, F1 – 3 = 0.17
To determine F2–1, from eqn. (13.5)
From summation rule,
A2 F2–1 = A1 F1–2
F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 + F1 – 3 = 1
A 1 F1 − 2 A1 Where for flat surface,
F2–1 = =
A2 A2 F1 – 1 = 0
From eqn. (13.6) F1 – 2 = 1 – F1 – 3 = 1 – 0.17 = 0.83
F2–1 + F2–2 = 1 By reciprocity rule,
A1 A1 πD 2 /4
and F2–2 = 1 – F2–1 = 1 – . Ans. F2 – 1 = F1 – 2 = × 0.83 = 0.21. Ans.
A2 A2 πDL
Example 13.4. Calculate the view factor F1 – 2 and F2 – 1 Example 13.5. Calculate the view factor F1 – 1, F1 – 2
for the following geometries : and F2 – 1 for the following geometries :
A1 D
1
A1 2 2
A2 A2 L=D
L=D L
3
A1
A3
1
A2 A3
(i) (ii) (iii)
Fig. 13.17 (i) (ii)
Solution
1 Analysis : Considering an imaginary flat plane
R 2 covers the hole, hence by summation rule
D A2
(iii)
Fig. 13.18
a
(i) A black body inside a black enclosure. A1 H
(ii) A tube whose section is equilateral triangle.

(iii) Radiation exchange between a hemisphere tan a = (D/2h)
and a plane surface. Fig. 13.19
Solution F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 = 1 and F2 – 1 + F2 – 2 = 1
Given : Surface geometries. But F2 – 2 = 0, hence F2 – 1 = 1.
To find : The view factor. By reciprocity relation,
Analysis : (i) A black body inside a black A1F1 – 2 = A2F2 – 1 or F1 – 1 = 1 – F1 – 2
enclosure : A2 A2
Therefore, F1 – 1 = 1 – F2 – 1 = 1 –
By inspection, F2 – 1 = 1 A1 A1
By summation rule, F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 = 1 (π /4) D 2 D
By reciprocity rule, A2F2 – 1 = A1F1 – 2 =1– =1–
π D L/2 2L
A2 (where L = H/cos α)
F1 – 2 =
A1 πH 2 tan 2 α
A or F1 – 1 = 1 –
or F1 – 1 = 1– 2 . Ans. πH 2 sin α
A1 cos 2 α
(ii) A tube of equilateral triangle : = 1 – sin α. Ans.
From summation rule, F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 + F1 – 3 = 1 Example 13.7. Calculate the shape factor for cylindri-
Where for flat surface, F1 – 1 = 0, F2 – 2 = 0, cal cavity as shown in Fig. 13.20 with respect to itself.
F3 – 3 = 0 Solution
and F2 – 1 + F2 – 3 = 1 Assuming cylindrical surface 1 and plane
or F2 – 3 = 1 – F2 – 1 surface 2
By symmetry, F1 – 2 = F1 – 3
Hence, F1 – 2 = 0.5
2
A1
or F2 – 1 = F = 0.5
A2 1 – 2
Hence, F2 – 3 = 1 – 0.5 L
= 0.5. Ans. 1
(iii) The radiation heat exchange between a hemi-
sphere surface 1 and a flat surface 2.
From summation rule, F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 = 1 D
and F2 – 1 + F2 – 2 = 1
Fig. 13.20
But for flat surface, F2 – 2 = 0,
Hence, F2 – 1 = 1 From summation rule, F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 = 1
By reciprocity rule, A2F2 – 1 = A1F1 – 2 or F1 – 1 = 1 – F1 – 2
To flat surface hemisphere, and F2 – 1 + F2 – 2 = 1
But for flat surface, F2 – 2 = 0
A 2 F2 − 1 πR 2
F1 – 2 = == 0.5 From surface 2 to surface 1, F2 – 1 = 1
A1 2πR 2 By reciprocity rule, A2F2 – 1 = A1F1 – 2
F1 – 1 = 1 – F1 – 2 = 1 – 0.5 = 0.5. Ans. Flat surface of hemisphere,
Example 13.6. Calculate the shape factor of a conical A2 A2
F1 – 2 = F2 – 1 =
hole. A1 A1
A2 (π / 4)D 2 13
F1 – 1 = 1 – F1 – 2 = 1 – =1– For F2 – 4 : x = = 0.65,
A1 (π / 4)D 2 + πDL 20
D 4L L
F1 – 1 =1– = . Ans. y= = 0.35 → F2 – 4 = 0.35
D + 4L D + 4L D
140
Example 13.8. Two rectangular plates are at right angle Then F1 – 2 = × (0.35 − 0.3) = 0.07. Ans.
in following shown geometries in Fig. 13.21. Calculate 100
the view factor F1 – 2 for the given configurations. (c) Assuming surface 5 and surface 6 as
A5 = A1 + A3 and A6 = A2 + A4
20 mm
20 mm By additive rule
4
1 F1 – 6 = F1 – 2 + F1 – 4
1
5m
m 3
F1 – 2 = F1 – 6 – F1 – 4
13 mm
2 8 mm 2 By reciprocity rule
A
A1F1 – 6 = A6 F6 – 1 → F1 – 6 = 6 F6 – 1
7 mm
7 mm
A1
(a) (b)
A4
10 mm A1 F1 – 4 = A4 F4 – 1 → F1 – 4 = F
20 mm 10 mm 5
A1 4 – 1
5 6 From additive (difference) rule
1
5 mm 3 1 3 F6 – 5 = F6 – 3 + F6 – 1 → F6 – 1 = F6 – 5 – F6 – 3
13 mm
8 mm 4 2 2 F4 – 5 = F4 – 1 + F4 – 3 → F4 – 1 = F4 – 5 – F4 – 3
4 Therefore,
7 mm 6
4 mm
3 mm A6
F1 – 6 = (F6 – 5 – F6 – 3)
(c) (d) A1
Fig. 13.21 7 × 20
= (F6 – 5 – F6 – 3)
Solution 5 × 20
(a)
w 13
=
L = 7 mm U|
= 0.65 x=
= 1.4 (F6 – 5 – F6 – 3)
D 20
w = 13 mm V| F1 – 4 =
A4
(F4 – 5 – F4 – 3)
L
y= =
7
D = 20 mm
D 20
= 0.35 W A1
4 × 20
From Fig. 13.10, view factor, F1 – 2 = 0.34. Ans. = (F – F4 – 3)
5 × 20 4 – 5
(b) Assuming surface 4 as combination of = 0.8 (F4 – 5 – F4 – 3)
surface 1 and surface 3 ; From Fig. 13.10 ;
A4 = A1 + A3 13
By additive rule For F6 – 5 ; x = = 0.65 ;
20
F2 – 4 = F2 – 1 + F2 – 3 7
y= = 0.35 → F6 – 5 = 0.35
or F2 – 1 = F2 – 4 – F2 – 3 20
By reciprocity rule 8
For F6 – 3 ; x = = 0.4 ;
A1F1 – 2 = A2 F2 – 1 = A2 (F2 – 4 – F2 – 3) 20
7
A2 y= = 0.35 → F6 – 3 = 0.3
or F1 – 2 = (F2 − 4 − F2 − 3 ) 20
A1 13
For F4 – 5 ; x = = 0.65 ;
For surface 1 and surface 2 : 20
A1 = 5 mm × 20 mm = 100 mm2 4
y= = 0.2 → F4 – 5 = 0.367
A2 = 7 mm × 20 mm = 140 mm2 20
8
R|w = 8 mm, L = 7 mm, D = 20 mm For F4 – 3 ; x =
20
= 0.4 ;
For F2 – 3 S| x = w = 8 = 0.4, y = L = 7 = 0.35 4
T D 20 D 20
y=
20
= 0.2 → F4 – 3 = 0.358
Then F1 – 6 = 1.4(0.35 – 0.3) = 0.07
From Fig. 13.10 ; F2 – 3 = 0.3
F1 – 4 = 0.8(0.367 – 0.358) = 0.0072 7

and F1 – 2 = 0.07 – 0.0072 = 0.063. Ans. y= = 0.35 → F6 – 5 = 0.35
20
(d) Assuming surface 5 and 6 as
13
A5 = A1 + A3 For F1 – 4, x = = 1.3,
10
A6 = A2 + A4
7
By additive rule y= = 0.7 → F3 – 2 = 0.24
10
F1 – 6 = F1 – 2 + F1 – 4 → F1 – 2 = F1 – 6 – F1 – 4
Now,
FG 1 − 13 × 10 IJ = FG 7 × 20 IJ
By reciprocal rule
A1F1 – 6 = A6F6 – 1 → F1 – 6 =
A6
F
A1 6 – 1
F1 – 2
H 7 × 10 K H 13 × 10 K
FG 13 × 10 IJ
⇒ F1 – 2 =
A6
F
A1 6 – 1
– F1 – 4
× 0.35 – 0.24 1 +
H 13 × 10 K
Again by additive rule − 0.103
or F1 – 2 = = 0.120. Ans.
F6 – 5 = F6 – 1 + F6 – 3 → F6 – 1 − 0.857
= F6 – 5 – F6 – 3 Example 13.9. Fig.13.22 depicts window in the wall of
A6 a room. Find the view factor FB – A , where A is the window
⇒ F1 – 2 = (F6 – 5 – F6 – 3) – F1 – 4 and B is the floor.
A1
Reciprocity rule Solution
A3
A3 F3 – 6 = A6 F6 – 3 → F6 – 3 = F3 – 6
A6
⇒ F1 – 2 =
A6 LM A
F6 − 5 − 3 F3 − 6 – F1 – 4
OP
N Q
Window
A1 A6
Additive rule
F3 – 6 = F3 – 2 + F3 – 4 → F1 – 2
=
A6 LMF –
A3 OP
(F3 − 2 + F3 − 4 ) – F1 – 4
A1 N 6−5
A6 Q (a)
By symmetry rule
1m
A1
F3 – 4 = F2 – 1 = . F1 – 2 and F3 – 2 = F1 – 4 6
A2 A
Therefore, Window
4 5
LMF – A F F + A . F I OP – F
3
A6
F1 – 2 =
A1 MN 6−5
A H
G A
6
3
JK PQ
3−2
1
2
1− 2 1–4
2.5 m
2
1
FG 1 − A IJ = A F – A F – F
3 6
6m Floor
5m
H AK A
3
or F1 – 2 6–5 1–4 1–4
2 1 A 1
=
A
F 6
–F
FG 1 + A IJ 3
(b)
A 1 H AK
6 –5 1–4
1
Given : The geometry as shown above.
From Fig. 13.10, the view factor F6 – 5, F3 – 2 and
F1 – 4 can be obtained L = 6 m, w = 2.5 m
13 D = 5 m, D1 = 4 m
For F6 – 5, x = = 0.65, D2 = 1 m.
20
To find : View factor FB – A = F5 – 4 w 2.5 U|

Assumption : Surface 5 as A5 = A1 + A2
For F1 – 4 :
x=
D2
=
1
= 2.5
|V
Surface 6 as A6 = A3 + A4. y=
L 6
= =6 ||
Analysis : For convenience, divide the floor D2 1 W
into two parts, 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 13.22 (b). → F1 – 4 = 0.06
The window is represented by 4 and the remaining part Now from eqn. (ii)
of the wall by 3 and we need F5 – 4 ; using reciprocity (6 × 5) × 0.14 − (6 × 4) × 0.12
and additive rule simultaneously. − (6 × 1) × 0.06
A5 F5 – 4 = A4 F4 – 5 = A4 [F4 – 1 + F4 – 2] A2 F2 – 4 = = 0.48
2
A4 LM A A2 OP Now from eqn. (i)
or F5 – 4 =
A5 NA
1
F1 − 4 +
A4
F2 − 4
Q FG 6 × 1IJ 0.48
A1 A
4 FB – A = F5 – 4 =
H 6 × 5K × 0.06 +
6×5
= F1 − 4 + 2 F2 − 4 ...(i) = 0.028. Ans.
A5 A5
Example 13.10. Calculate all view factors for conical
We can obtain F1 – 4 from Fig. 13.10, now we need geometry shown in Fig. 13.23.
F2 – 4 ;
F5 – 6 = F5 – 3 + F5 – 4 Solution
Given : A conical geometry
A3 A
= F3 − 5 + 4 F4 − 5 r1 = 30 mm, r2 = 15 mm, H = 30 mm.
A5 A5
To find : The view factors
A3 A F1 – 1, F1 – 2, F1 – 3, F2 – 1, F2 – 2, F2 – 3,
= [F3 − 1 + F3 − 2 ] + 4 [F4 − 1 + F4 − 2 ]
A5 A5 F3 – 1, F3 – 2, F3 – 3 .
1 60 mm
or F5 – 6 = [A1 F1 – 3 + A2 F2 – 3
A5 Surface 1
+ A1 F1 – 4 + A2 F2 – 4]
From law of corresponding corner (symmetry)
A2 F2 – 4 = A1 F1 – 3 30 mm Surface 3
∴ A1 F1 – 3 = A2 F2 – 4
A 5 F5 − 6 − A 2 F2 − 3 − A 1 F1 − 4 Surface 2
=
2
30 mm
...(ii)
From Fig. 13.10. Fig. 13.23
w 2.5
x= = = 0.5
U| Analysis : For given geometry
A1 = πr12 = π × (30 mm)2 = 900 π mm2
For F5 – 6 : D
L 6
5
V| A2 = πr22 = π × (15 mm) 2 = 225 π mm2
y = = = 1.2
D 5 |W A3 = π (r1 + r2) (r1 − r2 ) 2 + H 2
→ F5 – 6 = 0.14
= π (30 + 15) × (30 − 15) 2 + 30 2
w 2.5 U| = 1509.34 π mm2.
For F2 – 3 :
x=
D 1
=
4
= 0.625
|V For surface 1. (Top surface), For two parallel discs
y=
L 6
= = 1.5 || from Table 13.2
D1 4 W R1 =
r1 30
= = 1, R2 =
r2 15
= = 0.5
H 30 H 30
→ F2 – 3 = 0.12 2 2
X = 1 + (1 + R2 ) /R1 = 2.25
LM 1 OP R1 R2
F1 – 2 =
N 2
X − X 2 − 4 (R 2 / R 1 ) 2
Q where, B=
H
,C=
H
and X = (1 + B2 + C2)
1L OP where, R1 and R2 are the radii of the circular planes and

= M2.25 −
F 0.5 I 2
H is the distance between them. (P.U., Nov. 1992)
2M
N
2.25 2 − 4
H 1K PQ Solution
Given : Two circular parallel surfaces located
= 0.117. Ans. coaxially ;
Alternatively from Fig. 13.9 R3 = 5 cm, R4 = 10 cm, H = 10 cm
R1 = 1, R2 = 0.5 → F1 – 2 = 0.117 R5 = 8 cm, R6 = 20 cm.
Now, by summation rule To find : The shape factor between the two
F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 + F1 – 3 = 1.0 parallel surfaces.
Surface 1 is flat, thus F1 – 1 = 0 Assumptions : A4 = A1 + A3
∴ F1 – 3 = 1 – F1 – 2 = 0.883. Ans. A6 = A5 + A2
For surface 2: From reciprocity rule Analysis : Using the property relations for shape
A1F1 – 2 = A2F2 – 1 factor
A1 900 π F3 – 6 = F3 – 5 + F3 – 2
or F2 – 1 = F = × 0.117 or F3 – 2 = F3 – 6 – F3 – 5
A 2 1 – 2 225π
F2 – 4 = F2 – 3 + F2 – 1
= 0.468. Ans.
By summation rule or F2 – 1 = F2 – 4 – F2 – 3
F2 – 1 + F2 – 2 + F2 – 3 = 1.0 F4 – 6 = F4 – 5 + F4 – 2
Surface 2 is flat ; F2 – 2 = 0 Applying the reciprocal theorem
∴ F2 – 3 = 1 – F2 – 1 A1F1 – 2 = A2 F2 – 1
= 1 – 0.468 = 0.532. Ans. = A2 (F2 – 4 – F2–3)
For surface 3. By reciprocity rule
But A1 = A4 – A3
A1F1 – 3 = A3F3 – 1
A1 900π A1 4
or F3 – 1 = F = × 0.883
A 3 1 – 3 1509.34 π 10 cm
5 cm
= 0.526. Ans.
and A2F2 – 3 = A3F3 – 2
3 5
A2 225π H = 10 cm
F3 – 2 = F2 – 3 = × 0.532
A3 1509.34 π
= 0.0793. Ans.
By summation rule A2
F3 – 3 = 1 – F3 – 1 – F3 – 2 20 cm
8m
= 1 – 0.526 – 0.0793 = 0.388. Ans.
6
Example 13.11. Find the shape factor between two areas Fig. 13.24
1 and 2 which are in the form of circular ring, coaxial
and are in two parallel planes at a distance 10 cm. Area Hence, the radiation from surface 1 i.e., surface
1 has inner radius of 5 cm and outer radius of 10 cm. 3 and 4 will deliver energy to surface 4 and 5 ;
Area 2 has inner radius of 8 cm and outer radius of A1F1 – 2 = A4F4 – 2 – A3F3 – 2
20 cm. Use following formula for calculating the shape
or A1F1 – 2 = A4 (F4 – 6 – F4 – 5)
factor between two circular areas located coaxially in
two parallel planes is given by – A3 (F3 – 6 – F3 – 5) ...(A)
1 where, the surface area,
F1 – 2 = [X − X 2 − 4 B2 C 2 ]
2B 2 A3 = π(R32) = π(0.052) = 0.00785 m2
the surface area, A4 = π(R42) = π(0.12) = 0.0314 m2 Example 13.12. Two concentric cylinders have inner
the surface area of ring 1, and outer radii 5 cm and 10 cm, respectively and length
A1 = (A4 – A3) = 0.0236 m2 20 cm. Calculate the all possible view factors.
Using given relation for calculation of F4 – 6 : Solution
R4 10 cm Given : Two concentric cylinders as shown below :
B= = =1
H 10 cm To find : All possible view factors.
R6 20 cm Analysis : For parallel cylinders from Fig. 13.25.
and C= = =2 L 20
H 10 cm For surface 2. = =2
X = 1 + B2 + C2 = 1 + (1)2 + (2)2 = 6 r2 10
1 LM OP r1 5
F4 – 6 =
2 (1) 2 N
6 − (6) 2 − 4 × (1) 2 × (2) 2
Q and
r2
=
10
= 0.5,
= 0.764 F2 – 1 = 0.43
Using given relation for calculation of F4–5 : and F2 – 2 = 0.34
R4 10 cm
B= = =1 A2
H 10 cm
R5 8 cm
and C= = = 0.8 r1
r1 = 5 cm
H 10 cm A3 A1 r2 = 10 cm
X = 1 + B2 + C2 = 1 + (1)2 + (0.8)2 = 2.64 r2
A4 L = 20 cm
F4 – 5 =
1 LM2.64 − (2.64) 2 − 4 OP = 0.27
2 (1) 2 MN × (1) 2 × (0.8) 2 PQ L = 20 cm
Using given relation for calculation of F3 – 6 : Fig. 13.25
R3 5 cm For surface 1. By reciprocity

B= = = 0.5 A1F1 – 2 = A2 F2 – 1
H 10 cm
A2 2πr2 L
R6 20 cm F1 – 2 = F2 – 1 = .F
and C= = =2 A1 2πr1L 2 – 1
H 10 cm
X = 1 + B2 + C2 = 1 + (0.5)2 + (2)2 = 5.25 FG 10 IJ × 0.43 = 0.86.
LM5.25 − OP
=
H 5K
1 (5.25) 2 − 4 By summation rule
F3 – 6 =
2 (0.5) 2 MN × (0.5) 2 × (2) 2 PQ F2 – 1 + F2 – 2 + F2 – 3 + F2 – 4 = 1
= 0.7917 By symmetry F2 – 3 = F2 – 4
Using given relation for calculation of F3 – 5 : 1
Then, F2 – 3 = F2 – 4 = (1 – 0.43 – 0.34)
R3 5 cm 2
B= = = 0.5 = 0.115
H 10 cm
By summation rule
R5 8 cm
and C= = = 0.8 F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 + F1 – 3 + F1 – 4 = 1
H 10 cm
X = 1 + B2 + C2 = 1 + (0.5)2 + (0.8)2 = 1.89 Convex surface 1, thus F1 – 1 = 0
1 LM (1.89) 2 − 4 OP By symmetry F1 – 3 = F1 – 4
∴ 0.86 + 2F1 – 3 = 1
F3 – 5 =
2 (0.5) 2 MN1.89 − × (0.5) 2 × (0.8) 2 PQ or
1
F1 – 3 = [1 – 0.86] = 0.07
= 0.3553 2
Substituting the values in eqn. (A) ; For surface 3. By reciprocity :
0.0236 × F1 – 2 = 0.0314 × (0.764 – 0.27) – 0.00785 A3 F3 – 1 = A1F1 – 3
× (0.7917 – 0.3553) A1 2πr1L
F3 – 1 = . F1 – 3 = × F1 – 3
or F1 – 2 = 0.5121. Ans. A3 π (r2 2 − r12 )
2 × 5 × 20 Since by reciprocity relation A1 F1–2 = A2 F2–1.

= × 0.07 = 0.187 Consider an enclosure consists of N black surfaces
(10 2 − 5 2 )
A3 F3 – 2 = A2 F2 – 3 maintained at specified temperatures. The radiation
heat transfer from any surface i of the enclosure is sum
A2 2πr2 L
F3 – 2 = F2 – 3 = F of radiation heat transfers to each surface of the
A3 π (r2 2 − r12 ) 2 – 3 enclosure from surface i.
N N
2 × 10 × 20
=
(10 2 − 5 2 )
× 0.115 = 0.613 Qi = ∑
j=1
Q i− j = ∑A
j=1
i Fi − j (Ti4 − T 4j )
For surface 4. Due to symmetry ...(13.13)
F3 – j = F4 – j, j = 1, 2, 3, 4.
By summation rule Example 13.13. Two black discs of diameter 50 cm each
are placed parallel to each other concentrically at a
F3 – 1 + F3 – 2 + F3 – 3 + F3 – 4 = 1
distance of 1 m. The discs are maintained at 727°C and
Flat surface 3, thus 227°C, respectively. Calculate the heat transfer between
F3 – 3 = 0 the discs per hour, when no other surface is present except
∴ 0.187 + 0.613 + 0 + F3 – 4 = 1 the discs.
or F3 – 4 = 0.2 Solution
View factor matrix Given : Two parallel discs of 50 cm diameter and
F1 − 1 F1 − 2 F1 − 3 F1 − 4 1 m apart.
r1 = r2 = 25 cm = 0.25 m
F2 − 1 F2 − 2 F2 − 3 F2 − 4
L=1m
F3 − 1 F3 − 2 F3 − 3 F3 − 4
T1 = 727°C = 1000 K
F4 − 1 F4 − 2 F4 − 3 F4 − 4
T2 = 227°C = 500 K.
0 0.86 0.07 0.07 To find : Heat transfer rate when no other surface
0.43 0.34 0.115 0.115 is present between the discs.
= . Ans. Analysis : When no other surface is present except
0.187 0.613 0 0.2
two parallel discs. Fig. 13.26. The view factor between
0.187 0.613 0 0.2
the two parallel plates, from Fig. 13.9
L 1
13.2. BLACK BODY RADIATION EXCHANGE = = 4.0
r1 0.25
The radiation may leave a surface due to reflection and r2 0.25
and = = 0.25 ; → F1 – 2 = 0.06
emission and on reaching on the second surface, there L 1
may be reflection as well as absorption. For a black body
radiation, there is no reflection (ρ = 0). Hence energy 25 cm
leaves a surface as a result of emission, while it absorbs 2
all incident energy.
Considering the radiation exchange between two 1m
black bodies having surface area A1 and A2.
25 cm
The rate of energy leaves the surface 1 and
reaches the surface 2 1
Q1–2 = A1F1–2 Eb1 = A1F1– 2 σ T14
...[13.11 (a)] Fig. 13.26
Similarly, the energy leaves the surface 2 and
The heat transfer rate,
reaches the surface 1
Q2–1 = A2F2–1Eb2 = A2F2–1 σ T24 Q = F1 – 2 A σ (T14 – T24)
...[13.11(b)] = 0.06 × (π/4) × (0.5)2 × 5.67 × 10–8
The net radiation exchange between the two
× (10004 – 5004)
surfaces
Qnet = A1 F1–2 σ (T14 – T24) = 626.24 W = 2.254 × 106 J/h
= A2 F2–1 σ (T14 – T24) ...(13.12) = 2254.46 kJ/h. Ans.
Example 13.14. A 5 cm diameter sphere at 600°C is Both surfaces are black.

placed near an infinite wall at 100ºC. Both surface are
black. Calculate the net radiant heat transfer between 20 cm
the two bodies.
3
Solution
Given : A hot sphere near a wall
T1 = 600°C = 873 K, T2 = 100°C = 373 K Shield (2), open at
20 cm the top, at Ts = 100°C
D = 5 cm = 0.05 m
To find : Net radiant heat transfer.
Heater (1) at
¥ Th = 1200°C
10 cm
Fig. 13.28. Heat transfer from a disc heater to its

2
radiation shield
1
To find :
(i) View factor F1–2
(ii) Radiation heat transfer from heater to shield.
Analysis : (i) The view factor, by reciprocity
¥ A1F1 – 2 = A2 F2 – 1
Fig. 13.27 A1
Analysis : The net radiation heat exchange F2 – 1 = A F1 – 2
2
Q1 – 2 = A1 F1 – 2 Eb1 – A2 F2 – 1 Eb2 and F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 + F1 – 3 = 1
= A1 F1 – 2 (Eb1 – Eb2) or F1 – 2 = 1 – F1 – 3 ∵ F1 – 1 = 0
= A1 F1 – 2 σ (T14 – T24) For two parallel discs 1 and 3, from Fig. 13.9 ;
Since, the sphere is half covered by an infinite
L 0.2
wall thus half of the radiation emitted by sphere will = = 4.0
fall on infinite wall i.e., r1 0.05
F1 – 2 = 0.5 r2 0.1
and = = 0.5 → F1 – 3 = 0.196
and A1 = π D2 = π × 0.052 L 0.2
= 7.853 × 10 –3 m2 Then,
Then Q1 – 2 = 7.853 × 10 –3 × 0.5 × 5.67 × 10 –8 F1 – 2 = 1 – 0.196 = 0.804
× (8734 – 3734) Area A1 = πr12 = π × (0.05)2 = 0.00785 m2
= 125 W. Ans. Area A2 = π(r1 + r2) (r2 − r1 ) 2 + H 2
Example 13.15. A heater as shown in Fig. 13.28 radiates
heat partially to conical shield that surrounds it. = π(0.05 + 0.1) × (0.1 − 0.05) 2 + (0.2) 2
(i) Determine view factor from shield to heater. = 0.09715 m2
(ii) If heater and shield are black and are at
Then
temperatures 1200°C and 100°C, respectively, what is
the net heat transfer rate from heater to shield ? 0.00785
F2 – 1 = × (0.804) = 0.065. Ans.
Solution 0.09715
Given : A heater at the base of a conical shield as (ii) Net radiation heat transfer from heater to
shown in Fig 13.28. shield
r1 = 0.05 m, r2 = 0.1 m Qnet = A1 F1 – 2 σ (T14 – T24)
H = 0.2 m, T1 = 1200°C = 1473 K = 0.00785 × 0.804 × 5.67 × 10–8
T2 = 100°C = 373 K × (14734 – 3734) = 1678 W. Ans.
Example 13.16. An outlet shoe store with a display Thus,

window in the front is shown, with dimensions, in Q1 = A1 F1 – 2 (Eb1 – Eb2) + A1 F1 – 3 (Eb1 – Eb3)
Fig. 13.29. The store is to be heated by making the floor = 120 × 0.058 × (579.8 – 363.7) + 120
a black radiant heating panel at 45°C. The glass window
× 0.942 × (579.8 – 447.14)
acts as a black plane at 10°C and the other walls and
the ceiling act as black planes at 25°C. Find the net heat = 16500 W. Ans.
given up by the floor. What difference results, if the ceiling (ii) When ceiling height in increased to 4.5 m,
height is raised to 4.5 m, the other dimensions remaining neither view factor F1 – 2 nor F1 – 3 will change, thus the
unchanged ? heat transfer rate from floor to window and ceiling, walls
will remain same.
Solution
Given : The display window of a shoe store. We
designate floor as surface 1, window as surface 2, and
13.3. RADIATION FROM CAVITIES
other walls and ceiling as surface 3, then data Reconsider examples 13.6 and 13.7 solved for radiation
T1 = 45 + 273 = 318 K view factor of conical and cylindrical cavities,
A1 = (6 + 2 + 2) × 12 = 120 m2 respectively. The radiative heat transfer from such
T2 = 10 + 273 = 283 K cavities can be estimated by using view factor F1 – 2
obtained.
A2 = 6 × 3 = 18 m2
Now, we go for formulation of some standard
T3 = 25 + 273 = 298 K relation for such cavities as shown in Fig. 13.30.
Let us consider cavity as surface 1 and opening
as surface 2. For any of following geometries, all the
energy emitted from cavity (surface A1) does not coming
out the opening. But a part of radiation emitted from
the surface falls on its other part, of which a portion is
3
absorbed and remainder is reflected back.
m
12 D
1
4m
3m Window 2
D
2m 6m 2m H
R
Fig. 13.29. Geometry for example 13.16 A1 A1
To find :
(i) Net heat given up by floor, (a) Spherical cavity (b) Cylindrical cavity
(ii) Difference in heat radiation by floor, if ceiling D
height is increased to 4.5 m.
Analysis : (i) Since all surfaces are black, thus A1
various emissive powers are
H
Eb1 = σT14 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (318)4 = 579.8 W/m2
Eb2 = σT2 4 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (283)4 = 363.7 W/m2
Eb3 = σT34 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (298)4 = 447.14 W/m2.
The view factors : The geometrical arrangement (c) Conical cavity
for floor and window is very similar to example 13.9. Fig. 13.30. Radiations from cavities
F1 – 1 = 0 and F1 – 2 = 0.058 Rate of emission from a cavity surface = A1 σ ε1T4 ;
For an enclosure of floor, window, wall and ceiling of this energy, a part falling on A1 and absorbed by it
F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 + F1 – 3 = 1 = A1 σ ε1 T14 (α1 F1 – 1) = A1 σ ε1 T4 ε1 F1 – 1
→ F1 – 3 = 1 – F1 – 2 = 1 – 0.058 = 0.942 where F1 – 1 is view factor of the cavity surface with
For complete enclosure respect to itself and α1 = ε1 from Kirchhoff ’s law.
Heat radiated by floor = Heat absorbed by window Now, the reflected radiation from the surface
and ceiling A1 = (1 – ε1) A1 σ ε1 T14 F1 – 1 of this reflected radiation, a
part again falls on cavity surface and absorbed = (1 – ε1) Solution

A1 σ ε1 T14 F12 – 1 ε1 Given : A spherical cavity in a metal plate.
Then again reflected
Ts = 227°C = 500 K
= (1 – ε1) A1 σ ε1 T14 F12 – 1 (1 – ε1)
T∞ = 27°C = 300 K
Again absorbed
ε = 0.8, R = 10 cm
= (1 – ε1) A1 σ ε1 T14 F31 – 1 (1 – ε1) ε1
opening radius r1 = 5 cm.
Again reflected
r dr
= (1 – ε1) A1 σ ε1 T14 F31 – 1 (1 – ε1)2 and so on. r1 = 5 cm
Net rate of radiation coming out the surface Q B
A
= Total emission rate – Total absorption rate C
db
2
= A1 σ ε1 T14 – A1 σ ε1 T14 [ε1 F1 – 1
b
+ (1 – ε1) ε1 F21 – 1 + (1 – ε1)2 ε1 F31 – 1 + .....]
O
= A1 σ ε1 T14 [1 – ε1 F1 – 1 – (1 – ε1) ε1 F12 – 1
– (1 – ε1)2 ε1 F13 – 1 – ......] 1
Metal
= A1 σ ε1 T14 [1 – ε1 F1 – 1 {1 + (1 – ε1) F1 – 1} plate R = 10 cm
+ (1 – ε1)2 F12 – 1 + ........]
Fig. 13.31
It is an infinite series, and it can be arranged as
= A1 σ ε1 T1 4
LM1 − ε F 1 1− 1 OP To find : Net radiative heat loss to surroundings.
Analysis : Considering
MN 1 − (1 − ε ) F PQ
1 1− 1 A = area of sphere
= A1 σ ε1 T14
LM 1 − F 1− 1 OP As = area of sector of sphere cut by opening
MN 1 − F (1 − ε ) PQ
1− 1 1
A-B-C.
A1 = area of cavity
...(13.14)
For a conical cavity A2 = area of opening
F1 – 1 = 1 – sin α [see example 13.6] Area of sector of sphere :
For a cylindrical cavity Consider a circular differential strip of thickness
dr at radius r from vertical centre of sphere. It substends
4L an angle of dβ at the centre.
F1 – 1 = [see example 13.7]
D + 4L Here, r = R sin β
For hemispherical cavity dr = R dβ (since chord is very small)
A2 Area of element
F1 – 1 = 1 –
A1 dA = 2πr dr = 2πR sin β R dβ ...(i)
LM∵ F2 − 1 = 1, F1 − 2 =
A2
,
OP 2
= 2πR sin β dβ
MM PP
A 1 . Ans. Semi (half) angle substended by sector A-B-C
N F1 − 1 = 1 − F1 − 2 Q FG BC IJ = sin FG 5 IJ = 30°
Example 13.17. A spherical cavity of radius 10 cm is
∠BOC = sin–1
H OCK H 10 K–1
made in a large flat metal plate. The cavity has circular

Integrating to obtain the area of sector of sphere
opening to the atmosphere. The radius of circular opening
is 5 cm. The surface of the cavity is at 227°C. There is no
heat conduction through the metal plate and there is no
convection in the cavity. If the emissivity of the cavity
As = z
0
30
dA = z
0
30
2πR 2 sin β dβ
surface is 0.8. Calculate the net radiative heat loss to LM− cos βOP 30
the surroundings. Assume atmospheric temperature as

27°C.
= 2πR2
N Q 0
= 2πR2 [1 – 0.8660] 13.4.1. The Net Radiation Exchange by a Surface

= 0.268 πR2 m2 = 0.00842 m2 Consider a surface with the following properties during
Area of cavity radiation exchange :
A1 = Area of sphere ε = emissivity of the surface.
– Area of sector of sphere Eb = emissive power of the black surface, W/m2.
ρ = reflectivity of the surface.
= 4πR – As = 4πR2 – 0.268 πR2
2
G
= 3.732 πR2 = 0.1172 m2 G
Eb
Area of opening, J Q
G Q
A2 = πr2 = π × (0.05)2 = 0.00785 m2
If we mark cavity opening as surface 2 and sphere
inner surface as cavity 1 then
F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 =1 (a) Radiation balance on (b) Radiation balance on
surface without reflection the surface with reflection
F2 – 1 + F2 – 2 =1 → F2 – 2 = 0
J
since cavity opening is flat.
F2 – 1 = 1 1–e
Ae
By reciprocity, Q
A2 0.00785 Eb
F1 – 2 = F2 – 1 = × 1 = 0.067
A1 0.1172
(c) Surface resistance
and F1 – 1 = 1 – 0.067 = 0.933. network
The rate of radiant heat loss through cavity Fig. 13.32. Electrical analogy of radiation
exchange with a surface
1 − F1 − 1
Q = A1 σ ε1 (Ts4 – T∞4 ) × During radiation exchange, the energy leaves a
1 − F1 − 1 (1 − ε 1 )
surface by emission and reflection, while the surface
= 0.1172 × 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.8 gains energy by absorbing radiation incident
1 − 0.933 (irradiation) on it. Therefore, the rate of net energy
× (5004 – 3004) × leaving a surface Q is the difference between the
1 − 0.933 × (1 − 0.8)
radiosity J and irradiation G :
= 23.863 W. Ans.
Q = A(J – G) ...(13.15)
where, G = irradiation on the surface, W/m2.
13.4. RADIATION HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN
J = radiosity of the surface as sum of the
DIFFUSE, GRAY SURFACES energy emitted and energy reflected per
In the preceding section, the heat exchange between unit area, W/m2. That is
blackbodies has been discussed. The analysis was J = εEb + ρG
simpler, because blackbodies do not reflect any amount For an opaque, diffuse and gray surface ;
of incident radiation. But in practical applications, most ρ = 1 – α = 1 – ε, then
of enclosures have nonblack surfaces, which allow
J = εEb + (1 – ε)G ...(13.16)
multiple surface reflections. Therefore, the analysis of
radiation heat transfer for such enclosures becomes very The irradiation G in terms of radiosity J can be
complicated. The analysis of radiation exchange in such expressed as
enclosures may be simplified by making certain J − ε Eb
assumptions. These assumptions are G= ...(13.17)
1− ε
1. Each surface of enclosure is opaque, diffuse Substituting in eqn. (13.15)
and gray. FG
J − ε Eb IJ
2. Each surface of the enclosure is isothermal. Q= A J−
H1− ε K
3. Each surface of the enclosure is characterised A ε (Eb − J)
by uniform radiosity and irradiation. Q= ...(13.18)
1− ε
In electrical analogy to Ohm’s law, this equation Surface 1

Surface 2
can be arranged as
Eb − J
Q= ...(13.19)
R
1– ε
where R= ...(13.20)
Aε
is the surface resistance to the radiation and Eb – J A1 A2
T1 T2
corresponds to the potential difference of the surface,
1 2
and Q corresponds to the heat current in electrical
J2
analogy.
The equivalent radiation network is shown in 1
R1 – 2 = ————
Fig. 13.32(c). The direction of radiation heat transfer A1 F1– 2
depends on relative magnitude of radiosity J and
J1
blackbody emissive power, Eb. It will flow from surface,
if Eb > J and to the surface, if J > Eb. Hence, a negative (a) (b)
value for Q will indicate the heat flow to the surface.
Fig. 13.33 (a) Enclosure consists of two surfaces, which are
The surface resistance for a blackbody is zero. For opaque, diffuse and gray (b) Equivalent radiation
a black surface ; ε = 1 and thus J = E b. Therefore, the net network for space resistance
heat flow for black surfaces at thermal equilibrium, will Now combining eqns. (13.19) and (13.22) for two
be zero. surfaces 1 and 2, we get
13.4.2. Radiation Exchange between Two Gray Surfaces E b1 − J 1 J − J2 J − E b2
= 1 = 2 ...(13.24)
Consider the radiation exchange between the two R1 R1 – 2 R2
opaque, diffuse and gray surfaces with areas A1 and A2
maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and T2 as shown and the thermal network between two surfaces in steady
in Fig. 13.33(a) state conditions takes the shape as shown in
The fraction of energy leaves the surface 1 and Fig. 13.33 (c)
reaches the surface 2 = A1J1F1 – 2
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2
The fraction of energy leaves the surface 2 and
reaches the surface 1 = A2J2F2 – 1 Q12
1 2
Q21
The net radiation energy exchange between the 1 – e1 1 1 – e2

R1 = R12 = R2 =
two surfaces ; e1A1 A1F1–2 e2A2
Q1 – 2 = A1F1 – 2 J1 – A2F2 – 1 J2 Fig. 13.33 (c) Thermal network for radiation exchange
But by reciprocity relation, between two diffuse, gray surfaces
A1F1 – 2 = A2F2 – 1 The steady state radiation heat transfer rate
between two surfaces
Hence, Q1 – 2 = A1F1 – 2 (J1 – J2) ...(13.21)
Overall potential difference
Rearranging ; Q (Heat current) =
Total thermal resistance
J1 − J2
Q1 – 2 = ...(13.22) E b1 − E b2
R1 − 2 Q=
R 1 + R 1–2 + R 2
1
where R1 – 2 = ...(13.23)
A 1F1–2 σ (T14 − T2 4 )
or Q= ...(13.25)
1 − ε1 1 1 − ε2
is the space resistance to radiation. Again J1 – J2 + +
ε 1A 1 A 1 F1 –2 ε 2 A 2
corresponds to space or radiosity potential difference,
W/m2 and net heat flow between surfaces corresponds The radiation network is solved on each node by
to current flow in the radiation circuit as shown in network method. That is net heat flow to any node
Fig. 13.33 (b) (surface) must be zero. For node (surface) 1
r2
E b1 − J 1 J 2 − J 1
– =0 ...(13.26) r1
R1 R1 − 2
and for node (surface) 2
J 1 − J 2 E b2 − J 2
– =0 ...(13.27)
R2 − 1 R2
Fig. 13.34. Two concentric cylinders
13.4.3. Radiation Heat Exchange between Two Parallel When two infinite long concentric cylinders
Infinite Planes (F1–2 = 1) as shown in Fig. 13.34 exchange radiation heat
For two infinite long parallel plates, area A1 = A2 ; the energy, eqn. (13.25) can be rewritten as
radiation view factor F1 – 2 is also unity, since all amount A 1 σ (T14 – T22 )
of energy leaving one plate reaches the other. The Q=
1 A 1 (1 – ε 2 )
+
network remains same as shown in Fig. 13.33(c) and ε1 ε2 A2
heat flow per unit area can be expressed as This relation can also be applied to two concentric
Q σ (T14 − T24 ) spheres.
= Table 13.3 shows the area, view factor and
A 1 1
+ −1 radiation energy exchange relations between two
ε1 ε2
opaque, diffuse gray surface enclosures.
TABLE 13.3. Radiation heat exchange between opaque, diffuse, gray two surface enclosures
Enclosure View factor Radiation heat exchange
Small object in a large cavity
A1, T1, 1
A1
≈0 Q 12 = A1 σ ε1 (T14 – T24) ...(13.28)
A2
A2, T2, 2
F1 – 2 = 1
Infinitely large parallel plates
A1, T1, 1 A1 = A2 = A
A2, T2, 2 Aσ (T14 − T24 )

F1 – 2 = 1 Q 12 = ...(13.29)
1 1
+ −1
ε1 ε2
Infinitely long concentric cylinders
r1 A1 r A 1 σ (T14 − T24 )
= 1
r2 A2 r2
Q 12 =
1 1 − ε2 FG r IJ
1
...(13.30)
F1 – 2 = 1 ε1
+
ε2 Hr K2
Concentric spheres
A1 r F I 2
A 1 σ (T14 − T24 )
r1
A2
= 1
r2GH JK
Q 12 =
1 1 − ε2 FG r IJ 2
...(13.31)
1
r2
F1 – 2 = 1 ε1
+
ε2 Hr K2
1 – e1 1 1 – e2
13.5. THE RADIATION EXCHANGE BETWEEN e1 A1 J1 A1 F1–2 J2 e2 A2
Q12 Q21
THREE SURFACE ENCLOSURES
Eb1 Eb2
We now consider three surfaces enclosure for which the 1 1
two surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray, and the third A1 F1–3 A2 F2–3
one is an adiabatic, since its back side is well insulated,
and in absence of any convection effects, the net J3 = Eb3
radiation exchange for such a surface is zero. But its (b) Thermal network
presence, influences the heat transfer process in the
enclosure. Because it absorbs and radiates energy back 1
to two surfaces. Such a surface is called a reradiating
surface.
For an example, the burning fuel bed (surface 1)
in a boiler exchanges radiation heat transfer with boiler 3 2
tubes containing water (surface 2). These two surfaces (c) A typical three-body configuration
are enclosed by refractory brick walls (surface 3) of very
low thermal conductivity, thus it conducts negligible Fig. 13.35. Three surface enclosure with one
heat energy. Under steady state conditions, in absence surface reradiating
of convection effects, the refractory brick walls may be An equivalent thermal network for three surface
approximated as an adiabatic surface, and therefore, enclosure with a reradiating surface is shown in
the net radiation heat transfer for this surface becomes Fig. 13.35(b). It is simple series parallel arrangement
zero. But this surface influences the heat transfer by and the total resistances can be expressed as :
absorbing and reradiating energy as shown in The resistances 1/A1F1 – 3 and 1/A2F2 – 3 for the
Fig. 13.35(a). reradiating surface are in series, therefore, its total
The radiation heat exchange for such an enclosure resistance is
is given by 1 1
R s1 = + ...(13.35)
Q1 – 2 = A1F1 – 2 (J1 – J2) + A1F1 – 3 (J1 – J3) A 1F1 − 3 A 2 F2 − 3
...(13.32) Further, the resistance R s is in parallel with
1
For reradiating surface net heat exchange is zero : resistance 1/A1F1 – 2, therefore, its equivalent resistance
Q3 = 0 = A3 F3 – 1 (J3 – J1) + A3 F3 – 2 (J3 – J2) 1 1 1
= +
By reciprocity rule ; R eq 1 R s1
A3 F3 – 1 = A1F1 – 3 and A3F3 – 2 = A2F2 – 3 (A 1F1 − 2 )
Therefore, 1 1
= +
A1 F1 – 3 (J1 – J3) – A2 F2 – 3 (J3 – J2) = 0 1 1 1
+
...(13.33) A 1F1 − 2 A 1F1 − 3 A 2 F2 − 3
Hence,
J1 − J3
1
J − J2
= 3
1
...(13.34)
= A1F1 – 2 +
LM 1 +
1 OP −1
A 1 F1 − 3 A 2 F2 − 3 MN A F
1 1−3 A 2 F2 − 3 PQ
1
or Req =
Reradiating
A 1F1 − 2 +
LM 11
+
OP −1
wall, T3
1 1−3 AMN A F
F
2 2−3 PQ
...(13.36)
The total radiation resistance of the network
Tubes, T2
1 – ε1 1
ΣR th = +
ε1 A1
A 1F1 − 2 +
1 LM
+
1
−1
OP
MN
A 1F1 − 3 A 2 F2 − 3 PQ
Burning fuel bed, T1 1 − ε2
+
(a) A fuel bed, water tubes and refractory ε2A2
walls make an enclosure in a boiler ...(13.37)
The net radiation heat exchange The rate of evaporation of oxygen,
E b1 – E b2 σ – (T14 T24 ) Q 16.33
Q12 = – Q21 = = =
m =
ΣR th ΣR th hfg 220 × 10 3
...(13.38)
= 7.423 × 10– 5 kg/s
Since Q12 = – Q21
= 0.267 kg/h. Ans.
or for a reradiating surface, net heat transfer is zero,
therefore, its temperature can be calculated as Example 13.19. Two parallel, infinite gray surfaces are
J3 = Eb3 = σ T34 ...(13.39) maintained at temperature of 127°C and 227°C
respectively. If the temperature of the hot surface is
Example 13.18. A spherical liquid oxygen tank 0.3 m
increased to 327°C. By what factor is the net radiation
in diameter is enclosed concentrically in a spherical
exchange per unit area increased ? Assume the
container of 0.4 m diameter and the space in between is
emissivities of colder and hotter surfaces to be 0.9 and
evacuated. The tank surface is at – 183°C and has an
0.7, respectively. (N.M.U., May 1997)
emissivity of 0.2. The container surface is at 15°C and
has an emissivity of 0.25. Determine the net radiant heat Solution
transfer rate and rate of evaporation of liquid oxygen if Given : Two parallel infinite surfaces with
its latent heat is 220 kJ/kg. T3 = 327°C = 600 K, ε1 = 0.9, ε2 = 0.7.
Solution T1 = 127°C = 400 K T2 = 227°C = 500 K
Given : A spherical oxygen tank with ε1 = 0.2,
ε2 = 0.25, hfg = 220 kJ/kg.
To find : Net radiation heat transfer and rate of
evaporation of oxygen. Q
1 2
D2 = 0.4 m
D1 = 0.3 m
Oxygen,
T2 = 15°C = 288 K T1 = – 183°C = 90 K Fig. 13.37. Two parallel infinite gray surfaces
To find : Net radiation heat transfer.
Evacuated space Assumptions :
Fig. 13.36 1. Surfaces are diffused and gray.
Assumptions : 2. Heat is transferred by radiation only.
1. Surfaces are opaque, diffuse and gray. Analysis : The net radiation heat exchange
2. Space between two concentric spheres is between two parallel plates can be expressed as ;
evacuated. Q σ (T14 − T24 )
3. No conduction and convection heat transfer. A
=
1 1 FG IJ
Analysis : The net radiation heat exchange ε1
+
ε2
−1
H K
between two concentric can be expressed as ;
Q1 5.67 × 10 − 8 × (500 4 − 400 4 )
A 1σ (T14 − T24 ) A
=
1 1F I
Q=
1 FG1 Α1 IJ 0.9
+
0.7H−1
K
ε1
+
H
ε2
−1
Α2 K = 1359 W/m2
When the hot plate temperature is raised to
where, A1 = π D12 = π × (0.3)2 = 0.2827 m2
600 K, then
Α1 D1FG IJ = FG 0.3 IJ
2 2
Q2 5.67 × 10 − 8 × (600 4 − 400 4 )
and
Α2
=
D2 H K H 0.4 K = 0.5625
A
=
1 F1 I
−8
0.2827 × 5.67 × 10 × (90 − 288 ) 4 4 0.9
+
H
0.7
−1
K
Q=
1 1 FG IJ = 3830 W/m2
0.2
+
0.25 H
− 1 × 0.5625
K Therefore,
Q 2 3830
=
Q 1 1359
= 2.82. Ans.
= – 16.33 W
Example 13.20. A cubical room 4 m by 4 m by 4 m is Since, all energy leaving the ceiling will be
heated through the ceiling by maintaining it at uniform absorbed by room walls and floor,
temperature of 350 K, while walls and the floor are at Hence, F1 – 2 = 1
300 K. Assuming that the all surfaces have an emissivity 1 1
of 0.8, determine the rate of heat loss from ceiling by and R1 – 2 = = = 0.0625 m–2
A 1 F1 − 2 16 × 1
radiation.
σ (T14 − T24 )
Solution Q=
R1 + R1 − 2 + R2
Given : A cubical room with sides of 4 m each
L = H = w = 4 m, T1 = 350 K 5.67 × 10 − 8 × (350 4 − 300 4 )
Q=
T2 = 300 K, ε1 = ε2 = 0.8 0.0156 + 0.0625 + 0.003125
= 4815.6 W. Ans.
Ceiling 1
Example 13.21. A cubical room 4 m by 4 m by 4 m is
heated through the floor by maintaining it at uniform
temperature of 350 K, while side walls are well insu-
2 Floor lated. The heat loss takes place through the ceiling at
walls
300 K. Assuming that the all surfaces have an emissivity
4m of 0.8, determine the rate of heat loss by radiation through
the ceiling.
4m Solution
4m
Given : A cubical room with sides of 4 m each
L = H = w = 4 m, T1 = 350 K
Fig. 13.38
T2 = 300 K, ε1 = ε2 = 0.8.
To find : Heat loss from ceiling to room.
To find : Heat loss by radiation through ceiling.
Assumptions : Assumptions :
1. Surfaces are diffused and gray. 1. Surfaces are diffused and gray.
2. Heat is transferred by radiation only. 2. Heat is transferred by radiation only.
Analysis : Considering ceiling as surface 1 and Ceiling
other surfaces of room as surface 2. 2
The surface area,

A1 = (4 m × 4 m) = 16 m2 3
The surface area, 4m 1 Floor
A2 = 5 surface × (4 m × 4 m) = 80 m2
The net radiation heat exchange between two 4m
4m
surfaces can be calculated by electrical analogy ;
The calculation of resistances (a) Schematic
Eb
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2 Q3 = 0
Q1 Q2 R1–3 R2–3
R1 R1–2 R2
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2
Fig. 13.38 (a) Radiation network Q1 Q2
R1 R1–2 R2
1 − ε1 1 − 0.8
R1 = = = 0.0156 m–2 (b) Radiation network
A1 ε1 16 × 0.8
Fig. 13.39
1 − ε2 1 − 0.8 Analysis : Considering floor as surface 1, ceiling
R2 = = = 0.003125 m–2 as surface 2 and walls of room as surface 3.
A2 ε2 80 × 0.8
The surface area of floor ; and other at 227°C. The emissivities of the discs are 0.2
A1 = (4 m × 4 m) = 16 m2 and 0.4, respectively. The curved cylindrical surface
The surface area of ceiling ; approximates a black body and is maintained at a
temperature of 67°C. Determine the rate of heat loss by
A2 = (4 m × 4 m) = 16 m2
radiation from the inside surfaces of each disc, and
The surface area of walls ; explain how these surfaces can be maintained at specified
A3 = 4 walls × (4 m × 4 m) = 64 m2 temperatures.
The net radiation heat exchange between two
Solution
surfaces can be calculated by electrical analogy ;
Given : Two parallel discs spaced at 40 cm apart,
The calculation of resistances
located in a large room with
1 − ε1 1 − 0.8
R2 = R1 = = D1 = 50 cm = 0.5 m, D2 = 0.5 m
A 1 ε 1 16 × 0.8
ε1 = 0.2, T1 = 500°C = 773 K
= 0.0156 m–2
ε2 = 0.4, T2 = 227°C = 500 K
Since, all energy leaving the floor will not reach
the ceiling and hence the view factor F1 – 2 and F1 – 3 are L = 40 cm = 0.4 m, T3 = 67°C = 340 K
to be determined from Fig. 13.8 ; To find : The heat loss by radiation from each
disc to room wall.
F1 – 2 = 0.2
Assumptions :
By summation rule,
F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 + F1 – 3 = 1
2. Diffuse and gray surfaces.
But F1 – 1 = 0
3. All surfaces are opaque.
Hence F1 – 3 = 1 – F1 – 2 = 1 – 0.2 = 0.8 4. Room has reradiating surfaces.
1 1 Analysis : The thermal network is shown in
and R1 – 2 = =
A 1 F1 − 2 16 × 0.2 Fig. 13.40 (b) ;
0.5
1 m 1
= m–2
3.2
3
1 40 cm
and R2 – 3 = R1 – 3 = A F
1 1− 3
1 1 0.5
m
= = m–2 2
16 × 0.8 12.8
(a) Schematic for example 13.22
The total radiation resistance between Eb1 and
Eb2 is J3 = Eb3
1 R1–3 R2–3
∑Rth = R1 + + R2
1 / R 1 − 2 + 1 / {R 1 − 3 + R 2 − 3 } Eb1 J2 Eb2
J1
1 Q1 Q2
= 0.0156 + R1 R1–2 R2
3.2 + 1 / {(1 / 12.8) + (1 / 12.8)}
(b) Radiation network
+ 0.0156 = 0.1353 m–2
Fig. 13.40
σ ( T14 − T24 )
Q= Area of each disc,
∑ R th A1 = A2 = (π/4) D12
5.67 × 10 − 8 × (350 4 − 300 4 ) = (π/4) × (0.5 m)2 = 0.1963 m2
Q= The shape factor from Fig. 13.9
0.1353
= 2892.77 W. Ans. L/r1 = 40/25 = 1.6
Example 13.22. Two parallel discs 50 cm in diameter and r2/L = 25/40 = 0.625
are spaced 40 cm apart with one disc located directly Hence,
above the other disc. One disc is maintained at 500°C F1 – 2 = F2 – 1 = 0.24
By summation rule, 3543.75 – J 2 J 1 − J 2 757.7 − J 2

F1 – 3 = 1 – F1 – 2 = 1 – 0.24 = 0.76 + + =0
7.64 21.22 6.703
F2 – 3 = 1 – F2 – 1 = 1 – 0.24 = 0.76 Solution, leads to simultaneous equations as
The various resistances ; – 0.2454 J1 + 0.0471 J2 + 1106.82 = 0
1 − ε1 1 − 0.2 0.0471 J1 – 0.3272 J2 + 576.88 = 0
R1 = = = 20.37 m–2
ε 1A 1 0.2 × 0.1963 The solution to these equations are
1 − ε2 1 − 0.4 J1 = 4986.426 W/m2, J2 = 2480.87 W/m2
R2 = = = 7.64 m–2 (i) The heat loss from hot disc at 500°C
ε 2 A 2 0.4 × 0.1963
1 1 E b1 − J 1 20244.22 − 4986.426
R1 – 2 = = = 21.22 m– 2 Q1 = =
A 1F1 − 2 0.1963 × 0.24 R1 20.37
1 1 = 749 W. Ans.
R1 – 3 = = = 6.703 m– 2
A 1F1 − 3 0.1963 × 0.76 (ii) Heat loss from disc at 227°C
R2 – 3 = R1 – 3 E b2 − J 2 3543.75 − 2480.87
Q2 = =
The emissive powers, R2 7.64
Eb1 = σ T14 = 5.67 × 10– 8 × (773)4 = 139.81 W. Ans.
(iii) The net rate of radiation heat transfer at the
= 20244.22 W/m2
side curved surface is net radiation flow to
Eb2 = σ T24 = 5.67 × 10– 8 × (500)4 node 3, i.e.,
= 3543.75 W/m2
J1 − J 3 J 2 − J 3
J3 = Eb3 = σT34 = 5.67 × 10– 8 × (340)4 Q3 + + =0
R1 − 3 R2 − 3
= 757.7 W/m2
Applying Kirchhoff ’s law of electrical current at J3 − J1 J 3 − J 2
or Q3 = +
each node of Fig. 13.40 (b) i.e., summation of incoming R1 − 3 R2 − 3
currents to each node is equal to zero.
757.7 − 4986.426 757.7 − 2480.87
Eb3 = +
6.703 6.703
R1–3 = –888 W. Ans.
For the surfaces to be at specified temperatures,
Node 1: the algebraic sum of Q1, Q2 and Q3 must be zero.
Eb1 R1 J1 R1–2 J2 Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 749 + 139.81 – 888 ≈ 0
Eb3 Example 13.23. Two very long strips 1 m wide and

R2–3 2.40 m apart face each other, as shown in Fig. 13.41 (a)
Find Qnet 1 – 2 (W/m) if the surroundings are black and
at 250 K. (b) Find Qnet 1 – 2 (W/ m), if they are connected
Node 2: J1 Eb2 by an insulated diffuse reflector between the edges on
R1–2 J2 R2
both sides. Also evaluate the temperature of the reflector
Fig. 13.40 (c) in part (b).
Node 1, for J1 : Solution
Eb1 − J 1 J 2 − J 1 Eb3 − J 1 Given : Two very long strips parallel to each other
+ + =0
R1 R1 − 2 R1 − 3 w = 1 m, T1 = 400 K, L = 2.4 m
T2 = 300 K, ε1 = 0.3, ε2 = 0.5
20244.22 – J 1 J 2 − J 1 757.7 − J 1
+ + =0 To find :
20.37 21.22 6.703
(i) Qnet 1 – 2 if open
Node 2, for J2 :
(ii) Qnet 1 – 2, if connected by an insulated diffuse
Eb2 − J 2 J 1 − J 2 Eb3 − J 2 reflector
+ + =0
R2 R1 − 2 R2 − 3 (iii) Temperature of reflector.
Assumptions : where for 1 m2 area

1. Each surface has uniform radiosity and the 1 − ε 1 1 − 0.3
enclosure can be treated as a three surface enclosure. R1 = = = 2.333 m–2
ε1 0.3
2. Diffuse, gray and opaque surfaces.
1 1
3. Medium separating the surfaces does not R1 – 2 = = = 5 m–2
F1 − 2 0.2
participate in radiation.
1 − ε 2 1 − 0.5
4. Negligible convection inside the enclosure. R2 = = = 1 m–2
ε2 0.5
Analysis : (i) When two infinite long parallel
plates are spaced at a distance L and are open. The view 1 1
R1 – 3 = = = 1.25 m–2
factor from Fig. 13.8 F1 − 3 0.8
L2 w
= =
1
= 0.416
U| R2 – 3 =
1
F2 − 3
=
1
0.8
= 1.25 m–2
D D 2.4
L1 ∞
V|
F1 – 2 = 0.2 = F2 – 1
Eb1 = σ T14 = (5.67 × 10–8) × (400)4
D
= =∞
0 |W = 1451.5 W/m2
Eb2 = σ T24 = (5.67 × 10–8) × (300)4
= 459.3 W/m2
Case (i) Both sides are open
to black surroundings Eb3 = σ T∞4 = (5.67 × 10–8) × (250)4
= 221.5 W/m2
T1 = 400 K
T2 = 300 K
Case (ii) A reflecting shield is

placed on both sides Thus,
1 2
1451. 5 − J 1 J 2 − J 1 221.5 − J 1
1 = 0.3 2 = 0.5 + + =0
2.333 5 1.25
3
J 1 − J 2 459.3 − J 2 221.5 − J 2
+ + =0
5 1 1.25
Fig. 13.41 Simplification leads to
In addition, surface 3 may represent reflector or J1 – 0.14 J2 – 0.56 × 221.5 = 435.6
surroundings, then for an enclosure – J1 + 10.0 J2 – 4.0 × 221.5 = 2296.5
F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 + F1 – 3 = 1 or J1 – 0.14 J2 = 559.6
F1 – 3 = 1 – F1 – 2 – J1 + 10.0J2 = 3182.5
= 1 – 0.2 = 0.8 Its solution leads to
[F1 – 1 = 0]
J1 = 612.1 W/m2, J2 = 379.5 W/m2
By symmetry F2 – 3 = F1 – 3 = 0.8
Thus the net heat flow from plane 1 to plane 2 is
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2 J 1 − J 2 612.1 − 379.5
Qnet 1 – 2 = =
R1 1 R1 – 2 2 R1 − 2 5
R2
R1 – 3 R2 – 3 = 46.52 W/m. Ans.

4
(ii) When two parallel strips are connected by
J3 = Eb3 = T3 an insulated diffuse reflector (a radiation shield)
3
between the edges of both sides.
Fig. 13.41 (a) Radiation network for case (i)
Then Q3 = 0
The nodal equations for nodes 1 and 2 are : and nodel equations
Eb 1 − J 1 J 2 − J 1 Eb3 − J 1 Eb 1 − J 1 J2 − J1 J3 − J1
Node 1 : + + =0 Node 1 : + + = 0
R1 R1 − 2 R1 − 3 R1 R1 − 2 R1 − 3
J 1 − J 2 Eb2 − J 2 Eb3 − J 2 J 1 − J 2 Eb 2 − J 2 J 3 − J 2
Node 2 : + + =0 Node 2 : + + =0
R1 − 2 R2 R2 − 3 R1 − 2 R3 − 2 R2 − 3
J1 − J3 J2 − J3 remaining base area is open to surroundings at 300 K.

Node 3 : + =0 The surroundings may be considered black. The
R1 − 3 R2 − 3 emissivity of heater surface is also 0.8. Determine the
The resistances R1, R2, R1 – 2, R1 – 3 and R2 – 3 heat exchange from heater to the hemisphere and to the
remain unchanged, because the surroundings is replaced surroundings.
by radiation shield,
Solution
The solution of these simultaneous equation leads Given : A heater (1) is covered by a hemisphere (2)
to
T1 = 1000 K, ε1 = 0.8, D1 = 1 m
J1 = 987.7 W/m2, J2 = 657.4 W/m2 T2 = 400 K, ε2 = 0.8, D2 = 4 m
J3 = 822.6 W/m2 T3 = 300 K, ε3 = 1.
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2 To find :
(i) Heat exchange with hemisphere, and
R1 1 R1 – 2 2 R2
(ii) Heat exchange with surroundings.
R1 – 3 R2 – 3
3 J3 2
Hemisphere
Fig. 13.41 (b) Radiation network for case (ii)
In this case, the surface 3 is adiabatic, thus all
the heat leaving the surface 1 will be transferred to
surface 2.
J1 − J2 J1 − J3 Heater 1
Qnet 1–2 = + Surroundings 3
R1 − 2 R1 − 3
(a)
987.7 − 657.4 987.7 − 822.6
= + Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2
5 1.25
= 198 W/m. Ans. R1 1 R1 – 2 2 R2
Since the surface 3 is reradiating, thus we can
R1 – 3 R2 – 3
also obtain Qnet 1–2 by relation
A σ (T14 − T2 4 ) 3 J3 = Eb3
Qnet 1–2 =
1 − ε1 1 1 − ε2
+ +
LM 1 OP
(b)
−1
ε1 1 ε2
F1 − 2 + +
MN R 1− 3 R2 − 3 PQ Fig. 13.42. Schematic and radiation network
Assumptions :
−8
1 × 5.67 × 10 × [400 − 300 ] 4 4 1. Heater and hemispherical surfaces are
= opaque, diffuse and gray.
1 − 0.3 1 1 − 0.5
+ +
0.3 1LM 1
–1
0.5 OP 2. Steady state conditions.
0.2 +
N +
1.25 1.25 Q 3. Assuming circular disc heater, facing towards
hemisphere.
= 198.4 W/m. Ans.
Analysis : The thermal network is shown in
(iii) Temperature of reflector or reradiating Fig. 13.42 (b) :
surface
The areas are :
Q3 = 0 or J3 = Eb3
Area of circular heater,
Thus, 5.67 × 10–8 T34 = 822.6
π π
T3 = 347 K. Ans. A1 = D12 = × (1)2 = 0.7853 m2
4 4
Example 13.24. A heater of 1 m diameter is covered by Area of hemisphere,
a hemisphere of 4 m diameter. The surface of hemisphere
is maintained at 400 K. The emissivity of the surface is π π
A2 = D 2= × (4)2 = 25.132 m2
0.8. The heater surface is maintained at 1000 K. The 2 2 2
Area of opening of hemisphere, Simplification leads to

π π 2 226764.37 – 4.99 J1 + J2 = 0
A3 = (D22 – D12) = (4 – 12) = 11.78 m2 163.45 – J2 + 0.7884 = 0
4 4
View factors. If circular heater faces hemisphere, Its solution leads to
then J1 = 5.39 × 104 W/m2, J2 = 42556 W/m2
F1 – 2 = 1, F1 – 1 = 0, F1 – 3 = 0 (i) Now net rate of radiation from heater to
F2 – 1 + F2 – 2 + F2 – 3 = 1 hemisphere
A1 0.7853 E b1 − J 1 56700 − 5.39 × 10 4
F2 – 1 = F1 − 2 = × 1 = 0.0312 =
A2 25.132 R1 0.3183
There will be negligible radiation from = 8796.7 W. Ans.
surroundings to heater surface, thus (ii) Net rate of heat radiation from heater to
F3 – 1 = F3 – 3 = 0 surroundings
Thus F3 – 2 = 1 J 2 − Eb3 42556 − 459.27
=
R2 − 3 0.085
A3 11.78
F2 – 3 = F3 − 2 = × 1 = 0.468 = 4.95 × 105 W. Ans.
A2 25.132
Comment. Heater does not radiate heat directly
Applying Network theorem (Kirchhoff ’s law) at (F13 = 0), but the heat transfer to hemisphere is
each node
transferred to surroundings.
Eb1 − J 1 J 2 − J 1 Eb3 − J 1
Node 1: + + = 0 ...(i) Example 13.25. A short cylinder enclosure is formed
R1 R1 − 2 R1 − 3
with three surfaces, a circular plane surface 1 of radius
Eb2 − J 2 J 1 − J 2 Eb3 − J 2 20 cm maintained at 2000 K and having emissivity of
Node 2: + + = 0 ...(ii)
R2 R1 − 2 R2 − 3 0.8, another circular plane surface 2 of same size as
where Eb1 = σ T14 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (1000)4 surface 1 having emissivity of 0.5 and maintained at
= 56700 W/m2 500 K. The surface 1 and 2 are parallel to each other
and the distance between them is 5 cm. The third surface
Eb2 = σ T24 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (400)4
is reradiating, which forms an enclosure. Draw an
= 1451.51 W/m2
equivalent circuit and compute all resistances. Also find,
Eb3 = σ T34 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (300)4 (i) temperature attained by reradiating surface, and (ii)
= 459.27 W/m2 net heat transfer rate between surface 1 and 2 due to
1 − ε1 1 − 0.8 radiation.
R1 = = = 0.3183 m–2
ε 1A 1 0.8 × 0.7853 Use the following expression for finding the shape
1 1 factor between two circular discs, coaxial and parallel
R1–2 = = = 1.273 m–2 areas :
A 1F1 − 2 0.7853 × 1
1
1 – ε2 1 − 0.8 F1–2 = [X – X 2 − 4 B 2 C 2 ]
R2 = = = 0.0099 m–2 2B 2
ε2A2 0.8 × 25.132
r1 r2
1 1 where, B= ,C= and X = (1 + B2 + C2)
R1–3 = = =∞ H H
A 1F1 − 3 0.7853 × 0
where, r1 and r2 are the radii of the circular planes and
1 1 H is the distance between them. (P.U., Nov. 1992)
R2–3 = = = 0.085 m–2
A 2 F2 − 3 25.132 × 0.468
Solution
Using value in eqns. (i) and (ii)
Given : A short circular cylinder consists of a two
56700 − J 1 J 2 − J 1 459.27 − J 1 parallel plane and a reradiating lateral surface with
+ + =0
0.3183 1.273 ∞ r1 = r2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m, H = 5 cm = 0.05 m
1451.51 − J 2 J 1 − J 2 459.27 − J 2 T1 = 2000 K, T2 = 500 K
+ + =0
0.0099 1.273 0.085 ε1 = 0.8, ε2 = 0.5.
To find : By symmetry,
(i) To draw an equivalent electric circuit. F2–3 = F1–3 = 0.22
(ii) Net heat transfer rate between two parallel The area of surfaces :
surfaces. A1 = A2 = π r12 = (π) × (0.2)2 = 0.12566
(iii) Temperature, T 3 attained by reradiating The various resistances :
surface.
1 − ε1 1 − 0.8
Assumptions : R1 = = = 1.989 m–2
1. Steady state conditions. ε 1A 1 0.8 × 0.12566
2. All surfaces are opaque, diffuse and gray. 1 − ε2 1 − 0.5
3. Convection effects are negligible. R2 = = = 7.957 m–2
ε 2 A 2 0.5 × 0.12566
Analysis : (i) The schematic and thermal network
are shown below : 1 1
R1–2 = = = 10.2 m–2
A 1F1− 2 0.12566 × 0.78
40 cm
1 1
1
R1–3 = = = 36.17 m–2
A 1F1− 3 0.12566 × 0.22
R2–3 = R1–3
5 cm 3 The emissive powers,
Eb1 = σ T14 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (2000)4
= 907200 W/m2
2 Eb2 = σ T24 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (500)4
(a) Schematic = 3543.75 W/m2
The resistance R1–3 and R2–3 are in series, thus
3
4
J3 = Eb3 = T3 total resistance,
Rs1 = 36.17 + 36.17 = 72.34 m–2
R1–3 R2–3
This total series resistance Rs1 and R1–2 are in
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2 parallel to each other, thus
Q1 Q2
R1 1 R1–2 2 R2 1 1 1
= +
(b) Radiation network R eq R s1 R 1− 2
Fig. 13.43 1 1
= + = 0.11186
72.34 10.2
(ii) The shape factor :
Req = 8.94 m–2
r1 20 cm
B=C= = =4 The heat transfer rate between two surfaces,
H 5 cm
E b1 − E b 2
and X = 1 + (4)2 + (4)2 = 33 Q1–2 =
R 1 + R eq + R 2
Using given relation :
1 907200 − 3543.75
F1–2 = [X – X 2 − 4 B 2C2 ] =
2B 2 1.989 + 8.94 + 7.957
1 = 47849 W = 47.849 kW. Ans.
F1–2 = [33 − (33) 4 − 4 × (4) 2 × (4) 2 ]
2 × (4) 2 (iii) The temperature of reradiating surface may
= 0.78 be calculated by obtaining J3.
From symmetry, E b1 − J 1
Q1–2 =
F1–2 = F2–1 = 0.78 R1
and by summation rule, or J1 = (907200 W/m2) – (47849 W) × (1.989 m–2)
F1–2 + F1–3 = 1 or F1–3 = 1 – 0.78 = 0.22 = 812028.34 W/m2
E b2 − J 2 radiosity node in the circuit. The three equations for

Q2–1 = – Q1–2 = determination of three unknowns J1, J2 and J3 are
R2
obtained and net heat transfer at each node is set to
or J2 = (47849 W) × (7.957 m–2) + (3543.75 W/m2) zero. That is
= 384278.24 W/m2 E b1 − J 1 J 2 − J 1 J 3 − J 1
At node J1 : + + =0
For reradiating surface 1 − ε1 1 1
ε 1A A 1F1− 2 A 1F1− 3
J1 − J3 J3 − J2
= ...[13.40 (a)]
R 1− 3 R 2 −3
J1 − J2 J − J2 E − J2
At node J2 : + 3 + b2 =0
812028.34 − J 3 J − 384278.24 1 1 1 − ε2
= 3 A 1F1 − 2 A 2 F2 − 3 ε2A2
36.17 36.17
or J3 = 598153.3 W/m2 ...[13.40 (b)]
J − J3 J − J3 E − J3
= 5.67 × 10–8 × T34 At node J3 : 1 + 2 + b3 =0
1 1 1 − ε3
or T3 = 1802.2 K. Ans.
A 1F1 − 3 A 2 F2 − 3 ε3A 3
...[13.40 (c)]
13.6. RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER IN THREE These three equations are solved simultaneously
SURFACE ENCLOSURES for determination of J1, J2 and J3. Then net rate of
heat transfer at each surface can be determined from
Now we consider an enclosure consisting of three opaque, eqn. (13.26).
diffuse and gray surfaces as shown in Fig. 13.44
The solution of set of equations can be simplified,
if one or more surfaces are special in some way. For an
example, for a black or reradiating surface J = Eb = σ T4
and Q = 0 for such a surface at thermal equilibrium. If
3 net rate of radiation heat transfer is specified at a
1 surface instead of the temperature, then the term
2
(Eb − J)
should be replaced by Q.
1− ε
(a) εA
1 – e1 1 1 – e2 Example 13.26. A long square duct has its three surfaces
e1A1 J1 A1F1 – 2 J2 e2A2 1, 2, and 3 maintained at uniform temperatures of 400 K,
Q1 Q2 500 K and 600 K, respectively, their respective emissivi-
1 Q12 2 Eb2
Eb1 ties are 0.9, 1.0 and 0.1. The surface 4 is subjected to a
Q13Q23
1 1
uniform heat flux of 5000 W/m2 and emissivity of 0.8.
A1F1 – 3 A2F2 – 3 Determine the net radiative heat fluxes from surfaces
3 J3 1, 2, and 3 and temperature of surface 4. Assume all
1 – e3
surfaces are gray and diffuse.
e3A3
Eb3 Solution
Given : A long square duct
Q3
T1 = 400 K ε1 = 0.9
(b)
T2 = 500 K ε2 = 1.0
Fig. 13.44. Three surface enclosure and equivalent T3 = 600 K ε3 = 0.1
radiation network
q4 = 5000 W/m2 ε4 = 0.8.
Surface 1, 2 and 3 have surface area A1, A2 and
To find :
A3, emissivities ε1, ε2 and ε3, and uniform temperatures
T1, T2 and T3, respectively. The triangular circuit for (i) Radiation heat flux q1,
three bodies radiation network is not so easy to analysis (ii) Radiation heat flux q2,
as in line circuit for two surface radiation problem. The (iii) Radiation heat flux q3,
basic approach is to apply energy conservation on each (iv) Temperature of surface 4.
Areas : A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = A
3 Solution of above simultaneous equations gives
J1 = 1843.1 W/m2
q4 5
J3 = 4555.2 W/m2
4
2 J4 = 8342.1 W/m2
J2 = Eb2 = 3543.75 W/m2
1 (since black ε2 = 1)
Fig. 13.45. Schematic for example 13.26 The heat fluxes :
Analysis : The energy balance E b1 − J 1 ε1
For surface 1: q1 = = (Eb1 – J1)
1 − ε1 1 − ε1
Eb1 − J 1 J 2 − J 1 J − J1 J − J1 ε1
+ + 3 + 4 =0
1 − ε1 1 1 1
ε 1A 1 A 1F1 − 2 A 1F1 − 3 A 1F1 − 4 0.9
= × (1451.2 – 1843.1)
...(i) 1 − 0.9
For surface 2: = – 3527.1 W/m2. Ans.
Eb2 − J 2 J − J2 J − J2 J − J2 Since surface 2 is black, its surface resistance will
+ 1 + 3 + 4 =0
1 − ε2 1 1 1 be zero, the emissive power equals the heat flux.
ε2A2 A 2 F2 − 1 A 2 F2 − 3 A 2 F2 − 4 q2 = F2–1 (Eb2 – J1) + F2–3 (Eb2 – J3)
...(ii) + F2–4 (Eb2 – J4)
For surface 3:
= 0.2928 × (3543.75 – 1843.1)
Eb3 − J 3 J − J3 J − J3 J − J3
+ 1 + 2 + 4 =0 + 0.2928 × (3543.75 – 4555.2)
1 − ε3 1 1 1
ε3A3 A 3 F3 − 1 A 3 F3 − 2 A 3 F3 − 4 + 0.4142 × [13543.75 – 8342.1]
...(iii) = – 1785.6 W/m2. Ans.
For surface 4: ε3
J − J4 J − J4 J − J4 q3 = (Eb3 – J3)
q4 + 1 + 2 + 3 =0 ...(iv) 1 − ε3
1 1 1
A 4 F4 − 1 A 4 F4 − 2 A 4 F4 − 3 0.1
= × (7348.32 – 4555.2)
1 − 0.1
where,
= 310.34 W/m2
Eb1 = σ T14 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (400)4 = 1451.52 W/m2
ε4
Eb2 = σ T24 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (500)4 = 3543.75 W/m2 q4 = (Eb4 – J4)
1 − ε4
Eb3 = σ T34 = 5.67 × 10–8 × (600)4 = 7348.32 W/m2
The view factors 1 − ε4
or Eb4 = J4 + q4
We assume diagonally imaginary surface 5 as ε4
shown in Fig. 13.45 1 − 0.8
F5–1 = F5–2= F5–4 = F5–3 = 0.5 = 8342.1 + × 5000 = 9592.1
0.8
A 1 Further Eb4 = σ T44
F1–5 = 5 F5–1 = 2 × 0.5 = = 0.7071
A1 2 9592.1
or T44 = —→ T4
F1–1 + F1–2 + F1–5 = 1 5.67 × 10 −8
—→ F1–2 = 1 – F1–5 = 0.2928 = 641.3 K. Ans.
F1–4 = F1–2 = 0.2928
Example 13.27. Two sides of a long triangular duct, as
A1 shown in Fig. 13.46 (a), are made of stainless steel
F2–1 = F = 0.2928, F2–3 = 0.2928
A 2 1–2 (ε = 0.5) and are maintained at 500°C. The third side is
(By symmetry) of copper (ε = 0.15) and has a uniform temperature of
F2–4 = F1–3 = 1 – F1–2 – F1–4 100°C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer to the copper
= 1 – 0.2928 – 0.2928 = 0.4142 base per metre of length of the duct.
Solution The radiation network is shown in Fig. 13.46 (b):

Given : A triangular duct as shown in Fig. 13.46 (a) Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2
T1 = 100°C = 373 K, ε1 = 0.15 Q1
1 2
Q2
R1 R1 – 2 R2
L1 = 0.5 m, T2 = 500°C = 773 K
R1 – 3 R2 – 3
ε2 = 0.5, L2 = 0.3 m
J3
T3 = 500°C = 773 K, ε3 = 0.5 3
L3 = 0.4 m. R3
Eb3
St Q3
,
= 0 steel
ain 0.4 Fig. 13.46 (b) Radiation network

inle .3 m
les m
C
ss
.5
s
The nodel equations at three nodes are

00°
T
3 3 = teel,
0
s
50 e
2 =5
0° 3 = 0 E b1 − J 1 J 2 − J 1 J 3 − J 1
e2
Sta
2 C .5 Node 1 : + + =0
T
1 R1 R 1− 2 R 1− 3
Copper, e1 = 0.15, T1 = 100°C E b2 − J 2 J 1 − J 2 J 3 − J 2
Node 2 : + + =0
R2 R 1− 2 R 2−3
0.5 m
E b3 − J 3 J 1 − J 3 J 2 − J 3
Node 3 : + + =0
Fig. 13.46. (a) Illustration for example 13.27 R3 R 1− 3 R 2−3
To find: Net rate of heat transfer to copper where J1, J2 and J3 are unknowns and for per metre
depth of the duct
surface 1 per metre length of duct
1 − ε1 1 − 0.15
Assumptions : R1 = = = 11.33 m–1
L 1ε 1 0.5 × 0.15
(i) The duct surfaces are opaque, diffuse and gray.
1 1
(ii) Negligible convection from surfaces. R1–2 = = = 5 m–1
L 1F12 0.5 × 0.4
(iii) Steady state conditions. 1 − ε2 1 − 0.5
R2 = = = 3.33 m–1
Analysis: The view factors for the enclosure L 2ε 2 0.3 × 0.5
surfaces. 1 1
R1–3 = = = 3.33 m–1
From Table 13.1 for triangular duct L 1F13 0.5 × 0.6
1 1
A 1 + A 2 − A 3 0.5 + 0.3 − 0.4 R2–3 = = = 10.0 m–1
F1–2 = = = 0.4 L 2 F23 0.3 × 0.333
2 A1 2 × 0.5
1 − ε3 1 − 0.5
By reciprocity R3 = = = 2.5 m–1
L 3ε 3 0.4 × 0.5
A1 0.5 Eb1 = σ T14 = (5.67 × 10–8) × (373)4
F2–1 = F1–2 = × 0.4 = 0.67
A2 0.3 = 1097.5 W/m2
By summation Eb2 = σ T24 = (5.67 × 10–8) × (773)4
F1–1 + F1–2 + F1–3 = 1 —→ F1–3 = 1 – F1–2 = 0.6 = 20244.2 W/m2
Eb3 = σ T34 = (5.67 × 10–8) × (773)4
A1 0.5
F3–1 = F1–3 = × 0.6 = 0.75 = 20244.2 W/m2
A3 0.4
1097.5 − J 1 J 2 − J 1 J 3 − J 1
F3–1 + F3–2 + F3–3 = 1 Thus, + + =0
11.33 5.0 3.33
F3–2 = 1 – F3–1 = 1 – 0.75 = 0.25 20244.2 − J 2 J 1 − J 2 J 3 − J 2
+ + =0
3.333 5.0 10.0
A3 0.4
F2–3 = F = × 0.25 = 0.333 20244.2 − J 3 J 1 − J 3 J 2 − J 3
A 2 3–2 0.3 + + =0
2.5 3.33 10.0
Simplification leads to three simultaneous system. Thus the heat transfer rate between plate 1 and
equations radiation shield must be equal to the heat transfer rate
6.67 J1 – 2.268 J2 – 3.395 J3 = 1097.5 between the shield and plate 2.
– 2.0 J1 + 56 J2 – J3 = 60732.65 Radiation shield
T2 T2
– 3.0 J1 – J2 + 8.0 J3 = 80976.8
Solving these equations
J1 = 15767.3 W/m2
J2 = 18434.4 W/m2
J3 = 18340 W/m2 T1 T1
E − J 1 1097.5 − 15767.3
qnet – 1 = b1 = 1 1 3
R1 11.33
= – 1295.1 W/m. Ans.
2
Heat energy received by copper plate is (a) A plane surface 1, close to
2
(b) Radiation shield between
1295.1 W/m. a parallel surface 2 the two surfaces
Fig. 13.47. Radiation shield between two parallel surfaces
13.7. RADIATION SHIELDS to reduce radiative heat transfer
RS Q UV RS Q UV
The radiation heat transfer rate between the two
surfaces can be reduced significantly by placing a thin
TA W 1− 3
=
TA W 3− 2
sheet of high reflectivity (very low emissivity) σ(T14 − T3 4 ) σ(T3 4 − T2 4 )

or = ...(13.41)
material, between them Fig. 13.47. Such highly 1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
reflective thin sheets are called the radiation shields. ε 1 ε 3, 1 ε 3, 2 ε 2
The radiation shields increase the thermal resistance The temperature of radiation shield T3 is
in path of radiation heat transfer and hence reduce the unknown. For instance, if all emissivities are equal :
heat flow rate. Multilayer radiation shields constructed or ε1 = ε2 = ε3, 1 = ε3, 2
of about 20 sheets per cm thickness separated by an
evacuated space are commonly used in cryogenic and (T14 − T2 4 )
Then T34 = ...(13.42)
space applications. 2
Consider a radiation shield is placed between two The heat transfer rate between the plates with a
large plates as shown in Fig. 13.48 (a). Let the shield becomes
emissivities of the radiation shield facing plate 1 and 2 (1 / 2) σ A (T14 − T2 4 )
be ε1, 3 and ε3, 2, respectively. Since, the radiation shield Q1–2, one shield = 1 1 ...(13.43)
does not deliver or remove any amount of heat from the + −1
ε1 ε2
Shield
Q12 Q12 Q12
A1, T1, e1 e3,1, A3, T3 e3, 2, A3, T3 A2, T2, e2

(a) Schematic
1 – e1 1 1 – e3,1 1 – e3,2 1 1 – e2
e1A1 A1F1–3 e3,1 A3 e3,2 A3 A3F3–2 e2 A2
Eb1 J1 J3,1 Eb3 J3, 2 J2 Eb2

(b) Thermal network
Fig. 13.48. Radiation shield placed between two large parallel plates
Thus by inserting a shield, the radiation heat flow Solution

rate becomes just half of that would be experienced Given : Two parallel infinite surfaces with and
without radiation shield. The radiation network with without radiation shield
one radiation shield is shown in Fig. 13.48 (b). All the
T1 = 1000 K, T2 = 600 K, ε1 = 0.5
resistances are in series, and thus the radiation heat
transfer rate is ε2 = 0.8, ε3, 1 = 0.1, ε3, 2 = 0.05.
To find :
E b1 − E b2
Q1–2, one shield = (i) The radiation heat transfer rate without
1 − ε1 1 1 − ε 3, 1 1 − ε 3, 2 radiation shield.
+ + +
ε 1A 1 A 1F1− 3 ε 3, 1A 3 ε 3, 2 A 3 (ii) The radiation heat transfer rate with
1 1 − ε2 radiation shield.
+ +
A 3 F3− 2 ε 2 A 2 Assumptions:
...(13.44) 1. Surfaces are diffused and gray.
For large parallel plates, A1 = A2 = A3 = A and F1–3 2. Heat is transferred by radiation only.
= F3–2 = 1, then eqn. (13.44) simplifies to 3. The conduction resistance of radiation shield
is negligible.
σ A (T14 − T2 4 )
Q1–2, one shield =
RS 1 + 1 − 1UV + R|S 1 1 U|
V|
Analysis: (i) The net radiation heat exchange
between two parallel plates without radiation shield can
T ε ε W T| ε
+ −1
1 2 3, 1 ε 3, 2 W be expressed as :
...(13.45) Q1 σ (T14 − T2 4 )
where the terms in the second set of parentheses in the A
=
1 1FG IJ
denominator represent the additional resistance to
radiation heat transfer introduced by shield. If N ε1
+
ε2 H
−1
K
radiation shields are inserted between two large parallel
plates, then eqn. (13.45) becomes Q1 5.67 × 10 −8 × (1000 4 − 600 4 )
A
=
1 1F I
σ A (T14 − T2 4 ) 0.5
+
H
0.8
−1
K
Q1–2, N, shield =
RS 1 + 1 − 1UV + |RS 1 1 |UV = 21934 W/m2. Ans.
T ε ε W |T ε
1 2 3, 1
+
ε 3, 2
−1
|W (ii) When a radiation shield is placed between the
|R 1
+ ...... + S
1
− 1V
|U parallel plates, then the radiation heat transfer can be
T| ε W|
+ E b1 − E b2
N, 1 ε N, 2 calculated as Q2 =
If the emissivities of all the surfaces are equal ΣR th
then above expression reduces to For 1 m2 area of the plates
4 4
σ A (T1 − T2 ) 1 1 1 1
Q1–2, N, shield =
2 RS UV ...(13.46) where ΣRth =
ε1
+
ε2
–1+
ε 3, 1
+
ε 3, 2
–1
(N + 1)
ε
−1
T W ΣRth =
1
+
1
– 1+
1
+
1
–1
A radiation shield may have same emissivity on
0.5 0.8 0.1 0.05
its two faces or the emissivity of one face of shield may
ΣRth = 2 + 1.25 – 1 + 10 + 20 – 1 = 31.25 m–2
differ from that associated with opposite side. If the
emissivities associated with two sides of shield are very The heat transfer gain with radiation shield
low, the heat flow can be reduced drastically. Q2 5.67 × 10 −8 × (1000 4 − 600 4 )
=
Example 13.28. Two large parallel plates at A 31.251
temperature 1000 K and 600 K have emissivity of 0.5 = 1579.25 W/m2. Ans.
and 0.8 respectively. A radiation shield having emissivity
0.1 on one side and 0.05 on the other side is placed The presence of radiation shield reduces the heat
between the plates. Calculate the heat transfer rate by transfer rate
radiation per square metre with and without radiation 21934 − 1579.25
= 92.8% (reduction).
shield. 21934
Example 13.29. Two large parallel planes with ⇒ 6.561 × 1011 – T34 = 6.526 T34 – 5.286 × 1010
emissivity 0.6 are at 900 K and 300 K. A radiation shield ⇒ 7.526 T34 = 7.0896 × 1011
with one side polished and having emissivity of 0.05,
while the emissivity of other side is 0.4 is proposed to be ⇒ T3 = 554 K
used. Which side of the shield to face the hotter plane, if Arrangement 2 : Let the polished side of shield
the temperature of shield is to be kept minimum ? Justify face colder side : Energy balance on shield.
your answer. (P.U., May 2001)
σ (T14 − T34 ) σ (T34 − T24 )
Solution =
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
Given : A radiation shield between two large ε1 ε4 ε3 ε2
parallel planes.
ε1 = ε2 = 0.6, T1 = 900 K (900) 4 − T34 T34 − (300) 4
⇒ =
T2 = 300 K, ε3 = ε polished = 0.05 1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
ε4 = εunpolished = 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.05 0.6
T3 = Temperature of shield.
6.561 × 10 11 − T34 T 4 − 8.1 × 10 9
To find : Which side of the shield should face the ⇒ = 3
hotter plane? 3.167 20.67
Assumptions : or 4.2486 × 1012 – 6.526 T34 = T34 – 8.1 × 109
1. Each surface has a uniform radiosity ; the or 7.526 T34 = 4.2567 × 1012
configuration can be considered as an enclosure with or T3 = 867.2 K
two surfaces.
which is greater than the temperature of shield, when
2. The surfaces are gray, diffuse and opaque.
it faces the hotter plane. Therefore, the radiation shield
3. The medium between the surfaces does not will be effective, when its polished side will face the
participate in radiation. hotter plane.
Shield
Example 13.30. A cryogenic fluid flows through a long
Hot cold tube of 20 mm diameter, the outer surface of which is
diffuse and gray (ε1 = 0.02) at 77 K. This tube is
concentric with a larger tube of 50 mm diameter, the
e1 e3 e4 e2 inner surface of which is diffuse and gray (ε2 = 0.05)
and at 300 K. The space between the surfaces is
evacuated. Calculate the heat gain by cryogenic fluid per
unit length of tubes. If a thin radiation shield of 35 mm
diameter (ε3 = 0.02) both sides is inserted midway
T1 T3 T2 between the inner and outer surfaces, calculate the
percentage change in heat gain per unit length of the
tube. (P.U., Dec. 2001 ; N.M.U., May 1998)
Analysis : Arrangement 1 : Let polished surface
Solution
of the shield face hotter plane, the energy balance on
the radiation shield : Given : Concentric tube arrangement with diffuse
FG Q IJ FG Q IJ and gray surfaces.

H AK 1− 3
= H AK 3− 2
To find :
T24 ) (T34 − (i) Heat gain by cryogenic fluid passing through

σ (T14 − T34 ) σ
⇒ = the inner tube.
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1 (ii) Percentage change in heat gain with radiation
ε1 ε3 ε4 ε2
4 shield inserted midway between inner and outer pipe.
(900 K) − T34
− (300 K) T34 4
or = Assumptions :
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.6 0.05 0.4 0.6 1. Space between tubes is evacuated.
11
6.561 × 10 − T34 T34 − 8.1 × 10 9 2. No conduction and convection involve.
=
20.67 3.167 3. Infinite long concentric tubes.
D1 = 20 mm = 0.02 m D2 = 0.05 m For 1 m length of tube

e1 = 0.02 1 − 0.02 1
ΣRth = +
0.02 × π × 0.02 π × 0.02 × 1
2 × (1 − 0.02) 1 1 − 0.05
+ + +
T1 = 77 K e2 = 0.05 0.02 × π × 0.035 π × 0.035 × 1 0.05 × π × 0.05
T2 = 300 K
ΣRth = 779.9 + 15.9 + 891.3 + 121.0 = 1817 m–2
The heat gain with radiation shield
(a)
π × 0.02 × 1 × 5.67 × 10 −8 × (77 4 − 300 4 )
Q2 =
1817
D3 = 35 mm
= – 25 W/m
e3 = 0.02
The percentage reduction in heat gain
(Q 1 – Q 2 ) (– 50 + 25)
= = = 50%. Ans.
Q1 – 50
Example 13.31. A pipe carrying steam having an outside

(b)
diameter of 20 cm runs in a large room and is exposed to
air at a temperature of 30°C. The pipe surface
temperature is 400°C. Calculate the heat loss to the
surroundings per metre length of pipe due to thermal
Analysis : For long concentric cylinders radiation. The emissivity of the pipe surface is 0.8.
F1–2 = F1–3 = F3–2 = 1 (i) What would be the loss of heat due to radiation,
(i) The radiation exchange without radiation if the pipe is enclosed in a 50 cm diameter brick conduit
shield can be calculated as of emissivity of 0.9 ?
(ii) What would be the radiation heat transfer from
A 1σ (T14 − T24 ) the pipe, if it is enclosed within a square conduit of 0.5 m
Q=
1 FG IJ
1 A1 side of emissivity of 0.9 ? (Anna Univ., May 2001)
ε1
+
H K
ε2
−1
A2 Solution
A1 F D IJ = FG 0.02 IJ = 0.4
=G
Given : A pipe carrying steam with
H D K H 0.05 K
1
where
A2 2 D1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Ts = 400°C = 673 K
e1 = 0.8
π × 0.02 × 1 × 5.67 × 10 −8
× (77 4 − 300 4 )
Q1 =
1 1 F I
0.02
+
0.05H− 1 × 0.4
K T¥ = 30°C = 303 K
= – 50 W/m. Ans. Fig. 13.51

(ii) When radiation shield is placed in midway 1. Brick conduit,
between two tubes,
D2 = 50 cm = 0.5 m, ε2 = 0.9
E b1 − E b2 2. Square conduit of side
Q2 =
ΣR th w = 0.5 m, ε3 = 0.9.
1 − ε1 1 2(1 − ε 3 ) To find :
where ΣRth = + +
ε 1A 1 A 1F1− 3 ε3A 3 (i) Net radiation heat transfer from pipe surface.
1 1 − ε2 (ii) The radiation heat exchange when pipe is
+ +
A 3 F3− 2 ε2A2 enclosed within a 50 cm diameter, brick conduit.
(iii) The radiation heat exchange, when pipe is must be supplied per metre length of the rod. If an
enclosed within a square conduit. insulated half circular reflector of 0.45 m diameter. is
Assumptions : placed around the rod, determine the energy supplied to
the rod per metre length.
1. Surfaces are opaque, diffuse and gray.
2. Space between two concentric pipes is Solution
evacuated. Given: A cylindrical rod (1) exposed in a room (2).
3. No conduction and convection heat transfer. ε1 = 0.7, D1 = 50 mm
Analysis : (i) The net radiation heat exchange T1 = 1000°C = 1273 K, ε2 = 0.6
from pipe surface to room can be expressed as : T2 = 15°C = 288 K
Q 1
= ε (π D1) σ (Ts4 – T∞4)
L 50 mm
2
= 0.8 × π × 0.2 × 5.67 × 10–8 22.5 cm
× (6734 – 3034)
= 5606.5 W/m. Ans. Reflector
(ii) The radiation heat exchange between pipe and
a conduit can be calculated as :
A 1 σ (Ts 4 − T∞4 )
Q=
1 FG 1 A1IJ
ε1
+
Hε2
−1
A2 K Fig. 13.52
If reflector is placed
When pipe is enclosed within brick conduit :
D2 = 0.45 mm.
A1 D1FG IJ = FG 0.2 IJ = 0.4 To find : Energy supplied to rod per metre, if
A2
=
D2 H K H 0.5 K (i) Rod is exposed to room, with negligible
convection effects, and
Q π × 0.2 × 5.67 × 10 −8 × (6734 − 3034 ) (ii) Rod is covered by half circular reflector.
L
=
1 1 F I
0.8
+
0.9 H
− 1 × 0.4
K T1 Q T2
R1 R1–2 R2
= 5414 W/m
The reduction in heat radiation Fig. 13.52(a). Thermal network
= 5606.5 – 5414 = 192.5 W/m. Ans. Assumptions :

(iii) When pipe is enclosed within a square 1. Rod and room surfaces are opaque, diffuse
conduit : and gray.
A1 FG
πD 1L IJ FG
π × 0.2 IJ 3. Room air does not participate in radiation.
A2
=
4wLH =
K H
4 × 0.5
= 0.314
K Analysis: (i) When cylindrical rod is exposed to
room
Q π × 0.2 × 5.67 × 10 −8 × (6734 − 303 4 )
L
=
1 1 F I Q=
σ (T14 − T2 4 )
0.8
+
0.9 H
− 1 × 0.314
K R 1 + R 1− 2 + R 2
where R1 = surface resistance of rod
= 5454.2 W/m
1 − ε1 1 − 0.7
The reduction in heat radiation = = = 2.728 m–2
ε 1A 1 0.7 × π × 0.05 × 1
= 5606.5 – 5454.2 = 152.3 W/m. Ans. 1 1
R1–2 = = = 6.366 m–2
Example 13.32. A cylindrical rod (ε = 0.7) of 50 mm A 1F1− 2 π × 0.05 × 1
diameter is maintained at 1000°C by an electric (F1–2 = 1.0. All heat transfers to room)
resistance heating and is kept in a room, the walls R2 ≈ 0, negligible heat transmission to rod
(ε = 0.6) of which are at 15°C. Determine the energy which from room.
5.67 × 10 −8 × (1273 4 − 288 4 ) 13.8. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT OF A GAS

Then Q1 =
2.728 + 6.366 + 0 BY THERMOCOUPLE: COMBINED
= 16,330 W. Ans. CONVECTIVE AND RADIATION HEAT
(ii) When half circular reflector is placed around TRANSFER
the rod.
The temperature of the flowing fluid through a duct or
Eb1 R1 J1 R1–2 J2 R2 Eb2 a pipe is measured by thermocouple as shown in
1 2 Fig. 13.53. The thermocouple bead is placed in direct
contact of gas, the heat is convected from gas to
R1–3 R2–3 thermocouple sensor tries to gain steady state. Like use
of thermometer, the temperature measured by
J3 = Ebr
3 thermocouple is less than the true gas temperature,
because a part of heat gain by thermocouple sensor is
Q=0 emitted to wall at low temperature. In absence of con-
Fig. 13.52(b). Thermal network duction, the energy balance on the thermocouple bead
yields to
R1 = 2.728 R2 = 0.0
hc(T∞ – Tc) = σεc(Tc4 – Tw4 )
Since reflector is half circular so half of the energy
radiated by rod falls on it σ ε c (Tc4 − Tw4 )
1 1 or T∞ = Tc + (K)
R1–3 = = = 12.732 m–2 hc
A 1F1− 3 π × (0.05) × (0.5) ...(13.47)
Resistance to radiation from half reflector to room
where, hc = convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K
1 1
R2–3 = = Tc = temperature recorded by thermocouple, K
A 2 F2 − 3 π
(D 2 − D 1 )L F2 − 3
2 Tw = wall temperature, K
1 T∞ = gas temperature, K
= π = 1.591 m–2
× (0.45 − 0.05) × 1 × 1.0 σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 .K4, the Stefan Boltzmann
2 constant
Half of the radiation from the rod reaches the
room directly εc = emissivity of thermocouple sensor.
1 1
R1–2 = = = 12.732 m–2 Lead wires
A 1F1− 2 π × 0.05 × 0.5
hc Tw Thermocouple
Total of series resistances R1–3 and R2–3
T¥ Tc
R s1 = 12.732 + 1.591 = 14.323 m–2 Thermocouple sensor
The resistance R s1 acts parallel to resistance Tube wall
R1–2, thus Fig. 13.53. Thermocouple in a gas stream

1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = 0.148 The last term in eqn. (13.47) is due to the
R eq R 1− 2 R s1 12.732 14.323
radiation effect and represents the radiation correction.
or Req = 6.74 m–2 When the convection coefficient is small, then radiation
Total thermal resistances correction term becomes most important, if T∞ >> Tw.
ΣRth = R1 + Req + R2 The large error in temperature measurement can be
= 2.73 + 6.74 + 0 = 9.47 m–2 reduced significantly by using
The radiation heat transfer rate
1. The low emissivity thermocouple junction. The
σ (T14 − T2 4 )
Q= special coating of low emissivity metal like aluminium,
ΣR th
zinc, chromium etc. can be used.
5.67 × 10 −8 × (1273 4 − 288 4 )
= 2. Placing the sensor in a radiation shield without
9.47
= 15,681 W. Ans. interfering the fluid flow.
Thermocouple lead wires What should be the emissivity of the junction in

order to reduce the error by 30% ?
hc Tw
T¥ Thermocouple sensor Solution
Given : Measurement of temperature by a
Tube wall Radiation shield thermocouple
Fig. 13.54. Thermocouple with radiation shield (i) Tc = 280°C = 553 K, εc = 0.4
If thermocouple sensor is surrounded by a hc = 150 W/m2.K, Tw = 140°C = 413 K
radiation shield as shown in Fig. 13.54. The radiation (ii) Error to be reduced by 30%.
shield receives heat by convection on its two sides and
To find :
it reradiates. Thus the energy balance for the radiation
shield (a small body in compare to enclosure) is (i) True temperature of the gas, and
2hc(T∞ – Ts) = σ εs(T4w – Ts4) ...(13.48) (ii) Emissivity of the junction in order to reduce
the error by 30%.
where, εs = emissivity of the radiation shield.
Analysis: (i) The true gas temperature is
Ts = temperature of the radiation shield.
determined by eqn. (13.47)
The energy balance on the thermocouple bead
now yields σ ε c (Tc4 − Tw4 )
T∞ = Tc +
hc(T∞ – Tc) = σ εc(Ts4 – Tc4) ...(13.49) hc
where Tc = temperature recorded by thermocouple. 5.67 × 10 −8 × 0.4 × (553 4 − 413 4 )
= 553 +
Example 13.33. A thermocouple is used to measure the 150
temperature of a hot gas flowing in a tube maintained = 562.74 K
at 100°C. The thermocouple indicates a temperature of
500°C. If the emissivity of thermocouple junction is 0.5 The true temperature of gas is 289.74°C
and the convective heat transfer coefficient is (562.74 K). Ans.
250 W/m2.K, determine the actual temperature of the (ii) The error in temperature measurement
gas. = 289.74 – 280 = 9.74°C
Solution Error to be reduced by 30%, thus the remaining
Given : error is 70% of 9.74°C
Tw = 100°C = 373 K, Tc = 500°C = 773 K = 0.7 × 9.74 = 6.818°C
εc = 0.5, hc = 250 W/m2.K. Thus Tc = 286.818°C = 559.818 K
To find : The true gas temperature. T∞ = 562.74 K, Tw = 413 K
Assumptions : Then, 562.74 = 559.81
5.67 × 10 −8 ε c (559.818 4 − 413 4 )
2. Junction surface is gray and diffuse. +
150
3. Constant properties. or εc = 0.11. Ans.
Analysis : The energy balance on thermocouple
bead is Example 13.35. A thermocouple (ε = 0.6) is used to
hc(T∞ – Tc) = σ εc(Tc4 – Tw4 ) measure the temperature of exhaust gas in a large duct.
Using the numerical values, The temperature of the duct wall is at 20°C and
temperature measured by thermocouple is 500°C.
250 × (T∞ – 500)
Calculate the true temperature of the gas, if the convection
= 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.5 × (7734 – 3734) coefficient between gas and thermocouple bead is
or T∞ = 500 + 38 = 538°C. Ans. 200 W/m2.K.
Example 13.34. A thermocouple is used to measure the To measure the temperature of the gas more
temperature of gas flowing through a duct, records correctly, it is enveloped by a thin radiation shield
280°C. If the emissivity of the junction is 0.4 and (ε = 0.3). Estimate the error between the thermocouple
convection coefficient is 150 W/m2.K. Find the true gas temperature and gas temperature with the shielded
temperature. The duct wall temperature is 140°C. thermocouple arrangement.
Solution leaving surface 1 and that strikes itself directly.

Given : Thermocouple without radiation shield : F1–1 = 0 for flat or convex surfaces while F1–1 ≠ 0 for
concave surfaces. For view factor the reciprocity rule is
Tw = 20°C = 293 K, Tc = 500°C = 773 K expressed as
εc = 0.6, hc = 200 W/m2.K A1F1–2 = A2F2–1
Thermocouple with radiation shield : For an enclosure, the sum of view factors from
Tw = 20°C = 293 K, Tc = 500°C = 773 K surface i to all surfaces of enclosure including itself must
εs = 0.3, hc = 200 W/m2.K. N
To find : The true gas temperature.

be equal to unity i.e., ∑F
i=1
i–j =1
Assumptions :
or Fi–1 + Fi–2 + Fi–3 + ...... + Fi–N = 1
It is known as summation rule. The superposition
2. Junction surface is gray and diffuse. or additive rule states that the view factor F1–2 is equal
3. Constant properties. to the sum of view factors from surface 1 to the parts of
Analysis : The energy balance on thermocouple surface 2. The symmetry rule states that if two or more
sensor without radiation shield is surfaces are symmetric about the surface 1, then
hc(T∞ – Tc) = σ εc(T4c – Tw4 ) F1–2 = F1–3 = ......
Using the numerical values, The rate of radiation heat transfer between two
black surfaces is expressed as
200 × (T∞ – 773)
Q1–2 = A1 F1–2 σ (T14 – T24) (W)
= 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.6 × (7734 – 2934)
The net radiation heat transfer rate from a
or T∞ = 773 + 56.67 = 829.67 K. Ans. surface i of a black enclosure is sum of radiation heat
The energy balance on thermocouple sensor with transfers from surface i to each of the surface of
radiation shield is enclosure :
2hc(T∞ – Ts) = σ εs (Tw4 – Ts4 ) N N
2 × 200 × (829.67 – Ts) Qi = ∑

j=1
Qi–j = ∑
j=1
Ai Fi–j σ (Ti4 – Tj4)
= 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.3 × (2934 – Ts4)
The radiation heat transfer from a cavity
or 331856 – 400 Ts = 125.36 – 1.701 × 10–8 Ts4 surface 1 is given by
or Ts4 – 23515579070 Ts + 1.95 × 1013 = 0
or Ts = 829.3 K Q1 = A1 σ ε1 T14
LM 1 − F 1− 1 OP (W)
Using the shield temperature to calculate the
N 1 − F (
1− 11 − ε ) Q1
temperature measured by thermocouple. The net rate of radiation heat transfer from a
hc(T∞ – Tc) = σ εc(Ts4 – Tc4) surface is expressed as
200 × (829.67 – Tc) Eb − J

Q= (W)
= 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.6 × (829.34 – Tc4) R
It yields Tc = 827 K 1− ε
where R = is the surface resistance, to radiation.
The error between thermocouple temperature and εA
gas temperature is of only 2°C. Ans. The net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface 1 to
surface 2 can be expressed as
13.9. SUMMARY J1 − J2
Q= (W)
R 1− 2
The view factor from surface 1 to surface 2 is designated
as F1–2 and is defined as fraction of radiation leaving 1
where R1–2 = is the space resistance to radiation.
the surface 1 and that strikes surface 2, directly. The A 1F1− 2
view factor F1–1 represents the fraction of radiation The network method is used to solve the radiation
network. The radiation heat transfer between any two 8. Determine the view factors from very long grooves as
opaque, gray, and diffused surfaces is given by shown in Fig. 13.55 to surroundings without using
any view factor tables or charts.
σ (T14 − T2 4 )
Q1–2 = (W)
1 − ε1 1 1 − ε2
+ + a
ε 1A 1 A 1F1− 2 ε2A2 D
The radiation heat transfer rate between two

surfaces can be reduced drastically by placing thin, high
reflectivity (low emissivity) material sheets between
these two surfaces, called radiation shield. The radiation
heat transfer rate between two large parallel planes
separated by N radiation shield is
A σ (T14 − T2 4 ) b b
Q1–2, N shield =
FG 1 + 1 − 1IJ + FG 1 + 1 − 1IJ .
Hε ε K Hε ε K
1 2 3, 1 3, 2 (a) Semicylindrical groove (b) Triangular groove
F 1 + 1 − 1I
+ ...... + G
Hε ε N, 1
JK N, 2
The radiation effect in temperature measurement
can be properly accounted by the relation
ε c σ(Tc 4 − Tw 4 )
T∞ = Tc + (K)
h
where T∞ is actual temperature of fluid, Tc is b
temperature measured by thermocouple, and Tw is the
temperature of surrounding walls. a
(c) Rectangular groove

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What does the view factor represent ? When is the Fig. 13.55
view factor from a surface to itself not zero ? 9. What are the radiation surface and space
2. Explain the various relations for determination of resistances ? How are they expressed ? For what kind
view factor. of surface, is radiation surface resistance zero ?
zz
3. Show that 10. What is a reradiating surface ? What simplifications
1 cos β1 cos β2 does a reradiating surface offer in the radiation
F1–2 = dA1 dA2
A1 A1 A2 π s2 analysis ?
4. What is the cross string method ? For what kind of 11. What is a radiation shield ? Where is it used ?
geometries is the crossed string method applicable ? 12. What is the radiation effect ? How does it influence
5. Consider an enclosure consisting of 12 surfaces. How the temperature measurements ?
many view factors does the geometry involve ? How 13. What benefit can be derived from a radiation shield
many these view factors can be determined by and a reradiating surface ?
application of reciprocity and summation rules ?
[Ans. 144,78] 14. Derive an expression for a rate of radiation exchange,
6. Prove that the view factor for two surfaces 1 and 2 when a radiation shield is inserted between two large
connected by a reradiating surface is given by parallel plates.
A 2 − A 1 F1− 22 15. What is the difference between radiation from gases
F1− 2 = and radiation from solid surfaces ?
A 1 + A 2 − 2 AF1− 2
16. Prove that the net radiation from a conical cavity of
where F 1− 2 is modified view factor between surface diameter D, height H and lateral length L, semi vertex
1 and 2. angle α and surface A1 is given by
7. Consider a hemispherical furnace with a flat circular
base of diameter D. Determine the view factor from 1 − F1− 1
Q = A1σ ε1T14 .
the dome of this furnace to its base. [Ans. 0.5] 1 − F1− 1 (1 − ε 1)
PROBLEMS
2
1
1. Calculate the view factor between two opposite sides 3
4
of a hollow cube as shown in Fig. 13.56 if view factor 1 3
between two adjacent sides of it is 0.2. (P.U., 2000)
6
[Ans. F1–3 = 0.2] 7 5
4 2
8
6
1
e f
Fig. 13.59 Fig. 13.60. A room with the floor
represented by 5, 6, 7, 8 and
2 the skylight by 1
a b 5. Fig. 13.60 shows the floor and roof of a house. The
4 h g roof has a skylight in one corner, shown as 1. The
house has radiant heating with heated floors. To
determine the radiant energy that reaches the
3
skylight from the floor, the view factor of the floor to
d c the skylight is needed. Determine the view factor.
5 6. What is the radiation shape factor between the inside
surface of one hemisphere and that of another, both
Fig. 13.56 form a spherical enclosure ? What is F1–1 ?
2. Consider a triangular duct of length L as shown in [Ans. 0.730]
Fig. 13.57. For given dimensions, prove that 7. Calculate the view factor F1–2 for the following
F2 – 3 = 0.75 where, ab = ac = x and bc = x/2. geometry shown in Fig. 13.61. [Ans. F1–2 = 0.057]
Surface 3 d
5
a 5 cm D = 8 cm
Surface 2
1 4 6 w = 5 cm
3 e L = 3 cm
2 x 3 L1 = 1 cm
b 1 cm 2
1 f L2 = 2 cm
x/2 c 2 cm
L
8 cm
Fig. 13.61
Surface 1 8. Consider an enclosure formed by closing one end of
Fig. 13.57 cylinder as show in Fig. 13.62 (diameter = D,
Height = L) by a flat surface and other end by a
T2 hemispherical dome. Determine the view factors of
A1 all the surfaces of the enclosure, if height is the twice
T = T1 the diameter.
A2
4 3
D
Fig. 13.58. Heat transfer between an enclosed body
and the body surrounding it
3. Derive F1–2 for a small gray object (1) in a large 2
L=2D
isothermal environment (2), for the geometry shown
in Fig. 13.58. 1
4. Find F1–2 for the configuration of two offset squares

of area A, as shown in Fig. 13.59.
Fig. 13.62
9. A 3 cm diameter painted copper sphere is suspended 13. A jet of liquid metal at 2000°C pours from a crucible.
in a large room where the walls and air are at 20°C It is 3 mm in diameter. A long cylindrical radiation
(Fig. 13.63). If the emissivity of the painted surface shield, 5 cm diameter, surrounds the jet through an
is 0.9, determine the net radiative heat transfer rate angle of 330°, but there is a 30° slit in it. The jet and
from the surface and the rate of change of tempera- the shield radiate as black bodies. The slit in a room
is at 30°C, and the shield has a temperature of 700°C.
ture of the sphere when its temperature is 600°C:
Calculate the net heat transfer : from the jet to the
T1 = 600°C room through the slit ; from the jet to the shield ; and
from the inside of the shield to the room.
T2 = 20°C [Ans. 1188.2 W/m, 12637 W/m, 619 W/m]
Copper
2 14. Consider a long enclosure with three radiation
1
sphere surfaces (Fig. 13.65). Surfaces 1 and 2 are maintained
at T1 and T2, respectively, and surface 3 is perfectly
insulated. Determine the net radiative heat transfer
d = 3 cm rate from surface 1 and the temperature of surface 3.
Fig. 13.63. A copper sphere 1, is freely suspended in Insulated
a large room. The walls are represented as surface 2 surface
(a) Neglecting convection, 3

(b) Including convection. 2
[Ans. q1 = 82.8 W, (a) – 1.82°C/s; (b) – 2.41°C/s]
10. A 10 cm diameter peephole in the side of a furnace
1
acts as a blackbody. The furnace interior is at 500°C,
and the surrounding temperature is 25°C, what is Fig. 13.65
the net radiant heat loss from the furnace through
the peephole ? [Ans. 155.2 W]
LM Eb1 − Eb2 OP
11. Calculate the view factor between two parallel disc MM R (R
R1 + R2 + 1−2 1−3
+ R2 −3 ) PP
in the form of circular rings as shown in Fig. 13.64
below. These are coaxial, spaced 10 cm apart. The
MMAns. q1 = − q2 =
R1−2 + R1−3 + R2 −3
Eb3 = J3 = σT34
PP
MM PP
inner and outer radii for lower ring are 8 cm and
20 cm, respectively, while that for upper ring are 5 cm
N Q
and 10 cm, respectively. 15. If the two discs of problem 10 are connected by a
[Ans. F3–2 = 0.563, F2–3 = 0.1257] reradiating and non conducting wall, what would be
the net heat transfer between the discs ?
Hollow, A3 [Ans. 74.8 kW]
Ring, A4 A5 = A3 + A4 16. A furnace cavity as shown in Fig. 13.66 which in form
of a hollow cylinder of 75 cm in diameter and 150 cm
r4 r3
long, is open at one end to the surroundings at 27°C.
The side and bottom of the furnace are approximated
as blackbodies, and are heated electrically, well
L = 10 cm Hollow, A1 insulated and are maintained at temperatures of
1500°C and 1800°C respectively.
Ring, A2
r1 D
r2 A3 at T3 = TSUIT
A6 = A1 + A2
Side A1 at T1 = 1500°C
Fig. 13.64. Schematic of parallel, coaxial circular rings
L Insulation
12. Two parallel circular discs 4 m in diameter 1 m apart
are placed in a large room whose walls are maintained Bottom, A2, T2 = 1800°C
at 25°C. The plates are maintained at 500°C and
300°C and have emissivities as 0.5 and 0.6,
respectively. Determine the heat loss by each plate
and the net flow of radiant energy to the walls of the Fig. 13.66
room. How much power is required to maintain the furnace
[Ans. Q1 = 109 kW, Q2 = – 32 kW, Qnet = 77 kW] conditions ? [Ans. 354.6 kW]
17. Fig. 13.67 shows a cavity having surface temperature 23. A furnace can be approximated as an equilateral
of 900°C and emissivity as 0.6. Find the rate of triangular duct, which is sufficiently long thus the
emission from the cavity to the surroundings. end effects are negligible. The hot wall is maintained
(P.U., May 1994) [Ans. 200.61 W] at 900 K and has an emissivity of 0.8. The cold wall is
at 400 K and has an emissivity of 0.8. The third wall
5 cm Opening of is reradiating zone for which net heat transfer is zero.
cavity 2
Calculate the net radiation heat flux leaving the hot
H = 4 cm wall. [Ans. 19.5 kW/m2]
4 cm r1 = 2.5 cm
Cavity 24. Two square plates, each 1 m by 1 m, are parallel and
r2 = 5 cm
directly opposite to each other at a distance of 1 m.
5
cm The hot plate is at 800 K and has an emissivity of
0.8. The colder plate is at 600 K and has an emissivity
of 0.8. The radiation heat exchange takes place
between the plates as well as with a large ambient at
300 K through the opening between the plates.
Fig. 13.67
Calculate the net heat exchange by radiation at each
18. Consider three large infinite parallel plates. The plate and to the ambient.
plate 1 is maintained at 1500 K and the plate 3 is [Ans. 17.212 kW, 2.55 kW, – 19.769 kW]
maintained at 100 K. Take ε1 = 0.8, ε2 = 0.5 and ε3 25. A spherical tank with diameter 40 cm filled with a
= 0.8. The plate 2 is placed between plates 1 and 3 and cryogenic fluid at 100 K is placed inside a container
receive no heat from external sources. What would of diameter of 60 cm and is maintained at 300 K. The
be the temperature of the plate ? [Ans. 987 K] emissivity of the inner and outer tanks are
19. Two parallel plates 1 m × 1 m, insulated on their back 0.15 and 0.2, respectively. A spherical radiation shield
sides and separated by 4 m, may be approximated as of diameter 50 cm with an emissivity of 0.05 on both
blackbodies at 500 K and 750 K. These plates are surfaces is placed between the spheres.
located in large room, whose walls are maintained at Calculate the rate of heat loss from the system by
300 K. Determine the net radiation heat transfer from radiation. Then find the rate of evaporation of the
each plate and net radiative heat transfer to the room. cryogenic liquid for hfg = 210 kJ/kg.
20. Two parallel rectangular surfaces of dimension [Ans. – 6.83 W, 3.25 × 10–5 kg/s]
1 m × 2 m, are opposite to each other at a distance of
26. Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit area by the
4 m. The surfaces are black and at temperatures of
radiation between the surfaces of two long concentric
100°C and 200°C, respectively. Calculate the net rate
cylinders having radii 5 cm and 10 cm, respectively.
of heat exchange by radiation between the two
surfaces. [Ans. 122 W] The inner surface is maintained at 400 K and outer
surface at 300 K. The emissivity for both surfaces
21. A very long electrical conductor 10 mm in diameter
is 0.5. [Ans. 124.7 W/m]
is concentric with a cooled cylindrical tube 50 mm in
diameter whose surface is diffused, gray with an 27. In a boiler, the heat is radiated from burning fuel
emissivity of 0.9 and temperature of 27°C. The (surface 1) to the side walls (surface 3) and boiler tubes
electrical conductor has diffused, gray surface with (surface 2) at the top.
an emissivity of 0.6 and is dissipating 6.0 W per metre (a) Assuming blackbody behaviour and assuming
length. Assuming that the space between the two side wall is perfectly insulated ; derive an
surfaces is evacuated, calculate the surface expression for the temperature of side wall T3,
temperature of the conductor. as a function temperature of fuel bed T1 and the
22. Two concentric spheres of diameter 0.8 m and 1.2 m boiler tubes T2 and corresponding areas A1 and
are separated by an air space and have surface A2.
temperatures of 400 K and 300 K, respectively. (b) If A1 = A2 = 0.25 m2, F1–2 = F2–3 = F1–3 = 0.5 and
T1 = 1700°C, T2 = 300°C, what is the net radiative
(a) If the surfaces are black, what is the net rate of
heat transfer to the boiler tubes ?
radiation exchange between the spheres ?
(b) What is the net rate of radiation exchange LM R| A F1− 3 T14 + A 2 F2 − 3 T24 U|1/4 OP
between the surfaces, if they are diffuse, gray
MMAns. (a) T3 = S| 1
V| PP
with ε1 = 0.5 and ε2 = 0.05 ? T A 1 F1− 3 + A 2 F2 − 3 W
[Ans. (a) 1995 W, (b) 191 W] MN (b) – 160 kW PQ
28. The inside dimensions of a hollow cylinder are 6 cm (e) Recalculate part (c) with convection loss with
diameter and 12 cm long. The cylindrical surface 2, h = 10 W/m2.K.
is perfectly insulated. End surface 1 is maintained at [Ans. (a) F2–1 = F2–3 = 0.5, F1–2 = 0.15, F1–3 = 0.5155,
300°C, and end surface 3 at 100°C. Determine the F3–2 = 0.15, F3–3 = F1–1 = 0.3345, F3–1 = 0.5155
total radiative heat transfer rate from surface 1 to (c) T1 = 522 K, (d) T1 = 465 K, (e) T1 = 442 K]
surface 3, if each surface has an emissivity of 0.8. 33. In the desert at night, the air temperature is 20°C
[Ans. q1 = – q3 = 5.93 W] and the effective sky temperature is – 40°C. If the
29. Consider a cylindrical furnace, whose radius is 1 m convective heat transfer coefficient from a shallow
and equal to its height. The base and top surface of pool of water is 5 W/m2.K. Is this water likely to
the furnace have emissivities 0.4, and 0.8, respectively, freeze ? [Ans. Twater = – 5°C, thus likely to freeze]
and are maintained at uniform temperatures of 700 K 34. A solar pannel comprises a square flat plate with sides
and 500 K. The curved cylindrical surface approxi- L = 0.7 m in length. Its surface has solar absorptivity
mates a blackbody and is maintained at a tempera- of αs = 0.9 and an emissivity of ε = 0.2. The pannel
ture of 400 K. Calculate the net rate of radiation heat operates in still air at 1 atm and 25°C (µ = 1.85 × 10
transfer at each surface during steady state kg/ms and k = 0.026 W/m.K) and in still surroundings
conditions. air, the convective heat loss from the surface is given by
[Ans. Q1 = 27588 W, Q2 = – 2131 W, Q3 = – 25455 W] NuL = 0.5 GrL η4
30. Reconsider the configuration in problem 28, where At a particular time of day, the solar irradiation is
ε1 = ε3 = 0.8, T1 = 300°C, and T3 = 100°C. 500 W/m3 and the effective sky temperature is – 3°C.
(a) Determine q1, q2, and q3 if T2 = 500°C and If the efficiency of the pannel is 50%, calculate the
ε2 = 0.8. surface temperature of the cover plate.
(b) Determine q1, q2, and q3 if T2 = 500°C and ε2 = 1. [Hint. qrad, in + qrad, sky – qrad, out – qconv = quseful]
(c) Determine q1, q3, and T2 if q2 = 30 W and ε2 = 1. [Ans. Ts = 330 K ≈ 57°C]
[Ans. (a) q1 = – 28.39 W, q2 = 68.66 W, 35. Consider two concentric cylinders, 50 mm long. The
q3 = – 40.24 W (b) q1 = – 30.03 W, diameter of inner and outer cylinders are 5 mm and
q3 = – 41.89 W, q2 = 71.93 W 20 mm, respectively. The surface temperature of inner
(c) q1 = – 9.1 W, T2 = 657 K, q3 = – 20.9 W]
cylinder is 1800 K, while the ambient temperature is
31. Reconsider above problem 28. Determine q1 and T2 if T∞ = 300 K. The emissivity of outer surface of inner
all the surfaces are black. cylinder is ε1 = 0.22, and for the inner surface of outer
[Ans. q1 = 7.5 W, T2 = 502.3 W] cylinder is ε2 = 0.5 and for outer surface of outer
32. High temperature gas flows through a pipe of outer cylinder is ε0 = 0.17.
radius r2 = 30 mm. To reduce the thermal radiation (a) Using network theorem, prove that the radiosity
emitted to an electrical control panel mounted nearby, J1 is
a semi circular radiation shield of radius r1 = 100 mm J1 = 130996 + 0.702 J2
is placed concentrically around the pipe. The thermal
σT24 + 0.225 J 1 + 72.56
radiation emitted from the pipe is radiated to both and J2 = .
1.383
the shield and the surroundings which are at 310 K.
(b) Neglect convection and consider a heat balance
The radiation view factor to the shield to itself is on the outer surface of the outer cylinder. Show
F1–1 = 0.3345. that
(a) Determine the remaining view factors. J2 = σ (ε0 + 1) T24 – σ ε0 T∞4
(b) Consider a radiation balance on the system. The
(c) Calculate the surface temperature of outer
pipe temperature is 900 K and the shield
cylinder. [Ans. 1050 K]
temperature is T1 ; the emissivity of inner surface
of the shield is ε1 = 0.8 and the emissivity of the 36. A helicopter platform (16 m × 16 m) is subjected to
outer surface of the pipe is ε2 = 0.5. Assuming an incident radiative heat flux from a nearby gas
the surroundings as blackbody at 310 K, prove flame of 6 kW/m2. The absorptivity α, of the platform
that for surface 1 and 2 : surface to thermal radiation at wavelength of 0.7 µm
J1 = 4.861 × 10–8 T14 + 0.0321 J2 + 57.9 W/m2 and average emissivity ε at this wavelength is 0.6.
J2 = 18731 + 0.25 J1 W/m2. By making energy balance on the surface of platform,
(c) Neglect any heat loss by convection, estimate the show that for an ambient temperature of 300 K, the
surface temperature of the shield, when the emis- surface temperature of the platform Ts is given by
sivity of the outer surface of the radiation shield
is ε0 = 0.1. 4475.6 – 3.402 × 10–8 Ts4 – 1.551 (Ts – 300)4/3 = 0.
(d) Recalculate part (c) with ε0 = 0.8 and ε1 = 0.1. Calculate surface temperature of the platform
Take for air significantly higher temperature of the surface of

µ = 1.846 × 10–5 kg/m.s, k = 0.02624 W/m.K, the arch exposed to the surroundings. A reduction in
ρ = 1.177 kg/m2, and the heat transfer rate from the surface of the arch to
Pr = 0.707, and use following correlation for the surroundings reduces the fuel requirements of
calculation of h the furnace and also results in a more comfortable
working environment. In one such furnace it is found
As that the average surface temperature of the top
NuL = 0.13 (GrL Pr)1/3, where L = . [Ans. 518 K]
P surface is 200°C. The emissivity of the surface is 0.9.
37. Two parallel discs of 1 m diameter are situated 2 m To reduce the radiative heat transfer rate from the
apart in the surroundings at a temperature of 20°C. surface, it is proposed to add a radiation shield of
The one side of one disc has an emissivity of 0.5 and steel (ε = 0.85) close to the top surface. The
is maintained at 500°C and other side is insulated. temperature of the surroundings is 35°C. Determine,
The other disc is open to radiation on both sides. per unit surface area,
Determine the equilibrium temperature of the second (a) The radiative heat flux without and with the
disc and heat flow rate from the first disc. radiation shield.
[Ans. 62°C, 7.8 kW] (b) The temperature of the shield.
38. Two parallel directly opposed, coaxial, annular discs T2 = 35°C
Surrounding
are maintained at temperatures 1000 K and 300 K, T1 = 200°C Suspended
surface
respectively. The discs have the following dimensions 2 arch
and emissivities :
Disc 1 (1000 K) ID = 10 cm, 1
OD = 20 cm ε1 = 0.8
Disc 2 (300 K) ID = 12 cm,
OD = 25 cm ε2 = 0.7.
If these discs are 8 cm apart, what is the net rate of
exchange of radiation between the discs ? Assume that
the discs are placed in a radiation free environment.
[Ans. 2286 W/m2]
39. The temperature of the top and bottom surfaces of a
frustum of a cone shown in Fig. 13.68 are maintained
(a) Furnace without shield
at 600 K and 1200 K, respectively, while the side
curved surface is insulated. If all the surfaces are gray Radiation Surrounding
and diffuse, determine net radiative exchange shield surface 4
between the top and bottom surfaces i.e., A3 and A1. 2
T1 = 200°C
1
2m Surface 3
T3 = 600 K
e3 = 0.9
3
Insulated
surface 2
e2 = 0.8,
4m q2 = 0
Surface 1
T1 = 1200 K
e1 = 0.6
(b) Furnace with a radiation shield to reduce the
3m radiant heat transfer rate from the top surface
Fig. 13.68 Fig. 13.69. Furnace with suspended arch

40. The ceiling of many furnaces is in the shape of an 41. The room in the accompanying Fig. 13.70 is 610 cm
arch. The arch is constructed with suspended by 610 cm wide and 275 cm high. The floor is at
firebricks (Fig. 13.69). The bricks deteriorate due to 37.7°C, the walls are at 15.5°C, and the ceiling is at
cracking and disintegration, which leads to 4.4°C. All surfaces are assumed black. Estimate the
net radiation heat transfer (a) from floor to walls and 47. A 1 m × 1 m square solar collector is placed on the
(b) from floor to ceiling. roof of a house. The collector receives a solar radiation
flux of 800 W/m2. Assuming that the surroundings
(4)
acts as a blackbody at an effective sky temperature
610 cm (3) of 30°C, calculate the equilibrium temperature of the
610 cm collector.
(6)
(a) Assuming collector surface is black and the
conduction and convection are negligible
(5)
(b) Assuming collector is horizontal and heat is lost by
(2)
275 cm natural convection only.
(1) 48. A long triangular duct has width of each side is 1 m.
The base surface has an emissivity of 0.7 and is
Fig. 13.70 maintained at uniform temperature of 600 K. The
heated left side surface is black at 1000 K. The right
42. Exhaust gas from a diesel engine flows at a rate of
side surface is well insulated. Determine the rate at
0.066 m3/s along an exhaust duct with a diameter of
which the energy must be supplied to the heated side
38 mm. The temperature of the gas is measured by
externally per unit length of the duct in order to
using a spherical probe of diameter 3 mm and
maintain these conditions. [Ans. 28009 W]
emissivity 0.5. If the pipe walls are at 500 K and
thermocouple records a temperature of 504°C, what 49. Consider a hemispherical furnace of diameter 5 m
is the actual temperature of the exhaust gas ? with a flat base. The dome of the furnace is black and
the base has an emissivity of 0.7. The base and dome
For a sphere of diameter D, the Nusselt number given
of the furnace are maintained at uniform
Fµ I 0.25
temperatures of 400 K and 1000 K, respectively.
NuD = 2 + (0.4 Re1/2
D + 0.06 2/3)
ReD Pr0.4 GH µ JK
∞
s
Determine the net rate of radiation heat transfer from
the dome to the base surface during steady state
Take properties of air as
operation. [Ans. 759 W]
kf = 0.0577 W/m.K, Cp = 1.1 kJ/kg.K,
50. An experiment is conducted to determine the
R = 287 J/kg.K,
emissivity of a material. A long cylindrical rod of
ρ = 0.435 kg/m3 and µ∞ = µs = 3.6 × 10–5 kg/ms. diameter 0.01 m is coated with this material and is
[Ans. 794 K ≈ 521°C] placed in an evacuated long cylindrical enclosure of
43. A thermocouple indicates a temperature 800°C when diameter 0.1 m and emissivity ε2 = 0.95, which is
placed in a duct where a hot gas at 870°C is flowing. cooled externally and is maintained at 200 K at all
The convective coefficient is 60 W/m2.K, estimate the times. The rod is heated by passing an electric current
duct wall temperature. The thermocouple has an through it. When steady operating conditions are
emissivity of 0.5. [Ans. 768.67°C] reached, it is observed that the rod is dissipating
44. A thermocouple is used to measure the temperature electric power at a rate of 8 W per unit of its length
of a gas stream in a duct, records a value of 250°C. If and its surface temperature is 500 K. Determine the
the duct walls are at a temperature of 200°C, calculate emissivity of coating on the rod.
the true gas temperature. Assume that the 51. A spherical tank of 2 m diameter is used to store liquid
thermocouple has a black surface and the convection nitrogen at – 173°C. It is kept in an evacuated cubic
coefficient is 25 W/m2.K. [Ans. 306°C] enclosure whose sides are 3 m long. The emissivity
45. A thermocouple is used to measure the temperature of the spherical tank and enclosure are ε1 = 0.1 and
of flame in a combustion chamber. If thermocouple ε2 = 0.8, respectively. If the temperature of cubic
records a temperature of 1033 K and the walls of the enclosure is 33°C, determine the net rate of radiation
chamber are at 700 K, what is the error in heat transfer to liquid nitrogen. [Ans. 228 W]
thermocouple reading due to radiation to the walls ? 52. Fire indentical thin aluminium sheets with emissivity
Assume all surfaces are black and convection ε = 0.1 on both sides are placed between two very
coefficient is 568 W/m2.K. [Ans. 89.7°C] large parallel plates, which are maintained at uniform
46. Three thin sheets of polished aluminium are placed temperatures of 800 K and 450 K and have emissivity
parallel to each other, so that the distance between ε1 = ε2 = 0.1, respectively. Determine the net rate of
them is very small to the size of the sheets. If one of radiation heat transfer between the two plates per
the outer sheet is at 280°C and other outer sheet is at unit surface area of the plates, and compare the result
60°C, calculate the temperature of intermediate sheet to that without the shield.
and the net rate of heat flow by radiation.
53. A thermocouple shielded by an aluminium foil (ε = 0.1) Tc = 230 K and are at some distance from the line.
is used to measure the temperature of the hot gases Determine the heat gain of the line per unit length.
flowing in a duct whose walls are maintained at If a second stainless steel tube, 12.7 mm in diameter,
380 K. The thermocouple records a temperature of is placed around the line to act as radiation shield, to
530 K. Assuming emissivity of thermocouple junction what rate is the heat gain reduced ? Find the
as 0.8 and convection coefficient of 120 W/m2.K. temperature of the shield. [Ans. 0.328 W/m, 213 K]
Determine the actual temperature of gas. What would
be the thermocouple reading, if no radiation shield
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
was used ?
54. A paint baking oven consists of a long triangular duct 1. Modest M. Michael, “Radiative Heat Transfer”, 2/e,
in which a heated surface is maintained at 1200 K Academic Press (Elsevier Science), 2003.
and another surface is insulated. Painted panels, 2. Oppenheim A.K., “Radiation Analysis by Network
which are maintained at 500 K, occupy the third Method”, Transactions of ASME, Journal of Heat
surface. The triangle of width of 1 m on a side, and Transfer, vol. 78, pp. 725–735, 1956.
heated and insulated surfaces have an emissivity of 3. Özisik M.N., “Radiative Heat Transfer and
0.8. The emissivity of the panels is 0.4. During steady Interactions with Conduction and Convection”, John
state operation, at what rate must energy be supplied Wiley & Sons, New York, 1973.
to the heated side per unit length of the duct to
4. Sparrow E.M., “Application to Variation Methods to
maintained its temperature at 1200 K ? What is the
Radiation Heat Transfer Calculations”, ASME
temperature of insulated surface ?
Journal of Heat Transfer, vol. 82. pp. 375–380, 1960.
(N.M.U., Nov. 1994)
5. Jacob M., “Heat Transfer”, vol. 2, John Wiley & Sons,
[Ans. 36.98 kW/m, 1102.2 K]
New York, 1957.
55. Two parallel plates have emissivity of 0.8 and 0.5. A
radiation shield having same emissivity on both sides 6. Sparrow E.M. and R.D. Cess, “Radiation Heat
is placed between them. Calculate the emissivity of Transfer”, Hemisphere, New York, 1978.
the shield in order to reduce the radiation losses from 7. Siegel R. and J.R. Howell,“Radiation Heat Transfer”
the system to one-tenth of that of without shield. 3rd, ed. Hemisphere, New York, 1992.
[Ans. 0.094] 8. Howell J.R., “A Catalog of Radiation Configuration
56. A physics experiment uses liquid nitrogen as a Factors”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1982.
coolant. Saturated liquid nitrogen at 80 K flows 9. Wen Jei Yang, H. Taniguchi, K. Kudo, “Radiative
through 6.35 mm O.D. stainless steel line (ε1 = 0.2) Heat Transfer”, by the Monte Carlo, Method
inside a vacuum chamber. The chamber walls are at Academic Press, 1995.
Heat Exchangers
14
14.1. Classification of Heat Exchanger. 14.2. Temperature Distribution. 14.3. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient. 14.4. Fouling Factor.
14.5. Heat Exchanger Analysis. 14.6. Log Mean Temperature Difference Method—Parallel flow heat exchanger—Counter flow heat
exchanger—Condenser—Evaporator. 14.7. Multipass and Cross Flow Heat Exchangers. 14.8. The Effectiveness-NTU Method—Heat
exchanger effectiveness—NTU—Capacity ratio—Effectiveness of a parallel flow heat exchanger—Effectiveness of a counter flow heat
exchanger. 14.9. Rating of Heat Exchangers. 14.10. Sizing of Heat Exchangers. 14.11. Compact Heat Exchangers. 14.12. Plate Heat
Exchanger (PHE). 14.13. Requirements of Good Heat Exchanger. 14.14. Heat Exchanger Design and Selection. 14.15. Practical
Applications of Heat Exchangers. 14.16. Heat Pipes. 14.17. Summary—Review Questions – Problems – References and Suggested
Reading.
A device used for exchange of heat between the two fluids In this chapter, the classification of heat
that are at different temperatures, is called the heat exchangers, determination of overall heat transfer
exchanger. The heat exchangers are commonly used in coefficient, the analysis of heat exchangers by
wide range of applications, for example, in a car as logarithmic mean temperature difference and
radiator, where hot water from the engine is cooled by effectiveness—NTU methods for sizing and rating of heat
atmospheric air. In a refrigerator, the hot refrigerant from exchangers are discussed.
the compressor is cooled by convection into atmosphere
by passing it through finned tubes. In a steam condenser,
the latent heat of condensation is removed by circulating 14.1. CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER
water through the tubes. The heat exchangers are also
used in space heating and air-conditioning, waste heat Heat exchangers are designed in so many sizes, types,
recovery and chemical processing. Therefore, the different configurations and flow arrangements and used for so
types of heat exchangers are needed for different many purposes. These are classified according to heat
applications. transfer process, flow arrangement and type of
The heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually construction.
involves convection on each side of fluids and conduction
through the wall separating the two fluids. Thus for (A) According to Heat Transfer Process :
analysis of a heat exchanger, it is very convenient to These are :
work with an overall heat transfer coefficient U, that (i) Direct contact type heat exchanger. In
accounts for the contribution of all these effects on heat this type of heat exchanger, the two immiscible fluids
transfer. The rate of heat transfer between two fluids at different temperatures are come in direct contact.
at any location in a heat exchanger depends on the For the heat exchange between two fluids, one fluid is
magnitude of temperature difference at that location.
sprayed through the other. Cooling towers, jet
This temperature difference varies along the length of
condensers, desuperheaters, open feed water heaters
heat exchanger. Therefore, it is also convenient to work
with logarithmic mean temperature difference LMTD, and scrubbers are the best examples of such heat
which is an equivalent temperature difference between exchangers. A direct contact type heat exchanger (cool-
two fluids for entire length of heat exchanger. ing tower) is shown in Fig. 14.1.
486
HEAT EXCHANGERS 487
Warm moist Cold gas
air out
Hyperbolic
Seal
cooling tower
Warm water
from
condenser
Cool Cool
air in air in
Cool water Tank

to
condenser Hot gas
Water circulating (b) Rotary regenerator
pump
Fig. 14.1. Direct contact type heat exchanger (cooling tower) Fig. 14.2. Storage type heat exchangers
(ii) Transfer type heat exchangers or The storage type of heat exchangers are more
recuperators. In this type of heat exchanger, the cold compact than the transfer type of heat exchangers with
and hot fluids flow simultaneously through the device more surface area per unit volume. However, some
and the heat is transferred through the wall separating mixing of hot and cold fluids is always there.
them. These types of heat exchangers are most (B) According to Constructional Features :
commonly used in almost all fields of engineering. These are :
(iii) Regenerators or storage type heat
(i) Tubular heat exchangers. These are also
exchangers. In these type of heat exchangers, the heat
energy is transferred directly from one fluid to another called tube in tube or concentric tube or double pipe
across a solid surface, which is alternatively in contact heat exchanger as shown in Fig. 14.3. These are widely
with both fluids. When hot fluid flows in an interval used in many sizes and different flow arrangements
of time, it gives its heat to the surface, which stores and type.
it in the form of an increase in its internal energy. This
stored energy is transferred to cold fluid as it flows over Fluid B
the surface in next interval of time. Thus the same
surface is subjected to periodic heating and cooling. In Fluid A Fluid A
(parallel (Counter-
many applications, a rotating disc type matrix is used, flow case) flow case)
the continuous flow of both the hot and cold fluids are
Fluid B
maintained. These are preheaters for steam power
plants, blast furnaces, oxygen producers, etc. A Fig. 14.3. Tubular heat exchanger
stationary and rotating matrix shown in Fig. 14.2, are
(ii) Shell and tube type heat exchangers.
examples of storage type of heat exchangers.
These are also called surface condensers and are most
Hot fluid in Cold fluid in commonly used for heating, cooling, condensation or
evaporation applications. It consists of a shell and a
A C Hot large number of parallel tubes housing in it. The heat
fluid transfer takes place as one fluid flows through the tubes
and other fluid flows outside the tubes through the shell.
The baffles are commonly used on the shell to create
Cold
fluid Matrix turbulence and to keep the uniform spacing between
D Matrix B the tubes and thus to enhance the heat transfer rate.
They are having large surface area in small volume.
Matrix
Cold fluid out Hot fluid out A typical shell and tube type heat exchanger is
(a) Single matrix regenerator shown in Fig. 14.4.
Tube Shell The finned tubes are used in gas turbines, automobiles,
outlet inlet Baffles Front-end aeroplanes, heat pumps, refrigeration, electronics, cryo-
header
genics, air-conditioning systems etc. The radiator of an
automobile is an example of such heat exchanger.
Rear-
(iv) Compact heat exchanger. These are
end special class of heat exchangers in which the heat
header transfer surface area per unit volume is very large. The
ratio of heat transfer surface area to the volume is called
Tubes Shell
Tube area density. A heat exchanger with an area density
Shell
outlet inlet greater than 700 m2/m3 is called compact heat
Fig. 14.4. Shell and tube type heat exchanger : One shell exchanger. The compact heat exchangers are usually
and one tube pass cross flow, in which the two fluids usually flow
perpendicular to each other. These heat exchangers
The shell and tube type heat exchangers are
have dense arrays of finned tubes or plates, where at
further classified according to number of shell and tube
least one of the fluid used is gas. For example,
passes involved. A heat exchanger with all tubes make
automobile radiators have an area density in order of
one U turn in a shell is called one shell pass and two
1100 m2/m3.
tube pass heat exchanger. Similarly, a heat exchanger
that involves two passes in the shell and four passes in (C) According to Flow Arrangement : These
the tubes is called a two shell pass and four tube pass are :
heat exchanger as shown in Fig. 14.5. (i) Parallel flow. The hot and cold fluids enter
at same end of the heat exchanger, flow through in same
Shell side fluid in direction and leave at other end. It is also called the
Tube
concurrent heat exchanger.
side Cold out
fluid
Out
In Hot Hot
Out
in out
(a) One shell pass and two tube

pass heat exchanger Cold in
(a) Parallel flow
In Shell side fluid
Cold in
Out
Hot Hot
Tube
in out
side
fluid
In Cold out
(b) Counter flow heat exchanger
Fig. 14.6. Concentric tube heat exchanger
Out
(b) Two shell pass and two tube (ii) Counter flow. The hot and cold fluids enter
pass heat exchanger at the opposite ends of heat exchanger, flow through in
opposite direction and leave at opposite ends.
Fig. 14.5. Multipass flow arrangement in shell and
(iii) Cross flow. The two fluids flow at right angle
tube type heat exchangers
to each other. The cross flow heat exchanger is further
(iii) Finned tube type. When a high operating classified as unmixed flow and mixed flow depending
pressure or an enhanced heat transfer rate is required, on the flow configuration. If both the fluids flow through
the extended surfaces are used on one side of the heat individual channels and are not free to move in trans-
exchanger. These heat exchangers are used for liquid to verse direction, the arrangement is called unmixed as
gas heat exchange. Fins are always added on gas side. shown in Fig. 14.7 (a). If any fluid flows on the surface
HEAT EXCHANGERS 489
Hot fluid Hot fluid

DT1
DT1 DT2
Cold fluid
Cold fluid DT2
Cross flow
(unmixed)
0 Distance from inlet L 0 Distance from inlet L
(a) Parallel flow heat (b) Counter flow heat

exchanger exchanger
Condensing fluid
DT2
Tube flow
(unmixed) Hot fluid
DT1 DT1 Cold fluid
(a) Both fluid unmixed
Boiling fluid DT2
0 L 0 L
Distance from inlet Distance from inlet
(c) Temperature distribution (d) Temperature distribution
for an evaporator for a condenser
Cross flow
(mixed) Shell side in
Tube
side
out
In
Tube flow
(unmixed) Out
(b) One fluid mixed and one fluid unmixed
Fig. 14.7. Different flow configurations in cross-flow heat Hot f

luid
DT1 fluid
exchangers Hot
and free to move in transverse direction, then this fluid be s
ide
DT2 - Tu
stream is said to be mixed as shown in Fig. 14.7 (b). Cold
fluid Co ld fl
uid
14.2. TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION 0 Distance from inlet L 0 L

(e) Heat exchanger with (f) One shell pass,
The heat transfer from the hot to the cold fluid causes a uniform temperature two tube pass heat
change in temperature of one or both fluids flowing difference exchanger
through the heat exchanger. In some common cases, the Fig. 14.8. Temperature distribution for different types of
temperature is plotted against the distance from the heat exchangers
cold fluid inlet in Fig. 14.8.
From the temperature distributions for various
14.3. OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
types of heat exchangers, the common observations are:
(i) In all other cases, the temperature difference A tubular heat exchanger usually involves two flowing
between hot and cold fluids varies with the position fluids separated by a solid wall. The heat is first
along the path of flow. transferred from hot fluid to wall by convection, through
(ii) In counter flow arrangement, the tempera- the wall by conduction, and from the wall to cold fluid
ture rise in the cold fluid is almost equal to tempera- by convection again.
ture drop in the hot fluid, if both fluids have equal heat The total thermal resistances associated with this
capacity rate as shown in Fig. 14.8 (e). heat transfer process involves two convection and one
conduction resistances as shown in Fig. 14.9. Here the the overall heat transfer coefficient can be expressed as
subscripts i and o pertain to inside and outside surfaces 1 1 1
of the inner tube of the heat exchanger. For double pipe ΣRth = = = ...(14.4)
UA UiA i UoA o
heat exchanger, Ai = πdi L, and Ao = πdo L, and the
thermal resistance of the tube wall is given by The overall heat transfer coefficient based on
outside tube surface can be expressed as :
ln(do /di )
Rwall = ...(14.1) 1
2π L k Uo =
ΣR th A o
1
Cold
=
Ao Ao d
ln o +
1 FG IJ
fluid +
A i hi 2π L k di ho H K
1
Hot
fluid
=
do d d
+ o ln o +
1FG IJ ...(14.5)
di hi 2 k di hoH K
Similarly, overall heat transfer coefficient based
Heat on inside tube surface can be expressed as :
transfer
Ti 1
Ui =
ΣR th A i
Hot fluid Cold
fluid 1
Ai
hi
Wall To =
1 Ai d
ln o +
Ai FG IJ
+
H K
Ao
ho hi 2π L k di A o ho
1
=
Fd I d ...(14.6)
Ti
d
ln G J +
1 Rwall 1 1 i o i
2k H d K d h
Rconv, i = ——
hiAi
Rconv, o = ——
hoAo +
hi i o o
Fig. 14.9. Thermal resistance network for heat transfer When wall thickness of the tube is small and its
in a double-pipe heat exchanger thermal conductivity is high, the thermal resistance of
where k is thermal conductivity of tube material and L the tube material can be neglected (Rwall ≈ 0) and then
is the length of the tube. Therefore, the total resistance inner and outer surfaces of the tube are identical (Ai ≈ Ao).
for a double pipe heat exchanger with clean surfaces The eqn. (14.6) for overall heat transfer coefficient
can be expressed as : simplifies to
ΣRth = Rtotal = Rconv, i + Rwall + Rconv, o 1
U= ...(14.7)
1 1
1 ln(do /di ) 1 +
ΣRth = + + ...(14.2) hi ho
hi A i 2π L k ho A o
The overall heat transfer coefficient U is
where Ai is the area of the inner surface of the tube wall
dominated by the smaller heat transfer coefficient, since
that separates the two fluids and Ao is area of its outer
the inverse of the small value is large. If one of the
surface.
convection coefficient is much smaller than the other,
In the analysis of heat exchanger, it is conven- the value of overall heat transfer coefficient is almost
ient to combine all the thermal resistances in the path equal to smaller convection coefficient i.e., U ≈ hsmaller.
of heat flow from hot fluid to cold fluid as discussed in
The representative values of the overall heat
chapter 3 and the heat transfer rate is expressed as
transfer coefficient U are given in Table 14.1. The values
∆T of overall heat transfer coefficient is very small (U =
Q= = UA∆T = UiAi ∆T = UoAo∆T ...(14.3)
R th 10 W/m2.K) for gas to gas heat exchanger and it is very
where U is overall heat transfer coefficient. It is high about 10,000 W/m2.K for heat exchanger during
measured in W/m2.K. After cancelling ∆T from eqn. (14.3), phase change.
HEAT EXCHANGERS 491
TABLE 14.1. Representative values of overall 1 R f ,i ln (do / di ) R f,o 1

heat transfer coefficient ΣRth = + + + +
A i hi Ai 2πLk A o A o ho
Fluid combination U (W/m2.K) ...(14.8)

Water to water 850–1700 where Rf, i and Rf, o are the fouling factors at the inside
Water to oil 100–350
and outside surfaces of the heat exchanger tube.
Feedwater heaters 1000–8500 The overall heat transfer coefficients ;
Steam to light fuel oil 200–400 1
Steam to heavy fuel oil 50–200 Uo =
do d d d FG IJ
+ o Rf , i + o ln o + R f , o +
1
Freon condensers (water cooled)
Steam condenser
300–1000
1000–6000
di hi di 2k di H K ho
...(14.9)
Gas to gas 10–40 1
Finned tube heat exchanger 25–50 and Ui =
1 d dFG IJ
d
+ Rf , i + i ln o + i R f , o +
di
(water in tube and air in cross flow)
hi 2k diH Kdo do ho
...(14.10)
14.4. FOULING FACTOR The eqns. (14.9) and (14.10) represent overall heat
transfer coefficients, include all possible resistances in
After certain period of operation of a heat exchanger, the path of heat flow. The values of overall heat transfer
its surfaces are often subjected to deposition of fluid coefficient may vary according to applications.
impurities, rust formation and other reactions between
Based on the experience of manufacturers and
the fluids and surfaces. The subsequent deposition of
users, the Tubular Equipment Manufacturer
film or scale on the surface offers an additional
Association (TEMA) prepared the tables of fouling
resistance to heat transfer between the fluids. This effect factors as a guide in heat transfer calculations and are
is approximated by introducing one more thermal re- available in handbook. The representative values of
sistance called as fouling factor Rf . Its value depends fouling factors are given in Table 14.2.
on the operating temperature, fluid velocity and length
of service of heat exchanger. TABLE 14.2. Unit fouling resistance
The most common type of fouling is deposition of (or fouling factor) Rf
solid particles, suspended in the flowing fluids. The scale
of solid deposits can be cleaned off by scratching and Type of fluid Rf (m2.K/W)
chemical treatment of surfaces. Distilled water, sea water, river water
The corrosion and other chemical fouling are and treated boiler feed water
common in chemical process industries. Such type of Below 50°C 0.0001
fouling can be eliminated by coating metal pipes by glass Above 50°C 0.0002
layer or by use of plastic pipes. However, it may affect Fuel oil 0.0009
the heat transfer rate. The biological fouling due to
Organic liquids 0.0002
growth of algae in warm fluid and deposition of ash
Refrigerating liquid 0.0002
particles in the flue gases are some other forms of
Refrigerant vapour 0.0004
fouling.
Steam (oil free) 0.0001
The fouling factor can be obtained experimentally
by determining the overall heat transfer coefficient for Air 0.0004
both clean and dirty conditions in the heat exchanger. Vegetables oil 0.0005
The fouling factor is thus defined as :
Example 14.1. Calculate the overall heat transfer
1 1
Rf = − coefficient based on outer surface of a steel pipe
U dirty U clean (k = 54 W/m.K) with inner and outer diameters as 25 mm
If the surface is fouled by deposit formation on and 35 mm respectively. The inside and outside heat
both sides, then the total thermal resistance in the path transfer coefficients are 1200 W/m2.K and 2000 W/m2.K
of heat flow between hot and cold fluids is expressed as: respectively.
Solution To find : Overall heat transfer coefficient Uo based

Given : A fluid flow through a steel pipe : on outer surface of the tube.
k = 54 W/m.K Assumption :
di = 25 mm = 0.025 m,
(i) Clean inner and outer surfaces of the tube
hi = 1200 W/m2.K
(ii) Steady state conditions.
do = 35 mm = 0.035 m,
ho = 2000 W/m2.K. Analysis : The properties of water at 25°C
To find : Overall heat transfer coefficient based ρ = 996 kg/m3,
on outer surface of the tube.
µ = 8.6 × 10–4 kg/ms,
Analysis : The overall heat transfer coefficient Uo
based on outer tube surface is calculated by using kf = 0.614 W/m.K, Pr = 5.85
eqn. (14.5) For flow through tube,
1 Reynolds number
Uo =
do d d
+ o ln o +
FG IJ
1
di hi 2 k di H K
ho Re =
ρum di
µ
=
996 × 1.5 × 0.0134
8.6 × 10 −4
= 23279
1
= The Re > 2300, thus flow is turbulent and we may
0.035 m 0.035 m
+ × use Dittus-Boelter equation.
(0.025 m) × (1200 W/m 2 . K) 2 × (54 W/m.K)
FG 0.035 m IJ + 1
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
= 0.023 × (23279)0.8 × (5.85)0.4
ln
H 0.025 m K (2000 W/m .K) 2
= 145.26
1
= −3 Nu kf 145.26 × 0.614
1.1667 × 10 + 1.090 × 10 −4 + 5 × 10 −4 hi = =
di 0.0134
1
= = 563 W/m2.K. Ans. = 6656 W/m2.K.
1.776 × 10 −3
Example 14.2. Water at 25°C and 1.5 m/s enters a long The overall heat transfer coefficient based on
brass (k = 110 W/m.K) condenser tube with inner outer surface of the tube can be calculated by using
diameter of 1.34 cm and outer diameter of 1.58 cm. The eqn. (14.5)
heat transfer coefficient for condensation at outer sur- 1
face of the tube is 12000 W/m2.K. Calculate overall heat Uo =
do d d
+ o ln o +
1FG IJ
transfer coefficient based on outer surface of the tube.
di hi 2 k di hoH K
Solution
1
Given : Water flow through a tube of a condenser =
0.0158 0.0158 0.0158 FG1 IJ
Tc, i = 25°C
+
0.0134 × 6656 2 × 110
× ln
0.0134
+
H
12000 K
um = 1.5 m/s 1
= = 3672 W/m2.K. Ans.
di = 1.34 cm = 0.0134 m 2.723 × 10 −4
do = 1.58 cm = 0.0158 m Example 14.3. A double pipe heat exchanger is
ho = 12000 W/m2.K constructed of a stainless steel (k = 15.1 W/m.K) inner
tube of inner diameter of 1.5 cm and outer diameter of
k = 110 W/m.K. 1.9 cm. It is concentric to an outer tube of diameter 3.2 cm.
Water Steam The inside and outside heat transfer coefficients
T c, i = 25°C T c, o are 800 and 1200 W/m2.K, respectively. Due to continuous
operation of the heat exchanger, the inner and outer
2
ho = 12000 W/m .K surfaces of tube are fouled and respective fouling factors
Fig. 14.10. Schematic for example 14.2 are 0.0004 m2.K/W and 0.0001 m2. K/W. Calculate:
HEAT EXCHANGERS 493
(i) Thermal resistance of heat exchanger per unit Using, the total thermal resistance
length, and
(ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner FG 0.019 IJ
and outer surface areas of the tube.
ΣRth =
1
+
0.0004
+
ln
H 0.015 K
Solution 800 × 0.0471 0.0471 2 π × 1 × 15.1
Given : A double pipe heat exchanger ; 0.0001 1
+ +
0.0597 1200 × 0.0597
Inner tube :
k = 15.1 W/m.K = 0.02654 + 0.00849 + 0.00249
di = 1.5 cm do = 1.9 cm + 0.00168 + 0.01396
hi = 800 W/m2.K = 0.0532 k/W. Ans.
Rf, i = 0.0004 m2.K/W (ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient :
ho = 1200 W/m2.K We have
Rf, o = 0.0001 m2.K/W 1 1

ΣRth = =
Di = 3.2 cm. UiA i UoA o
1 1
Cold fluid
Ui = =
ΣR th A i 0.0532 × 0.0471
= 399 W/m2.K. Ans.
Hot fluid
1 1
and Uo = =
ΣR th A o 0.0532 × 0.0597
Hot fluid
= 314.85 W/m2.K. Ans.
Inner layer
14.5. HEAT EXCHANGER ANALYSIS

Outer layer
Cold fluid Heat exchangers usually operate for long periods of time
Fig. 14.11 without change in their operating conditions. Therefore,
they can be modelled as steady flow devices with the
To find :
following assumptions:
(i) Thermal resistance of heat exchanger per unit
1. The mass flow rate of each fluid remains
length,
constant.
(ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on
2. The fluid properties like temperature, velocity
inner and outer surface areas of the tube.
etc. at inlet and outlet also remain unchanged.
Analysis : (i) The total thermal resistance of
3. The changes in kinetic energy, potential
double pipe heat exchanger with fouling on both side
energy, specific heat and conduction along the
surfaces consists of
length are negligible.
(a) Convection resistances on both sides of tube
4. The outer surface of outer tube of heat
(b) Fouling resistances from impurities deposits
exchanger is well insulated and it does not
on both side surfaces of steel tube.
allow any heat transfer to the surroundings,
(c) Conduction resistance of tube wall material.
therefore, heat transfer occurs between hot
Thus and cold fluids only.
1 R f , i ln (do / di ) R f , o 1 5. No fluid is undergoing phase change within
ΣRth = + + + +
hi A i Ai 2π L k Ao ho A o heat exchanger.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the
where Ai = π diL = π × (0.015 m) × (1 m) = 0.0471 m2
rate of heat transfer from the hot fluid be equal to the
Ao = π doL = π × (0.019 m) × (1 m) = 0.0597 m2
rate of heat transfer to the cold fluid.
The rate of heat transfer by hot fluid and for cold fluid
Q= m h Cp, h (Th, i – Th, o) ...(14.11) δQ = m
c Cp, c dTc ...(14.15)
The rate of heat transfer to cold fluid The temperature difference of hot fluid is a
c Cp, c (Tc, o – Tc, i)
Q= m ...(14.12) negative, while temperature difference of cold fluid is
positive as shown in Fig. 14.12. Let for differential sur-
where m = mass flow rate, kg/s
face area dA, the temperature difference ∆T between
Cp = specific heat of the fluid, J/kg.K hot and cold fluid is expressed as
T = temperature, °C ∆T = Th – Tc ...(14.16)
Suffix h = for hot fluid, In differential form :
c = cold fluid, d(∆T) = dTh – dTc ...(14.17)
i = for inlet condition, Solving the eqn. (14.14) and eqn. (14.15) for dTh
o = for outlet condition. and dTc as
Usually, heat exchangers are analysed either for δQ
dTh = – ...(14.18)
their size using log mean temperature difference method m h C p, h
or for their rating using effectiveness—NTU method. δQ
dTc = ...(14.19)
c C p, c
m
14.6. LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
METHOD Th, i
Th
As discussed in chapter 9, in tubular heat exchanger, – dTh .
the temperature difference between the hot and cold dQ mh
Th, o
fluids varies as fluids proceed in the heat exchanger, DT1
DT . DT2
therefore, it is convenient to determine log mean mc
temperature difference ∆Tlm. Tc, o
dTc
The total heat transfer rate between the hot and
Tc, i Tc
cold fluids can also be calculated by using overall heat
transfer coefficient and surface area as :
0 dA A
Q = UA∆Tlm ...(14.13)
where U = overall heat transfer coefficient,
Tc,o
A = surface area for heat exchange,
dA
∆Tlm = log mean temperature difference. Hot fluid
Th, i
14.6.1. Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
Th, o
Consider a parallel flow double pipe heat exchanger as
shown in Fig. 14.12. The temperature difference ∆T Cold fluid Tc, i
between hot and cold fluids is large at the inlet of heat
Fig. 14.12. Temperature distribution for a parallel flow
exchanger and it decreases exponentially towards the double pipe heat exchanger
outlet. The temperature of hot fluid decreases and that Substituting the values of dTh and dTc from
of cold fluid increases along the length of heat exchanger, eqns. (14.18) and (14.19) in eqn. (14.17), we get
thus the temperature of cold fluid can never exceed that
of hot fluid in any case. d(∆T) = – δQ
LM 1
+
1 OP ...(14.20)
Applying the energy balance to differential MN m
h C p, h c C p, c
m PQ
element between hot and cold fluids. The heat transfer rate across the differential
surface area dA of heat exchanger can also be expressed
The rate of heat transfer δQ from hot fluids as
δQ = – m
h Cp, h dTh ...(14.14) δQ = U∆TdA ...(14.21)
HEAT EXCHANGERS 495
using δQ in eqn. (14.20), we get Tc, o
LM 1 +
1 OP DT2
d(∆T) = – U∆TdA
MN m C PQ
Th, i
h p, h c C p, c
m
Th,o
...(14.22) DT1
Rearranging, Tc, i
DT1 = Th, i – Tc, i
DT2 = Th, o – Tc, o
d(∆T)
= – UdAB ...(14.23) (a) Parallel flow heat exchanger
∆T
1 1 Tc, i
where, B= +
m h C p, h m c C p, c
DT2
Integrating eqn. (14.23) from inlet to outlet con- Th, i
ditions of the heat exchanger.
z z
Th, o
∆T2 d(∆T) A DT1
DT1 = Th, i – Tc, o
= – UB dA Tc, o
∆T1 ∆T 0 DT2 = Th, o – Tc, i
L ∆T OP = – UBA
ln M
2
(b) Counter flow heat exchanger
Fig. 14.13. Definition of ∆T1 and ∆T2 for parallel
or,
N ∆T Q 1 and counter flow arrangements
Substituting B, we get Using eqn. (14.26), the heat transfer rate in dou-
LM ∆T OP = – UA R|S 1 U|V ble pipe heat exchanger can be expressed as

2 1
ln
N ∆T Q 1 |T m C h p, h
+
c C p, c
m |W ...(14.24) Q = UA∆Tlm = UoAo∆Tlm = Ui Ai ∆Tlm ...(14.27)
14.6.2. Counter Flow Heat Exchanger
Substituting for m h Cp, h and m c Cp, from
c In counter flow arrangement, the hot and cold fluids
eqns. (14.11) and (14.12), respectively, we get enter the heat exchanger from opposite ends, two fluids
ln
LM ∆T OP = – UA RS T − T + T − T UV
2 h, i h, o c, o c, i
flow in opposite direction. Therefore, the outlet
N ∆T Q 1 T Q Q W temperature of cold fluid may exceed the outlet tem-

perature of hot fluid. The temperature distribution for
UA counter flow heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 14.14.
or Q=
L ∆T OP {(T – T ) – (T – T
ln M 1
h, i c, i h,o c,o)}
N ∆T Q 2
T
Th, i – dTh
∆T1 − ∆T2 Th
or Q = UA
ln
LM ∆T OP 1
...(14.25) DT1
N ∆T Q 2
Tc, o
Tc
mh
.
Th, o
Comparing above expression with eqn. (14.13), DT dQ
we get DT2
– dTc
∆T1 − ∆T2 ∆T2 − ∆T1
∆Tlm =
L ∆T OP
ln M 1
=
L ∆T OP
ln M 2
...(14.26)
mh
.
Tc, i
N ∆T Q2 N ∆T Q 1
0 dA A
The ∆Tlm is called the log mean temperature
Cold fluid Tc, i
difference, which is suitable form of temperature
dA
difference for tubular heat exchanger. Where ∆T1 and Hot fluid
∆T2 represent the temperature difference between hot Th, i
and cold fluids at two ends (inlet and outlet) of a heat Th, o
exchanger. It makes no difference which end of heat
Tc, o
exchanger is designed as inlet or outlet. In this book,
∆T1 and ∆T2 are designated as temperature difference Fig. 14.14. Temperature distribution for a counter
at left and right ends, respectively. flow heat exchanger
Here, ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o The ∆Tlm is called log mean temperature
∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i difference for counter flow heat exchanger and is
expressed as
Using these values of ∆T1 and ∆T2, we may use
the eqns. (14.26) and (14.27) for counter flow heat (Th, i − Tc, o ) − (Th, o − Tc, i )
exchanger. Its derivation can also be taken as ;
∆Tlm, counter =
LT
ln M
h, i − Tc, o OP ...(14.32)
Applying the energy balance to differential

elements in hot and cold fluids.
MN Th, o − Tc, i PQ
14.6.3. Condenser
The rate of heat transfer δQ from hot fluid
Temperature distribution for a condenser is shown in
hC p, h dTh
δQ = – m ...(14.28) Fig. 14.8 (d). The temperature of the condensing fluid
and for cold fluid, (hot fluid) remains constant. Hence the temperature
differences
cC p, c dTc
δQ = – m ...(14.29)
∆T1 = Th – Tc, i ...(14.33)
The temperature difference ∆T between hot and ∆T2 = Th – Tc, o ...(14.34)
cold fluids within the differential area dA can be
can be used with eqn. (14.26) or eqn. (14.32).
expressed as :
∆T = Th – Tc 14.6.4. Evaporator
In differential form : Temperature distribution for an evaporator is shown in
Fig. 14.8(c), the temperature of cold fluid (evaporating
d(∆T) = dTh – dTc
fluid) remains constant, hence, the log mean
Substituting the values of dTh and dTc from temperature difference given by eqn. (14.26) or
eqns. (14.28) and (14.29), respectively, we get eqn. (14.32) can be used with
R|S 1 1 U|V ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc ...(14.35)

d(∆T) = – δQ
|T m C
h p, h
−
c C p, c
m |W ∆T2 = Th, o – Tc ...(14.36)
Substituting δQ = U(∆T)dA for differential 14.7. MULTIPASS AND CROSS FLOW HEAT
element, we get EXCHANGERS
LM 1 −
1 OP Although the temperature distribution and flow
d(∆T) = – U(∆T) dA
MN m C h p, h
mc C p, c PQ conditions are complicated in multipass and cross flow
heat exchangers. In such cases, the appropriate mean
Rearranging and integrating, we get temperature difference can be obtained by introducing
LM ∆T OP = – UA R|S 1
2 1 U|V a correction factor F to the log mean temperature
ln
N ∆T Q
1 |T m C h p, h
−
c C p, c
m |W ...(14.30) difference (LMTD) for counter flow arrangement with
same hot and cold fluid temperatures. In such case
c C p, c and m
Substituting for m hC p, h from ∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter flow ...(14.37)
eqns. (14.11) and (14.12), respectively, we get The correction factor F depends on geometry of
LM ∆T OP = – UA R T − Th, o Tc, o − Tc, i UV heat exchanger and inlet and outlet temperatures of hot
ln
2
N ∆T Q
1
ST h, i
Q
−
Q W
and cold fluids. The value of correction factor F varies
from unity to zero. The correction factor F = 1, for counter
UA flow heat exchangers and less than unity for cross flow
or Q=
L
ln M
∆T O
{(T h, i – Tc, o) – (Th, o – Tc, i)} and multipass arrangement for shell and tube type heat
N ∆T PQ
1
exchangers. It represents the degree of departure of true
2
mean temperature difference from the LMTD for a
...(14.31) counter flow heat exchanger. For some commonly used
or Q = Ui Ai ∆Tlm = UoAo ∆Tlm heat exchangers, the correction factor F can be obtained
HEAT EXCHANGERS 497
from plot shown in Fig. 14.15. In these figures, the The parameter R on the curve is equal to heat capacity
abscissa is a dimensionless ratio P, which represents ratio and is expressed as
the thermal effectiveness of the tube side fluid. It is C p ) tube side
(m T1 − T2
expressed as R= = ...(14.39)
C p ) shell side
(m t2 − t1
t2 − t1 If one fluid remains at constant temperature as
P= ...(14.38)
T1 − t1 in case of condensation and evaporation processes, then
where T represents to shell side temperature, t either value P or R will be zero. In this case, the
represents the tube side temperature and subscripts correction factor, F is always unity and simple LMTD
1 and 2 for inlet and outlet conditions, respectively. can be used.
1.0
0.9
F, correction factor
T1
0.8 t2
t1
0.7
R = 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
T2
0.6 T1 – T2
R = ———
t2 – t1
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t2 – t1
P = ———
T1 – t 1
(a) One shell pass and two tube pass or multiple of two tube pass
1.0
0.9 T1
0.8 t2
0.7 t1
R = 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
0.6 T2
T1 – T2
R = ———
0.5 t2 – t1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t2 – t1
P = ———
T1 – t 1
(b) Two shell pass and four tubes pass or multiple of four tube pass
1.0 T1
0.9
0.8
0.2 t1 t2
0.7 R = 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4
0.6
T2
0.5 T1 – T2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 R = ———
t2 – t1 t2 – t1
P = ———
T1 – t 1
(c) Cross flow, both fluid unmixed

1.0 T1
0.9
0.8
R = 4.0 t1 t2
0.7 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
T2 – T1
0.6 R = ———
t2 – t1
T2
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t2 – t 1
P = ———
T1 – t1
(d) Single-pass cross-flow exchanger, one fluid mixed, the other unmixed
Fig. 14.15. Correction factor F
Example 14.4. A heat exchanger is to be designed to or Th, o = 45.74°C

transfer heat from hot water to a certain cold liquid. Since Tc, o > Th, o
The given conditions are : hot water flow rate 5 kg/min, The cold fluid exit temperature is greater than
cold liquid flow rate 10 kg/min, hot water inlet the hot water exit temperature. The parallel flow
temperature = 85°C, cold liquid inlet temperatures arrangement is impossible with such data. Hence
= 27°C, cold liquid outlet temperature is 55°C and counter flow arrangement would be suitable.
specific heat of cold liquid = 2.93 kJ/kg.K.
The engineer is assigned to do the work to design Example 14.5. Steam in a condenser of a steam power
plant is to be condensed at a temperature of 30°C with
a parallel flow configuration, but he is getting difficulty
cooling water from a nearby lake, which enters the tubes
in doing the calculations. Can you explain why ?
of condenser at 14°C and leaves at 22°C. The surface
Solution area of the tubes is 45 m2 and overall heat transfer coef-
Given : A heat exchanger ficient is 2100 W/m2.K. Calculate the mass flow rate of
cooling water needed and rate of steam condensation in
c = 10 kg/min,
m the condenser.
h = 5 kg/min
m Solution
Cp, c = 2.93 kJ/kg.K, Given : A steam condenser
Th, i = 85°C Th = 30°C
Tc, i = 14°C
Tc, i = 27°C
Tc, o = 22°C
Tc, o = 55°C.
A = 45 m2
To find : Find the type of flow arrangement. U = 2100 W/m2.K.
Assumptions :
Steam in 30°C
1. The specific heat for hot water as 4.18 kJ/kg.K.
2. Negligible heat transfer between heat 22°C
exchanger and surroundings.
Analysis : Making the energy balance between
the two fluids Water
14°C
h Cp, h(Th, i – Th, o) = m
m c Cp, c(Tc, o – Tc, i)
5 (kg/min) × 4.18 (kJ/kg.K) × (85 – Th, o)(°C) Condensate
= 10 (kg/min) × 2.93 (kJ/kg.K) × (55 – 27)(°C) Fig. 14.16. Schematic of a condenser

HEAT EXCHANGERS 499
To find : Water, c = 40000 kg/h

m
(i) Mass flow rate of water into condenser Th, i = 66°C
(ii) Rate of steam condensation in the condenser.
Cp, c = 4180 J/kg.K
Assumptions :
Th, o = 40°C
(i) Condenser is well insulated, so that the heat
loss from steam is transferred to water only. Tc, i = 5°C
(ii) Treating condenser as counter flow heat Cp, h = 3760 J/kg.K
exchanger. U = 580 W/m2.K.
22 + 14 To find :
Analysis : The properties of water at =
2 (i) Exit temperature Tc, o of water,
18°C, from Table A-7 of Appendix A. (ii) Heat transfer rate Q,
Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg.K (iii) Surface area of heat exchanger if it is
and latent heat of vaporisation at 30°C (a) parallel type, (b) counter flow type.
hfg = 2430.5 kJ/kg Analysis : (i) Making energy balance on the heat
exchanger
For counter flow heat exchanger, the temperature
difference m h Cp, h (Th, i – Th, o) = m
∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o = 30 – 22 = 8°C 55000 × 3760 × (66 – 40) = 40,000
∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i = 30 – 14 = 16°C × 4180 × (Tc, o – 5)
and log mean temperature difference or Tc, o = 37.15°C. Ans.
∆T1 − ∆T2 8 − 16 (ii) Heat transfer rate
∆Tlm =
FG
∆T1 IJ =
FG IJ
8
= 11.5°C
Q= m h Cp, h(Th, i – Th, o)
ln
H
∆T2 K ln
H K
16 = 55000 × 3760 × (66 – 40)
The heat transfer rate in the condenser is = 537.68 × 107 J/h
Q = UA ∆Tlm = 2100 × 45 × 11.5 = 1493.55 kW. Ans.
= 1,086,750 W = 1086.75 kW (iii) Surface area of heat exchanger,
This heat will be absorbed by cooling water, thus (a) Parallel flow type
c Cp, c(Tc, o – Tc, i)
Q= m ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, i = 66 – 5 = 61°C
or 1086.75 = m
c × 4.18 × (22 – 14) ∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, o = 40 – 37.15 = 2.85°C
or m c = 32.5 kg/s. Ans. Log mean temperature difference
and steam condensation rate is ∆T1 − ∆T2
Q 1086.75
∆Tlm, parallel =
FG ∆T IJ1
steam
m =
hfg
=
2430.5
= 0.45 kg/s. Ans. ln
H ∆T K 2
Example 14.6. A heat exchanger is required to cool

55,000 kg/h of alcohol from 66°C to 40°C using 61 − 2.85
40,000 kg/h of water entering at 5°C. Calculate (i) exit
=
FG
61 IJ
= 18.98°C
temperature of water, (ii) heat transfer rate, (iii) surface

ln
H
2.85 K
area required for (a) parallel flow type, (b) counter flow
type of heat exchanger. Tc, i = 5°C
.
mc = 40,000 kg/h
Take overall heat transfer coefficient Cp, c = 4180 J/kg.K
U = 580 W/m2.K
Alcohol
Cp (alcohol) = 3760 J/kg.K Th, i = 66°C Th, o = 40°C
Cp (water) = 4180 J/kg.K. (V.T.U., July 2002) .
mh = 55000 kg/h
2
Cp, h = 3760 J/kg.K
Solution U = 580 W/m .K
Tc, o = 37.15°C
Given: A double pipe heat exchanger (a) Schematic of parallel flow heat
h = 55000 kg/h
Alcohol, m exchanger for example 14.6
Heat transfer area, Solution

Q Given : Double heat exchanger
A=
U ∆Tlm, parallel c = 1110 kg/h,
m
1493.55 × 10 3 m h = 390 kg/h,
=
580 × 18.98 Cp, c = 2.1 kJ/kg. K = 2100 J/kg.K,
= 135.66 m2. Ans. Th, i = 93°C,
(b) Counter flow type Tc, i = 27°C,
∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o = 66 – 37.15 = 28.85°C Tc, o = 49°C,
∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i = 40 – 5 = 35°C di = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m,
∆T1 − ∆T2 do = 2.86 cm = 0.0286 m,
∆Tlm, counter =
FG ∆T IJ
1
hi = 635 W/m2.K,
ln
H ∆T K
2
ho = 1270 W/m2.K,
k = 350 W/m.K,
28.85 − 35 Rf, i = 0.0001 m2.K/W,
=
FG
28.85 IJ
= 31.82°C
ln
35 H K Rf, o = 0.0004 m2.K/W.
Tc, o = 37.15°C Th, o
Hot alcohol
Th, i = 66°C Th, o = 40°C 49°C 27°C
. 2.54 cm 2.86 cm
mh = 55000 kg/h Out Cold
Cold water Oil
Cp, h = 3760 J/kg.K
Tc, i = 5°C
.
mc = 40000 kg/h
Cp, c = 4180 J/kg.K Hot water T = 93°C
h, i
(b) Schematic of counter flow heat
exchanger for example 14.6 Fig. 14.18. Schematic of double pipe counter flow heat
exchanger for example 14.7
Fig. 14.17
To find : Length of heat exchanger for
Surface area,
(i) Parallel flow arrangement,
Q
A= (ii) Counter flow arrangement.
U ∆Tlm, counter
Assumptions :
1493 .55 × 10 3 1. The specific heat of hot fluid water as
= 4180 J/kg.K.
580 × 31.82
= 80.91 m2. Ans. 2. Negligible heat transfer between heat
exchanger and surroundings.
Example 14.7. A simple heat exchanger consisting of two 3. Constant properties.
concentric flow passages is used for heating 1110 kg/h of
Analysis : The exit temperature of water : The
oil (sp. heat = 2.1 kJ/kg.K) from a temperature of 27°C energy balance between the two fluids ;
to 49°C. The oil flows through the inner pipe made of
copper (O.D. = 2.86 cm, I.D. = 2.54 cm) and the surface
heat transfer coefficient on the oil side is 635 W/m2.K. 390 × 4180 × (93 – Th, o) = 1110 × 2100 × (49 – 27)
The oil is heated by hot water supplied at the rate of or Th, o = 93 – 31.45 = 61.55°C
390 kg/h and at an inlet temperature of 93°C. The water The heat transfer rate,
side heat transfer coefficient is 1270 W/m2.K. Take the
Q= m c Cp, c(Tc, o – Tc, i)
thermal conductivity of copper to be 350 W/m.K and the
fouling factors on the oil and water sides to be 0.0001 Q = (1100/3600)(kg/s) × (2100 J/kg.K)
and 0.0004 m2.K/W. What is the length of the heat × (49 – 27)(K)
exchanger for : (i) parallel flow, and (ii) counter flow ? = 14245 W
HEAT EXCHANGERS 501
The overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo Solution

1 Analysis : The temperature distribution for
Uo = balance counter flow heat exchanger is shown in
do do do ln (ro / ri ) 1
+ Rf,i + + Rf, o + Fig. 14.19.
di hi di 2k ho
For differential element of heat exchanger
1 h Cp, h dTh
δQ = – m
=
0.0286
×
1 RS
+ 0.0001 +
0.0286 UV c Cp, c dTc
=– m
0.0254 635 T 2 × 350 W
FG
0.0286 1IJ = UdA∆T
× ln
H
0.0254
+ 0.0004 +
1270K c Cp, c = m
Since m h Cp, h
= 325 W/m2.K ∴ dTh = dTc

∆T1 − ∆T2 or d(Th – Tc) = 0
LMTD, ∆Tlm =
ln
LM ∆T OP
1
N ∆T Q
2 Th, i
(i) For parallel flow arrangement : Th

∆T1 = (Th, i – Tc, i) = 93 – 27 = 66°C – dTh
Tc, o
and ∆T2 = (Th, o – Tc, o) = 61.55 – 49 = 12.55
DT .
66 − 12.55 Tc mh Th, o
∆Tlm =
FG66 IJ
= 32.2°C – dTc
ln
H
12.55 K .
mc
The length of heat exchange can be calculated as Tc, i
dA
Q = UoAo∆Tlm = Uo(πdoL) ∆Tlm
or 14245 = 325 × (π × 0.0286 L) × 32.2 0 A or L
or L = 15.15 m. Ans. Fig. 14.19. Schematic of counter flow heat exchanger

subjected to uniform temperature difference
(ii) For counter flow arrangement :
∆T1 = Th, o – Tc, i = 61.55 – 27 = 34.55°C On integration, we get
∆T2 = Th, i – Tc, o = 93 – 49 = 44°C Th – Tc = constant
34.55 − 44 or ∆T = ∆T1 = ∆T2

LMTD∆Tlm =
LM
34.55
= 39.07°C
OP = constant at any section.
ln
44N Q Proved.
The length of heat exchanger Further, from energy balance
Q = UoAo∆Tlm = Uo(πdoL) ∆Tlm h Cp, hdTh = – m
–m c Cp, cdTc
or 14245 = 325 × (π × 0.0286 L) × 39.07 = UdA∆T
or L = 12.48 m. Ans.
dTh U ∆T
The counter flow heat exchanger will require or =– = constant
dA h C p, h
m
less space than parallel flow due to more effective
temperature difference. dTc U∆T
and =– = constant
Example 14.8. In a balanced counter flow heat dA c C p, c
m
exchanger, where m c Cp, c = m
h Cp, h. Show that ∆T1 = ∆T2 Since temperature difference is uniform and slope
= ∆T, at any section, and the temperature profile of two dT
is constant for both lines thus these lines are
fluids are parallel and linear. Also prove that ∆Tlm = ∆T1 dA
= ∆T2 . parallel and linear.
The LMTD is given by

∆T1 − ∆T2
∆Tlm =
FG ∆T IJ
1 Steam d = 30 mm Tc, i = 180°C
ln
H ∆T K
2 .
Tc, o = 350°C
mc = 720 kg/min
L=3m Hot gas
Th, o = ?
Let ∆T1 = a and ∆T1 – ∆T2 = x Cp, c = 2.71 kJ/kg.K .
mh = 1320 kg/min
∴ ∆T2 = a – x hi = 600 W/m .K
2
Cp, h = 1 kJ/kg.K
x 2
Then ∆Tlm = ho = 250 W/m .K
ln [ a / (a − x)]
lim (∆Tlm) = lim

LM x OP 650°C
x→0 x→0 N ln {a / (a − x)} Q Hot fluid
1
= lim 350°C
x→0 a− x 1 Th, o
(− a)(− 1)
a (a − x) 2 Cold fluid
180°C
= lim (a – x) = a = ∆T1
x→0
∴ ∆Tlm = ∆T1 = ∆T2. Proved. 0 L=3m
Example 14.9. Steam enters a counter flow heat Fig. 14.20. Schematic and temperature profile for counter
flow heat exchanger for example 14.9
exchanger, dry saturated at 10 bar and leaves at 350°C.
The mass flow rate of the steam is 720 kg/min. The hot To find : Number of tubes required.
gas enters the exchanger at 650°C with mass flow rate Analysis : The exit temperature of hot gas can be
of 1320 kg/min. If the tubes are 30 mm in diameter and determined by energy balance on the heat exchanger.
3 m long, determine the number of tubes required. Neglect Heat lost rate by gas = Heat gain rate by steam
the resistance offered by metallic tubes. Use following
data: h Cp, h (Th, i – Th, o) = m
For steam Tsat = 180°C (at 10 bar), 22 × 1 × (650 – Th, o) = 12 × 2.71 × (350 – 180)
Cp, s = 2.71 kJ/kg.K, Th, o = 398.7°C
hi = 600 W/m2.K Heat transfer rate :
For gas Cp, g = 1 kJ/kg.K, Q= m
h Cp, h(Th, i – Th, o)
ho = 250 W/m2.K. (P.U., May 2006)
= 22 × 1 × (650 – 398.7)
Solution = 5528.6 kW
Given : A counter flow heat exchanger ; Log mean temperature difference (LMTD)
c = 720 kg/min = 12 kg/s
For steam ; m ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o = 650 – 350
Tc, i = 180°C = 300°C
Tc, o = 350°C ∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i = 398.7 – 180
Cp, c = 2.71 kJ/kg.K,
= 218.7°C
hi = 600 W/m2.K
∆T1 − ∆T2
For gas; h = 1320 kg/min = 22 kg/s
m ∆Tlm =
FG ∆T IJ 1
Cp, h = 1 kJ/kg.K
Th, i = 650°C,
ln
H ∆T K 2
ho = 250 W/m2.K 300 − 218.7

d = 30 mm = 0.03 m,
=
FG
300 IJ
= 257.21°C
L = 3 m.
ln
H
218.7 K
HEAT EXCHANGERS 503
Overall heat transfer coefficient U ; without tube 538°C

wall resistance
1 1 85°C
U= = 148°C
1 1 1 1
+ +
hi ho 600 250
= 176.47 W/m2.K 38°C
Further, the heat transfer rate in terms of U and
0
∆Tlm is expressed as
Q = UA∆Tlm Fig. 14.21. Temperature distribution for example 14.10.
Q To find : Length of the heat exchanger.

or A= Assumptions :
U∆Tlm
(i) No heat loss to the surroundings.
5528.6 × 10 3
= = 121.8 m2 (ii) No scaling on heat transfer surfaces.
176.47 × 257.21
(iii) The specific heat of the water as 4180 J/kg.K.
Further, A = πdLN
(iv) Assuming one pass of tubes.
121.8
N= = 431 tubes. Ans. (v) Tube material resistance is negligible.
π × 0.03 × 3
Analysis : The heat transfer rate through the heat
Example 14.10. A heat exchanger contains 4500 tubes,
exchanger can be calculated as :
each having a diameter of 2.54 cm, through which
11.3 kg/s of air to be cooled from 538°C to 148°C. Water h C (T – T )
Q= m p, h h, i h, o
passes in counterflow over the tubes, rising in
= (11.3 kg/s) × (1.0082 kJ/kg.K)
temperature from 38ºC to 85ºC. Determine the tube length
required for this duty, if the water side resistance to heat × (538 – 148)(K) = 4443.13 kW
flow is negligible. The physical properties of air at The calculation of heat transfer coefficient on air
average temperature are as :
side :
ρ = 1.009 kg/m3,
The mass flow rate of air per tube :
µ = 2.075 × 10–5 kg/ms
11.3
k = 3.003 × 10–5 kW/m.K, tube =
m = 2.51 × 10–3 kg/s
4500
Cp = 1.0082 kJ/kg.K.
tube
4m
For turbulent flow inside tubes, use relation Re =
πdµ
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8Pr0.4.
4 × (2.51 × 10 −3 kg/s)
(N.M.U., May 1997) =
π × (0.0254 m) × (2.075 × 10 −5 kg/ms)
Solution = 6066
Given : A counter flow heat exchanger
µ C p, h 2.075 × 10 −5 × 1.0082 × 10 3
Th,i = 538°C, and Pr = =
kf 0.03003
Tc,i = 38°C
= 0.6966
Th,o = 148°C, The Nusselt number
Tc,o = 85ºC
hi d
Cp,h = 1.0082 kJ/kg.K, Nu = = 0.023 × (Re)0.8 × (Pr)0.4
kf
ρair = 1.009 kJ/m3
0.03003
h = 11.3 kg/s, or hi = × 0.023 × (6066)0.8 × (0.6966)0.4
m 0.0254
d = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m = 25.92 W/m2.K = 0.02592 kW/m2.K
N = 4500, The overall heat transfer coefficient; if water side
and tube material resistances are neglected.
µair = 2.075 × 10–5 kg/m.s
U = hi = 0.02592 kW/m2.K
kf = 0.03003 W/m.K, ho = 0
The log mean temperature difference ; To find : Length of heat exchanger.

∆T1 − ∆T2 (538 − 85) − (148 − 38) Assumptions :
∆Tlm =
∆T1 FG
=
ln
IJ(538 − 85) LM OP (i) Steam losses its total latent heat at
ln
∆T2 H K(148 − 38) N Q temperature of 180°C.
= 242.4°C (ii) Clean and fouling free surfaces.
The heat transfer area ; Analysis : The properties of water at mean
Q temperature
A= 30 + 90
U ∆Tlm Tm = = 60°C
2
4443.13
or A= = 707.16 m2 ρ = 982 kg/m3,
0.02592 × 242.4
The length of each pipe ; Cp = 4.186 kJ/kg.K,
A = πdL pN µ = 528 × 10–6 kg/ms
(where p is number of tube passes) Pr = 3.42,
707.16 kf = 0.645 W/m.K
or L= = 1.97 m. Ans.
π × 0.0254 × 1 × 4500 The mass flow rate of water
Example 14.11. A pipe (k = 59 W/m.K) with an inner c = ρAcum = ρ [(π/4) di2] um
m
diameter of 3.75 cm and wall thickness of 0.318 cm is
FG π IJ × (0.0375)
externally heated by steam at a temperature of 180°C.
The water flows through the pipe with a velocity of
= 982 ×
H 4K 2 × 1.22
1.22 m/s. Calculate the length of pipe required to heat = 1.323 kg/s
water from 30°C to 90°C. Assume the heat transfer The heat transfer rate
coefficient on the steam side to be 11.3 kW/m2.K.
Q= m
Solution
= 1.323 × 4.186 × (90 – 30)
Given : Water heating by steam through a steel pipe.
= 332.333 kW
k = 59 W/m.K, di = 3.75 cm
The temperature difference
do = di + 2t = 4.068 cm, Th = 180°C
∆T1 = Th – Tc, i = 180 – 30 = 150°C
Tc,i = 30°C, Tc,o = 90°C
um = 1.22 m/s, ho = 11.3 kW/m2.K. ∆T2 = Th – Tc, o = 180 – 90 = 90°C
t = 0.318 cm ∆T1 − ∆T2 150 − 90

∆Tlm =
FG ∆T IJ =
FG IJ
150
= 117.5°C
um = 1.22 m/s
Water di = 3.75 cm Tc, o
ln 1
H ∆T K
2
ln
H K
90
Tc, i = 30°C = 90°C The heat transfer coefficient hi on water side :
Steam, Th = 180°C ρ um di 982 × 1.22 × 0.0375
Re = =
528 × 10 −6
2
ho = 11.3 kW/m .K µ
T = 85088
Th = 180°C Re > 2300, thus flow is turbulent and
fully developed.
90°C
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
= 0.023 × (85088)0.8 × (3.42)0.4
= 330.54
30°C Nu kf 330.54 × 0.645
and hi = =
0 x L di 0.0375
Fig. 14.22. Schematic and temperature distribution = 5685.4 W/m2.K.
for example 14.11
HEAT EXCHANGERS 505
The overall heat transfer coefficient based on Analysis : The heat transfer rate can be expressed
inner surface in terms of overall heat transfer coefficient as
1 Q = UA(∆T)lm ...(i)
Ui =
1 d d
+ i ln o +
diFG IJ where for condenser
hi 2k di H K
do ho (Th − Tc, i ) − (Th − Tc, o )
1
∆Tlm =
F
Th − Tc, i I
=
1 0.0375 FG
0.04068 IJ ln GH
Th − Tc, o JK
+
5685.4 2 × 59
× ln
H
0.0375 K (45 − 30) − (45 − Tc, o ) Tc, o − 30
+
0.0375 =
F 45 − 30 I =
F 15 I
= 3529.4 W/m2.K
0.04068 × 11.3 × 10 3 ln GH 45 − T JK
c, o
ln GH 45 − T JK
c, o
Further, the heat transfer rate is expressed as : Using in eqn. (i)

Q = Ui Ai ∆Tlm Tc, o − 30
4.2 × 103 W = (350 W/K) ×
3 F 15 I
and Ai =
Q
U i ∆Tlm
=
332.333 × 10
3529.4 × 117.5
= 0.801 m2 ln GH 45 − T JK
c, o
Ai 0.801 Tc, o − 30
L= = = 6.8 m. Ans. or = 12
π di π × 0.0375 ln (15) − ln (45 − Tc, o )
or Tc, o – 30 = 32.5 – 12 ln (45 – Tc, o)
Example 14.12. A one tonne window air conditioner
removes 3.5 kW heat from a room and in process, it rejects or ln (45 – Tc, o) + 0.0833 Tc, o – 5.2 = 0
4.2 kW heat in an air cooled condenser. The ambient It is a trancedental equation and its numerical
temperature is 30°C, whereas, the refrigerant condenser solution gives
at 45°C. For the condenser, the product of overall heat Tc, o = 34.8°C
transfer coefficient and corresponding area is 350 W/K. Temperature rise of air = 34.8 – 30 = 4.8°C. Ans.
Calculate the temperature rise of air as it flows over the Example 14.13. Assume the condenser of a large power
condenser tubes. (M.U., Winter 1998) plant to be a shell and tube type heat exchanger consisting
Solution of a single shell and 30,000 tubes, each executing two
Given : A condenser of (cross flow heat exchanger) passes. The tubes are of thin wall constructed with
of a window air conditioner. 25 mm in diameter, and steam condenses on their outer
surface with an associated convection coefficient of
UA = 350 W/K
11,000 W/m2.K. The heat transfer rate that must be
Q = 4.2 kW effected by exchanger is 2000 MW and this is
Th, i = Th, o = Th = 45°C accomplished by cooling water through the tubes at the
Tc, i = 30°C. rate of 30,000 kg/s. The water enters at 20°C, while the
steam condenses at 50°C. What is the temperature of
T cooling water coming out the condenser ? What is the
Th = 45°C required tube length per pass ? (N.M.U., Nov. 1996)
Tc, o Solution
Given : A shell and tube type condenser of a power
plant ;
No. of shell = 1,
No. of tubes, N = 30,000
30°C No. of passes, p = 2,
0 x L d = 25 mm, Q = 2000 MW
Fig. 14.23. Temperature distribution in condenser Cold fluid Hot fluid
of window air conditioner c = 30,000 kg/s,
m ho = 11,000 W/m2.K
To find : Temperature of air leaving the con- Tc, i = 20°C, Th = 50°C.
denser.
To find : ∆T1 − ∆T2 14 − 30

(i) Outlet temperature of the cooling water.
∆Tlm, counter =
FG ∆T IJ =
FG IJ
14
= 21°C
(ii) Tube length per pass.

ln 1
H ∆T K
2
ln
H K
30
Schematic :
The correction factor F can be obtained from
Steam, 50°C Fig. 14.15(a), where
t2 − t1 36 − 20
P= = = 0.466
Tube data T1 − t1 50 − 20
.
d = 0.025 m mc
N = 30000 T1 − T2 50 − 50
. and R= = =0
mtube = 1 kg/s Water t2 − t1 36 − 20
. Hence the correction factor F = 1, and the

mh corrected LMTD
∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter = 1 × 21 = 21°C
T
Th = 50°C Since the heat transfer coefficient on waterside
is not given, thus its calculation is required to determine
Tc, o
overall heat transfer coefficient.
The mass flow rate per tube,
30,000 (kg/s)
tube =
m = 1 kg/s per tube
30,000 tubes
20°C Reynolds number
0 4m tube 4×1
Re = =
Fig. 14.24. One shell pass two tube pass heat πdµ π × 0.025 × 855 × 10 −6
exchanger for example 14.13
= 59,567
Assumptions :
Using relation,
(i) Assuming no heat loss to the surroundings.
(ii) Negligible thermal resistance of tube material Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
and fouling effects. kf
(iii) Constant properties. or hi = 0.023 × × Re0.8 Pr0.4
d
(iv) Fully developed flow through tubes.
(v) Specific heat of water as 4180 J/kg.K. 0.023 × 0.613
= × (59,567)0.8 × (5.83)0.4
Properties : Properties of water at Tm ≈ 300 K 0.025
Cp = 4180 J/kg.K, = 7552 W/m2.K
µ = 855 × 10–6 Ns/m2, The overall heat transfer coefficient ;
kf = 0.613 W/m.K, 1 1
Uo = =
Pr = 5.83. 1 1 1 1
+ +
Analysis : (i) The heat transfer rate through heat hi ho 7552 11000
exchanger 2
= 4478 W/m .K
Q= m
c C p, c (Tc, o – Tc, i) The length of heat exchanger ;
2000 × 106
W = (30,000 kg/s) × (4180 J/kg.K) Q = Uo Ao ∆Tlm
× (Tc, o – 20)(K or °C)
2000 × 10 6
or Tc, o = 36.0°C. Ans. or Ao = = 21,268 m2
4478 × 21
(ii) The LMTD for counter flow arrangement
∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o = 50 – 36 = 14°C The length of each pipe ;
Ao = π d L p N
∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i = 50 – 20 = 30°C
HEAT EXCHANGERS 507
21,268 Tc, o = 25°C

L=
π × 0.025 × 2 × 30,000
= 4.51 m. Ans. Steam
The length of each tube per pass is 4.51 m. at
50°C
Example 14.14. A condenser is employed in a steam
power plant to handle 35,000 kg/h of dry and saturated
steam at 50°C. The cooling water enters the condenser
at 15°C and leaves at 25°C. The tubes are 22.5 mm inside Water tc, i = 15°C
diameter and 25 mm outside diameter. The water flows
through the tubes at an average velocity of 2 m/s. The T
heat transfer coefficient on steam side is 5000 W/m2.K. Th = 50°C, Steam
Calculate : Tc,o = 25°C
(i) The mass flow rate of water. Water
(ii) Heat transfer surface area.

(iii) Number of tubes required for water flow.
Tc, i = 15°C
(iv) Number of tube passes in condenser if the length
0 x L
of each tube per pass should not be more than 2.5 m.
Ignore thermal resistance of wall material and Fig. 14.25. Schematic and temperature distribution for
steam condenser for example 14.14.
assume that the condensate coming out the condenser is
saturated water i.e., steam loose only its latent heat. To find :
Use relation ; Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4 for (i) Mass flow rate of water.
determination of waterside heat transfer coefficient. (ii) Number of tubes required for given water flow
Take latent heat of steam as 2374 kJ/kg rate.
Following properties of water at mean bulk (iii) Heat transfer surface area.
temperature of 20°C may be used : (iv) Number of tube passes for tube length per pass
ρ = 998.8 kg/m3, within 2.5 m.
Cp = 4180 J/kg.K, Assumptions :
ν = 1.0006 × 10–6 m2/s, (i) Assuming no heat loss to the surroundings.
kf = 0.59859 W/m.K. (ii) Fully developed flow through tubes.
(P.U., June 1999) (iii) Constant properties.
(iv) Negligible resistances of tube material and
Solution
scale formation.
Given : A shell and tube type steam condenser of
Analysis : The heat transfer rate through heat
a steam power plant ;
exchanger
No. of shell = 1
hh
Q= m fg
Hot fluid Cold fluid
= (35,000/3600)(kg/s) × (2374 kJ/kg)
h = 35,000 kg/h,
m um = 2 m/s = 23.08 × 103 kW
ho = 5,000 W/m2.K, Tc, i = 15°C (i) The mass flow rate of water :
Th = 50°C, Tc, o = 25°C, c Cp, c (Tc, o – Tc, i)
Q= m
do = 25 mm, di = 22.5 mm, c × (4.180 kJ/kg.K)
23.08 × 103 kW = m
hfg = 2374 kJ/kg.
× (25 – 15)(K or °C)
and properties of water and relation.
or c = 552 kg/s.
m Ans.
(ii) The mass flow rate of water through each tube; The overall heat transfer coefficient ;
π
tube = ρ Ac um = ρ  di2  um
m Uo =
1
=
1
4  do 1 0.025 1
+ +
di hi ho 0.0225 × 7020 5000
π 2
= (998.8 kg/m2) ×  × (0.0225 m) 
4  or Uo = 2791 W/m2.K
× (2 m/s) = 0.7942 kg/s The heat transfer area of heat exchanger ;
Hence, the number of tubes required for mass flow Q = Uo Ao ∆Tlm
rate of 552 kg/s are
23.08 × 106 W
mc 552 or Ao =
N= = = 695 tubes. Ans. (2791 W/m 2 .K) × (29.72 K)
tube
m 0.7942
(iii) The heat transfer area : = 278.23 m2. Ans.
The LMTD for counter flow arrangement (iv) The number of tube passes for each tube to
be 2.5 m long
∆T1 = Th, o – Tc, i = 50 – 15 = 35°C
∆T2 = Th, i – Tc, o = 50 – 25 = 25°C Ao = πdo L pN
∆T1 − ∆T2 35 − 25 278.23 m 2
∆Tlm, counter =
FG ∆T IJ =
FG IJ
35
= 29.72°C or p=
(π × 0.025 m × 2.5 m) × 695 tubes
ln 1
H ∆T K
2
ln
H K
25
= 2 passes. Ans.
The correction factor F for one fluid condensing The each tube will have two passes.
through condenser is unity.
Example 14.15. A two pass surface condenser is required
The corrected LMTD
to handle the exhaust steam 0.9 dry from a turbine,
∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter developing 15 MW with a steam consumption of
= 1 × 29.72 = 29.72°C. 5 kg/kWh. The condenser maintains a vacuum of
Since the heat transfer coefficient on waterside 660 mm of Hg, when barometric pressure is 760 mm of
is not given, thus, its calculation is required to determine Hg. Condensate coming out the condenser as saturate
overall heat transfer coefficient. water. The water enters tubes, 25 mm inner diameter
Reynolds number and 33 mm outer diameter, at 24°C with a mean velocity
4m tube of 3 m/s and leaves the tubes at a temperature which is
Re =
π di ρ ν 4°C less than the condensate temperature.
4 × 0.7942 The overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer
= surface of tubes is 4000 W/m2.K. Calculate :
π × 0.0225 × 998.8 × 1.0006 × 10 −6
= 44970 (i) Mass of cooling water circulated in kg/min,
Prandtl number, (ii) Condenser surface area,
µ C p ρνC p (iii) Number of tubes required per pass,
Pr = =
kf kf (iv) Tube length per pass.
998.8 × 1.0006 × 10 −6 × 4180 Solution
= = 6.97
0.59859 Given : A two tube pass surface condenser with
Using relation
Uo = 4000 W/m2.K
hi di
Nu = = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4 Power = 15 MW
kf
kf s = 5 kg/kWh
m
or hi = 0.023 × × Re0.8 Pr0.4 Steam side : x = 0.9
di
0.023 × 0.59859 patm = 760 mm of Hg
= × (44970)0.8 × (6.97)0.4
0.0225 pg = – 660 mm of Hg
= 7020 W/m2.K
HEAT EXCHANGERS 509
Steam 0.9 dry = 13341.6 Pa
= 0.133 bar or 13.34 kPa
Tc, o From Table A-7 of Appendix A at p = 0.133 bar or
13.34 kPa
Th = Tsat = 51°C hfg = 2592 kJ/kg
Water
24°C and Tc, o = 51 – 4 = 47°C
(i) Mass of steam condensed per minute
Condensate
5 kg
h = 15 × 10 3 kW ×
m
T kWh
Th = 75000 kg/h
4°C = 1250 kg/min = 20.83 kg/s
Heat rejected by steam per minute
Q= m h × (xh ) = 20.83 × (0.9 × 2592)
fg
= 48,600 kW
Tc, i Mass of water circulated in the condenser can be
determined by energy balance
0 x L
Q= m
Fig. 14.26. Schematic and temperature distribution for two
tube pass surface condenser or c × 4.187 × (47 – 24)
48,600 = m
Water side : di = 25 mm or c = 504.67 kg/s = 30,280 kg/min.
m Ans.
do = 33 mm (ii) The condenser surface area
Tc, i = 24°C The condenser operates in counter flow, therefore,
um = 3 m/s ∆T1 = Th – Tc, o = 51 – 47°C = 4°C
Tc, o = Th, o – 4°C. ∆T2 = Th – Tc, i = 51 – 24 = 27°C
∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter
To find : (Here F = 1 for condenser)
(i) Mass flow rate of cooling water in kg/min, LMTD
(ii) Condenser surface area, ∆T1 − ∆T2 4 − 27
(iii) Number of tubes per pass,
∆Tlm =
∆T1FG =
IJ4 FG IJ
(iv) Length of tubes per pass.
ln
∆T2 H ln
K
27 H K
Assumptions : = 12.04°C (or 12.04 K)
(i) Shell of the condenser is well insulated, so that The heat transfer rate is also expressed as
heat rejected during condensation is transferred to
cooling water only. Q = UoAo ∆Tlm
(ii) No change in kinetic and potential energy. 48,600 × 103 W = (4000 W/m2.K) × Ao × (12.04 K)
(iii) Scale free surfaces. or Ao = 1009.1 m2. Ans.
(iv) Constant properties. (iii) Number of tubes required per pass :
(v) Specific heat of water as 4.187 kJ/kg.K and These can be determined by continuity equation
density as 1000 kg/m3.
FG π IJ d × ρ × u × No. of tubes (N)
Analysis : The absolute pressure maintained in
condenser is
c =
m
H 4K i
2
m
pabs = patm + pg = 760 – 660 mm of Hg F πI

504.67 kg/s = G J × (0.025 m) × (1000 kg/m )
= 100 mm of Hg H 4K 2 3
× (3 m/s) × N
100
= ρgh = 13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × or N = 342.7 say 343 tubes. Ans.
1000
(iv) Length of tube per pass Here ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o = 80 – 50 = 30°C
Ao = π do L × N × 2 passes. ∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i = 40 – 20 = 20°C
∆T1 − ∆T2 30 − 20
1009.1 m 2
L= = 14.1 m. Ans. ∆Tlm, counter =
FG ∆T IJ =
FG IJ
30
= 24.66°C
π × (0.033 m) × 343 × 2 ln 1
H ∆T K
2
ln
H K
20
Example 14.16. A two shell pass and four tube passes For shell side and tube heat exchanger
heat exchanger is used to heat glycerin from 20°C to 50°C
T1 = Tc, i = 20°C, T2 = Tc, o = 50°C
by hot water, which enters thin walled 20 mm diameter
tube at 80°C and leaves at 40°C. The total length of the t1 = Th, i = 80°C t2 = Th, o = 40°C
tube in the heat exchanger is 60 m. The convection T1 − T2 20 − 50
coefficient on shell side is 25 W/m2.K and that on water R= = = 0.75
t2 − t1 40 − 80
(tube) side is 160 W/m2.K. Calculate the rate of heat
transfer in the heat exchanger t2 − t1 40 − 80
P= = = 0.67
(i) For clean surfaces of tubes, T1 − t1 20 − 80
(ii) After fouling with fouling factor of From Fig. 14.15 (b), for P = 0.67 and R = 0.75, the
0.0006 m2.K/W on outer surface of tubes. correction factor F = 0.88.
Solution The log mean temperature difference for shell and
tube heat exchanger
Given : Two shell pass and four tube passes heat
exchanger as shown in Fig. 14.27 ∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter
Shell side : ∆Tlm = 0.88 × 24.66 = 21.7°C
(i) For clean tube surfaces (before fouling),
Tc, i = 20°C
Overall heat transfer coefficient for thin walled
Tc, o = 50°C tube ;
ho = 25 W/m2.K
1 1
Rf, o = 0.0006 m2.K/W U= = = 21.62 W/m2.K
1 1 1 1
Tube side : d = 20 mm, + +
hi ho 160 25
L = 60 m
Heat transfer rate,
Th, i = 80°C, Q = UA ∆Tlm = 21.62 × 3.77 × 21.7
Th, o = 40°C = 1768.7 W. Ans.
hi = 160 W/m2.K. (ii) When outer surface of tube is fouled with
fouling factor of 0.0006 m2.K/W
Glycerin, 20°C
40°C 1 1
U= =
1 1 1 1
+ + Rf, o + + 0.0006
hi ho 160 25
= 21.34 W/m2.K
Water Q = UA ∆Tlm = 21.34 × 3.77 × 21.7
50°C
80°C = 1746.2 m2. Ans.
Fig. 14.27. Schematic Example 14.17. An automotive radiator has 40 tubes
To find : Rate of heat transfer in exchanger, of inner diameter of 0.5 cm and 60 cm long in a closely
spaced plate finned matrix, so both fluids unmixed. Hot
(i) Before any fouling, water enters the tubes at 90°C at a rate of 0.6 kg/s and
(ii) After fouling of outer tube surface. leaves at 65°C. Air flows across the radiator through the
Analysis : For thin walled tube surface area, inter fin spaces and is heated from 20°C to 40°C.
A = π dL Calculate overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner
surface for this radiator.
= π × 0.02 × 60 = 3.77 m2
HEAT EXCHANGERS 511
Solution ∆T1 − ∆T2 50 − 45

Given : An automotive radiator as cross flow heat ∆Tlm, counter =
FG ∆T IJ =
FG IJ
50
= 47.45°C
exchanger with unmixed fluid streams.
N = 40
ln 1
H ∆T K
2
ln
H K
45
di = 0.5 cm = 0.005 m For cross flow

L = 60 cm = 0.6 m t1 = Th, i = 90°C, t2 = Th, o = 65°C
Th, i = 90°C,
T1 = Tc, i = 20°C, T2 = Tc, o = 40°C
Th, o = 65°C
h = 0.6 kg/s
m
P=
t2 − t1 65 − 90
= = 0.357
U|
Tc, i = 20°C,
Tc, o = 40°C.
T1 − t1 20 − 90
T − T2 20 − 40 V|
R= 1
t2 − t1
=
65 − 90
= 0.8
|W
Water (unmixed)
Th, i = 90°C F = 0.97 (From Fig. 14.15(c))
.
mh = 0.6 kg/s The log mean temperature difference for cross
flow heat exchanger
Unmix
∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter
Air ∆Tlm = 0.97 × 47.45 = 46°C
The overall heat transfer coefficient Ui
Tc, i = 20°C
Tc, o = 40°C Q 62.7 × 10 3
Ui = =
A i ∆Tlm 0.377 × 46
60 cm = 3615.5 W/m2.K. Ans.
14.8. THE EFFECTIVENESS-NTU METHOD

It is very simple to use LMTD method of heat exchanger
Coolant analysis when inlet and outlet temperatures, mass flow
tubes rates for hot and cold fluids and overall heat transfer
(40 Nos) Th, o = 65°C coefficient are available or easily be determined from
specified relations. The heat transfer surface area and
thus size of heat exchanger can easily be determined
Fig. 14.28. Schematic of a radiator from
To find : Overall heat transfer coefficient Ui based Q = UA∆Tlm
on inner surface of tube.
Assumptions :
(i) Specific heat of hot water as 4.18 kJ/kg.K. Th, i
(ii) Clean tube surfaces without any fouling.
Analysis : The heat transfer rate in the radiator
Tc, o = ? Th, o = ?
Q= m
h Cp, h (Th, i – Th, o)
= 0.6 × 4.18 × (90 – 65) = 62.7 kW
Total heat transfer area on tube side
Ai = πdi LN = π × 0.005 × 0.6 × 40 Tc, i
= 0.377 m2 0 L
Here ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o = 90 – 40 = 50°C Fig. 14.29. Design problem encountered
with LMTD method
∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i = 65 – 20 = 45°C
However, if the type and size of heat exchanger ∴ Qmax = Cmin (Th, i – Tc, i)
are specified and for prescribed mass flow rates, only
Cp)min(Th, i – Tc, i)
= (m ...(14.43)
inlet temperatures of both fluids are known and outlet
temperatures are to determine as shown in Fig. 14.29, where Cmin is the smaller value among Cc = m c Cp, c and
then use of LMTD method becomes helpless. If it is used Ch = m h Cp, h either for cold or hot fluid depending on
in such a case, then the procedure would require tedious
product of mass flow rate and specific heat.
iterations thus is not practical. In order to eliminate
such complication from the solution, Kays and London For cold fluid
came up with new method that is called the effective- Effectiveness,
ness-NTU method.
cC p, c (Tc, o − Tc, i )
m
14.8.1. Heat Exchanger Effectiveness ε=
C p ) min (Th, i − Tc, i )
(m
It is a dimensionless parameter and defined as the ratio
of actual heat transfer rate Qact by heat exchanger to C c (Tc, o − Tc, i )
= ...(14.44)
maximum possible heat transfer rate Qmax. It is denoted C min (Th, i − Tc, i )
by ε and expressed as : and for hot fluid,
Q act c C p, c (Tc, o − Tc, i )
m hC p, h (Th, i − Th, o )
m
ε= = ε=
Q max Q max C p ) min (Th, i − Tc, i )
(m
hC p, h (Th, i − Th, o )
m C h (Th, i − Th, o )
= ...(14.40) = ...(14.45)
Q max C min (Th, i − Tc, i )
If the effectiveness ε, Th, i, Tc, i and minimum heat
The actual heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger
capacity Cmin are known, the actual heat transfer rate
can be determined from an energy balance on hot and
can be obtained as
cold fluids and can be expressed as
Q = ε Cmin(Th, i – Tc, i) ...(14.46)
Q = Cc(Tc, o – Tc, i)
Thus the effectiveness of a heat exchanger enables
= Ch(Th, i – Th, o) ...(14.41)
us to determine the heat transfer rate without knowing
where, Cc = m c Cp, c and Ch = m
h Cp, h are heat capacity the outlet temperatures of fluids.
rates of cold and hot fluids, respectively. The value of effectiveness, ε of a heat exchanger
In any heat exchanger, the objective is to either lies between 0 and 1 and it depends on the geometry of
maximization of heating or cooling i.e., to gain the the heat exchanger as well as flow arrangement.
maximum temperature difference and hence the Therefore, the different types of heat exchangers have
maximum heat transfer rate Qmax can be obtained with different effectiveness relations.
maximum temperature difference in a heat exchanger.
The maximum temperature difference is the difference 14.8.2. NTU
between inlet temperatures of hot and cold fluids. That This quantity is called the number of transfer units. It
is is a dimensionless parameter, which is expressed as ;
∆Tmax = Th, i – Tc, i ...(14.42) UA UA
NTU = =
A heat exchanger will reach its maximum possible Cmin
(m C p ) min
temperature difference (Th, i – Tc, i), when (1) the cold Heat capacity rate of exchanger W/K
fluid is heated to inlet temperature of hot fluid, or (2) =
Heat capacity rate of fluid W/K
the hot fluid is cooled to inlet temperature of cold fluid.
Such conditions can be achieved in counter flow heat ...(14.47)
exchanger of infinite length. These conditions will not where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and A is
reach simultaneously unless the heat capacity rates of the heat transfer area of the heat exchanger and Cmin is
both fluids are equal (Ch = Cc). When the heat capacity minimum heat capacity rate between the two fluids. The
rates are not equal, one fluid having minimum value of quantities U and Cmin remain constant for given flow
Cp) can experience maximum tem-
heat capacity rate ( m conditions, hence
perature difference. NTU ∝ A
HEAT EXCHANGERS 513
Therefore, NTU is the measure of the physical C min C RS UV = exp RS− UA FG 1 + C IJ UV

T C H C KW
1–ε 1+ c c
size (heat transfer area) of the heat exchanger. Higher
the value of NTU, larger the physical size.
Cc Ch T W c h
C min RS1 + C UV = 1 – exp R− UA F 1 + C I U

14.8.3. Capacity Ratio
In heat exchanger analysis, it is convenient to define a
ε
Cc T C
c
h W ST C GH C JK VW c
c
h
dimensionless parameter called capacity ratio C as Rearranging, we get relation for effectiveness of
Minimum heat capacity rate C min a parallel flow heat exchanger,
C= =
Maximum heat capacity rate C max RS UA C FG IJ UV
...(14.48)
1 − exp −
T Cc
1+ c
Ch H KW
For any heat exchanger, the effectiveness is the
εparallel flow =
Cmin
1+
Cc RS
...(14.51)
UV
function of NTU and heat capacity ratio. Cc Ch T W
ε = f(NTU, C) ...(14.49) Taking either Ch or Cc as Cmin (both approaches
to same result), above relation yields to
14.8.4. Effectiveness of a Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
Rewriting eqn. (14.24), for a double pipe parallel flow
RS UA C FG IJ UV
heat exchanger, εparallel flow =
1 − exp −
T Cmin
1 + min
Cmax H KW
C
LM ∆T OP = – UA R|S 1
2 1 U|V 1 + min
Cmax
ln
N ∆T Q1 |T m C h p, h
+
cC p, c
m |W Introducing the number of transfer units NTU
...(14.52)
where ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, i and ∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, o and capacity ratio C as defined by eqns. (14.47) and
It may be expressed in terms of inlet, outlet (14.48), respectively, we get the relation for effectiveness
temperatures and heat capacity rates as in the form
1 − exp {− NTU (1 + C)}
LT
ln M
h, o − Tc, o OP = – UA LM 1 +
1 OP εparallel flow =
1+ C
...(14.53)
MN T h, i − Tc, i PQ NC h Cc Q 14.8.5. Effectiveness of a Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

h Cp, h and Cc = m
[Ch = m c Cp, c] Rewriting eqn. (14.35), for a double pipe counter flow
heat exchanger,
Rearranging, we get
LM ∆T OP = – UA R|S 1 1 |UV
Th, o − Tc, o L UA FG 1 + C IJ OP
= exp M −
ln
N ∆T Q
2
|T m C −
cC p, c
m |W
N C H C KQ
c
1 h p, h
Th, i − Tc, i c h
where ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o and ∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i
...(14.50) It may be expressed in terms of inlet, outlet
Substituting for Tc, o and Th, o from eqns. (14.44) temperatures and heat capacity rates as
and (14.45), respectively, we get LM T OP = – UA L 1 − 1 O
− Tc, i
ln
MN T
h, o
− T PQ
MN C C PQ
RST −ε
C min
(Th, i − Tc, i )
UV h, i c, o h c
T h, i
Ch W Rearranging, we get
T −T L UA FG 1 − C IJ OP
RC
− Sε
UV = exp M−
h, o c, i
N C H C KQ
min
h ...(14.54)
(Th, i − Tc, i ) + Tc, i T −T
T C c W h, i c, o
Substituting for Tc, o and Th, o from eqns. (14.44)

h c
(Th, i − Tc, i )
and (14.45), respectively, we get
RS UA FG
C IJ UV RST −ε
C min
(Th, i − Tc, i ) − Tc, i
UV
= exp −
T H
1+ c
KW T h, i
Ch W
Cc Ch
RST −ε
C min
(Th, i − Tc, i ) − Tc, i
UV
which is simplified to
T h, i
Cc W
|RS UA C FG IJ |UV 1− ε
= exp −
UA RS C
1 − min
FG IJ UV
= exp −
|T Ch
1– h
Cc H K |W 1− ε
Cmin CminT Cmax H KW
C max
which is simplified to
1− ε
(Th, i − Tc, i
R C
) S1 − ε min UV or
1− ε C
= exp {– NTU (1 – C)}
T C h W RS
= exp −
UAFG C
1− h
IJ UV
(Th, i − Tc, i
R C
) S1 − ε min UV T Ch H Cc KW where C=
Cmin (m
=
C p )min
Cmax (m
C p )max
T C c W Rearranging, we get relation for effectiveness of
C min
1− ε a counter flow heat exchanger,
or
Ch
= exp −
UA C
1− h
RS FG IJ UV
1− ε
C min C h Cc T H KW εcounter flow =
1 − exp [− NTU (1 − C)]
1 − C exp [− NTU (1 − C)]
...(14.55)
Cc
Taking either Ch or Cc as Cmin, both approaches to The similar expressions for variety of heat
same result. Let Ch = Cmin and Cc = Cmax , above relation exchangers are presented in Table 14.3.
yields to
TABLE 14.3. Effectiveness relations for heat exchangers :
. .
NTU = UA/Cmin and C = Cmin/Cmax = ( m Cp)min/(m Cp)max
Flow geometries Relation for effectiveness, ε

1. Double pipe heat exchanger :
1 − exp [− NTU (1 + C)]
Parallel flow ε=
1+ C
1 − exp [− NTU(1 – C)]
Counter flow ε=
1 − C exp [− NTU(1 – C)]
2. Shell and tube heat exchanger :
One shell pass
R| 1 + exp [ − NTU 1 + C2 ] U| –1
2, 4, ...... tube passes ε = 2 S1 + C + 1 + C

|T
2
1 − C exp [ − NTU 1 + C ] |W
2
V
3. Cross flow
Both fluid unmixed

R| NTU
ε = 1 – exp S
0.22
[exp(1 − C NTU 0.78
U|
) − 1]V
|T C |W
Cmax mixed
1
Cmin unmixed ε= (1 – exp {– C[1 – exp(– NTU)]})
C
Cmin mixed
1
Cmax unmixed ε = 1 – exp {– [1 – exp (– C NTU)]}
C
4. Boilers and condensers, ε = 1 – exp (– NTU)
C = Cmin/Cmax —→ 0
The Kays and London have presented effectiveness for various heat exchangers as function of NTU and ratio
of heat capacities C (= Cmin/Cmax). Hence effectiveness can also be obtained directly from the charts [Fig. 14.30 to
Fig. 14.35] for given NTU and C.
HEAT EXCHANGERS 515
.
(m c) c
. Cold fluid
Hot fluid (mc)h = Ch
.
(mc) h
.
Cold fluid (mc)c = Cc Hot fluid
Heat transfer surface

100
100
Cmin/Cmax = 0
Cmin/Cmax = 0 0.25
0.50
0.25 80
Effectiveness, e (%)
80 0.75
1.00
0.50
60
60 0.75
1.00
40
40
20
20
0
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 NTU = UA/Cmin
Number of transfer, NTU = UA/Cmin
Number of transfer units, NTUmax = AU/Cmin
Fig. 14.30. Effectiveness for parallel Fig 14.32. Effectiveness for cross-flow heat
flow heat exchanger exchanger both fluids unmixed
.
Hot fluid (mc)h = C
. Mixed
Cold fluid (m c)c = Cc
fluid
Heat transfer surface
100 Unmixed fluid

Cmin/Cmax = 0 100
Cmixed 0
0.25 0.50 ———— =0
Cunmixed 0.25
80 0.75 80
4
1.00
0.50
2
0.75
60 60 1.33
1.00
Cmixed
40 40 ————
Cunmixed
20 Cunmixed
20 ————
Cmixed
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of transfer, NTU = UA/Cmin Number of transfer units, NTU = UA/Cmin
Fig. 14.31. Effectiveness for counter Fig. 14.33. Heat exchanger effectiveness for
flow heat exchanger cross-flow with one fluid mixed
.
Shell fluid (mc)s = Cs since a large increase in NTU results into a small in-
crease in effectiveness. Thus, a heat exchanger with a
very high effectiveness may be highly desirable from a
heat transfer point of view, but rather undesirable from
.
an economical point of view.
Tube fluid (mc)t = Ct
1
100 Counter-flow
Cmin/Cmax = 0 0.25
80 0.50 e
Cross-flow with
0.75
both fluids unmixed
1.00 0.5
60
Parallel-flow
40
(for C = 1)
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 NTU = UA/Cmin
0 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 14.36. Variation of effectiveness for a specified NTU
Number of transfer units, NTU = UA/Cmin
and capacity ratio C
Fig. 14.34. Effectiveness for single shell pass 2. For given capacity ratio C = Cmin/Cmax and
with two, four etc. tube passes NTU, the counter flow arrangement results into higher
effectiveness, followed by closely by the cross flow heat
.
Shell fluid (mcp)s = Cs exchanger with both unmixed fluids. A parallel flow
arrangement gains a lowest value of effectiveness.
2 3. The effectiveness of all heat exchangers is more
Shells
close for NTU values of less than about 0.3 and it is
.
Tube fluid (m cp)t = Ct independent of capacity ratio C.
100 4. For given NTU, the effectiveness becomes a
Cmin/Cmax = 0 maximum for C = 0, and a minimum for C = 1. For the
0.25 case C = 0 i.e., for condensation and evaporation
80 0.50
0.75 processes, the effectiveness relation reduced to
1.00
ε = εmax = 1 – exp (– NTU)
60
Fig. 14.37 shows the effectiveness variation for
condensers and evaporators. For case C = 1, when two
40
fluids have equal heat capacity rates, the effectiveness
is lowest.
20
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
NTU = UA/Cmin e –NTU
e=1–e
Fig. 14.35. Effectiveness for two shell pass with four, (All heat exchangers
with C = 0)
eight etc. heat exchanger 0.5
The following observations are revealed from

effectiveness relations and charts :
1. The effectiveness of heat exchangers varies
from 0 to 1, increases rapidly with small values of NTU 0
up to about NTU = 1.5, and after rather slowly for larger 0 1 2 3 4 5
values as shown in Fig. 14.36. Therefore, the use of a NTU = UA/Cmin
heat exchanger with a large NTU (usually more than 3) Fig. 14.37. Variation of effectiveness for condensers and
and thus a large size cannot be justified economically, evaporators for which capacity ratio C = 0
HEAT EXCHANGERS 517
Once the quantities C and NTU are evaluated 1

for a heat exchanger, its effectiveness ε can be Uo =
do d d 1
determined either from the charts or from effectiveness + o R f , i + o ln (ro /ri ) + R f , o +
di hi di 2k ho
relation for the specified type of heat exchanger. Then
(i) If Rf, i and Rf, o are not specified, assumed as
the rate of heat transfer Q and outlet temperature of
zero.
two fluids can be obtained.
(ii) If k is not specified, assume wall resistance
negligible.
14.9. RATING OF HEAT EXCHANGERS (iii) hi and ho are not specified, then calculate for
turbulent flow (Re > 2300) as
When the given data with flow arrangement are :
kf
Inlet temperatures = Th, i and Tc,i h = 0.023 Re0.8 Prn
Dh
The mass flow rates h and m
=m c
4A c
The physical properties = Cp,c and Cp,h where, Dh = = hydraulic diameter, m
P
The overall heat transfer coeff. = U Ac = cross-sectional area, m2
The heat transfer area =A P = perimeter, m.
The heat transfer rate =Q 3. Calculate the LMTD, ∆Tlm
The heat transfer rate and outlet temperatures 4. Calculate the area of heat exchanger as
are to be determined. Q
The following methodology should be adopted. Ao =
U o ∆Tlm
C min UA Length of the heat exchanger
(1) Calculate C = , NTU =
C max C min Ao
(2) Calculate effectiveness ε from chart or specific L= .
πdo pN
equation.
(3) Calculate Q = εCmin(Th, i – Tc, i) Alternative procedure :
1. Compute the heat capacity ratio,
(4) Calculate the outlet temperatures
Q C min
Q C=
Th, o = Th, i – and Tc, o = + Tc, i C max
C p)h
(m (m C p)c
2. With known temperatures, calculate effective-
ness, ε.
14.10. SIZING OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
3. Obtain NTU from chart or calculation.
Given : When given data are with flow arrangement : 4. Calculate area (if Uo available otherwise
Inlet and outlet temperatures = Th, i, Tc, i, Th, o determine by procedure as given above)
and Tc, o UoA o
NTU = .
The mass flow rates =m h and m
c, C min
The physical properties = Cp, c Example 14.18. Two fluids heat exchanger has inlet and
and Cp, h, k etc. outlet temperatures of 65 and 40°C for the hot fluid and
The heat transfer coefficient = hi and ho. 15 and 30°C for the cold fluid. Can you tell whether this
exchanger is operating under counterflow or parallel flow
To find : The heat transfer area or length of heat
conditions ? What is the effectiveness of the exchanger, if
exchanger.
the cold fluid has the minimum capacity rate ?
The procedure for the analysis follows as :
Solution
1. Calculate heat transfer rate as :
Given : Th, i = 65°C, Th, o = 40°C
c Cp, c(Tc, o – Tc, i) = m
Q= m h Cp, h(Th, i – Th, o)
Tc, i = 15°C, Tc, o = 30°C.
Any unknown data involved, can also be To find :
determined. (i) Type of heat exchanger.
2. Calculate overall heat transfer coefficient using (ii) Effectiveness of heat exchanger.
eqn. (14.9) ;
= 10,000 × (150 – 40)

65°C = 11 × 105 W = 1100 kW
40°C Cold fluid

30°C Tc, i = 40°C
15°C
Hot fluid
0 x 150°C Th, o
Analysis : (i) Since the cold fluid outlet Tc, o = ?
temperature is less than hot fluid outlet temperature, T
hence the type of heat exchanger is parallel flow heat
exchanger. 150°C
(ii) Effectiveness of the heat exchanger with
minimum heat capacity of cold fluid : Th, o
Tc, o
Tc, o − Tc, i 30 − 15
ε= = = 0.3. Ans.
Th, i − Tc, i 65 − 15
40°C
Example 14.19. Consider the following parallel flow
heat exchanger specification A
cold flow enters at 40°C : Cc = 20,000 W/K Fig. 14.39. Schematic and temperature profile
hot flow enters at 150°C : Ch = 10,000 W/K for example 14.19
A = 30 m2 U = 500 W/m2.K. (i) Actual heat transfer rate in exchanger
Determine the heat transfer rate and the exit Q = ε Qmax = 0.596 × 1100
temperatures. (N.M.U., May 2002)
= 655.6 kW. Ans.
Solution
(ii) The exit temperatures of two fluids can be
Given : A parallel flow heat exchanger with only determined by energy balance
inlet temperatures :
Q = Cc (Tc, o – Tc, i) = Ch (Th, i – Th, o)
To find :
Q 655,600
(i) Heat transfer rate, Th, o = Th, i – = 150 – = 84.44°C
Ch 10000
(ii) Exit temperatures of fluid.
Analysis : Since the exit temperatures of both Q 655,600
Tc, o = Tc, i + = 40 +
fluids are not known, so it is not possible to calculate Cc 20000
∆Tlm. = 72.78°C. Ans.
Heat capacity rates of two fluids are available
Example 14.20. A chemical having specific heat of
and
3.3 kJ/kg.K at a rate of 20,000 kg/h enters a parallel
Cmin = Ch = 10,000 W/K
flow heat exchanger at 120°C. The flow rate of cooling
and Cmax = Cc = 20,000 W/K water is 50,000 kg/h with an inlet temperature of 20°C.
Therefore, using NTU method. The heat transfer area is 10 m2 and overall heat transfer
UA 500 × 30 coefficient is 1050 W/m2.K. Find
NTU = = = 1.5
C min 10,000 (i) The effectiveness of the heat exchanger,
C min 10,000 (ii) Outlet temperature of water and chemical.
Capacity ratio C = = = 0.5
C max 20,000 Take Cp of water as 4.186 kJ/kg.K.
For parallel flow heat exchanger, effectiveness is (U.P.S.C., 1992)
given by eqn. (14.53) Solution
1 − exp [− NTU(1 + C)] Given : A parallel flow heat exchanger.
ε= A = 10 m2, U = 1050 W/m2.K
1+ C
1 − exp [− 1.5 × (1 + 0.5)] Hot fluid : Chemical
= = 0.596 Cp, h = 3.3 kJ/kg.K
1 + 0.5
Maximum possible heat transfer rate, h = 20,000 kg/h
m
Qmax = Cmin × (Th, i – Tc, i) Th, i = 120°C
HEAT EXCHANGERS 519
Cold fluid : Water (ii) Outlet temperature of hot and cold fluids can
c = 50,000 kg/h
m be obtained with the use of effectiveness as :
Tc, i = 20°C C h (Th, i − Th, o ) C c (Tc, o − Tc, i )
ε= =
Cp, c = 4.186 kJ/kg.K. Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i ) Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i )
On rearranging it leads to
120°C C
Chemical Th, o = Th, i – ε min (Th, i – Tc, i)
Ch
Water
20°C = 120 – 0.4 × (120 – 20) = 80°C
C
T Tc, o = Tc, i + ε min (Th, i – Tc, i)
Cc
120°C
= 20 + 0.4 × 0.315 × (120 – 20) = 32.6°C
Hot fluid
The outlet temperatures of chemical and water
are 80°C and 32.6°C, respectively. Ans.
Example 14.21. In an open heart surgery, under
Cold fluid hypothermic conditions, the patient blood is cooled before
the surgery and rewarmed afterwards. It is proposed that
a concentric tube, counter flow heat exchanger of length
20°C 0.5 m be used for this purpose with the thin walled inner
tube having a diameter of 55 mm. If the water at 60°C
0 x L and 0.10 kg/s is used to heat the blood entering the
Fig. 14.40. Schematic and temperature exchanger at 18°C and 0.05 kg/s, what is the temperature
distribution for example 14.20 of blood leaving the exchanger ? The overall heat transfer
coefficient is 500 W/m2.K and specific heat of the blood
To find :
is 3500 J/kg.K. (N.M.U., Nov. 1998)
(i) Effectiveness of heat exchanger, and
(ii) Outlet temperatures of water and chemical. Solution
Given : A concentric tube counterflow heat
Analysis : (i) The heat capacity rates of two fluids
exchanger :
Ch = m h Cp, h
Tc, i = 18°C, m h = 0.1 kg/s
FG 20,000 kg/sIJ × (3.3 × 10 m c = 0.05 kg/s
=
H 3600 K 3 J/kg.K) Th, i = 60°C,
L = 0.5 m, d = 55 mm = 0.055 m
= 18,333.33 W/K U = 500 W/m2.K, Cp, c = 3500 J/kg.K.
Cc = m c Cp, c To find : Outlet temperature of blood leaving the
FG 50,000 kg/sIJ × (4186 J/kg.K) exchanger.
=
H 3600 K Schematic :
Water 60°C
= 58,138.89 W/K
Therefore,
Cmin = Ch = 18,333.33 W/K Blood .
mc
Cmax = Cc = 58,138.89 W/K 18°C
The capacity ratio,
.
C min 18,333.33 mh
C= = = 0.315
C max 58,138.89
UA 1050 × 10 60°C .
NTU = = = 0.572 mh
C min 18,333.33
Tc, o .
The effectiveness of heat exchanger mc
Th, o
1 − exp [− NTU (1 + C)]
ε=
1+ C 18°C
1 − exp [− 0.572 × (1 + 0.315)] 0 x L
=
1 + 0.315 Fig. 14.41. Schematic and temperature distribution for
= 0.40. Ans. counterflow heat exchanger for example 14.21
Assumptions : Cold fluid

.
1. Specific heat of water, Cp, h as 4200 J/kg.K. mc = 6 kg/s
2. No heat exchange with the surroundings. Tc, i = 400°C
Analysis : The two heat capacities are : Hot fluid
.
hC mh = 4 kg/s
Ch = m p, h = (0.1 kg/s) × (4200 J/kg.K)
Th, o
Th, i = 800°C
= 420 W/K
Cc = m c Cp, c = (0.05 kg/s) × (3500 J/kg.K)
= 175 W/K Tc, o = 551.5°C
Comparing the two heat capacities,
Cc = Cmin = 175 W/K T
The ratio of two specific heats, 800°C
Cmin 175 Hot fluid
C= = = 0.4167
Cmax 420 551.5°C
The number of transfer units,
UA 500 × (π × 0.055 × 0.5) Cold fluid 400°C
NTU = =
C min 175
= 0.2468 0 x L
The effectiveness of heat exchanger in counter Fig. 14.42. Schematic and temperature
flow ; distribution for example 14.22
1 − exp {− NTU (1 − C)} Hot fluid : Exhaust gas
ε=
1 − C exp {− NTU (1 − C)} h = 4 kg/s, Th, i = 800°C
m
1 − exp { − 0.2468 × (1 − 0.4167)} Th, o = ? Cp, h = 1100 J/kg.K.
= To find :
1 − (0.4167) × exp {− 0.2468 × (1 − 0.4167)}
(i) Heat transfer area, and
= 0.21
Outlet temperature of blood : (blood has Cmin) (ii) NTU.
Analysis : (i) The heat transfer rate in the exchanger
Tc, o − Tc, i Tc, o − 18
∴ ε= = Q= m c C (T – T )
Th, i − Tc, i 60 − 18 p, c c, o c, i
= 6 × 1100 × (551.5 – 400) = 999,900 W
⇒ Tc, o = 18 + 0.21 × (60 – 18) The heat capacity rates of two fluids
= 26.83°C. Ans.
h Cp, h = 4 × 1100 = 4400 W/K
Ch = m
Example 14.22. A counter flow heat exchanger is used
to heat air entering at 400°C with a flow rate of 6 kg/s by Cc = m c Cp, c = 6 × 1100 = 6600 W/K
exhaust gas entering at 800°C with a flow rate of 4 kg/s. Therefore,
The overall heat transfer coefficient is 100 W/m2.K and Cmin = 4400 W/K, and Cmax = 6600 W/K
the outlet temperature of air is 551.5°C. The specific heat The heat capacity ratio
at constant pressure for both air and exhaust gas can be C min 4400
taken as 1100 J/kg.K. Calculate : C= = = 0.667
C max 6600
(i) Heat transfer area needed,
The maximum possible heat transfer rate
(ii) Number of transfer units. (GATE, 1995)
Qmax = Cmin (Th, i – Tc, i) = 4400 × (800 – 400)
Solution
= 17,60,000 W
Given : A counterflow heat exchanger
The effectiveness of heat exchanger
U = 100 W/m2.K
Q 999,900
Cold fluid : Air ε= = = 0.568
Q max 17,60,000
c = 6 kg/s
m Tc, o = 551.5°C From Fig. 14.31, for ε = 0.568 and C = 0.667
Tc, i = 400°C, Cp, c = 1100 J/kg.K NTU = 1.1. Ans.
HEAT EXCHANGERS 521
UA Example 14.24. In a heat exchanger, hot fluid enters at

(ii) Further, NTU = 180°C and leaves at 118°C. The cold water enters at 99°C
C min
and leaves at 119°C. Find the LMTD, NTU and
NTU C min 1.1 × 4400 effectiveness in the following cases of heat exchanger :
or A= =
U 100 (i) Counterflow,
= 48.4 m2. Ans. (ii) One shell pass and multiple tube passes,
Example 14.23. The overall temperature rise of a cold (iii) Two shell passes and multiple tube passes,
fluid in a cross flow heat exchanger is 20°C and overall (iv) Cross flow both fluids unmixed, and
temperature drop of the hot fluid is 30°C. The (v) Cross flow, the cold fluid unmixed.
effectiveness of the heat exchanger is 0.6. The heat (J.N.T.U., May 2004)
transfer area is 1 m2 and overall heat transfer coefficient Solution
is 60 W/m2.K. Calculate the rate of heat transfer. Assume Given : A heat exchanger in various modes with
both fluids are unmixed.
Th, i = 180°C Tc, i = 99°C
Solution Th, 0 = 118°C Tc, o= 119°C
Given : A cross flow (both fluid unmixed) heat To find :
exchanger (a) LMTD,
∆Tc = Tc, o – Tc, i = 20°C (b) effectiveness and
∆Th = Th, i – Th, o = 30°C (c) NTU, for
ε = 0.6, A = 1 m2 (i) Counterflow heat exchanger,
(ii) One shell pass and multiple tube passes,
U = 60 W/m2.K.
(iii) Two shell passes and multiple tube passes
To find : Rate of heat transfer in the heat
(iv) Cross flow heat exchanger with both fluids
exchanger.
unmixed, and
Analysis : Making the energy balance between
(v) Cross flow heat exchanger with cold fluid
the two fluids unmixed.
c Cp, c ∆Tc = m
m h Cp, h ∆Th Assumption : Hot fluid flows through shell side
The capacity ratio and cold fluid through tubes.
hC p, h
m Analysis : (i) Counterflow heat exchanger
20
C= = = 0.667 (a) LMTD : ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o = 180 – 119 = 61°C
cC p, c
m 30
∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i = 118 – 99 = 19°C
hC
Therefore, Cmin = m ∆T1 – ∆T2 61 – 19
FG IJ FG IJ
p, h
∆Tlm, counter = =
Cmax = m cC ∆T1 61
and
From Fig. 14.32, for
p, c ln
∆T2H
ln
K 19 H K
ε = 0.6, C = 0.667, = 36°C. Ans.
NTU = 1.35
180°C 118°C
UA 119°C 19°C
Further, NTU =
C min
Fig. 14.43. (a) Counter flow exchanger
60 × 1 (b) Effectiveness : Making energy balance on heat
or Cmin = = 44.44 W/K
1.35 exchanger
h Cp, h
Cmin = Ch = m c C p, c (Tc, o – Tc, i) = m
m hC p, h (Th, i – Th, o)
Heat transfer rate or Cc (119 – 99) = Ch(180 – 118)
Q = Ch ∆Th = 44.44 × 30 C h 20
or = = 0.322
= 1333.33 W. Ans. C c 62
It indicates that the hot fluid has lower heat (b) Effectiveness : Since operating temperatures
capacity rate, the effectiveness can be obtained as : and heat capacity rates are same, thus effectiveness will
Th, i – Th, o 180 – 118 not change, i.e.,
εcounter = = = 0.765. Ans. ε = 0.765. Ans.
Th, i – Tc, i 180 – 99
(c) NTU :
(c) NTU :
For C = 0.322 and ε = 0.765, from Fig. 14.35,
For C = 0.322 and ε = 0.765 from Fig. 14.31
NTU = 1.7. Ans.
NTU = 1.72. Ans.
(iv) Cross flow heat exchanger with both fluid
(ii) One shell pass and multiple tube pass heat unmixed :
exchanger:
(mc)c
T1 = 180°C cold fluid
t2 = 119°C (mc)h
t1 = 99°C hot fluid
T2 = 118°C
Fig. 14.43. (b) One shell and multipass tube exchanger Fig. 14.43. (d) Cross flow exchanger with
(a) LMTD : ∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter both fluid unmixed
From Fig. 14.15(a) (a) LMTD : ∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter
t2 – t1 119 – 99 For P = 0.25, and R = 3.1, from Fig. 14.15 (c), the
P= = = 0.25 correction factor
T1 – t1 180 – 99
T1 – T2 180 – 118 F = 0.93
R= = = 3.1 ∴ ∆Tlm = 0.93 × 36 = 33.5°C. Ans.
t2 – t1 119 – 99
(b) Effectiveness : It remains same
It gives F = 0.88, thus
ε = 0.765. Ans.
∆Tlm = 0.88 × 36 = 31.68°C. Ans.
(c) NTU : For C = 0.322 and ε = 0.765, from
(b) Effectiveness : Since hot fluid has lower heat Fig. 14.32
capacity rate, thus the effectiveness can be obtained as :
NTU = 2.0. Ans.
Th, i – Th, o 180 – 118 (v) Cross flow heat exchanger with cold fluid
ε= = = 0.765. Ans.
Th, i – Tc, i 180 – 99 unmixed :
(c) NTU : Cold fluid
From Fig. 14.34 , for C = 0.322 and ε = 0.765,
NTU = 2.3. Ans.
Mixed
(iii) Two shell passes and multiple tube passes fluid
heat exchanger :
(a) LMTD : ∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter
Unmixed fluid
T1 = 180°C Fig. 14.43. (e) Cross flow exchanger with
t2 = 119°C both fluid unmixed
2 (a) LMTD : ∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter
shells For P = 0.25, R = 3.1, from Fig. 14.15(d), the
t2 = 99°C correction factor
T2 = 118°C
F = 0.92
∆Tlm = 0.92 × 36 = 33.12°C. Ans.
Fig. 14.43. (c) Two shell pass and multiple tube (b) Effectiveness : It remains same
pass exchanger
i.e., ε = 0.765. Ans.
For P = 0.25, and R = 3.1, from Fig. 14.15(b) (c) NTU : For C = 0.322 and ε = 0.765, from
F = 0.97 Fig. 14.33(d)
∆Tlm = 0.97 × 36 = 34.92°C. Ans. NTU = 2.4. Ans.
HEAT EXCHANGERS 523
Example 14.25. Oil enters a heat exchanger at 100°C Analysis: The heat capacity rates are
with a heat capacity rate of 3715 W/K. Water is available Ch = 3715 W/K
at 20°C with mass flow rate of 0.6 kg/s. Calculate the
exit temperatures of both fluids in (a) counter flow, and cC p, c = 0.6 × 4.18 × 103
Cc = m
(b) parallel flow arrangements for U = 500 W/m2.K and = 2508 W/K
surface area of 10 m2. Take
Ratio of heat capacity rates and NTU
Cp, h = 1.88 kJ/kg.K and Cp, c = 4.18 kJ/kg.K
If the ratio of convection thermal resistance of oil Cmin C 2508
C= = c = = 0.675
to that of water is 1.2 and negligible wall and other Cmax Ch 3715
resistances, calculate the wall temperature at each end
of counter flow and parallel flow exchangers. UA 500 × 10
NTU = = = 1.993
(NIT, Calicut 2008) Cmin 2508
Solution (i) Counter flow heat exchanger :
Given: Counter flow and parallel flow arrange- Effectiveness of heat exchanger, eqn. (14.55)
ment of heat exchanger with the following data
1 − exp. [ −NTU (1 − C)]
Hot fluid: Oil Cold fluid: Water εcounter flow =
1 − C exp [ − NTU (1 − C)]
Th, i = 100°C c = 0.6 kg/s
m
Ch = 3715 W/K Tc, i = 20°C 1 − exp [ − 1.993 × (1 − 0.675)]
=
Cp, h = 1.88 kJ/kg.K Cp, c = 4.18 kJ/kg.K 1 − 0.675 × exp [ − 1.993 × (1 − 0.675)]
Rh = 0.737
U = 500 W/m2.K, A = 10 m2, = 1.2
Rc
Further, effectiveness can be expressed in
To find: (i) Exit temperatures of fluids in counter temperature terms and heat capacity rates as,
flow and parallel flow arrangements
(ii) Wall temperature at x = 0 and x = L of counter Cc (Tc, o − Tc, i ) Ch (Th, i − Th, o )
ε= =
flow and parallel heat exchangers. Cmin (Th, i − Tc , i ) Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i )
Schematic :
It gives
Oil Tc, o = 20 + 0.737 × (100 – 20)
Ch = 3715 W/K
= 78.97°C. Ans.
Th, i = 100°C Th, o
2508
Tc, o Th, o = 100 – 0.737 × × (100 − 20)
3715
0 x = 60.20°C. Ans.
(i) Counter flow
The energy balance at x = 0 of heat exchanger
Water Tc, i = 20°C without wall and fouling resistances:
mc = 0.6 kg/s
Cp, c = 4.18 kJ/kg.K Th, i − Tw, x = 0 Tw , x = 0 − Tc , o
=
Oil Rh Rc
Ch = 3715 W/K
It leads to
Th, i = 100°C Th, o
R 
Tc, o Th, i +  h  Tc , o
Tw, x = L =  Rc 
0 x R 
(ii) Parallel flow 1+ h 
Water Tc, i = 20°C  Rc 
mc = 0.6 kg/s 100 + 1.2 × 78.97
Cp, c = 4.18 kJ/kg.K =
1 + 1.2
Fig. 14.44. (a) Counter flow and parallel flow
arrangements of heat exchanger
= 88.53°C. Ans.
Similarly at x = L flow arrangement. Longitudinal wall temperature

Th, o + (Rh /Rc ) Tc, i distribution is more uniform in parallel flow
Tw, x = L = arrangement compared to counter flow arrangement.
1 + (Rh /R c )
2. Effectiveness of heat exchanger is better in
60.2 + 1.2 × 20 counter flow mode.
= = 38.27°C. Ans.
1 + 1.2
(ii) Parallel flow heat exchanger: 100°C Counter flow
Effective of heat exchanger, eqn. (14.53); Th
88.53°C
1 − exp [ −NTU (1 + C)] Tw
εparallel = 78.97°C
1+C Tc
T
1 − exp [ −1.993 × (1 + 0.675)] 60.20°C
=
1 + 0.675 38.27°C
= 0.576
20°C
Effectiveness in terms of temperatures and heat
capacity rates leads to 0 x L
Tc, o = Tc, i + ε(Th, i – Tc, i)
= 20 + 0.576 × (100 – 20) 100°C Parallel flow
= 66.0°C. Ans.
Th
Cc T
Th, o = Th, i – ε× (Th, i − Tc, i ) 68.76°C
Ch
Tw 67.25°C
2508 66°C
= 100 − 0.576 × × (100 − 20)
3715 56.37°C
= 68.76°C. Ans. Tc
The energy balance at x = 0 of heat exchanger 20°C

without wall and fouling resistances: 0 x L
Th, i − Tw , x = 0 Tw , x = 0 − Tc , i Fig. 14.44. (b) Temperature distribution along the length of
= counter flow and parallel flow heat exchanger.
Rh Rc
It leads to Example 14.26. A counter flow heat exchanger operates
R  under the following conditions :
Th, i +  h  Tc , i
Fluid A, inlet and outlet temperatures 80°C and 40°C
 Rc 
Tw, x = 0 = Fluid B, inlet and outlet temperatures 20°C and 40°C.
R 
1+ h  The exchanger is cleaned, causing an increase in overall
 Rc 
heat transfer coefficient by 10% and the inlet temperature
100 + 1.2 × 20 of fluid B is changed to 30°C, what would be the new
= = 56.36°C. Ans.
1 + 1.2 outlet temperatures of fluid A and B ? Assume heat
Similarly at x = L transfer coefficient and capacity rates are unchanged by
R  temperature changes. (N.M.U., May 2002)
Th, o +  h  Tc, o
 Rc  Solution
Tw, x = L =
R  Given : A counter flow heat exchanger
1+ h 
 Rc  Th, i = 80°C, Th, o = 40°C
68.76 + 1.2 × 66.0 Tc, i = 20°C, Tc, o = 40°C
=
1 + 1.2 After cleaning
= 67.25°C. Ans. Tc, i = 30°C, Th, i = 80°C
Comment 1. The wall temperature across the Tc, o = ? Th, o = ?
exchanger varies from 88.53°C to 38.27°C in counter U2 = 1.1 U1.
flow arrangement and 56.36°C to 67.25°C in parallel
HEAT EXCHANGERS 525
To find : Exit temperatures of two fluids after Again from Fig. 14.31.
cleaning of heat exchanger. NTU 2 = 1.518 UV
T C = 0.5 W
ε2 = 0.69
The effectiveness is also given by
80°C
C h (Th, i − Th, o ) C c (Tc, o − Tc, i )
ε2 = =
40°C Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i ) Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i )
40°C C
Th, o = Th, i – ε min (Th, i – Tc, i)
Ch
20°C = 80 – 0.69 × (80 – 30) = 45.5°C
C
Tc, o = Tc, i + ε min (Th, i – Tc, i)
0 x L Cc
= 30 + 0.69 × 0.5 × (80 – 30) = 47.25°C
Before cleaning
The outlet temperatures of hot and cold fluids
T
are 45.5°C and 47.25°C, respectively. Ans.
80°C
Example 14.27. In a double pipe heat exchanger,
m h Cp, h = 0.5 m
c Cp,c. The inlet temperatures of hot
Tc, o
Th, o and cold fluids are Th, i and Tc, i. Deduce an expression
in terms of Th, i, Tc, i and Th, o for the ratio of area of
30°C counter flow heat exchanger to that of parallel flow heat
exchanger, which will give same hot fluid outlet
temperature Th, o. Find the ratio, if Th, i = 150°C,
0 x L
Tc, i = 30°C and Th, o = 90°C. (U.P.S.C., 1994)
After cleaning
Fig. 14.45 Solution
Given : A double pipe heat exchanger, with
Analysis : Only exit temperatures are to be
Th, i = 150°C, Th, o = 90°C and Tc, i = 30°C
changed after cleaning and other parameter will remain
m hC
p, h = 0.5 m c Cp, c and Th, o, parallel = Th, o, counter
same using NTU method.
Case I. Before cleaning of heat exchanger
Th, i
Energy balance between two fluid .
mh
cC
m h C (T – T )
– Tc, i) = m
p, c(Tc, o
Th, o
p, h h, i h, o
or C c(40 – 20) = Ch(80 – 40) Tc, o
.
mc
Ch 40 − 20
Capacity ratio C= = = 0.5
Cc 80 − 40
Tc, i
and Cmin = Ch
0 x L
Cmax = Cc
(a) Parallel flow mode
Effectiveness of heat exchanger
Th, i
C h (Th, i − Th, o ) 80 − 40
ε1 = = = 0.667
Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i ) 80 − 20
Tc, o
For ε1 = 0.667 and C = 0.5, from Fig. 14.31 Th, o
NTU1 = 1.38.
Tc, i
Case II. After cleaning of heat exchanger
U2A U 1A
NTU2 = = 1.1 = 1.1 × 1.38 = 1.518 0 x L
C min Cmin (b) Counter flow mode
C = 0.5 (remains unchanged) Fig. 14.46
Analysis : The heat capacity rates for two fluids ∆T1 − ∆T2
are related as : ∆Tlm, parallel =
FG ∆T IJ
1
h Cp, h = 0.5 m
m c Cp, c ln
H ∆T K2
which yields to
Th, i − Tc, i − 1.5 Th, o + 0.5 Th, i + Tc, i
hC = C
Cmin = m =
R| Th, i – Tc, i U|
S|1.5 T V|
p, h h
ln
c Cp, c = Cc
Cmax = m
and capacity ratio C = 0.5
T h, o − 0.5 Th, i − Tc, i W
1.5 [Th, i − Th, o ]
The effectiveness of heat exchanger
C h (Th, i − Th, o ) C c (Tc, o − Tc, i )
=
ln
LM Th, i − Tc, i OP ...(iv)
ε=
Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i )
=
Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i ) MN 1.5 T h, o − 0.5 Th, i − Tc, i PQ
Using Ch = 0.5Cc, or Cc = 2Ch, then Substituting eqns. (iii) and (iv) in eqn. (ii),
A CF 1.5 (Th, i − Th, o )
Th, i − Th, o 2 (Tc, o − Tc, i )
ε=
Th, i − Tc, i
=
Th, i − Th, o A PF
=
ln
LM
Th, i − Tc, i OP
or Tc, o = Tc, i + 0.5 (Th, i – Th, o) ...(i) MN
1.5 Th, o − 0.5 Th, i − Tc, i PQ
Let APF = area of parallel flow arrangement
ln
LM 0.5 (T h, i + Th, o ) − Tc, i OP
ACF = area of counter flow arrangement.
×
MN T h, o − Tc, i PQ
As, Th, o, parallel = Th, o, counter, therefore, the heat 0.5 (Th, i − Th, o )
lost by hot fluid in both case be same.
LM ln R| 0.5 (T + T ) − T U| OP
MM S|T T − T V| P
Further, the heat transfer rate is also expressed h, i h, o c, i
as h, o c, i WP
Q = UAPF ∆Tlm, parallel = UACF ∆Tlm, counter =3
MM ln R|S T −T h, i c, i U| P
V| P
or
A CF
=
∆Tlm, parallel
...(ii) N T| 1.5 T − 0.5 T − T h, o h, i c, i WQ
A PF ∆Tlm, counter For given data :
(∵ U is constant in both cases) Th, i = 150°C, Tc, i = 30°C and Th, o = 90°C
(a) For counter flow arrangement LM ln RS0.5 (150 + 90) − 30 UV OP
∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o = Th, i – Tc, i – 0.5(Th, i – Th, o) A CF
=3 MM T 90 − 30 W PP
MM ln RST1.5 × 90150 UV P
= 0.5 Th, i + 0.5 Th, o – Tc, i A PF − 30
∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i
N − 0.5 × 150 − 30 W PQ
∆T1 − ∆T2 ln (1.5)
∆Tlm, counter =
F ∆T IJ
ln G 1
= 3×
ln (4)
= 0.877. Ans.
H ∆T K2
Example 14.28. A counter flow heat exchanger is used
0.5 Th, i + 0.5 Th, o − Tc, i − Th, o + Tc, i to heat water from 20°C to 80°C at a rate of 1.2 kg/s. The
=
|RS0.5 (T h, i + Th, o ) − Tc, i |UV heating is obtained by using geothermal water available
ln
|T T h, o − Tc, i |W at 160°C at a mass flow rate of 2 kg/s. The inner tube is
thin walled, and has a diameter of 1.5 cm. If the overall
0.5(Th, i − Th, o ) heat transfer coefficient is 640 W/m2.K. Calculate the
|R 0.5 (T |UV
= ...(iii) length of the heat exchanger required to achieve the
+ Th, o ) − Tc, i
ln S
h, i
desired heating by using effectiveness – NTU method.
|T T h, o − Tc, i |W Take specific heat of geothermal water as
(b) For parallel flow arrangement 4.31 kJ/kg.K and that of ground water as 4.18 kJ/kg.K.
∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, i Solution
∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, o = Th, o – Tc, i – 0.5(Th, i – Th, o) Given : A counter flow heat exchanger
= 1.5 Th, o – 0.5 Th, i – Tc, i U = 640 W/m2.K
HEAT EXCHANGERS 527
Cold water : 1 − exp [− NTU (1 − 0.583)]

c = 1.2 kg/s
0.428 =
m 1 − 0.583 × exp [− NTU (1 − 0.583)]
Tc, i = 20°C or 0.428 – 0.249 exp [– 0.417 (NTU)]
Tc, o = 80°C, Cp, c = 4.18 J/kg.K = 1 – exp (– 0.417 NTU)
d = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m or exp (– 0.417 NTU) (1 – 0.249) = 1 – 0.428
Geothermal hot water :
FG 1 − 0.428 IJ = – 0.2722
h = 2 kg/s
m
Th, i = 160°C
or – 0.417 NTU = ln
H 1 − 0.249 K
or NTU = 0.653
Cp, h = 4.31 kJ/kg.K.
UA
Again NTU =
Hot geothermal water Cmin
160°C
NTU C min 0.653 × 5.02 × 10 3
Cold water 2 kg/s
20°C or A= =
1.2 kg/s U 640
d = 1.5 cm = 5.12 m 2
80°C
and A = πd L
Th, o A 5.12
or L= = = 108.6 m. Ans.
Fig. 14.47. Sechmatic for example 14.28 πd π × 0.015
To find : Length of heat exchanger. Example 14.29. Consider a concentric tube heat
Analysis : This example can also be solved by exchanger with hot and cold water inlet temperatures of
LMTD method. Here we are using effectiveness – NTU 200°C and 35°C, respectively. The flow rates of hot and
method. cold water are 42 kg/h and 84 kg/h, respectively. Assume
Heat capacity rates the overall heat transfer coefficient is 180 W/m2.K.
h Cp, h = 2 × 4.31 = 8.62 kW/K
Ch = m (i) What is the maximum possible heat transfer
rate that could be achieved for the prescribed inlet
Cc = m c Cp, c = 1.2 × 4.18 = 5.02 kW/K
conditions ?
Therefore,
(ii) If the exchanger is operated in counter flow
Cmin = Cc = 5.02 kW/K arrangement with a heat transfer area of 0.33 m 2,
Cmax = Ch = 8.62 kW/K determine the outlet fluid temperatures.
Capacity ratio (iii) What is the largest possible heat transfer rate
C min 5.02 that could be achieved for the prescribed inlet conditions,
C= = = 0.583
C max 8.62 if exchanger is operated in parallel flow mode and is
very long ? What is the effectiveness of heat exchanger
The actual heat transfer rate
in this configuration ?
Q= m c Cp, c(Tc, o – Tc, i)
Solution
= 1.2 × 4.18 × (80 – 20) = 301.0 kW
Maximum possible heat transfer rate Given : Concentric tube heat exchanger
Qmax = Cmin(Th, i – Tc, i) Th, i = 200°C, Tc, i = 35°C
= 5.02 × (160 – 20) = 702.8 kW h = 42 kg/h,
m U = 180 W/m2.K
The effectiveness of heat exchanger is c = 84 kg/h,
m A = 0.33 m3.
Q 301.0 To find :
ε= = = 0.428
Q max 702.8 (i) Maximum possible heat transfer rate,
For counter flow heat exchanger, the effectiveness (ii) Outlet fluid temperatures in counter flow
is also expressed as mode, and
1 − exp [− NTU (1 − C)] (iii) Largest possible heat transfer rate in parallel
ε= flow mode and effectiveness of heat exchanger.
1 − C exp [− NTU (1 − C)]
Assumptions : (b) Cold fluid outlet temperature

1. Specific heat of water as Cp = 4200 J/kg.K. Tc, o = Tc, i + ε C (Th, i – Tc, i)
2. No heat loss to the surroundings. = 35 + 0.625 × 0.5 × (200 – 35)
Analysis : (i) Maximum heat transfer rate : = 86.568°C. Ans.
(iii) Very long parallel flow heat exchanger :
Heat capacity of hot fluid
42
h Cp, h =
m (kg/s) × (4200 J/kg.K) 200°C
3600
= 49 W/K Th
Heat capacity of cold fluid, Tm

84
c C p, c
m = × 4200 = 98 W/K
3600 Tc
hC p, h
Since, m <m c C p, c 35°C
The maximum heat transfer rate 0 x

Qmax = ( m
Cp)min(Th, i – Tc, i) (b) Long parallel flow heat exchanger
= (49 W/K) × (200 – 35)(K) Fig. 14.48. Temperature profile for example 14.29
= 8085 W. Ans. Both fluid will have common outlet temperature.
(ii) Outlet temperatures of fluid in counter flow Let the common outlet temperature be Tm, hence
mode : cCp, c (Tm – Tc, i) = m
m hCp, h (Th, i – Tm)
UA 180 × 0.33 or 98 × (Tm – 35) = 49 × (200 – Tm)
NTU = = = 1.212
C min 49 or 3Tm = 270 or Tm = 90°C
Heat capacity ratio The largest heat transfer rate, possible with
(m C p ) min 49 parallel flow arrangement
C= = = 0.5
C p ) max
(m 98 Qmax, parallel = m
c C p, c (Tm – Tc, i)
= (98 W/K) × (90 – 35)(K)
200°C
Th = 5390 W. Ans.
Th, o = ? Maximum possible effectiveness in parallel mode :
Tc, o = ? For the hot fluid,
Tc Th, i − Th, o 200 − 90
ε= =
35°C Th, i − Tc, i 200 − 35
= 0.667. Ans.
0 x Example 14.30. Oil is being cooled by water in a tube
(a) Counter flow mode in tube parallel flow type heat exchanger. The water
The effectiveness enters the centre tube at 15°C and is heated to 50°C. The
oil flows in the annulus is cooled from 130°C to 60°C.
1 − exp {− NTU (1 − C)} Find :
ε=
1 − C exp {− NTU (1 − C)}
(i) Exit temperature of each of the fluids, if the
1 − exp {− 1.212 (1 − 0.5)} exiting heat exchanger was switched to counter flow
= = 0.625
1 − 0.5 exp { − 1.212 (1 − 0.5)} operation.
The outlet temperature of oil (fluid of minimum (ii) The minimum temperature to which the oil
heat capacity) ; may be cooled by increasing the tube length with parallel
(a) Th, o = Th, i – ε (Th, i – Tc, i) flow operations.
= 200 – 0.625 × (200 – 35) (iii) The maximum possible effectiveness in
= 97.88°C. Ans. parallel flow operation. (P.U., May 1994)
HEAT EXCHANGERS 529
Solution
130°C
Given : A tube in tube heat exchanger,
Tc, i = 15°C, Th, i = 130°C. Tc, o = ? Th
In parallel flow mode,
Tc, o = 50°C, Th, o = 60°C Tc
Th, o = ?
To find :
(i) Exit temperature of each of the fluids, if the 15°C
existing heat exchanger was switched to counter flow
operation. 0 x L
(ii) The minimum temperature to which the oil (b) Counter flow mode of exchanger
may be cooled by increasing the tube length with
1 − exp {− NTU(1 − C)}
parallel flow operations. εcounter =
1 − C exp {− NTU(1 – C)}
(iii) The maximum possible effectiveness in
parallel flow operation. 1 − exp {− 1.628(1 − 0.5)}
or εcounter =
Analysis : Making the energy balance for two 1 − 0.5 × exp {− 1.628(1 − 0.5)}
fluids = 0.7154
The exit temperatures :
Cp)water (∆T)water = ( m
(m Cp)oil (∆T)oil Hot fluid :
or Cwater × (50 – 15) = Coil × (130 – 60) Th, o = Th, i – ε(Th, i – Tc, i)
C oil C = 130 – 0.7154 × (130 – 15)
Hence, capacity ratio C = = min = 0.5
C water C max = 47.72°C. Ans.
The temperature distribution in parallel flow heat Cold fluid :
exchanger, is shown in Fig. 14.49(a)
Tc, o = Tc, i + εC(Th, i – Tc, i)
= 15 + 0.7154 × 0.5 × (130 – 15)
130°C
= 56.135°C. Ans.
Th
T (ii) If the parallel flow heat exchanger is too long,
60°C
then both fluids attain a common exit temperature
50°C
(say Tm) as shown in Fig. 14.49 (c)
Tc
15°C
130°C
Th
0 x L
(a) Existing parallel flow exchanger Tm = ?
130 − 60
εparallel = = 0.6086 Tc
130 − 15 15°C
1 − exp {− NTU(1 + C)}
Further, εparallel = 0 x L
1+ C
(c) Very long parallel flow heat exchanger
1 − exp {− NTU(1 + 0.5)} Fig. 14.49. Temperature profiles for example 14.30
or 0.6086 =
1 + 0.5
(m
Cp)oil (Th, i – Tm) = ( m
Cp)water (Tm – Tc, i)
It gives; NTU = 1.628
or 130 – Tm = 2 × (Tm – 15)
(i) If the existing heat exchanger was switched
to counter flow mode Fig. 14.49(b), its NTU and heat or 3Tm = 160
capacity ratio remain unchanged. The effectiveness of or Tm= 53.33°C. Ans.
exchanger in counter flow mode; It is minimum exit temperature of oil.
(iii) Maximum possible effectiveness in parallel with known numerical values

flow mode : 1495 × 4180 (Tc, o – 25) = 605 × 4180 (70 – 50)
For the hot fluid, It gives Tc, o = 33.1°C
Th, i − Th, o 130 − 53.33 LMTD Method :
ε= =
Th, i − Tc, i 130 − 15 ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, i = 70 – 25 = 45°C
∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, o = 50 – 33.1 = 16.9°C
= 0.667. Ans.
Example 14.31. Cold water at 1495 kg/h enters at 25°C ∆T1 – ∆T2 45 – 16.9
through a parallel flow heat exchanger to cool 605 kg/h
∆Tlm =
FG ∆T IJ =
FG 45 IJ
= 28.7°C
of hot water entering at 70°C and leaving at 50°C. Find ln 1
H ∆T K
2
ln
H16.9 K
the area of the heat exchanger. The individual heat
transfer coefficients on both sides are 1590 W/m2.K. Use The heat transfer rate
LMTD and NTU methods. Find also the exit hC p, h (Th, i – Th, o)
Q= m
temperatures of cold and hot fluid streams, if the flow of
hot water is doubled. Assume the individual heat transfer FG 605 kg/sIJ × (4180 J/kg.K) (70 – 50) (K)
coefficients are proportional to 0.8th power of the flow
= H 3600 K
rate. For water Cp = 4180 J/kg.K.(J.N.T.U., May 2004)
= 14050 W.
Solution
The overall heat transfer coefficient
Given : A parallel flow heat exchanger with
c = 1495 kg/h,
m h = 605 kg/h
m 1 1
U= = = 795 W/m2.K
1 1 1 1
Tc, i = 25°C, Th, i = 70°C + +
hi ho 1590 1590
Cp = 4180 J/kg.K, Th, o = 50°C
hi = 1590 W/m2.K, ho = 1590 W/m2.K The heat transfer rate is also expressed as :
Q = UA ∆Tlm
0.8
h∝ m
14050
Hot water or A= = 0.615 m2. Ans.
Th, i = 70°C
795 × 28.7
.
mh = 605 kg/h NTU Method :
Cold water The heat capacity rates of two fluid streams are :
Tc, i = 25°C
. Th, o = 50°C FG 605 kg/sIJ × (4180 J/kg.K)
mc = 1495 kg/h
hi = ho = 1590 W/m .K
2
Ch = H 3600 K
Cp, h = Cp, c = 4180 J/kg. K Th, o = 50°C = 702.47 W/K
Fig. 14.50 (a) Parallel flow heat exchanger FG 1495 kg/sIJ × (4180 J/kg.K)
To find :
Cc = H 3600 K
(i) Area of the heat exchanger by LMTD and NTU = 1736 W/K
methods Cmin = Ch = 702.47 W/m.K,
(ii) Exit temperatures of hot and cold fluids, if Cmax = Cc = 1736 W/K
flow rate of hot fluid is doubled.
The ratio of heat capacity rates
Assumptions :
(i) Thin walled heat transfer tube. C min 702.47
C= = = 0.405
(ii) Clean and scale free surfaces. C max 1736
(iii) Constant properties. The effectiveness of heat exchanger
Analysis : (i) Making the energy balance on the
heat exchanger C h (Th, i – Th, o ) 70 – 50
ε= = = 0.444
c C p, c (Tc, o – Tc, i ) = m C min (Th, i – Tc, i ) 70 – 25
m hC p, h (Th, i – Th, o )
HEAT EXCHANGERS 531
Further, the effectiveness of parallel flow heat or 1590 = K × (605)0.8

exchanger is also given as : Constant K = 9.4622
1 – exp [ − NTU (1 + C)] Thus for changed flow condition
ε=
1+ C h, new )0.8
ho, new = K(2 m
1 – exp [ − NTU (1 + 0.405)] = 9.4622 × (2 × 605)0.8

or 0.444 = = 2768.35 W/m2.K
1 + 0.405
or exp(– 1.405 NTU) = 0.376
1 1
or NTU = 0.696 U= 1 =
1 1 1
The NTU is given as : + +
hi ho, new 1590 2768.35
UA = 1010 W/m2.K
NTU =
C min UA 1010 × 0.615
NTU = = = 0.442
C min 1404.94
NTU C min 0.696 × 702.47
or A= = The effectiveness
U 795
1 – exp [− NTU (1 + C)]
= 0.615 m2 Ans. ε=
1+ C
(ii) When flow rate of hot fluid is doubled
1 – exp [ − 0.442 × (1 + 0.8093)]
h, new = 2 × 605 = 1210 kg/h
m =
1 + 0.8093
FG 1210 kg/sIJ × (4180 J/kg.K) = 0.3043
Ch = H 3600 K The exit temperatures of two fluids.
ε C min
= 1404.94 W/K Th, o = Th, i – (Th, i – Tc, i)
Ch
FG 1495 kg/sIJ × (4180 J/kg.K) = 70 – 0.3043 × (70 – 25) = 56.3°C
Cc = H 3600 K ε Cmin
= 1736 W/K Tc, o = Tc, i + (Th, i – Tc, i)
Cc
Thus Cmin = Ch = 1404.94W/K, = 25 + 0.3043 × 0.8093 × (70 – 25)
and Cmax = Cc = 1736 W/K. = 36.08°C. Ans.
C min 1404.94 Example 14.32. An oil is cooled to 100°C in a concurrent
and C= = = 0.8093
C max 1736 heat exchanger by transferring its heat to cooling water,
Since the individual heat transfer coefficients are that leaves the exchanger at 30°C. However, it is now
proportional to 0.8 power of flow rate, i.e., required that the oil must be cooled down to 75°C by
increasing the length of heat exchanger, while oil and
h ) 0.8
ho ∝ (m water flow rates, their inlet temperatures and other
dimensions of the exchanger keeping constant. The inlet
Hot water temperatures of water and oil being 15°C and 150°C,
Th, i = 70°C respectively.
.
mh, new = 1210 kg/h
If the original cooler was 1 m long, calculate
Cold water
Tc, i = 25°C (i) Outlet temperature of water in new cooler,
. Th, o = ?
mc = 1495 kg/h (ii) Length of new cooler. (P.U., Nov. 2002)
Cp, h = Cp, c = 4180 J/kg.K Solution
Th, o = ? Given : A concurrent (parallel) flow heat
exchanger.
Fig. 14.50 (b) Parallel flow heat exchanger when flow rate
of hot water is doubled Case I. L1 = 1 m
Hot fluid : Oil UA 1 U (π d L 1 )

Further, NTU1 = =
Th, i = 150°C, Th, o = 100°C Cmin C min
Cold fluid :Water Uπd NTU 1 0.50
or = = = 0.5
Tc, i = 15° C, Tc, o = 30°C Cmin L1 1
Case II. L2 = ? Uπd
The quantity is a constant quantity for heat
Hot fluid : Oil Cmin
Th, i = 150°C, Th, o = 75°C exchanger.
Cold fluid Tc, i = 15°C, Tc, o = ? Case II. After increasing the length of heat
exchanger,
T (a) Flow rates are same,
150°C (b) Properties are unchanged.
Hot fluid
100°C
(c) Dimension other than length are also
75°C unchanged.
Tc, o Therefore,
Cold fluid 30°C C = 0.3, Cmin = Ch and Cmax = Cc
The effectiveness of heat exchanger in new case
15°C
C h (Th, i − Th, o ) 150 − 75 75
ε2 = = =
Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i ) 150 − 15 135
L1 DL
L2 = 0.55
Fig. 14.51 1 − exp [− NTU 2 (1 + 0.3)]
and 0.55 =
To find : 1 + 0.3
(i) Outlet temperature of water in new cooler, and or NTU2 = 0.965
(ii) Length of new cooler. Further,
Analysis : Case I. Length of new heat exchanger :
UA 2 U(π d L 2 )
Before increasing the length of cooler, the energy NTU2 = = = 0.5 L2
balance on exchanger C min C min
m c Cp, c(Tc, o – Tc, i) NTU 2 0.965
or L2 = = = 1.93 m. Ans.
hC
m c Cp, c(30 – 15)
– 100) = m 0.5 0.5
p, h(150
Ch 30 − 15 15 The outlet temperature of water :
or C= = =
C c 150 − 100 50 C c (Tc, o − Tc, i )
= 0.3 ε2 =
and Cmin = Ch, Cmax = Cc Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i )
Effectiveness of heat exchanger
Cmin
C h (Th, i − Th, o ) 150 − 100 or Tc, o = Tc, i + ε2 (Th, i – Tc, i)
ε1 = = = 0.37 Cc
Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i ) 150 − 15
= 15 + 0.55 × 0.3 × (150 – 15)
Further, for parallel flow heat exchanger,
= 37.27°C. Ans.
1 − exp [− NTU 1 (1 + C)]
ε1 =
1+ C Example 14.33. Two identical counter flow type heat
1 − exp [− NTU 1 (1 + 0.3)] exchangers are available. Water at the rate of 3600 kg/h
0.37 = and at 30°C (Cp = 4.2 kJ/kg.K) is to be heated by cooling
1 + 0.3
exp [– 1.3 NTU1] = 1 – 1.3 × 0.37 = 0.519 of an oil (Cp = 2.1 kJ/kg.K) at 90°C. The oil flow rate is
ln (0.519) 2700 kg/h. The heat transfer area in each heat exchanger
or NTU1 = = 0.50 is 4 m2.
− 1.3
HEAT EXCHANGERS 533
The heat exchangers are connected in series on the Heat exchanger 1 Heat exchanger 2
water side and in parallel on the oil side. The oil flow rate A = 4 m2, A = 4 m2
is split in the ratio of 2 to 1 i.e., 1800 kg/h in the first and
U = 300 W/m2.K, U = 300 W/m2.K.
900 kg/h in the second heat exchanger. Water enters the
first heat exchanger at 30°C. Find the final water and oil c = 3600 kg/h
m c = 3600 kg/h
m
1 2
exit temperatures. Overall heat transfer coefficient in each
heat exchanger is 300 W/m2.K. h = 1800 kg/h
m h = 900 kg/h
m
1 2
Solution Tc,i1 = 30°C Tc,i2 = Tc, o1

Given : Two counter flow heat exchangers
Th,i1 = 90°C Th,i2 = 90°C
Cp, h = 2100 J/kg.K, Cp, c = 4200 J/kg.K
Th, i = 90°C oil

.
mh = 2700 kg/h
. .
mh1 = 1800 kg/h mh 2 = 900 kg/h
. .
mc1 = 3600 kg/h Tc, o1 = Tc, i 2 mc 2 = 3600 kg/h
EXCHANGER 1 EXCHANGER 2
Water in, 30°C Water out, Tc, o2
Th, o1 Th, o2
Oil out Th, o

Fig. 14.52 Schematic for example 14.33
To find : The final exit temperature of oil and UA 300 × 4

water. NTU = = = 1.143
C min 1050
Assumptions:
The effectiveness of heat exchanger 1
1. No heat loss to surroundings.
2. Steady state operation 1 − exp [− NTU (1 − C)]
ε1 =
3. Cold fluid leaving exchanger 1, enters 1 − C exp [− NTU (1 − C)]
exchanger 2 at same temperature.
1 − exp [− 1.143 × (1 − 0.25)]
4. Constant properties. =
1 − (0.25) × exp [− 1.143 × (1 − 0.25)]
5. Scale free heat transfer surfaces.
Analysis : The exit temperatures are unknown, = 0.6434
hence using NTU method for each heat exchanger. Outlet temperatures :
Heat Exchanger 1 : Cp)min
For hot fluid; ( m
Heat capacity for cold fluid Th, i − Th, o1 90 − Th, o1
C p ) c1 = (3600/3600)(kg/s) × (4200 J/kg.K)
(m ε1 = =
Th, i − Tc, i1 90 − 30
= 4200 W/K
Heat capacity for hot fluid, or Th, o1 = 90 – 0.6434 × (90 – 30) = 51.36°C
C p ) h1 = (1800/3600)(kg/s) × (2100 J/kg.K)
(m For cold fluid;
= 1050 W/K Cp)max = 4200 W/K
(m
Heat capacity ratio
C p ) max (Tc, o – Tc, i )
(m
C 1050 ε1 = 1 1
C = min = = 0.25 C p ) min (Th, i – Tc, i1 )
(m
C max 4200
4200 × (Tc,o1 − 30) Final outlet temperature of oil can be calculated

= as :
1050 × (90 − 30)
C p ) h1 Th, o1 + (m
(m C p ) h2 Th, o2
or Tc, o1 = 30 + 0.6434 × 0.25 × (90 – 30)
h1 + m
= (m h2 ) C p, h To
= 39.65°C.
Heat Exchanger 2 : 1800 × 51.36 + 900 × 45.72
or To =
Heat capacity for cold fluid 2700
C p ) c2 = 4200 W/K
(m = 49.48°C
Final outlet temperature of oil is 49.48°C. Ans.
Heat capacity for hot fluid,
C p ) h2 = (900/3600)(kg/s) × (2100 J/kg.K)
(m Example 14.34. Hot gases enters a finned tube, cross
flow heat exchanger at 300°C and leave at 100°C, are
= 525 W/K
used to heat the water at a flow rate of 1 kg/s from 35°C
Heat capacity ratio to 125°C. The exhaust gas specific heat is approximately
C min 525 1000 J/kg.K and overall heat transfer coefficient based
C= = = 0.125
C max 4200 on the gas side surface is 100 W/m2.K. Calculate the
UA 300 × 4 required gas side area using NTU method.
NTU = = = 2.285 Solution
C min 525
The effectiveness of heat exchanger 2 Given : A finned tube cross flow heat exchanger
with inlet and outlet temperatures of hot and cold fluids.
1 − exp [− NTU (1 − C)]
ε2 = U = 100 W/m2.K
1 − C exp [− NTU (1 − C)]
Hot gas side :
1 − exp [ − 2.285 × (1 − 0.125)]
= Th, i = 300°C
1 − 0.125 × exp [− 2.285 × (1 − 0.125)]
Th, o = 100°C
= 0.8795
Cp, h = 1000 J/kg.K
Outlet temperatures :
For hot fluid Water
Tc, i = 35°C
(m
Cp)min = 525 W/K
Th, i – Th, o2 90 – Th, o2
ε2 = =
Th, i − Tc, i2 90 – 39.65
Th, o = 100°C
or Th, o2 = 90 – 0.8795 × (90 – 39.65)
Hot
= 45.72°C gases
For cold fluid
C p )max = 4200 W/K
(m
Th, i = 300°C
C p ) max (Tc, o2 – Tc, i2 )
(m C
25°
ε2 = (m C p ) min ( Th, i – Tc, i2 ) o
=1
T c,
(a) Finned tube cross flow heat exchanger
4200 × (Tc, o2 – 39.65 ) (cold fluid unmixed)
=
525 × (90 – 39.65) Cold water side :
or Tc, o2 = 39.65 + 0.8795 × 0.125 × (90 – 39.65) c = 1 kg/s
m
= 45.18°C Tc, i = 35°C
Final water outlet temperature = 45.18°C. Ans. Tc, o = 125°C.
HEAT EXCHANGERS 535
To find : Surface area of heat exchanger on gas Heat capacity ratio,

side.
C min 1888.65
Assumptions : C= = = 0.45
C max 4197
(i) Finned tube cross flow heat exchanger with
cold fluid unmixed. Maximum possible heat transfer rate
(ii) Scale free surfaces. Qmax = Cmin × (Th, i – Tc, i)
(iii) Negligible heat loss to surroundings and = 1888.65 × (300 – 35)
negligible kinetic and potential energy changes.
= 500,492.25 W
T The effectiveness of heat exchanger
Th, i = 300°C Q 377,730
. ε= = = 0.755
mh Q max 500,492.25
. Cmixed
Tc, o = 125°C mc = 1 kg/s Th, o = 100°C For ε = 0.755 and = 0.45, from Fig. 14.32
Cunmixed
Tc, i = 35°C
L NTU = 2.8
(b) Temperature distribution UA NTU C min
and NTU = —→ A =
Fig. 14.53. Schematic and temperature distribution for Cmin U
finned tube cross flow heat exchanger
2.8 × 1888.65
Properties : The specific heat of water at its film = = 52.88 m2. Ans.
temperature, 100
35 + 125 Example 14.35. Air at 25°C flows over a cross flow car
Tf = = 80°C radiator and cools water from 99°C to 60°C. Water flows
2
at the rate of 4 kg/min through a number of separate
From Table A-7,
passages within the heat exchanger. The mass flow rate
Cp, c = 4197 J/kg.K
of air is 14 kg/min. If overall heat transfer coefficient is
The mass flow rate of hot gases can be obtained 80 W/m2.K. Determine the required heat transfer area
by energy balance and heat exchanger effectiveness. Assume :
m c Cp, c(Tc, o – Tc, i) (i) Clean and scale free heat transfer surfaces.
1 × 4197 × (125 − 35) (ii) Constant specific heat of fluids over given
or h =
m temperatures ranges.
1000 × (300 − 100)
Cp, water = 4186 J/kg.K
= 1.88865 kg/s
and Cp, air = 1006 J/kg.K
Heat transfer rate in the exchanger
(iii) Overall heat transfer coefficient is constant.
c Cp, c(Tc, o – Tc, i)
Q= m
(iv) Air is mixed fluid.
= 1 × 4197 × (125 – 35)
Given that for cross flow heat exchanger
= 377,730 W
ε = (1/C) [1 – exp {– C (1 – exp (– NTU)}]
The heat capacity rates of two fluids
Cmin
Cc = m c C = 1 × 4197 R= . (P.U.P., May 1993)
p, c Cmax
= 4197 W/K
hC Solution
Ch = m p, h = 1.88865 × 1000
Given : A cross flow heat exchanger
= 1888.65 W/K
Therefore, Tc, i = 25°C, U = 80 W/m2.K
Cmin = Cmixed = 1888.65 W/K Th, o = 60°C, Th, i = 99°C
Cmax = Cunmixed = 4197 W/K h = 4 kg/min,
m c = 14 kg/min
m
Cp, h = 4186 J/kg.K, Cp, c = 1006 J/kg. K Now using given relation ;
and relation for effectiveness.
1
To find : ε= [1 – exp{– C(1 – exp(– NTU))}]
C
(i) Heat transfer area.
(ii) Heat exchanger effectiveness. 1
0.626 = × [1 – exp{– 0.84 × (1 – exp(– NTU))}]
0.84
0.474 = exp[– 0.84 × {1 – exp(– NTU)}]
or 0.888 = 1 – exp(– NTU)
or NTU = 2.2
Further,
Water UA
NTU =
Th, i = 99°C
. Cmin
mh = 4 kg/min
NTU C min 2.2 × 234.7
Cp, h = 4186 J/kg.K or A= =
U 80
Th, o = 60°C = 6.45 m2. Ans.
Air Tc, i = 25°C, 14.11 COMPACT HEAT EXCHANGERS

mc = 14 kg/min
Fig. 14.54. Schematic of car radiator for example 14.35

The compact heat exchangers are a special class of
exchangers and they are the replacement to the
Analysis : The exit temperature of air, by energy
conventional shell and tube heat exchangers. A compact
balance on heat exchanger;
heat exchanger accommodates a large heat transfer area
h Cp, h (Th, i – Th, o) = m
m c Cp, c(Tc, o – Tc, i) within a small volume. A heat exchanger can be referred
or 4 × 4186 × (99 – 60) = 14 × 1006 × (Tc, o – 25) as a compact heat exchanger when its surface area
density exceeds 700 m2/m3. These heat exchangers are
or Tc, o = 71.36°C
typically used as gas to liquid and gas to gas heat
Heat capacities : exchange.
14 The gas has low convection heat transfer
For air Cc = × 1006
60 coefficient and thus for specified heat transfer rate, the
= 234.7 W/K large heat transfer area is required. The compact heat
exchangers are light in weight and small in size. These
4
For water Ch = × 4186 are available in different tubular and plate
60
configurations. Kays and London have studied these
= 279 W/K
types of heat exchanger very extensively. Fig. 14.55
Hence, Cmin = Cc shows typical heat transfer matrices for compact heat
and Cmax = Ch exchanger.
Cmin 234.7 Fig. 14.55 (a) and (b) show finned tube
and capacity ratio, C = = = 0.84 arrangement. Here the tubes are illustrated as
C max 279
rectangular, and circular. Fig. 14.55 (c) illustrates finned
C c (Tc, o − Tc, i ) circular tube surface in which circular fins are attached
Effectiveness ε= to the outside of the circular tubes. Such arrangements
Cmin (Th, i − Tc, i )
are frequently used in gas to liquid heat exchangers,
71.36 − 25 where optimum design demands maximum surface area
= = 0.626. Ans. on gas side.
99 − 25
HEAT EXCHANGERS 537
Flat tube Circular tube
Circular fin
Plate fin
(a) Fin—tube (flat tubes, (b) Fin—tube (circular tubes, (c) Fin—tube (circular tubes,
continuous plate fins) continuous plate fins) circular fins)
Corrugations
(or fins)
Parallel plates
(d) Plate—fin (single pass) (e) Plate—fin (multipass)
Fig. 14.55. Compact heat exchanger cores
In compact gas to gas heat exchanger, a large area where G is the mass velocity defined as :
density is required on both fluids side and flat fins m
arrangement of Fig. 14.55 (d) and (e) can accomplish G= …(14.56)
A min
this objective.
Heat transfer and flow characteristics have been where = total mass flow rate of fluid, kg/s, and
m
determined experimentally for specific configurations Amin = minimum free flow cross-sectional area of
and are typically presented in the format of Fig. 14.56 finned passage, m2
and Fig. 14.57. Heat transfer results are correlated in
terms of Stanton, Prandtl and Reynolds numbers. The hydraulic diameter, Dh is defined as
h µ Cp LA min
St = , Pr = Dh = 4 …(14.57)
GC p kf A
GD h where A is total heat transfer area and quantity LAmin

and Re = becomes the minimum free flow passage volume.
µ
0.060
0.040
f
0.030
0.020 28.5
h Pr 2/3
31.3 mm mm
16.4
——
GCp
mm
0.010
0.008 34.3 mm
0.006
3 4
10 2 3 4 6 8 10 2 3
Reynolds number, Re
Tube outside diameter, Do = 16.4 mm Fin pitch = 275 per metre

Flow passage hydraulic diameter, Dh = 6.68 mm Fin thickness, t = 0.254 mm
Free-flow area/frontal area, σ = 0.449 Surface area density, α = 269 m2/m3
Fin area/total area, Afin/Atotal = 0.830
Note. Minimum free-flow area is in spaces transverse to flow.
Fig. 14.56. Heat transfer and friction factor for a circular tube-circular fin heat
25.4 mm
0.060
+
+
+
+
0.040 +
+
f +
0.030 10.2 mm
22.0 mm
0.020
h Pr2/3
GCp
——
0.010
0.008
0.006
0.004
3 4
4 6 8 10 2 3 4 6 8 10
Reynolds number, Re
Tube outside diameter, Do = 10.2 mm Fin pitch = 315 per metre

Flow passage hydraulic diameter, Dh = 3.63 mm Fin thickness = 0.330 mm
Free-flow area/frontal area, σ = 0.534 Surface area density, α = 587 m2/m3
Fin area/total area = 0.913
Note. Minimum free-flow area in spaces transverse to flow.
Fig. 14.57. Heat transfer and friction factor for a circular tube-continuous
fin heat exchanger surface
HEAT EXCHANGERS 539
The values of σ, Dh, α (ratio to total heat transfer di = 13.8 mm, k = 237 W/m.K,
area to total heat exchanger volume), with the Afin/Atotal Schematic :
(ratio of finned surface to total heat transfer area and
+
other geometrical parameters are listed for each Combustion
configuration with the charts. gas (hot fluid) +
+
Water
Once the heat transfer and friction factor charts (cold fluid)
× = 1.25 kg/s h i = hc
for a specified configuration are available and the m h +
2
Reynolds number Re, the heat transfer coefficient h and = 1500 W/m .K
friction factor f can be evaluated. Then the rating and hfin = 0.89 + +
sizing problem associated with the heat exchanger Th = 700 K

Surface
+ CF-7.0 – 5/8 J
matrix can be performed by using either LMTD or di = 13.8 mm
effectiveness method analysis. 2
+
Afr = 0.20 m
The pressure drop associated with the flow
+
through the heat exchanger may be obtained from
LM O Fig. 14.58
F I F I F ρ IP
G2 MM(1 + σ ) G ρ − 1J + f GH A JK G ρ J PP
2 iρ A total i
To find : Gas side overall heat transfer coefficient.
MNH K H K P

∆p = Assumptions :
2ρ i o min m
Flow acceleration Q
Core friction
…(14.58)
(i) Gas has properties of atmospheric air
(ii) Scale free surfaces.
Minimum free flow area A min Properties : Air (at 1 atm and 700 K), from
where σ= = Table A-4,
Frontal area A fr
…(14.59) Cp = 1075 J/kg.K,
µ = 338.8 × 10–7 kg/ms
A total Total heat transfer area 4L
= = Pr = 0.695.
A min Minimum free flow area Dh
Analysis : The overall heat transfer coefficient is
ρ u∞ A fr ρu given by
G = mass velocity, (kg/m2s) = = ∞
A min σ
1
…(14.60) Uo =
Ao Ao d
ln o +
FG IJ
1
...(i)
ρm =
2
+
A i hi 2π k L di H K
η total ho
1 1
+ where Ao (= Atotal) is gas side and Ai is water side surface
ρi ρ o
area, respectively.
ρi, ρo = fluid densities at inlet and outlet, If the fin thickness is assumed negligible, then
respectively.
Ai di F1 − A I
Example 14.36. Consider a finned tube compact heat
exchanger having the core configuration of Fig. 14.58. Ao
=
do GH A JK fin
total
The core is fabricated from aluminium (k = 237 W/m.K) Afin = finned surface area
tubes have an inside diameter of 13.8 mm. In a waste
A fin
heat recovery applications, the water flows through the and = 0.830 from Fig. 14.56.
tubes provides an inside convection coefficient of A total
1500 W/m2.K, while the combustion gases at 1 atm and Ai 13.8
700 K are in cross flow over the tubes. If the gas flow Area ratio = × (1 – 0.830) = 0.143
Ao 16.4
rate is 1.25 kg/s and the frontal area is 0.2 m2, what is
the overall heat transfer coefficient based on gas side. Ao di 0.0138
Take fin efficiency as 0.89. Thus = =
πL 0.143 0.143
Solution The gas side convection coefficient :
Given : Compact heat exchanger geometry, gas
m 1.25
side flow rate and temperature and inside convection G= = = 13.9 kg/m2s.
σ A fr 0.449 × 0.2
coefficient.
The corrugated design helps in inducing turbulence in

GD h 13.9 × 6.68 × 10 −3
Re = = the fluids, increasing the effective surface area and
µ 338.8 × 10 −7
imparting additional strength and rigidity to the plate.
= 2740 Therefore, a plate heat exchanger offers greater com-
From Fig. 14.56, pactness and accessibility of the heat transfer surfaces
compared to shell and tube heat exchanger and ease of
h
Pr2/3 = 0.0096 adding and removing plates for different applications
GC p
of heat transfer.
0.0096 × 13.9 × 1075 The plates are made from thin sheets varying
Hence h= 2/3 from 0.5 mm to 1 mm in thickness. The stainless steel,
(0.695)
carbon steel, and some special alloys like Hestalloy,
= 183 W/m2.K.
incoloy, aluminium, brass, titanium, etc. are used as
Hot side temperature effectiveness or area plate material. The common gasket materials are
weighted fin efficiency
lastomeric material like nitrile rubber, EPDM, viton,
A fin resin cured butyl rubber, silicon rubber etc.
ηtotal = 1 – (1 – ηfin)
A total A plate heat exchanger can withstand a
= 1 – 0.830 × (1 – 0.89) = 0.91 maximum pressure of 20 atm and gasket material limits
the operating temperature upto 190°C. A typical
Using values in eqn. (i),
expression for calculation of Nusselt number is
1 Nu = 0.2536 (Re)0.65(Pr)0.4 ...(14.61)
Uo =
1 0.0138 1
+ ×
1500 × 0.143 0.143 2 × 237
16.4FG IJ 1
× ln
13.8 H+
K
0.91 × 183
= 93.4 W/m2.K. Ans.
14.12. PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER (PHE)

The plate heat exchanger (PHE) is best alternative to
shell and tube exchanger. It is widely used in food and
drink processing industries. A plate heat exchanger
consists of a large number of thin, cold pressed,
corrugated metal plates or sheets fitted into a frame as
shown in Fig. 14.59. These are provided with gaskets
and corner portals. The gasket prevents the mixing of
liquids and directs the fluid into their respective channel
through the portals at the corner. Each plate has four
corner holes. When plates corner holes are packed, these
corner holes form four continuous flow lines for the two
fluids : two of these corner hales serve as the inlet
and outlet for the hot fluid and other two for the cold
fluid. The Fig. 14.60 shows typical flow paths for two
fluids. A plate separates the hot and cold fluid streams Fig. 14.59. Plate heat exchanger built up of corrugated
which are in counter flow on the two sides of the plate. plates assembled to optimize heat transfer
HEAT EXCHANGERS 541
Beer Weld path Gasket
(hot fluid)
Refrigerant
(cold fluid)
Welded seal Welded seal Welded seal Gasketed seal

(a) Counter current flow in a PHE with welded plate pairs
All channels in series All channels in parallel All series-parallel arrangement
(b) Typical series-parallel flow arrangements

Fig. 14.60. Flow configuration in a plate heat exchanger
Applications of plate heat exchangers 6. These are cheaper than shell and tube heat
The plate heat exchangers are widely used for exchangers.
1. Liquid to liquid heat exchange, 7. It can perform multiple heat exchange duties
2. Evaporation, boiling and condensing services, in a simple heat exchanger.
3. As a practical use, these heat exchangers are
extensively used in dairy and food processing industries. 14.13. REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD HEAT
Advantages of plate heat exchangers
EXCHANGER
The plate heat exchangers are preferred over shell
and tube heat exchanger because of its greater compact- 1. It should satisfy the purpose of
ness and accessibility. The major advantages of plate (a) Maintaining specified temperature difference,
heat exchangers are :
(b) Cooling or heating duty of the fluid.
1. It offers very high heat transfer coefficient on
(c) Transferring specified quantity of heat from
both sides of the plate. For clean water to water service,
an overall heat transfer coefficient of about 7000 W/m2.K hot fluid to cold one.
is obtained as compared to 2300 W/m2.K in shell and 2. A heat exchanger can easily withstand plant en-
tube heat exchanger. vironment for
2. Plate heat exchangers are also suitable for close (a) Different temperatures and atmospheric
approach temperature as low as 2°C and for large tem- conditions,
perature also. (b) Vibrations produced as a result of fluids flow,
3. It offers ease of inspection, service, (c) High fluid pressure,
maintenance and cleaning.
(d) Personal safety
4. In plate heat exchanger, the heat transfer area
(e) Maintenance, servicing, cleaning and
can be increased or decreased by adding and removing
repairing.
some plates.
5. It requires much less floor space as compared 3. Higher reliability i.e., working without causing
to shell and tube heat exchanger. any problems or repairing.
4. It should be low cost. Prediction of heat transfer coefficients

5. A heat exchanger should be compact for The determination of heat transfer coefficient for fluid
(a) its dimensional area. flow through the smooth tube of uniform cross section
(b) less weight is quite simple. But prediction of convection heat
(c) convenient to transport. transfer coefficients is very difficult for complicated flows
that move through a baffled shell or twisted tape
inserted tube. The determination of convection heat
14.14. HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN AND SELECTION transfer coefficient in such situations remains a prob-
The heat exchangers are complicated devices and results lem that cannot be solved analytically. It is normally
obtained by simplified procedure presented in preceding estimated with the help of empirical relations or with
sections 14.9 and 14.10 can work well in smaller size the aid of computer programs. The prediction of
heat exchangers. Larger shell and tube heat exchangers convection heat transfer coefficient during the phase
consist of two practical difficulties in relation of overall change, when the flow is boiling or condensing is even
heat transfer coefficient. more complicated. It is a still chalange to the
researchers.
(i) Assumption of uniform overall heat
transfer coefficient throughout the heat exchanger. Heat transfer rate
(ii) Prediction of heat transfer coefficient by using The heat exchangers are used to heat or cool a certain
convection correlations. fluid with known mass flow rate and temperature to
desired outlet temperature. Thus the rate of heat transfer
Variation of overall heat transfer coefficient
in a heat exchanger can be determined by relation
Use of constant values of overall heat transfer coeffi-
Q= m Cp(Tin – Tout)
cient U is more serious. The overall heat transfer coeffi-
cient U is never constant throughout the heat exchanger, A heat exchanger must be capable of transferring
it varies with change in flow configuration as well as heat at the specified rate in order to achieve desired
with variation in fluid temperature. Fig. 14.61 shows a temperature difference of the fluid under consideration
typical variation of overall heat transfer coefficients at the specified mass flow rate.
within a heat exchanger. In this case, the heat transfer Pumping power
mechanism is completely changed on liquid side, when
The principle and operating cost of heat exchanger plays
finally liquid starts boiling.
very important role in the selection of heat exchanger.
In a heat exchanger, both fluids are usually forced to
Combustion
gases
flow by pumps or fans which consume electrical power.
(Small U The cost of electrical power
region) = pumping power, kW × hours of operation,
Temperature, T
h × price of electricity unit

(Large U region) where the pumping power input to motors and pumps
d
ea
te m ∆p
erh o u r = (W) ...(14.62)
Flow boiling
p
Su v a p ρ
where m = the mass flow rate of fluid stream, kg/s
0 Length or area L ∆p = pressure drop of fluid stream as it passes
through the heat exchanger, N/m2.
Fig. 14.61. A typical case of a heat exchanger in which U
varies significantly
ρ = fluid density, kg/m3.
The pressure drop in a straight run of pipe, is
If overall heat transfer coefficients were uniform given by
in each portion of heat exchanger, then we could treat
F L I × ρu 2
two different heat exchangers in series.
However, the variation of overall heat transfer
∆p = f GH D JK 2
h
m
...(14.63)
coefficient U with position within heat exchanger is where L = length of the pipe
common difficulty and this problem is more severe in Dh = hydraulic diameter
large industrial shell and tube heat exchangers and less
serious in compact heat exchangers with less surface um = mean velocity of fluid flow in tube
area. f = friction factor.
HEAT EXCHANGERS 543
Minimizing the pressure drop and mass flow rate shell side and water on tube side. Corrosion behaviour,
of fluids will minimise the operating cost of heat fouling, and cleaning problems of fouled tube are also
exchanger, but it will maximise the size of heat some factors to be considered.
exchanger and thus initial cost. It is thumb rule by 2. Compare the cost of operation and investment.
doubling the mass flow rate will reduce the initial cost (a) Investment in the heat exchangers,
by half, but it will increase pumping power by eight
(b) Operating cost.
times.
3. Make the rough estimation of size of heat
Often, the heat exchangers are augmented by use
exchanger for overall heat transfer coefficient value
of fins or roughning element in an exchanger. Such
given in Table 14.1. It will help to size the flow rates
augmentation will invariable increase the pressure drop,
and to anticipate the temperature variations.
but at the same time, it will reduce the fixed cost of an
exchanger by increasing U and reducing the required 4. Calculate the heat transfer rate, pressure drop
area. and the cost of various exchanger configurations that
reasonable suit the application.
Size and weight Once the exchanger configuration is set, U will
The smaller size and lighter weight heat exchanger are be approximately fixed and area becomes the design
always preferred. In case of automotive and aerospace variable. If inlet and outlet temperatures are set, then
applications, size and weight of heat exchanger are very use
important. Larger heat exchanger size carries a higher Q = UAF∆Tlm
price and space problem in some cases limits the tube where Q = Ch(Th, i – Th, o) = Cc(Tc, o – Tc, i)
length. Then A can be calculated and design completes.
Type
Type of heat exchanger to be selected depends on types 14.15. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HEAT
of fluids used, size and weight limitations and presence EXCHANGERS
of any phase change process. For an example to cool a
liquid by a gas, a heat exchanger is suitable, that has (i) The finned tube heat exchangers are used in
surface area on gas side many times that on the liquid air preheating for evaporation of feed liquid in an
side. On the other hand, a plate or shell and tube type ammonia nitrate concentration plant.
heat exchanger is very suitable for heat exchanger (ii) Double pipe heat exchangers are used for
between two liquids. water cooling of distillation in an alcohol plant.
(iii) Cooled oils are used for water cooling of
Material reaction mass in a reactor, oil cooling etc.
Material of construction of the heat exchanger may play (iv) Plate heat exchangers are used for
an important role in selection of heat exchangers.
(a) Water cooling of products (hydrogen, chlorine,
Thermal and structural effects need to be considered, if
caustic soda) in a caustic soda plant,
a heat exchanger operates above 70 atm or 550°C. A
temperature difference of 50°C may cause uneven (b) Steam heating of an edible oil,
thermal expansion in the tube material. In case of (c) Milk chilling and pasteurizing in a dairy
chemical fluid, expensive corrosive resistance material plant,
such as stainless steel or titanium may be used in heat (d) Process service water heat exchange in power
exchanger. plant,
(e) Low pressure steam preheating of process
Other considerations liquid in evaporating unit.
Other considerations involve ease of servicing, low
maintenance cost, safety and reliability of heat
exchanger. If a heat exchanger uses toxic or expensive 14.16. HEAT PIPES
fluid, then it must be leak tight.
A heat pipe is a novel device without any moving part
A summary of design considerations for a large that can transfer a large quantity of heat over a large
shell and tube exchanger is given below : distance at a constant temperature without any power
1. Decide the fluids on shell and tube side in order input. A heat pipe is basically a sealed circular tube
to minimise the pumping cost. For an example, for oil containing an annular layer of wicking material on the
cooling by water, the oil (a viscous fluid) must flow on inside surface of the tube. The core of the system is
hollow in the centre to permit working fluid to pass freely (ii) A condenser section at the other end where
from one end to other as shown in Fig. 14.62. The wick vapour is condensed and rejects its latent heat ;
transports the working medium in liquid form from one (iii) The adiabatic section between evaporator and
end to other end by capillary action. condenser sections, where liquid and vapour phases flow
A heat pipe is composed of three sections : in opposite directions through the wick and core,
(i) An evaporator section at one end, where fluid respectively to complete the cycle without any heat
absorbs heat of evaporation and turns into vapour ; transfer between fluid and its surroundings.
Liquid Copper Insulation

Tube wall Wick flow tube
Heat Heat
in out
Vapour Vapour flow
core
Wick
(Liquid flow Adiabatic
passage) section
Cross-section Evaporation Condenser
of a heat pipe section section
Fig. 14.62. Schematic and operation of a heat pipe
A heat pipe operates in the reversible manner A variety of fluid and pipe materials have been
and its operation is completely sailient. A heat pipe is used for heat pipe construction and some operating
very sensitive to the effect of gravity. If it is tilted so characteristics are summarised in Table 14.4. A number
that the condenser is located at higher level than the of wick materials have been used in practice, ranging
evaporator, the action of gravity serves to speed up the from mesh screen, stainless steel fibers and cintered
flow of liquid down through the wick and vapour rises fibers and powders. The wick of a heat pipe provides
up because of its lower density. This is called a faborable the means for return of the liquid to evaporator.
tilt. In contrast, when the condenser is located at lower Therefore, the structure of the wick plays very important
elevation than the evaporator, the action of gravity will role on the performance of the heat pipe and thus the
obstruct the flow of liquid in the wick and heat pipe is design and construction of the wick is most critical
said to have adverse tilt. aspect of the manufacturing process.
TABLE 14.4. Some typical operating characteristics of heat pipes
Temperature Working Pipe material Measured axial Measured

range, K fluid heat flux, W/cm2 surface heat
flux, W/cm2
230–400 Methanol Copper, nickel, 0.45 at 373 K 75.5 at 373 K

stainless steel
280–500 Water Copper, nickel 0.67 at 473 K 146 at 443 K
360–850 Mercury stainless steel 25.1 at 533 K 181 at 533 K
673–1073 Potassium Nickel, stainless steel 5.6 at 1023 K 181 at 1023 K
773–1173 Sodium Nickel, stainless steel 9.3 at 1123 K 224 at 1033 K
Adapted from reference [18]

HEAT EXCHANGERS 545
Working of a heat pipe 3. VAPIPE is recent developed heat pipe used in

Initially, the wick of the heat pipe is soaked with a car engine to vaporise gasolene by exhaust gases before
saturated liquid and core section is filled with saturated it enters the engine through carburettor. The vaporised
vapour. When the evaporator section of the heat pipe is fuel makes a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel, and
placed in hot environment, the heat is transferred to thus combustion is improved.
saturate liquid, that starts vaporising and causing E
Atm
vapour pressure to rise. Thus resulting pressure
difference drives the vapour through the core of the heat Heat pipe
pipe from evaporator section to condenser section. The Atm

C
condenser section of the heat pipe is located in the cooling
medium, thus its surface is slightly at lower AC unit
temperature. The vapour comes in contact of the cooler

Room for heating
surface, condenses, releasing its latent heat, to cooling
medium. The condensed liquid then returns to the Fig. 14.63. Air-conditioning unit with heat pipe
evaporator end of the heat pipe through the wick as a
4. In a gas turbine plant, the heat pipes are used
result of capillary action in the wick, thus completing
to preheat the compressed air before it enters the
the cycle. Thus, the heat is absorbed at one end of the
combustion chamber, and thus the thermal efficiency
heat pipe and is rejected at the other end, with the fluid
of the plant improves.
inside serving as transport medium for heat.
5. Heat pipes can be used in extrusion of plastic
A heat pipe involves evaporation and
materials to maintain the temperature gradient.
condensation processes, associated with very high heat
transfer coefficient, thus a heat pipe is an extremely 6. Heat pipes can also be used in solar
effective heat transfer device, with an effective thermal applications, such as space heating, snow melting,
conductivity several hundred times that of copper or kitchen cooking, spray drying, pollution control,
silver. A simple heat pipe with water as working fluid pharmaceutical, laundaries, biscuit and bread ovens and
has an effective thermal conductivity of 100,000 W/m.K, so on.
which is 250 times that of copper.
The heat pipes are extensively used for waste gas 14.17. SUMMARY
heat recovery. In such applications, the condenser and The heat exchangers are devices that are used for the
evaporator sections of the heat pipe are attached with heat exchange between the hot and cold fluids which
fins in order to increase the heat transfer area. Because are at different temperatures. These are manufactured
the heat transfer coefficient for a gas side is always low. in variety of types and simplest one is the double pipe
heat exchanger. In a parallel or concurrent flow type,
The rating of a heat pipe is measured in terms of
both the fluids enter the heat exchanger at the same
‘‘axial power rating’’ (APR), which is equal to the energy end, move in same direction and leave the same other
transport axially along the pipe. Heat pipes in different end. Whereas, in a counter flow type, the hot and cold
APR like electrical heater are available in their standard fluids enter the heat exchanger at opposite ends, flow
rating (1 kW, 2 kW and so on). in opposite direction and leave the exchanger from
opposite ends. The compact heat exchangers are usually
Applications of heat pipe
cross flow type, in which two fluids flow perpendicular
The heat pipes are used for removing localised heat and to each other.
waste heat recovery. The heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually
1. Electrical and Electronics system : the use of involves convection in each fluid and conduction through
heat pipe can reduce size of most magnetic components the wall separating the two fluids. In the analysis of
such electrical transformer by 30%. The evaporator end heat exchanger, it is convenient to use overall heat
of the heat pipe can be inserted into transformer core to transfer coefficient U or total thermal resistance ΣRth
dissipate more heat and to reduce its size significantly. expressed as :
ΣRth = Rtotal = Rconv, i + Rwall + Rconv, o
2. Air conditioning system. Exhaust air leaving
the room can precool or preheat the incoming air with 1 ln (do / di ) 1
or ΣRth = + +
the use of a heat pipe. hi A i 2π L k ho A o
1 1 1 where for a parallel flow arrangement :

and ΣRth = = =
UA UiA i UoA o ∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, i and ∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, o
and for counter flow arrangement :
where A is the heat transfer area and d is diameter of
∆T1 = Th, i – Tc, o and ∆T2 = Th, o – Tc, i
tube and subscript i and o stand for inner and outer
surfaces of the tube wall that separates the two fluids. For cross flow and multipass shell and tube heat
When wall thickness of the tube is small and its thermal exchangers, the logarithmic mean temperature
difference is related to counter flow arrangement as :
conductivity is high, then evaluation of overall heat
transfer coefficient U simplifies to ∆Tlm = F ∆Tlm, counter flow
where F is the correction factor, which depends on the
1
U= 1 geometry of the heat exchanger and the inlet and outlet
1
+ temperatures of the two fluids.
hi ho
The effectiveness ε of a heat exchanger is the ratio
The deposition of fluid impurities, rust formation of actual heat transfer to maximum possible heat
and other reactions between the fluids and surfaces transfer rate by a heat exchanger or
reduce the performance of heat exchanger. The effect of Actual heat transfer rate
fouling on both surfaces of the heat exchanger can be ε=
Maximum possible heat transfer rate
accounted for by where Qmax = Cmin (Th, i – Tc, i)
1 R f , i ln (do / di ) R f , o 1
ΣRth = + + + + and Cmin is the smaller of Ch = m h Cp, h and Cc = m c Cp, c.
A i hi Ai 2π L k Ao A o ho The effectiveness of a heat exchangers can be determined
where Rf, i and Rf, o are the fouling factors at the inside from
and outside surfaces of the heat exchanger tube. The C h (Th, i − Th, o ) C c (Tc, o − Tc, i )
overall heat transfer coefficients based on outer and ε= =
C min (Th, i − Tc, i ) C min (Th, i − Tc, i )
inner surfaces are :
For particular type of heat exchanger, the
1 effectiveness can be obtained from effectiveness relations
Uo =
do do do 1 or effectiveness charts.
+ Rf,i + ln (do /di ) + R f , o +
di hi di 2k ho The Number of transfer units or NTU is a
1 dimensionless group. It is a measure of heat transfer
and Ui =
1 d d di surface area A in a heat exchanger and is expressed as:
+ R f , i + i ln (do /di ) + i R f , o +
hi 2k do do ho UA UA
In a well insulated heat exchanger, the rate of NTU = =
C min (m C p ) min
heat transfer from the hot fluid is equal to the rate of
Heat capacity of exchanger, W/K
heat transfer to cold fluid. =
Heat capacity rate of flow, W/K
Q= m h Cp, h(Th, i – Th, o) = Ch(Th, i – Th, o)
The design of heat exchanger depends on several
and Q= m c Cp, c(Tc, o – Tc, i) = Cc(Tc, o – Tc, i) factors such as heat transfer rate, pressure drop,
where, subscripts c and h stand for cold and hot fluids, pumping power, size, weight, construction type, material
respectively and product of the mass flow rate and specific and operating environment.
heat of a fluid C = m Cp is called the heat capacity rate. The compact heat exchanger accommodates a
The log mean temperature difference (or LMTD) large heat transfer area in a small volume. A heat
is appropriate temperature difference between the hot exchanger having surface area density more than 700
and cold fluids and LMTD method of heat exchanger is called the compact heat exchanger. The plate heat
analysis is best suited for determining its size, when all exchanger is a compact heat exchanger, consists of a
large number thin, cold pressed and corrugated metal
the inlet and outlet temperatures are known. The log
sheets fitted into a frame.
mean temperature difference for a double pipe heat
A heat pipe is a device without moving parts, that
exchanger is given by :
can transfer heat over a distance at constant
∆T1 − ∆T2
∆Tlm =
ln
LM OP
∆T1
temperature without any power input. It is a sealed
circular tube, consists of an evaporator section,
N Q
∆T2 condenser section and adiabatic section between them.
HEAT EXCHANGERS 547
REVIEW QUESTIONS 24. What are design and selection criteria of heat
exchangers?
1. What is a heat exchanger ? Where are they used ? 25. What are applications of heat pipe?
2. Classify heat exchanger in three broad classes.
3. What is a direct contact type heat exchanger ? Give
PROBLEMS
some examples.
4. Classify recuperative heat exchanger according to 1. In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger, water
construction, flow arrangement. is heated from 40°C to 80°C with an oil entering at
5. What do you mean by fouling factor ? State the causes 105°C and leaving at 70°C. Taking the overall heat
of fouling. transfer coefficient as 300 W/m2.K and the water flow
6. When a heat exchanger is referred as compact heat rate as 0.1 kg/s. Calculate the heat exchanger area.
exchanger ? What are its applications ? [Ans. A = 2.07 m2]
7. Explain shell and tube type heat exchanger. Why 2. A double pipe heat exchanger is constructed of
baffles are used ? 0.287 cm thick steel tubing (k = 35 W/m.K) with
8. What are multipass heat exchanger ? When are they 2.09 cm inner tube and 2.66 cm outer tube. The inside
used ? and outside coefficients of heat transfer are 1135 W/m2.K
9. Compare parallel flow and counterflow heat and 5677 W/m2.K, respectively, and the inner fouling
exchanger. factor is 9.98 × 10–5 m2.K/W. Calculate the overall
10. For a balanced counterflow heat exchanger where coefficient of heat transfer.[Ans. Ui = 893.5 W/m2.K]
m hC ph = m cC pc , prove that the temperature profiles 3. Water at the rate of 4080 kg/h is heated from 35°C to
75°C by an oil having a specific heat of 1900 J/kg.K.
of two fluids along the heat exchanger are linear and
The exchanger is of a counter flow double pipe design.
parallel.
The oil enters at 110°C and leaves at 75°C. Determine
11. Prove that as ∆T1 → ∆T2, ∆Tlm → ∆Tarithmetic mean. the area of the heat exchanger necessary to handle
12. Obtain an expression for overall heat transfer this load if the overall heat transfer coefficient is
coefficient for tubular heat exchanger, subjected to 320 W/m2.K. [Ans. A = 15.82 m2]
fouling on its two sides of heat transfer surface.
4. Hot oil having a specific heat of 2.09 kJ/kg.K flows
13. Derive an expression for log mean temperature through a counter flow heat exchanger at the rate of
difference of parallel flow heat exchanger. How this 2286 kg/h with an inlet temperature of 93°C and an
expression can be modified for counter flow heat outlet temperature of 65°C. Cold oil having a specific
exchanger ? heat of 1.67 kJ/kg.K flows in at a rate of 3600 kg/h
14. Define effectiveness of heat exchanger. How is and leaves at 49°C. What area is required to handle
maximum heat transfer rate is obtained ? this load, if the overall heat transfer coefficient based
15. Define NTU of a heat exchanger. on the inside area is 0.7 kW/m2.K ?[Ans. A = 8.5 m2]
16. What are the limitations of LMTD method ? How is 5. In a concentric tube counter flow heat exchanger
ε-NTU method superior to LMTD method ? water flows through the inner tube (di = 25 mm) at a
17. Derive for parallel flow heat exchanger. rate of 12 kg/min while an oil flows through the outer
1 – exp [– NTU (1 + C)] annulus (Di = 45 mm) at a rate of 6 kg/min. The inlet
ε= temperatures of oil and water are 100°C and 30°C,
1+C
respectively. What should be the length of the
Cmin C p )min
(m exchanger for an oil outlet temperature of 60°C ?
where C= =
Cmax (m C p )max Take Uo = 37.8 W/m2.K, Cp(oil) = 2130 J/kg.K and Cp
18. Prove that for an evaporation process (water) = 4178 J/kg.K. [Ans. L = 66.5 m]
ε = 1 – exp (– NTU) 6. An oil cooler, of the concentric tube type is used for
cooling oil at 65.5°C to 54.4°C with water at 26.7°C
19. C ) , prove that
If ( m Cp)hot = ( m p cold with a temperature rise of 11.1°C. Assuming overall
1 – exp (– 2 NTU) heat transfer coefficient of 738 W/m2.K based on the
(a) for parallel flow, ε = outside area of the tubes. Determine the heat transfer
2
surface area required for a design heat load of
NTU 190.5 kW for a single pass (a) parallel flow mode and
(b) for counter flow, ε =
1 + NTU (b) counter flow mode.
20. Explain the operation in heat pipe. Why is a wick [Ans. (a) A = 9.85 m2, (b) 9.3 m2]
needed in a heat pipe ? Write its advantages. 7. A pipe (k = 59 W/m.K) with an I.D. of 3.175 cm and
21. Explain construction and operation of plate heat wall thickness of 0.318 cm is externally heated by
exchanger? steam at a temperature of 180°C. The water flows
22. State advantages and applications of PHE. through the pipe with a velocity of 1.22 m/s. Calculate
23. What are the requirement of good heat exchanger? the length of the pipe required to heat water from
30°C to 90°C. Assuming the heat transfer coefficient coefficient is 1500 W/m.K, determine the required
on the steam side to be 11.3 kW/m2.K. heat exchanger area. [Ans. A = 4.95 m2]
[Ans. L = 4.82 m] 13. A shell and tube type heat exchanger is designed to
8. A refrigerator is designed to cool 250 kg/h of hot liquid heat 2.5 kg/s of water from 15°C to 85°C. The heating
of specific heat 3350 J/kg.K at 120°C using a parallel is to be acomplished by passing hot engine oil, which
flow arrangement. 1000 kg/h of cooling water is is available at 160°C, through the shell side of the
available for cooling purposes at a temperature of heat exchanger. The convection coefficient of oil on
10°C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is outer surface of the tubes is 400 W/m2.K. Ten tubes
1160 W/m2.K and the surface area of the heat pass the water through the shell. Each tube is thin
exchanger is 0.25 m2, calculate the outlet tempera- walled, of diameter 25 mm and makes eight passes
tures of the cooled liquid and water and also the through the shell. If the oil leaves the exchanger at
effectiveness of the heat exchanger. 100°C, what is its flow rate ? How long must the tubes
[Ans. ε = 0.646, Tc, o = 24.22°C, Th, o = 48.94°C] be to accomplish the desired heating ?
9. A double pipe heat exchanger is used to heat water [Ans. m h = 5.19 kg/s, L = 37.9 m]
with a mass flow rate of 10 kg/s from 15°C to 33°C. 14. Water at a rate of 45,45,500 kg/h is heated from 80°C
The heating fluid enters at 75°C with a capacity rate to 150°C in a heat exchanger having two shell passes
of 25 kW/K and the mean overall coefficient of heat and eight tube passes with a total surface area of
transfer is 1570 W/m2.K. Determine the surface areas 925 m2. Hot exhaust gases having approximately the
for counter flow and parallel flow arrangements. same thermophysical properties as air enter at 350°C
[Ans. A = 13.5 m2, 16.1 m2] and exit at 175°C. Determine the overall heat transfer
10. In a parallel flow heat exchanger, engine oil (Cp = coefficient. [Ans. U = 28.5 W/m2.K]
2.29 kJ/kg.K), enters a heat exchanger at 150°C and 15. In a shell-and-tube type heat exchanger, 3000 kg/h
leaves at 80°C. The cooling water enters at 30°C and of furnace oil is heated from 10°C to 90°C. The oil is
leaves at 65°C. If the fluid rates and inlet conditions to flow inside the tube, while the steam at 120°C is to
are unchanged, find the exit temperature of each fluid flow through the shell. The tubes used are of 1.65 cm
in the counter flow heat exchanger. Also find the inside diameter and 1.90 cm outside diameter. The
lowest temperature to which the oil may be cooled in heat transfer coefficients of the oil and steam sides
(i) parallel flow and (ii) counter flow by increasing are 85 W/m2.K and 7420 W/m2.K, respectively. Find
the length of heat exchanger. the number of passes and the number of tubes in each
[Ans. 70°C, 70°C, 70°C, 30°C] pass, if the length of each tube is limited to 2.85 m
11. Fuel oil passing at the rate of 1.1 kg/s through the due to space limitations. The velocity of oil is limited
annulus of a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger to 5 cm/s. Given ρ = 900 kg/m3 and Cp (oil) =
is heated from 10°C to 20°C by using hot water 1970/J/kg.K. [Ans. p = 2, N = 87]
available from the engine at 71°C. The water flows 16. Water at the rate of 3.783 kg/s is heated from 37.78°C
through the copper tube having an outside diameter to 54.44°C in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. On a
of 2.13 cm and an inside diameter of 1.86 cm with a shell side one pass is used with water as the heating
velocity of 0.76 m/s. The oil passes through the fluid, 1.893 kg/s of it entering the exchanger at 93.3°C.
annulus formed by the inner copper tube and the outer The overall heat transfer coefficient is 1419 W/m2.K
steel pipe having an outside diameter of 3.34 cm and and the average water velocity in the 1.905 cm
an inside diameter of 3 cm. Assume the fouling factor diameter tube is 0.366 m/s. Because of space
on water side as 0.0004 m2.K/W and fouling factor on limitations the tube length must not be longer than
oil side as 0.0009 m2.K/W. Properties of water and oil 2.438 m. Calculate the number of tube passes, the
are tabulated as follows : number of tubes per pass, and the length of the tubes.
[Ans. N = 36, p = 2, L = 1.646 m]
Property Water Oil 17. A shell and tube type heat exchanger consists of 135
thin walled tubes in a double pass arrangement, each
ρ (kg/m3) 982 854
of 12.5 mm diameter with total heat transfer area
Cp (kJ/kg. K) 4.187 1.884 47.5 m2. The water (the tube side fluid) enters the
k(W/m.K) 0.657 0.138 heat exchanger at 15°C and 6.5 kg/s and is heated by
ν (m2/s) 4.81 × 10–7 7.48 × 10–6 exhaust gas entering at 200°C and 5 kg/s. The gas
may be assumed to have the properties of atmospheric
Neglecting the resistance of the copper tube, air, the overall heat transfer coefficient is approxi-
determine the length of the tube. [Ans. L = 15 m long] mated as 200 W/m2.K. What are gas and water outlet
12. A shell-and-tube exchanger (two shells, four passes) temperatures ? [Ans. Th, o = 37.2°C, Tc, o = 45°C]
is used to heat 10,000 kg/h of pressurised water from 18. In a chemical processing plant water at the rate of
35 to 120°C with 5000 kg/h water entering the 13,620 kg/h is heated from 37.8°C to 54.4°C in tubes
exchanger at 300°C. If the over all heat transfer with 6810 kg/h hot water (on the shell side) entering
HEAT EXCHANGERS 549
the exchanger at 93.33°C. The average velocity of calculate the number of tubes. Compare the result
water in the tubes is 36.6 cm/s. The tube diameter is with the use of arithmetic mean temperature
1.9 cm and the overall heat transfer coefficient is difference.
1420 W/m2.K. If the floor space available cannot [Ans. Ao = 11.06 m2, N = 118, Error = 2.3%]
accommodate tube longer than 2.44 m, calculate the 24. A counter-flow tubular oil cooler is to be designed to
number of tube passes, the number of tubes per pass, cool 1500 kg/h of oil from temperature 90°C to 30°C
and the length of the tubes. by means of water entering the cooler at 20°C and
[Ans. p = 2, N = 36, L = 1.645 m] leaving the cooler at 50°C. Calculate the amount of
19. In a food processing plant, water is to be cooled from water flow rate required and the heat transfer area.
18°C to 6.5°C by using brine solution entering at an Take Cp of oil as 3 kJ/kg.K and overall heat transfer
inlet temperature of – 1.1°C and leaving at 2.9°C. What coefficient equal to 1200 W/m2.K.
area is required when using a shell-and-tube heat [Ans. m w = 0.598 kg/s, A = 2.88 m2]
exchanger with the water making one shell pass and
25. In a heat exchanger, it is desired to cool 50,000 kg/h
the brine making two tube passes ? Assume an average
of alcohol from 60°C to 35°C using 25,000 kg/h of
overall heat transfer coefficient of 850 W/m2.K and a
water entering at 6°C. The overall heat transfer
design heat load of 6000 W. [Ans. A = 0.67 m2]
coefficient based on the outer tube is 600 W/m2.K.
20. A steam condenser being cooled by water has been The specific heat of alcohol is 3.768 kJ/kg.K. Calculate
designed on the assumption of clean water and its the surface area required for the following cases :
overall heat transfer coefficient was assumed to be
(a) Counter flow shell and tube type,
4900 W/m2. K. Neglecting the fouling resistance. Later
(b) Counter flow with 2 shell passes and 72 tube passes.
on, it was discovered that the cooling water is not clean
Alcohol flows through the shell,
and its fouling factor is 0.002 m2.K/W. Is there any
need of redesigning ? Comment on the results. (c) Cross flow with one tube pass and one shell pass
with water unmixed and alcohol mixed.
[Ans. U = 435.7 W/m2.K]
Comment on the results.
21. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient and the
heat transfer rate possible from a shell and tube [Ans. (a) 86.42 m2 (b) 107 m2]
counterflow heat exchanger for a situation in which 26. In an industry, 0.6 kg/s of oil (Cp = 2.5 kJ/kg.K) is to
water flow through a copper pipe 2 cm I.D. and 2.3 cm be cooled in a counter flow heat exchanger from 110°C
O.D. while oil flows through the shell. Water enters to 30°C by the use of water entering at 20°C. The
at 25°C and comes out at 35°C while oil enters at 70°C overall heat transfer coefficient is expected to be
and comes out at 64°C. The water and oil side film 1500 W/m2.K. Assume that the exit temperature of
coefficients are 4650 W/m2.K and 1280 W/m2.K. The water is not to exceed 80°C. Using NTU method
thermal conductivity of the tube wall is 350 W/m.K. calculate (a) the water flow rate, (b) the surface area
The fouling factors on the water and oil sides may be required and (c) the effectiveness of the exchanger.
taken to be 0.0004 and 0.001 respectively. The length [Ans. (a) m w = 0.4893 kg/s, (b) 2.74 m2, (c) 0.882]
of the tube is 2.5 m. 27. An industrial gas turbine plants employs a counter-
[Ans. Uo = 401 W/m2.K, Q = 2677 W] flow concentric tube heat exchanger which cools the
22. It is desired to condense 40,000 kg/h of dry and lubricating oil coming out from its bearings. The oil
saturated steam at a pressure of 0.05 bar (saturation mass flow rate is 0.2 kg/s and its specific heat is
temperature = 32.76°C) in a single pass steam 2.2 kJ/kg.K. The mass flow rate of the coolant (water)
condenser. The cooling water enters the tube at 20°C which flows in the opposite direction is 0.16 kg/s and
and leaves at 26°C. The tubes are 2.5 cm I.D. and its specific heat is 4.18 kJ/kg.K. The lubricating oil
2.75 cm O.D. and the thermal conductivity of tube enters the cooler at 110°C and leaves at 40°C. The
material is 110 W/m2.K. The film heat transfer cooling water enters the cooler at 20°C. The heat
coefficient on water and steam side are 7090 W/m2.K transfer coefficient from the oil to the tube surface is
and 5930 W/m2.K respectively. Neglecting the scale 2300 W/m2.K and from tube surfaces to water is
resistance, calculate the surface area of the tubes 5700 W/m2.K. The resistance of the tube wall may be
required and the heat transfer rate. If the length of neglected. If the mean diameter of the tube is 15 mm
tube is 3 m, find the number of tubes. calculate the length of the tube. Neglect the resistance
[Ans. Ao = 927.23 m2, Q = 2693.3 kW] of the scale, if any formed. [Ans. L = 16.52 m]
23. For experimental purpose, a steam surface condenser 28. Single pass surface condenser is to handle 5100 kg/h
is to be designed to transfer 300 kW of thermal energy of dry and saturated steam at 50°C. The outer and
at a condensing temperature of 45°C. The cooling inner diameters of the tubes are 20 mm and 17 mm,
water enters the condenser at 20°C with a flow rate of respectively. The length of the tube is 3 m. The cooling
25,000 kg/h. Calculate the surface area required to water enters the tube at 20°C. The velocity of water
handle this load, if the overall heat transfer coefficient through the tube is 2 m/s and the temperature rise of
for the condenser surface is 1400 W/m2.K. If the outside the cooling water is 10°C. Calculate number of tubes.
tube diameter is 30 mm and the tube length is 1 m, Take the following data :
Heat transfer coefficient of steam side 32. Air at 2 kg/s and 27°C and a stream of water at
= 11700 W/m2.K 1.5 kg/s and 60°C each enter a heat exchanger.
Fouling factor of water side Evaluate the exit temperatures, if A = 12 m2,
= 0.0002 m2.K/W U = 185 W/m2.K, and :
Thermal conductivity of tube material (a) The exchanger is parallel flow
= 93 W/m.K (b) The exchanger is counter flow
Fouling factor of steam side
(c) The exchanger is cross-flow, one stream mixed
= 0.0009 m2.W
(d) The exchanger is cross-flow, neither stream mixed.
[Ans. N = 1031]
[Ans. (a) [Tc, o = 33.2°C and Th, o = 41.3°C]
29. In a chemical plant, 600 kg/h of sulphuric acid is to
be cooled from 80°C to 40°C in a counter flow double (b) [Tc, o = 33.6°C and Th, o = 40°C]
pipe heat exchanger with acid flowing through inner (c) [Tc, o = 33.4°C, Th, o = 40.9°C]
tube and water surrounding it. Calculate the area of (d) [Tc, o = 33.3°C, Th, o = 41°C]
exchanger for the following data:
33. A particular two shell-pass, four tube-pass heat
Mass flow rate of water = 500 kg/h
exchanger uses 20 kg/s of river water at 10°C on the
Water inlet temperature = 20°C
shell side to cool 8 kg/s of processed water from 80°C
Specific heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg.K
to 25°C on the tube side. At what temperature will
Heat transfer coefficient of water side = 580 W/m2.K
the coolant be returned to the river ? If U is
Heat transfer coefficient of sulphuric acid side
800 W/m2.K, how large area must the exchanger be
= 465 W/m2.K
have? [Ans. 32°C, 88.21 m2]
Inside diameter of inner tube = 25 mm
Outside diameter of inner tube = 30 mm 34. A particular cross-flow process heat exchanger
Thermal conductivity of tube material = 93 W/m.K operates with the fluid mixed on one side only. When
Fouling factor of water side = 0.0002 m2.K/W U = 2000 W/m2.K, Tc, i = 25°C, Tc, o = 80°C,
Th, i = 160°C, and Th, o = 70°C. After 6 months of
Fouling factor of sulphuric acid side
operation, the plant manager reports that the hot fluid
= 0.0001 m2.K/W
is only being cooled to 90°C and that he is suffering a
Neglect all other losses. [Ans. A = 17.684 m2]
30% reduction in total heat transfer. What is the
30. A multi stage reciprocating air compressor employs
an intercooler between the first and second stage. The fouling resistance after 6 months of use ? (Assume no
air at 6.5 bar and 160°C enters the intercooler and reduction of cold-side flow rate by fouling.)
comes out at 30°C. The free air (15°C and 1.103 bar) [Ans. 6.5 × 104 m2.K/W]
delivered is 8 m3/min. The cooling water flows parallel 35. Water at 0.8 kg/s enters the tubes of a two-shell-pass,
to the air over the tubes which are of 15 mm inside
four-tube-pass heat exchanger at 17°C and leaves at
diameter and 18 mm outside diameter. The inlet and
37°C. It cools 0.5 kg/s of air entering the shell at 250°C
outlet water temperatures are 15°C and 25°C
respectively. The velocity of air through the tube with U = 432 W/m2.K. Determine : (a) the exit air
is 6 m/s. temperature ; (b) the area of the heat exchanger ;
Find (a) The number of tubes and (b) Length of each and (c) the exit temperature if, after some time, the
tube (c) Also calculate the saving in total tube length tubes become fouled with Rf = 0.0005 m2. K/W.
if the intercooler is made of counterflow having inlet [Ans. (a) 118.6°C, (b) 1.03 m2, (c) 140.5°C]
and outlet temperatures same. Take the following
36. 0.72 kg/s of superheated steam enters a crossflow heat
data :
exchanger at 240°C and leaves at 120°C. It heats
Heat transfer coefficient of water side = 2095 W/m2.K.
0.6 kg/s of water entering at 17°C. U = 612 W/m2.K.
Heat transfer coefficient of air side = 105 W/m2.K.
By what percentage will the area differ if a both-
Cp of air = 1.005 kJ/kg.K and R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K.
fluids-unmixed exchanger is used instead of a one-
Neglect the resistance due to tube thickness and scale
fluid-unmixed exchanger ? [Ans. – 1.8%]
formation.
[Ans. (a) N = 25 tubes, (b) L = 32.88 m, 37. The factors dictating the heat transfer coefficients in
(c) Saving length = 23.88%] a certain two shell-pass, four tube-pass heat
31. A cross-flow heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed exchanger are such that U increases at ( m shell)0.6. The
is used to heat water (Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg.K) from 40°C exchanger cools 2 kg/s of air from 200°C to 40°C using
to 80°C flowing at the rate of 1.0 kg/s. What is the 4.4 kg/s of water at 7°C, and U = 312 W/m2.K under
overall heat transfer coefficient if hot engine oil these circumstances. If we double the air flow, what
(Cp = 1.9 kJ/kg.K), flowing at the rate of 2.6 kg/s, will its temperature be leaving the exchanger ?
enters at 100°C ? The heat transfer area is 20 m2.
[Ans. Tair out = 61°C]
[Ans. 425 W/m2.K]
HEAT EXCHANGERS 551
38. A flow rate of 1.4 kg/s of water enters the tubes of a 12 m2. (The latent heat, hfg is 2358.7 kJ/kg at
two-shell-pass, four-tube-pass heat exchanger at 7°C. 60°C). Take specific heat of water as 4174 J/kg.K.
A flow rate of 0.6 kg/s of liquid ammonia at 100°C is [Ans. 2838.5 W/m2.K, 11.77 kg/s]
to be cooled to 30°C on the shell side : U =
573 W/m2.K. (a) How large must the heat exchanger 44. Find the surface area required in a counter flow steam
be ? (b) How large must it be if, after some months, a superheater in which the steam enters at 180°C in a
fouling factor of 0.0015 will build up in the tubes, dry, saturated state and leaves at 250°C with an
and we still want to deliver ammonia at 30°C ? (c) If increase of enthalpy of 159 kJ/kg. The hot combustion
we make it large enough to accommodate fouling, to gases (Cp = 1.05 kJ/kg.K) enter the superheater at
what temperature will it cool the ammonia when it is 510°C. The steam flow rate is 1000 kg/h, the hot gas
new ? (d) At what temperature does water leave the flow rate is 2000 kg/h and the overall heat transfer
new, enlarged exchanger ? [Ans. (d) 49.9°C] coefficient is 26 W/m2.K. [Ans. 6.6 m2]
39. Both C’s in a parallel-flow heat exchanger are equal
45. 5.795 kg/s of oil flows through the shell side of a two
to 156 W/K, U = 327 W/m2.K and A = 2 m2. The hot
shell pass, four tube-pass oil cooler. The oil enters at
fluid enters at 140°C and leaves at 90°C. The cold
101°C and leaves at 38°C. Water flows in the tubes,
fluid enters at 40°C. If both C’s are halved, what will
entering at 32°C and leaving at 49°C. In addition,
be the exit temperature of the hot fluid ?
cp, oil = 2282 J/kg.K and U = 416 W/m2.K. Find how
[Ans. 90°C]
much area the heat exchanger must have ?
40. A single-pass heat exchanger condenses steam at
[Ans. 106.85 m2]
1 atm on the shell side and heats water from 10°C to
46. Hot oil with capacity rate of 2500 W/K flows through
30°C on the tube side with U = 2500 W/m2.K. The
a double pipe heat exchanger. It enters at 360°C and
tubing is thin-walled, 5 cm in diameter, and 2 m in
leaves at 300°C. Cold fluid enters at 30°C and leaves
length. (a) Your boss asks whether the exchanger
at 200°C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is
should be counter flow or parallel-flow. How do you
800 W/m2.K, determine the heat exchanger area
advise her ? Evaluate ; (b) the LMTD ; (c) m c ; (d) ε . required for parallel and counter flow.
[Ans. (a) Shell and tube exchangers are usually (Anna Univ., April 1999, March 2000)
operated in counter flow, but operation of [Ans. 0.971 m2, 0.892 m2]
condenser can be in either mode, (b) 79.58°C,
47. A heat exchanger is used to cool the lubricating oil.
(c) 2691.52 kg/h, (d) 0.222]
Water flows at the rate of 0.3 kg/s through inner
41. Hot engine oil is to be cooled in a double pipe counter stainless steel tube (k = 16 W/m.K) of inner radius
flow heat exchanger. The copper tube has a diameter of 30 mm and wall thickness of 2 mm. The oil flows at
of 2 cm with negligible thickness. The inner diameter a rate of 0.15 kg/s through outer tube of inner radius
of outer tube is 3 cm. The water flow through the of 50 mm. The oil is cooled from 90°C to 50°C using
inner tube at a rate of 0.5 kg/s and oil flows through water at 10°C. Calculate :
the annular space at a rate of 0.8 kg/s. Taking the (i) length of tube required for parallel flow,
average temperature of water and oil as 47°C and (ii) length of tube required for counter flow,
80°C, respectively. Assume fully developed flow, (iii) the area required for simple pass cross flow heat
calculate overall heat transfer coefficient for flow con- exchanger with both streams unmixed, operating
ditions of the heat exchanger. [Ans. 75.1 W/m2.K] at same temperatures and flow rates,
42. A concentric tube heat exchanger is used to cool the Take overall heat transfer coefficient based on
lubricating oil for a large marine diesel engine. The inner radius as 21.9 W/m2.K and assume fully
inner tube is constructed from 2 mm wall thickness developed flow.
stainless steel (k = 16 W/m.K). The flow rate of cooling Take specific heat of water as 4178 J/kg.K and
water through the inner tube (ri = 30 mm) is 0.3 kg/s. that of oil as 2131 J/kg.K. (J.N.T.U., May 2001)
The flow rate of the oil through outer tube (Ri = [Ans. (i) 61 m, (ii) 57.86 m, (iii) 11.13 m2]
50 mm) is 0.15 kg/s. Assuming fully developed flow 48. A rectangular tube 30 mm × 50 mm carries water at
and taking fouling resistances on oil side as a rate of 2 kg/s. Calculate the length required to heat
0.0004 m2.K/W and on water side as 0.0001 m2.K/W. the water from 30°C to 50°C. If the wall temperature
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient referred is maintained at 90°C.
to inside surface. Use properties of oil at 80°C and Use the following properties of water at 40°C :
water at 35ºC. [Ans. 21.9 W/m2.K] ρ = 992.2 kg/m3, kf = 0.634 W/m.K,
43. Water enters the tubes of a small single-pass heat Cp = 4.174 kJ/kg.K
exchanger at 20°C and leaves at 40°C. On the shell µ = 6.531 × 10–4 Ns/m2. (P.U., Nov 2001)
side, 25 kg/min of steam condenses at 60°C. Calculate [Ans. 3.76 m]
the overall heat transfer coefficient and the required 49. A shell and tube type heat exchanger is designed for
heating water from 25°C to 50°C with the help of
flow rate of water, if the area of the exchanger is
steam condensing at atmospheric pressure. The water Take Cp of glycol = 2637 J/kg.K,
flows through tubes (2.5 cm I.D., 2.9 cm O.D. and 2 m Cp of water = 4180 J/kg.K.
long) and the steam condenses on the outside. [Ans. 112.07 kW, 0.47, and parallel flow mode]
Calculate the number of tubes required if the water 55. Hot water at 2.5 kg/s and 100°C enters a concentric
flow rate is 500 kg/min and the individual coefficients tube counter flow heat exchanger having a total area
of heat transfer on the steam and water side are 8000 of 23 m2. Cold water at 20°C enters at 5.0 kg/s and
and 3000 W/m2.K. Neglect all other resistances. the overall heat transfer coefficient is 1000 W/m2.K.
[Ans. 40 tubes] Determine the total heat transfer rate and the outlet
50. A shell and tube type heat exchanger is to heat temperature of hot and cold fluids.
10,000 kg/h of water from 16°C to 84°C by hot engine [Ans. 672 kW, 36°C and 52°C]
oil flowing through a shell. The oil makes a single 56. In a tube in tube type parallel flow heat exchanger,
shell pass, entering at 160°C and leaving at 94°C, the hot water at 80°C is cooled to 65°C by cold water
with an average heat transfer coefficient of entering the heat exchanger at 20°C and leaving at
400 W/m2.K. The water flows through 11 brass 35°C. What would be the exit temperatures if the flow
(k = 100 W/m.K) tubes of 22.9 mm inside diameter rates of water are doubled ? [Ans. 72.2°C, 28.8°C]
and 25.4 mm outside diameter, with each tube mak- 57. A parallel flow heat exchanger has hot and cold water
ing four passes through the shell. Assume fully de- streams running through it. The flow rates are 10
veloped flow for the water, determine the required and 25 kg/min and inlet temperatures are 70 and 25°C
tube length per pass. [Ans. 9.45 m] on hot and cold sides, respectively. Calculate the area
51. The velocity of water flowing through a tube of of heat exchanger, if the individual heat transfer
22 mm diameter is 2 m/s. The steam condenses at coefficients on both sides are 700 W/m2.K. The exit
150°C on outside surface of the tube, heats the water temperature on hot side is required to be 50°C.
from 15°C to 60°C, over entire length of the tube. Calculate also the exit temperatures of hot and cold
Neglect the tube and steam side film resistance, streams in this heat exchanger, if the hot water flow
calculate the following : rate is doubled to 20 kg/min. It is known that the
(i) heat transfer coefficient, and heat transfer coefficient is proportional 0.8th power
of the flow rate. (Anna Univ., Dec. 1999)
(ii) the length of the tube.
[Ans. (i) 1.375 m2, (ii) 56.3°C, 36°C]
Take the following properties of water at mean
58. Hot oil is to be cooled by water in a one shell and
temperature
8 tube passes heat exchanger. The tubes are thin
ρ = 990 kg/m3, walled and made of copper with an internal diameter
Cp = 4.2 kJ/kg.K, of 1.4 cm. The length of each tube pass in the
kf = 0.5418 W/m.K, exchanger is 5 m, and the overall heat transfer
µ = 700 × 10–6 kg/ms. (P.U., Nov. 1994) coefficient is 310 W/m2.K. The water flows through
the tubes at the rate of 0.2 kg/s and oil through the
[Ans. 2.43 m]
shell at a rate of 0.3 kg/s. The water and oil enter at
52. Water at 90°C enters a heat exchanger for heating temperatures of 20°C and 150°C, respectively.
oil and it leaves at 40°C. The oil enters at 25°C and Calculate the rate of heat transfer in the heat
leaves at 50°C. Find the effectiveness of heat exchanger and the outlet temperatures of water and
exchanger. [Ans. 0.3846] oil. Take specific heats of water and oil as 4.18 and
2.13 kJ/kg.K, respectively.
53. Consider a very long concentric tube heat exchanger
[Ans. 43.21 kW, 71.7°C, 82.4°C]
having hot and cold water inlet temperatures of 85°C
59. Exhaust gas from a furnace is used to preheat the
and 15°C, respectively. The flow rate of the hot water
combustion air supplied to the furnace burners. The
is twice that of the cold water. Assuming equivalent
gas, which has a flow rate 15 kg/s and an inlet
cold and hot water specific heats, determine the hot temperature of 1100 K, passes through a bundle of
water outlet temperature for the following modes of tubes, while the air, which has a flow rate of 10 kg/s
operations. and an inlet temperature of 300 K, is in cross flow
(a) Counter flow over the tubes. The tubes are unfinned, and the overall
(b) Parallel flow. [Ans. (a) 50°C, (b) 61.67°C] heat transfer coefficient is 100 W/m2.K. Determine
54. A concentric tube heat exchanger uses water which the total tube surface area required to achieve an air
outlet temperature of 850 K. The exhaust gas and air
is available at 15°C to cool ethylene glycol from 100°C
may each be assumed to have a specific heat of
to 60°C. The water and glycol flow rates are each
1075 J/kg.K.
0.5 kg/s. What are the maximum possible heat
Use the following relation
transfer rate and effectiveness of the heat exchanger ?
ε = (1/C) (1 – exp{– C [1 – exp(– NTU)]})
Which is preferred, a parallel flow or a counter flow
mode operation ? where C = ratio of two specific heats = Cmin/Cmax.
HEAT EXCHANGERS 553
NTU = number of transfer units. 3. J.P. Holman, “Heat Transfer”, 7th ed. McGraw Hill,
ε = effectiveness of the heat exchanger. New York, 1990.
(P.U., Nov. 1998) [Ans. 271.29 m2] 4. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, “Introduction to Heat
Transfer”, 2/e, John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
60. A thin walled concentric tube heat exchanger is used
5. M.N. Ozisik, Heat Transfer—”A Basic Approach”,
to cool engine oil from 160°C to 60°C and water, which
McGraw Hill, New York, 1985.
is available at 25°C acts as coolant. The oil and water
6. Y. Bayazitoglu and M.N. Ozisik, “Elements of Heat
flow rates are each 2 kg/s and the diameter of the
inner tube is 0.5 m and corresponding value of overall
7. W.M. Kays and A.L London, “Compact Heat
heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/m2.K. How long
Exchangers”, 3/e, McGraw Hill, New York, 1984.
must the heat exchanger be to accomplish the desired
cooling ? 8. W. M. Kays and H.C. Perkins, Chapter 7 in W.M.
Rehsenow and J.P. Hartnett, “Handbook of Heat
Take, Cp of water = 4.187 kJ/kg.K Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1972.
Cp of engine oil = 2.035 kJ/kg.K. 9. A. C. Mueller, Chapter 18, “Heat Exchangers” in W.
[Ans. 18.22 m] M. Rehsenow and J.P. Hartnett, “Handbook of Heat
61. A counter flow double pipe heat exchanger using 10. E. U. Schlunder, “Heat Transfer Design Hand Book”,
superheated steam is used to heat the water at a rate Hemisphere, Washington, 1982.
of 3 kg/s. The steam enters the exchanger at 180°C
11. “Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturer
and leaves at 130°C. The inlet and exit temperature
Association” 7th ed., Tubular Exchanger Manufac-
of water are 30°C and 80°C, respectively. The overall turer Association, New York, 1988.
heat transfer coefficient is 820 W/m2.K. Calculate the
12. L.C. Thomas, “Heat Transfer”, Prentice-Hall,
heat transfer area required. What would be the
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982.
increase in surface area, if fluids flow in parallel ?
13. F. M. White, “Heat and Mass Transfer”, Addison
Take Cp of water as 4.187 kJ/kg.K.
Wesley, Reading, MA, 1988.
[Ans. 7.66 m2, 9.85%]
14. Yunus A Cenzel, “Introduction to Thermodynamics
62. Water at 225 kg/h is to be heated from 35°C to 95°C and Heat Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1997.
by means of concentric tube heat exchanger. Oil at 15. A. M. Hargis, A.T. Bechman and J. Lolacoma, “The
225 kg/h and 210°C with a specific heat of Plate Heat Exchangers”, Trans. ASME, 1965.
2095 J/kg.K is to be used as hot fluid. If the overall 16. P.D. Dunn and D.A. Reay, “Heat Pipes”, 3rd. ed.,
heat transfer coefficient based on the outer diameter Pergaman Press, New York, 1982.
of inner tube is 550 W/m2.K. Determine the length of 17. S.W. Chi, “Heat Pipe Theory and Practice”,
the heat exchanger, if the outer diameter is 100 mm. Hemisphere, Washington DC, 1976.
[Ans. 1.11 m] 18. C. H. Dutcher and M. R. Burke, “Heat Pipes : A Cool
Way to Cool Circuits, Electronics”, February 16, 1970.
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING 19. Sarit K. Das, “Engineering Heat and Mass Transfer”,
Dhanpat Rai Pub. Co., New Delhi 1999.
1. A. P. Fraas, “Heat Exchanger Design”, 2/e, John Wiley 20. Vinay K. Datta, “Heat Transfer”, Prentice hall of
& Sons, 1989. India, New Delhi, 2001.
2. F. Krieth and M.S. Bohn, “Principles of Heat 21. B. V. Karlekar, and R.M. Desmond. “Heat Transfer”,
Transfer”, 5th ed, PWS Pub. Company, 1997. Prentice hall of India, New Delhi, 1989.
Mass Transfer
15
15.1. Introduction. 15.2. Modes of Mass Transfer. 15.3. Comparison between Heat and Mass Transfer. 15.4. Concentrations, Velocities
and Fluxes. 15.5. Fick’s Law of Diffusion. 15.6. General Mass Diffusion Equation. 15.7. Boundary Conditions. 15.8. Mass Diffusion
without Homogeneous Chemical Reactions—Steady state diffusion through a plane membrane—Water vapour migration—Equimolar
counter diffusion—Diffusion through a stagnant gas: Stefan’s flow. 15.9. Mass Diffusion with Homogeneous Chemical Reactions.
15.10. Convective Mass Transfer—Mass transfer coefficient dimensionless parameters in convective mass transfer—Analogy between
heat and mass transfer—Correlation for convective mass transfer. 15.11. Dimensional Analysis of Convective Mass Transfer.
15.12. Evaporation of Water into Air. 15.13. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.
15.1. INTRODUCTION concentration gradient of one or more constituents

(species) in the system. The diffusion of mass from a
We have so far dealt with conduction, convection and constituent occurs through a layer of stagnant fluid,
radiation modes of heat transfer, in which energy and it may be occurred due to concentration gradients,
transfer takes place due to temperature difference in temperature gradient, or pressure gradient.
the medium(s). Similarly, if there is a concentration The various examples of molecular diffusion can
difference within two or more species (components) of a be taken from our day to day experiences. Some of these
mixture, then mass transfer must occur in order to are :
minimize the concentration difference within the (1) Dissolution of sugar or salt in the hot water
system. and its uniform diffusion throughout, although their
Mass transfer is mass in transit as a result of a molecules are much heavier than water molecules.
species concentration difference in a mixture. (2) Evaporation of water from a pond to increase
It should be noted that the transfer of mass with the humidity of passing air stream.
bulk fluid motion induced by mechanical work is not (3) Evaporation of petrol in engine carburettor.
case of mass transfer; for example motion of air that is (4) Evaporation of moisture during drying of
induced by fan or motion of fluid forces through a pipe. clothes or wood.
We do however; use the term mass transfer, when there (5) Humidification of air in air coolers, cooling
is relative motion of species in a mixture as a result of towers etc.
diffusion from a region of high concentration to a region (6) Spread of fragrance of perfume or flowers in
of lower concentration. surroundings.
(7) Diffusion of smoke through a tall chimney into
15.2. MODES OF MASS TRANSFER atmosphere.
(8) Diffusion of small fraction of O2 in the air into
The mechanism of mass transfer process can be sea water and meets the oxygen need of marine animals.
classified as : When one of the diffusing fluids is in turbulent
(i) Mass transfer by diffusion, motion, the eddy diffusion takes place. Due to
(ii) Mass transfer by convection, turbulence, the rate of diffusion increases, resulting in
(i) Mass transfer by diffusion (Molecular or an increase in mass transfer. An example of eddy
eddy diffusion). The molecular diffusion is the diffusion process is dissipation of smoke from a smoke
transfer of mass on a microscopic level as a result of stack.
554
MASS TRANSFER 555
(ii) Mass transfer by convection. The mass 1. Heat transfer is a one way phenomenon. It
transfer between a surface and a moving fluid or always flows from high temperature region to low
between two immisible moving fluids is referred as temperature region. But the mass transfer is a multiway
convective mass transfer. The convective mass transfer phenomenon. When two locations P and Q are at
depends on different concentration within a system of species 1, 2,
(1) transport properties of fluid, and 3, etc. The different species diffuse simultaneously
(2) dynamic characteristics (laminar or turbulent between P and Q, depending on the concentration
flow) of flowing fluid. gradient. Some species may diffuse from P to Q while
The evaporation of water by moving air in a some other may diffuse from Q to P and their diffusion
desert cooler is an example of convective mass transfer. rates will also be different.
A change of phase of a fluid can also cause mass 2. Except at very low concentrations, the
transfer, such mass transfer is a combination of concentration change affects the momentum and
processes of diffusion and convection. Some examples continuity equations and they cannot be solved
of mass transfer by phase change are : independently.
(1) Hot flue gases leaving the chimney, rise by 3. In heat transfer, the boundary conditions may
convection and then diffuse into atmospheric air, involve specified temperature, specified heat flux,
(2) Mass transfer from boiling water into air. convection or radiation boundary, and their treatment
is rather simple. On the other hand, in mass transfer,
the boundary may involve different phases, interphase
15.3. COMPARISON BETWEEN HEAT AND MASS
such as condensation, evaporation, adsorption, chemical
TRANSFER reaction etc. This makes the boundary conditions much
more complex.
The mass can be transferred by random molecular
motion in fluids at the rest or it can be transferred from 4. The mass diffusion rate depends on molecular
a surface into a moving fluid, aided by dynamic size of diffusing species compared to medium size in heat
characteristics of flow. These two distinct modes of mass transfer.
transport, molecular mass diffusion and convective mass 5. The heat conduction in its pure state, does not
transfer are analogous to conduction heat transfer and deal with any medium velocity. But pure mass diffusion
convection heat transfer respectively. There are deals with bulk velocity of the medium.
following similarities between heat and mass transfer :
1. The heat conduction takes place, when a 15.4. CONCENTRATIONS, VELOCITIES AND
temperature gradient exists in a medium and it FLUXES
continues until the entire medium attains a uniform
temperature. Similarly, the mass transfer takes place, Mass concentration or mass density. The mass
when a concentration gradient of one or more chemical concentration of the component A within a
species (constituents) exists and it continues until the multicomponent mixture is defined as mass of species
concentration of all species becomes uniform over the A per unit volume of the mixture under consideration.
entire volume. It is denoted by ρA and is expressed in kg/m3.
2. The conduction heat of transfer is a molecular Mass concentration ρA
phenomenon and the thermal conductivity is a material Mass of component A m
= = A ...(15.1)
property. Similarly, the diffusion mass transfer is a Volume of mixture V
molecular phenomenon and the diffusion coefficient is Molar concentration. The molar concentration
a property of particular combination of species and of the component A is defined as the number of moles of
medium. species A per unit volume of mixture. It is also called
3. Convective heat transfer coefficient is a flow molar density and denoted by CA and expressed in
property depending on fluid flow properties and kg.mol/m3.
geometry. Similarly, the convective mass transfer The molar concentration,
coefficient also depends on flow and geometrical No. of moles of component A nA
parameters and they can be described by similar CA = = ...(15.2)
Volume of mixture V
governing equations.
Number of moles of component
There are some significant differences between mA
Mass of component A
heat and mass transfer. These are : nA = = ...(15.3)
Molecular weight of A M A
Therefore, molar concentration, nA pA

and CA = =
Mass of component A ρ V R uT
CA = = A ...(15.4)
Volume of mixture × M A M A CA p / R uT pA
γA = = A = ...(15.13)
where MA = molecular weight of component A. C p / R uT p
Mass fraction. The mass fraction xA is defined pA pB p
as the ratio of mass concentration of species A to the C = CA + CB = + =
R uT R uT R uT
mass density ρ, of mixture,
...(15.14)
ρA Velocities. In a multicomponent system, the
xA = ...(15.5)
ρ various species normally move at different velocities.
The mass average velocity u for a binary mixture of
Mole fraction. It is defined as the ratio of
components A and B is defined in terms of mixture’s
number of moles of component A to the total number mass flux ρu as :
of moles of mixture. It is denoted by γA and expressed
as : n
CA ∑ρu i i
ρ A uA + ρBuB
γA = ...(15.6) u= i =1
= ...(15.15)
C n ρ
Partial pressure. It is defined as the pressure ∑ρ
i =1
i
exerted by a single component in a mixture, when it
exists alone in the system at the temperature and
ρA ρB
volume of the mixture. The total pressure of a mixture or u= u + u = xA uA + xB uB
is the summation of partial pressures of all components ρ A ρ B
in the mixture i.e., ...(15.16)
p = p1 + p2 + p3 + ...... + pn ...(15.7) The molar average velocity for a binary
mixture is defined in terms of molar concentrations of
For a binary mixture of component A and B, the components A and B as :
following summation rules may be applied. n
ρA + ρB = ρ ...(15.8) ∑C
i=1
i ui
C A uA + C B uB
CA + CB = C ...(15.9) v= n = ...(15.17)
C
xA + xB = 1 ...(15.10) ∑C
i=1
i
γA + γB = 1 ...(15.11)
CA CB
xA x 1 or = u + u = γA uA + γB uB
+ B = ...(15.12) C A C B
M A MB M ...(15.18)
The velocity of a particular component relative
where ρ, C, M are the quantities pertaining to the
to mass average or molar average velocity is called
mixture.
diffusion velocity. Thus we can define mass diffusion
Separation membrane velocity and molar diffusion velocity as
uA – u = mass diffusion velocity of component A,
uB – u = mass diffusion velocity of component B,
A B uA – v = molar diffusion velocity of component A,
uB – v = molar diffusion velocity of component B,
Fluxes. The mass flux of the species is defined
Fig. 15.1. Two components in a mixture
as mass of a species that passes through a unit area per
unit time relative to a stationary coordinate. For species
For a mixture of two perfect gases A, and B ;
A of a multicomponent mixture
pAV = nARuT
Absolute mass flux nA = ρA uA
where Ru is the universal gas constant = MR = 8.314
kJ/kg–mole.K Bulk motion flux = ρA u
MASS TRANSFER 557
A
m The molar flux can also be defined in similar
Diffusional mass flux jA = way as number of moles of a species passing through a
A
unit area per unit time with respect to stationary
mA
where the quantity jA = is mass flow rate per unit coordinate, as :
A Absolute molar flux, NA = CA uA
area per unit time. The mass flux of any constituent
seen by a stationary observer Bulk motion flux = CAv
= diffusional flux + bulk motion flux Diffusional mole flux, JA = CA (uA – v)
A
m ...(15.20)
ρAuA = + ρA u A summary of the definitions of the basic
A
A
m quantities used in mass transfer within a mixture is
or Diffusional flux, jA = = ρA (uA – u) ...(15.19) given in Table 15.1.
A
TABLE 15.1. Basic quantities in mass transfer
Mass quantities Molar quantities Interrelationship
Concentrations :
m n
Definition ρ= C= m = nM
V V
mi ni
Species ρi = Ci = ρi = CiMi
V V
ρi Ci xi Mi
Fraction xi = γi = =
ρ C γi M
Σxi = 1 Σγi = 1
Mixture ρ = Σρi C = ΣCi M = ΣγiMi
p pi p pi Ru
ρ=
RT
= ∑ RT
C=
R uT
= ∑ R uT
R=
M
Velocities :
Species ui ui
Average u = Σxiui v = Σγiui
Diffusional ui – u ui – v
Fluxes :
Absolute ni = ρiui Ni = Ciui ni = NiMi = ρiu + j
Bulk motion ρi u Ciu
Diffusional Ji = ρi(ui – u) Ji = Ci(ui – v) Ni = Ciu + Ji
Example 15.1. A mixture of O2 and CO2 is kept in a (viii) Absolute molar fluxes of CO2 and O2,
container at 21°C and at 151.9 kPa. The mean velocity (ix) Absolute mass fluxes of CO2 and O2.
of O2 is 0.08 m/s and that of CO2 is –0.02 m/s. If the
molar fraction of O2 is 0.4, calculate : Solution
(i) The molar fraction of CO2, Given : A mixture of CO2 and O2
(ii) The molecular weight of mixture, T = 21°C = 294 K, p = 151.9 kPa
(iii) Molar concentration of CO2 and O2, uO 2 = 0.08 m/s, uCO2 = – 0.02 m/s, γ O 2 = 0.4.
(iv) Mass concentration of CO2 and O2, To find :
(v) Mass fraction of CO2 and O2, (i) The molar fraction of CO2,
(vi) Mass diffusion velocities of both components, (ii) The molecular weight of mixture,
(vii) Molar diffusion velocities of both components, (iii) Molar concentration of CO2 and O2,
(iv) Mass concentration of CO2 and O2, The mass diffusion velocity of O2
(v) Mass fraction of CO2 and O2, uO – u = 0.08 – 0.0126 = 0.0674 m/s. Ans.
2
(vi) Mass diffusion velocities of both components, The mass diffusion velocity of CO2
(vii) Molar diffusion velocities of both components, uCO – u = – 0.02 – 0.0126 = – 0.328 m/s. Ans.
2
(viii) Absolute molar fluxes of CO2 and O2, (vii) Molar diffusion velocities :
(ix) Absolute mass fluxes of CO2 and O2. v = Σγiui = 0.4 × 0.08 + 0.6 × (–0.02)
Analysis: (i) Mole fraction of CO2 = 0.02 m/s
We have γA + γB = 1 Molar diffusion velocity of O2
= uO – v = 0.08 – 0.02
or γB = 1 – γA = 1 – γ O 2 = 1 – 0.4 = 0.6. Ans. 2
= 0.06 m/s. Ans.
(ii) Molecular weight of mixture Molar diffusion velocity of CO2
M = γ O 2 M O2 + γ CO2 M CO 2 = – 0.02 – 0.02 = – 0.04 m/s. Ans.
= 0.4 × 32 + 0.6 × 44 = 39.2. Ans. (viii) Absolute molar fluxes
(iii) Molar concentrations : NO = CO uO = 0.0248 × 0.08
2 2 2
p = 1.98 × 10–3 kg-mol/m2s. Ans.
We have γi = i
p NCO = CCO uCO2 = 0.0372 × (– 0.02)
Thus pO = 0.4 × p = 0.4 × 151.9 = 60.76 kPa 2 2
2 = – 7.44 × 10–4 kg-mol/m2s. Ans.
and pCO = 0.6 × 151.9 = 91.14 kPa
2
Concentration of O2 (ix) Absolute mass fluxes :
pO 2 60.76 nO = ρO uO = 0.793 × 0.08
CO2 = = 2 2 2
R u T 8.314 × 294 = 0.0634 kg/m3s
= 0.0248 kg-mol/m3. Ans. nCO = ρCO uCO = 1.636 × (– 0.02)
2 2 2
Concentration of CO2 = – 0.0327 kg/m3s. Ans.
pCO 2 91.14
CCO = =
2 R uT 8.314 × 294 15.5. FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION
= 0.0372 kg-mol/m3. Ans.
Fick’s law relates the mass flux to concentration gradient
C = CO + CCO = 0.0248 + 0.0372
2 2 of a species in a mixture. Consider a system with two
= 0.062 kg-mol/m3. components A and B as shown in Fig. 15.2. A thin
(iv) Mass concentrations partition which separates the components is removed
ρO = CO MO = 0.0248 × 32 at an instance, the two components diffuse through each
2 2 2
other until they reach at an equilibrium state and
= 0.793 kg/m3 concentration of components becomes uniform
ρCO = CCO MCO = 0.0372 × 44 throughout.
2 2 2
= 1.636 kg/m3 C
Thus ρ = ρO + ρCO = 0.793 + 1.636 Concentration CA
2 2 CB Concentration
= 2.429 kg/m3 of species A of species B
(v) Mass fractions :

x0
ρO2 0.793 x
xO = = = 0.326. Ans.
2 ρ 2.429
Species
ρCO2 1.636 Species
xCO2 = = = 0.673. Ans. A
ρ 2.429 B
(vi) Mass diffusion velocities :
B
u = Σ xi ui A
= 0.326 × 0.08 + 0.673 × (–0.02)
= 0.0126 m/s Fig. 15.2. Mass transfer by diffusion in a
binary gas mixture.
MASS TRANSFER 559
The diffusion rate is governed by Fick’s law. It Further, the units of mass diffusion coefficient
states that in a gas mixture the diffusion mass flux of a m /A kg /s.m 2
constituent per unit area is directly proportional to the DAB = A = = m2/s
dρ A kg/m 4
concentration gradient.
dx
A
m dρ A which is identical to units of thermal diffusivity α and
Thus jA = = – DAB ...(15.21)
A dx momentum diffusivity ν.
where A = mass flow rate of component A, kg/s
m The physical mechanism of mass diffusion can
A is
A = area through which mass m be understood by considering Fig. 15.3.
flowing, m 2 The concentration of component A is greater on
the left of the imaginary plane than on the right side.
mA
jA = = mass flux of component The higher concentration means more molecules per unit
A
volume, thus the more molecules moving, cross the
A, kg/sm2
imaginary plane from left to right. It results in net mass
ρA = mass concentration of component A transfer from a region of high concentration to that of
per unit volume, kg/m3 low concentration.
DAB = constant of proportionality, called the
diffusion coefficient or mass CA
Concentration profile
diffusivity of component A in
component B, m2/s Imaginary plane
dρ A .
= concentration gradient of component mA A
dx —– = – DAB ——
A, a driving potential for diffusion of A dx
species.
The negative sign indicates that the mass
diffusion takes place in the direction of decreasing
concentration. 0 x
The diffusion rate of component B in component Fig. 15.3. Diffusion dependence on concentration profile
A is given by
Some important aspects of Fick’s law of diffusion
B
m dρB are :
jB = = – DBA ...(15.22)
A dx 1. Fick’s law is based on experimental evidence
The diffusion coefficients DAB and DBA are relative and hence, it cannot be derived from first principle.
diffusivities and they are equal in magnitude. 2. Fick’s law is valid in any state of all matters.
Fick’s law in terms of diffusional molar flux JA, 3. The mass diffusion rate depends on concentra-
molar concentration CA and mass diffusivity DAB can tion gradient, caused by temperature gradient, a
also be expressed as : pressure gradient or an external force.
dC A 4. A component in a mixture diffuses in the
jA = – DAB ...(15.23)
dx direction of decreasing concentration.
Fick’s law of diffusion is analogous to 5. Diffusion coefficient DAB, in general depends
(i) Fourier law of heat conduction, upon temperature, pressure and the nature of system
components.
Q dT
=q=–k , and When a small concentration of species A is moving
A dx
through a large concentration of species B (such as air),
du then the diffusional mass flux jA can be approximated
(ii) Newton’s law of viscosity, τ = – µ
dy as nA , and diffusional molar flux JA as NA.
Fourier law describes the transport of heat energy When working with Fick’s law, one may use mass
due to temperature gradient, Newton’s law of viscosity

flux nA and mass concentration (ρA) as in eqn. (15.21)
describes the transport of momentum due to velocity
gradient and Fick’s law describes the mass transport or Fick’s law may be expressed in terms of molar con-
due to concentration gradient. centration (CA) and molar flux NA. For gases, Fick’s law
may also be used in terms of partial pressures by using Table 15.2 presents the molecular weights and
perfect gas equation of state. molecular volumes of some selected gases.
p = ρRT The diffusion coefficient for gases at different
where R is the specific constant. In terms of universal temperatures and pressures can be related as;
gas constant Ru(= MR) for gas component A 3/ 2
D1 T   p2 
M A pA =  1 p  …(15.26)
p D2  T2   1
ρA = A =
RT Ru T
More general, but complicated relations that
The density ρA represents mass concentration of account the effect of molecular collisions are also
species A. Then Fick’s law available in the literature. Table 15.3 lists some
A
m experimental values of the diffusion coefficient for binary
M A dpA
= – DAB ...(15.24(a)) gas mixtures, dilute liquid solutions and dilute solid
A R u T dx
solutions. For the diffusion coefficient, two important
For gas component B in an isothermal diffusion observations should be noted that
B
m M B dpB 1. The diffusion coefficient is highest in gases and
= – DBA ...(15.24(b)) lowest in solids, and
A R u T dx
2. Diffusion coefficient increases with temperatures
Mass Diffusion Coefficient. The constant of
and decreases with pressure.
proportionality DAB in Fick’s law is known as the mass
diffusion coefficient or mass diffusivity. The value of TABLE 15.2. Molecular weight and
mass diffusivity varies widely from phase to phase. Due molecular volume of gases
to very complex nature of mass diffusion, the diffusion
coefficients are usually obtained experimentally. The Gas Molecular Molecular
weight volume at normal
kinetic theory of gases intends that the diffusion boiling point
coefficient for binary gases at ordinary pressure is
basically independent of mixture composition and Air 28.9 29.9 cm3/gm mole
increases with temperature while decreases with Ammonia NH3 17 25.81
pressure as : Carbon dioxide CO2 44 34.00
Carbon monoxide 28 30.71
T3/2 Hydrogen H2 2 28.6
DAB ∝
p
Nitrogen N2 28 31.20
The binary diffusion coefficient at a specified Oxygen O2 32 14.8
temperature and pressure can be determined from Sulphur dioxide SO2 64 44.78
equation given by Gilliland;
TABLE 15.3. Typical diffusion coefficients for
T3/2 1 1 binary gas mixtures at 1 atm
DAB = 435.7 × +
p(VA1/3 + VB1/3 ) M A MB and dilute liquid solutions
…(15.25) (a) Diffusion through gases
where DAB = diffusion coefficient, cm2/s Solute A Solvent B T(K) DAB(m2/s) × 105
T = absolute temperature, K
Air Carbon dioxide 276 1.42
p = total pressure of system, N/m2 or Pa
Air Ethanol 313 1.45
VA = molecular volume of component A Air Helium 276 6.24
VB = molecular volume of component B Air Naphthalene 303 0.86
MA = molecular weight of component A Air Water 313 2.88
MB = molecular weight of component B Argon Helium 295 8.3
628 32.1
MASS TRANSFER 561
(b) Diffusion through liquids Example 15.3. Calculate the diffusion coefficient for CO2
in air at atmospheric pressure and 25°C.
(Dilute solute, A) (Liquid T(K) DAB (m2/s)
solvent B) × 109 Solution
The diffusion coefficient in gases
Ethanol Benzene 288 2.25
Benzene Ethanol 298 1.81 T 3/ 2 1 1
DAB = 435.7 +
Water Ethanol 298 1.24 p(VA1/3 + VB1/3 ) MA MB
Carbon dioxide Water 298 2.00
Ethanol Water 288 1.00
From Table 15.1
Methane Water 275 0.85 VCO = 34.0, Vair = 29.9
2
333 3.55 MCO = 44, Mair = 28.9
2
Pyridene Water 288 0.58
(298) 3/2
(c) Diffusion through solids DAB = 435.7 ×
(1.01325 × 10 5 ) × (34 1/3 + 29.9 1/3 )
(Solute, A) (Solid T(K) DAB , m2/s
solvent, B) 1 1
× +
Carbon dioxide Rubber 298 1.1 × 10–10 28.9 44
Oxygen Rubber 298 2.1 × 10–10 = 0.132 cm2/s
Hydrogen Iron 298 2.6 × 10–13 = 13.2 × 10–6 m2/s. Ans.
Hydrogen Nickel 358 1.2 × 10–12
Zinc Copper 773 4 × 10–18
Antimony Silver 293 3.5 × 10–25
15.6. GENERAL MASS DIFFUSION EQUATION
Copper Aluminium 773 4 × 10–14 Mass transfer by molecular diffusion is analogous to heat
Carbon Iron 773 5 × 10–5 transfer by conduction or momentum transfer in laminar
Example 15.2. The hydrogen gas diffuses through a steel flow.
wall of 2 mm thickness. The molar concentration of
hydrogen at the interface is 1.5 kg-mol/m3 and it is zero
y
on the outer face. Calculate the diffusion rate of hydrogen, NA, (y + dy)
if its diffusivity coefficient is 0.3 × 10–12 m2/s. NA, (z + dz)
Solution E F
Given : Diffusion of hydrogen through a steel wall.
L = 2 mm = 0.002 m, CA = 1.5 kg-mol/m3, A
1 B
DAB = 0.3 × 10–12 m2/s, CA = 0 . dy
2 mA,g
To find : Diffusion rate of hydrogen. NA, x NA, (x + dx)
Assumptions :
(i) Steady state diffusion. H G
(ii) One dimensional diffusion without any
chemical reaction. D C
dz
(iii) Constant properties. NA, z
dx
Analysis : The one dimensional molar diffusion
is given by
x
CA1 − CA2
NA = DAB
L z
NA, y
0.3 × 10 −12 × (1.5 − 0)

=
0.002 Fig. 15.4. Control volume for mass diffusion equation in
= 1.5 × 10–10 kg-mol/m2s. Ans. Cartesian coordinates
Mass transfer by molecular diffusion may occur A, g is the volumetric species generation rate,
species. If n
in a stagnant fluid or in a fluid in laminar flow. Like then the net rate of species A generation within control
Fourier equation of heat conduction volume.
g ( x) 1 ∂T
∇2T + = , M A, g = n A, g dxdydz …(ii)
k α ∂t
The derivation for mass transfer equation can be Due to species diffusion and species generation
taken. process, the mass of species A may be accumulated or
dispersed. The rate of change of mass of species A within
Consider a differential control volume of sides dx,
the control volume is
dy and dz as shown in Fig. 15.4. Any species A may
enter and leave the control volume due to fluid motion ∂ρ A
M A, st = dxdydz …(iii)
and diffusion across the control volume. The some ∂t
species A may also be generated and accumulated within Substituting eqns. (i) to (iii) in eqn. (15.27) to
the control volume. The mass balance equation of species obtain
A on a rate basis can be written as
 ∂n , x ∂n A , y ∂n A , z  ∂ρ A
− A + + + n A. g =
 Net rate of mass



 Net rate of species A   ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂t
 
flux of species A  + generation within  (15.28(a))
from control volume  control volume 
It is the equation of continuity for species A. A
similar equation of continuity may be developed for a
 Net rate of  second species B of mixture as
 
= accumulation of species  …(15.27) ∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ρB
A within control volume  –  n B, x + n B, y + n B, z  + n B, g =
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂t
The individual terms for species A are evaluated (15.28(b))
as given below. For a stationary medium the mass average
Total rate of mass flux of species A enters the velocity u is zero, then eqn. (15.19) leads to n A = jA
control volume in x, y and z directions is = ρAuA. Using Fick’s law eqn. (15.21) in terms of mass
concentration gradients in eqn. (15.28 (a)) to obtain
M A, in = nA, x dydz + nA, y dxdz + nA, z dxdy
where nA = ρAuA = mass flux ∂  ∂ρ A  ∂  ∂ρ A 

−  −D AB ∂x  − ∂y  −D AB ∂y 
The rate of mass flux leaves the control volume ∂x   ∂ρ A
in x, y and z directions is ∂  ∂ρ A  =
− − D AB + n A, g ∂t
∂z  ∂z 
M A, out = nA, x + dx dydz + nA, y + dy dxdz
If DAB is constant, then, above equation yields to
+ nA, z + dz dxdy
According to Taylor’s series expansion ∂ 2ρ A ∂2ρA ∂ 2ρ A n A, g 1 ∂ρA
+ + + =
∂ ∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2 DAB DAB ∂t
nA, x + dx dydz = nA, x dydz + (n dydz ) dx
∂x A , x …(15.29)
and so on.
It is governing differential mass diffusion
The net rate of mass flux of species A enters the equation in Cartesian coordinates.
control volume in x, y and z directions.
The subsequent treatment of species diffusion
phenomenon on mole basis in terms of molar
M A, in − M A, out
concentration with volumetric species generation
 ∂n A , x ∂n A , y ∂n A , z 
=–  + +  dxdydz …(i) N A, g within the control volume yields to
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ 2C A ∂ 2C A ∂ 2C A
N 1 ∂CA
In addition, there may be uniform volumetric A, g
+ + + =
chemical reaction occurring within species A. This ∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2 DAB DAB ∂t
chemical reaction may generate or absorb a particular ...(15.30)
MASS TRANSFER 563
1. Specified Species Concentration Condi-

 ∂C  tion. The first condition corresponds to a situation for
In steady state  A = 0  and without chemical
 ∂t  which the species concentration at the surface is

reaction ( N maintained constant value. Expressing this condition
A, g = 0), eqn. (15.30) takes the form
on molar basis:
∂ 2C A ∂ 2C A ∂ 2C A At x = 0; CA(0) = CA, s ...(15.34(a))
+ + =0
∂x 2 ∂y2 ∂z 2 and on mass basis ρA(0) = ρA, s ...(15.34(b))
In x-direction, the above equation reduces to 2. Specified Species Flux Condition. If the
mass or molar flux of the species A is provided at a
d 2C A surface, the appropriate form of the boundary condition
=0 …(15.31) yields to
dx 2
The forgoing species diffusion equations are dρA
jA, 0 = − DAB
analogous to heat conduction equations, thus they follow dx x =0
similar boundary conditions. Further, the species
dCA
diffusion eqn. (15.30) may also be expressed in and JA, 0 = − DAB ...(15.35)
cylindrical and spherical coordinates. dx x =0
Cylindrical coordinates: where jA, 0 and JA, 0 are the specified diffusion mass and
mole fluxes, respectively of species A at the boundary
1 ∂  ∂CA  1 ∂  ∂CA  at x = 0.
r +
r ∂r  ∂r  r 2 ∂θ  ∂θ 
∂  ∂CA  N 1 ∂CA
A, g CA(x)
+   + = …(15.32) Impermeable
∂z  ∂z  DAB DAB ∂t surface
Spherical coordinates: dCA

=0
dx x = 0
1 ∂  2 ∂CA  1 ∂  ∂C A 
r +
r 2 ∂r  ∂r  r 2 sin 2 θ ∂φ  ∂φ  mA = 0

1 ∂  ∂CA  N A , g 1 ∂CA
+  sin θ  + = Fig. 15.5. Concentration distribution on an
2
r sin θ ∂θ  ∂ θ  DAB DAB ∂t
impermeable surface
…(15.33) A special case of specified species flux occurs for
an impermeable surface, for which species flux is zero,
15.7. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS i.e.,
dCA
The mass diffusion equation is analogous to heat JA, 0 = 0 = − DAB
conduction equation, the boundary conditions are dx x =0
required to determine the species concentration dCA

distribution, and species flux. These conditions are the or =0
dx x =0
physical situation existing at the boundary surfaces of
the medium. For steady state diffusion of species, there 3. Specified Convective Mass Transfer Flux
are three types of boundary conditions: Condition. The mass transfer convective coefficient hm
1. Specified species concentration, can be defined in similar way analogous with definition
of heat transfer coefficient h.
2. Specified species flux condition, and
jA, 0 = hm(ρA, s – ρA, ∞)
3. Specified convective mass transfer flux
Further, the convective mass transfer coefficient
condition. at the boundary can also be expressed as
dρ A TABLE 15.4. Solubility of gases in solids at 25°C

jA, 0 = hm(ρA, s – ρA, ∞) = − DAB
dx x Gas Solid S, kg-mole/(m3.bar)
...(15.36)
And convective molar flux at the boundary O2 Rubber 0.00312
jA, 0 = hm (CA, s – CA, ∞) N2 Rubber 0.00156
CO2 Rubber 0.04015
dC A
= − D AB ...(15.37) He SiO2 0.00045
dx x
The product of solubility of a gas and the diffusion
where hm is the convective mass transfer coefficient in
coefficient of the gas in the solid is referred as the
m/s.
permeability P, which is measure of the ability of the
Solubility and Permeability. The solubility gas to penetrate a solid. That is
S represents the maximum amount of substance that
can be dissolved in a medium at specified temperature. P = SAB DAB ...(15.39)
For an example, the solubility of salt (NaCl) in water at where DAB is the diffusivity of gas in the solid. The
27°C is 36.2 kg per 100 kg of water. Therefore, the mass permeability is inversely proportional to thickness of
fraction of salt in brine solution at the interface is solid and it has the unit of kg-mole/(s.bar).
If a process involves the sublimation of a pure
msalt
xsalt, water = solid or evaporation of a pure liquid, in a different
Mass of solution medium such as air, the mass (or mole) fraction of the
substance in the liquid or solid phase is simply taken as
36.2 kg
= 1.0, and the partial pressure and the mole fraction of
(100 + 36.2) kg the substance in the gas phase can readily obtained from
= 0.2658 (or 26.58 per cent) the saturation data table of the substance at specified
Water becomes saturated with salt, when temperature.
36.2 kg of salt is dissolved in 100 kg of water at 27°C.
At a given temperature, only a certain amount of solid 15.8. MASS DIFFUSION WITHOUT
can be dissolved in liquid. HOMOGENEOUS CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Many processes involve dissolution of gases into
a liquid such as carbonization of soft drink with CO2 A homogeneous chemical reaction is a volumetric
gas. Most gases have poor solubility in liquid, such as phenomenon, it takes place within the medium and
air in the water. Further, the gases may dissolve in generates species within the medium, thus it is
solids, but the dissolution process in this case is very analogous to internal source of heat generation. In
complex. The dissolution of gas may be independent of contrast, the heterogeneous chemical reaction is surface
the structure of the solid, but it may depend on the phenomenon, and it results from contact between the
porosity of solid. The dissolution of hydrogen in titanium reactants and a surface and thus analogous to the
is reversible, while dissolution of oxygen gas in titanium constant surface heat flux conditions.
to form TiO2 on the surface is irreversible. There are many situations encountered in
engineering, where the mass diffusion takes place in
The concentration CA, silid side of gas species A in
one direction in steady state conditions without chemical
the solid at interface is proportional to the partial
reaction. This situation is analogous to steady state heat
pressure pA, gas side of the species A in the gas on the gas
conduction without heat generation. In this section, we
side of the interface and is expressed as
do not consider the situations that do involve the
CA, solid side = SAB × pA, gas side (kg-mole/m3) homogeneous chemical reaction during mass transfer.
...(15.38)
15.8.1. Steady State Diffusion Through a Plane
where S is the solubility. Expressing the pressure in
bars and concentration in kg-mole/m3, thus the unit of
Membrane
solubility is derived as kg-mole/(m2.bar). The solubility In the diffusion of small quantity of fluid A through a
data for selected gas-solid combination at 25°C is given stationary gas B, or diffusion of dilute solution of A with
in Table 15.4. a liquid or solid B, the mass or molar average velocity of
MASS TRANSFER 565
the mixture is very small and such cases can be treated FG C A, 2 − C A, 1 IJ

as the diffusion of A through a stationary medium or
plane membrane B.
= – DAB
H L K
Consider the molar diffusion of a fluid A through Multiplying the surface area A, then the molar
a stationary medium B of thickness L as shown in rate
Fig. 15.6. The molar concentrations of fluid A at two D AB A
faces are CA, 1 and CA, 2, respectively. For steady state or =
N (C A , 1 – C A, 2 ) ...(15.42)
A L
one dimensional, without any chemical reaction, the
molar diffusion eqn. (15.31) is C A, 1 − C A, 2
=
N A
L
d 2C A
=0 AD AB
dx 2
Subjected to boundary conditions C A, 1 − C A, 2
at x = 0, CA = CA, 1 =
R m, A
and at x = L, CA = CA, 2
The solution of above equation after double inte- Concentration potential
= ...(15.43)
gration Diffusion resistance
CA = C1x + C2 ...(15.40) L
where Rm, A = ...(15.44)
where C1 and C2 are constants of integrations and are AD AB
evaluated from boundary conditions ; Rm, A is known as diffusion resistance, which is
at x = 0, C2 = CA, 1 similar to the conduction resistance of a plane slab of
(C A, 2 − C A, 1 ) thickness L and area A. The electrical analogy between
at x = L, C1 = thermal, electrical and molar diffusion is shown in
L
Fig. 15.7.
T1 – T 2
T1 T2 Q=
Rth Q Rth
A Medium B V1 – V2
V1 V2 I=
Re I Re
JAx
CA,1 CA, 1 – CA, 2
CA, 1 CA, 2 NA =
Rm, A Rm, A
CA(x) dCA
CA, 2 Fig. 15.7. Analogy between thermal, electrical and molar

diffusion resistance concepts
The preceding analysis can also be repeated on
the mass basis with a resulting equation for mass
0 dx L x transfer rate in plane wall
Fig. 15.6. One dimensional steady diffusion ρ A, 1 − ρ A, 2

A = D AB A
m
through a plane wall L
Substituting in eqn. (15.40), we get x A, 1 − x A, 2
= ρD AB A (kg/s) ...(15.45)
x L
CA = (CA, 2 – CA, 1) + CA, 1 ...(15.41)
L and concentration distribution on the mass basis as
The diffusional molar flux of A at any x
x
dC A ρA = (ρ A, 2 − ρA,1 )
+ ρ A,1 ...(15.46)
JAx = – DAB L
dx With eqn. (15.42) and eqn. (15.45), we can
d LM x OP conclude that the molar (or mass) diffusion rate through
= – DAB
dx N
(C A, 2 − C A, 1 ) + C A, 1
L Q a plane wall is proportional to concentration gradient
and wall area. The molar and mass concentration at We can also obtain the concentration distribution
any location in the plane wall can be determined by using and diffusion resistance for various other geometries as
eqn. (15.41) and eqn. (15.46), respectively. presented in Table 15.5.
TABLE 15.5. Summary of species concentration distribution and diffusion resistance
Geometry Species concentration Species diffusion

distribution resistance, Rm, A
x L
A CA(x) = (C A, 2 − C A,1 ) + C A,1 Rm, wall =
L DAB A
CA, 1
or rA, 1 x
ρA(x) = (ρA, 2 – ρA, 1) + ρ A,1
L
0 L
CA, 2 or rA, 2
x
CA, 2 CA, 2 − CA,1

CA(r) = + CA, 2 r 
r2 r  ln  2 
ln  2   r1 
 r1  Rm, cyl =
2π LDAB
CA, 1 ρ A, 2 − ρ A, 1
L ρA(r) = + ρ A, 2
r r 
r1 ln  2 
 r1 
r1
r2 C A, 2 − C A, 1  1 1 
CA(r) =  r − r  + C A, 2
1 1  2 r2 − r1
− Rm, sph =
r2 r1 4 πr1 r2 DAB
CA, 2
r CA, 1 ρ A, 2 − ρ A,1 1 1 
ρA(r) =
1 1  r − r  + ρA, 2
−  2
r2 r1
Example 15.4. The hydrogen gas is maintained at Solubility SAB = 1.5 × 10–3 kg-mole/(m3.bar)
pressure of 2.4 bar and 1 bar on opposite of a plastic p1 = 2.4 bar, p2 = 1 bar
membrane 0.3 mm thick. The binary diffusion coefficient L = 0.3 mm, DAB = 8.7 × 10–8 m2 /s
of hydrogen in the plastic is 8.7 × 10–8 m2/s. The solubility
T = 25°C = 298 K, M H 2 = 2 kg/kg-mole
of hydrogen in the membrane is 1.5 × 10–3 kg-mole/m3
bar. Calculate under uniform condition of 25°C, the To find : (i) Molar concentrations of hydrogen at
following: opposite faces of membrane.
(i) Molar concentration of hydrogen on opposite (ii) Molar and mass diffusion flux.
faces of membrane. Analysis : (i) Molar concentrations : The molar
(ii) Molar and mass diffusion flux of hydrogen concentration, pressure and solubility are related as :
through membrane. C = SAB p
Solution Therefore, surface concentration
Given : Diffusion of two hydrogen gas streams C H 2, 1 = 1.5 × 10–3 × 2.4
through a plastic membrane.
= 3.6 × 10–3 kg-mole/m3
MASS TRANSFER 567
2
A = 0.62 m
3
V = 0.034 m
Hydrogen Hydrogen 3 3
Plastic, B S = 0.075 m /(m . bar)
A –8 2 A
DAB = 8.7 × 10 m /s
–3
SAB = 1.5 × 10
3
CA, 1 kg-mole/(m .bar) CA, 2
p1 = 2.4 bar p2 = 1 bar
x 0.3 mm
C H 2, 2 = 1.5 × 10–3 × 1 Fig. 15.9. Tyre and tube for example 15.5
Analysis : The initial mass of air in the tube
= 1.5 × 10–3 kg-mole/m3. Ans.
p1V 220 × 0.034
(ii) Molar and mass diffusion fluxes are calcu- m1 = = = 0.0868 kg
RT1 0.287 × 300
lated as :
The mass of air in the tube after 6 days.
D AB (C H 2, 1 − C H 2, 2 )
NA = p2 V 218 × 0.034
L m2 = = = 0.0860 kg
RT2 0.287 × 300
(8.7 × 10 −8 m 2 /s) × (3.6 × 10 −3 The mass of air escaped through tube
− 1.5 × 10 −3 ) (kg - mole/m 3 ) ∆m = m1 – m2 = 0.0868 – 0.0860
=
(0.3 × 10 −3 m) = 0.0008 kg
= 6.09 × 10–7 kg-mole/(m2s). Ans. The mass flux of air escaped
Mass diffusion flux, A
m Mass of air escaped
=
jA = M H 2 × NA = 2 × 6.09 × 10–7 A Time elapsed × Surface area
= 1.218 × 10–6 kg/m2s. Ans. 0.0008 kg
=
Example 15.5. The tyre tube of a vehicle has a surface 518400 s × 0.62 m 2
area of 0.62 m2 and wall thickness of 10 mm. The tube = 2.49 × 10–9 kg/m2s
has air filled in it at a pressure of 2.2 bar. The air Mean pressure of air at inner surface of tube
pressure drops to 2.18 bar in period of 6 days. The p1 + p2 2.2 + 2.18
solubility of air in the rubber is 0.075 m3 of air/m3 of pm = = = 2.19 bar
2 2
rubber at 1 bar. The volume of air in the tube is The solubility is the dissolved volume of air in
0.034 m3 and operating temperature is 300 K. Calculate the rubber, therefore,
diffusivity of air in the rubber.
Vi = SAB pi (m3/m3.bar)
Solution V1 = solubility at inside surface of rubber
Given : Diffusion of air in a tyre tube system ; = SAB pm
A = 0.62 m2, V = 0.034 m3 = 0.075 × 2.19
L = 10 mm = 0.01 m, p1 = 2.2 bar = 220 kPa = 0.01642 m3/m3 of rubber
T = 300 K. p2 = 2.18 bar = 218 kPa V2 = solubility at outer surface of rubber tube
t = 6 days = 518400 s, S = 0.075 m3 of air/(m3.bar) = SAB patm
To find : Diffusivity or diffusion coefficient of air. = 0.075 × 1 bar
Assumptions : = 0.075 m3/m3 of rubber tube
1. Steady diffusion of air in tube. Corresponding mass concentrations at inner and
2. Gas constant of air as 0.287 kJ/kg.K. outer surfaces of rubber tube
3. Constant properties. pm V1 219 × 0.1642
4. Atmospherie pressure as 1 bar. ρA1 = = = 0.4176 kg/m3
RT1 0.287 × 300
patm V2 100 × 0.075 Analysis: Concentration of hydrogen on inside

and ρA2 = = = 0.0871 kg/m3 surface and outside surface of rubber tube:
RT2 0.287 × 300
The diffusion flux rate of air through rubber tube CA, 1 = SAB p1 kg-mole/m3
D AB (ρ A 1 − ρ A 2 ) = 3.12 × 10–3 kg-mole/(m3. bar) × 2 bar
A
m
= = 6.24 × 10–3 kg-mole/m3
A L
The diffusion resistance
mA L 2.49 × 10 −9 × 0.01
or DAB = = r   20 
A (ρ A 1 − ρ A 2 ) (0.4176 − 0.0871) ln  2  ln  
r
 1 =  12.5 
= 7.509 × 10–11 m2/s. Ans. Rm, cyl =
2π LD AB 2π × 1 × 2.2 × 10−8
Example 15.6. A rubber tube was used to transport
hydrogen gas at 2.0 bar and 34°C. The inner and outer = 34 × 105 s / m3
diameters of rubber tube are 25 mm and 40 mm, The diffusion flux through cylindrical rubber
respectively. Diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in rubber tubing is
is 2.2 × 10–8 m2/s and solubility of hydrogen in the rubber
CA,1 − CA, 2 6.24 × 10 −3 − 0
is 3.12 × 10–3 kg-mole of H2 per m3 of rubber at 1 bar. NA = =
Calculate the diffusion flux of hydrogen per metre length Rm, cyl 34 × 105
of tube. Assume concentration of hydrogen at the outer = 1.835 × 10–9 kg-mole/s. Ans.
surface of the tube is negligible.
Example 15.7. Pressurised hydrogen gas is stored at
Solution 85ºC in a 4.5 m inner diameter spherical container made
Diffusion of hydrogen through a rubber tube of nickel. The shell of the container is 15 cm thick. The
d1 = 25 mm, or r1 = 12.5 × 10–3 m molar concentration of hydrogen in the nickel at inner
d2 = 40 mm, or r2 = 20 × 10–3 m surface is 0.087 kg-mole/m3 and that at outer surface is
negligible. Determine the mass diffusion rate of hydrogen
p = 2 bar, T = 34°C = 307 K
through the nickel container. Take binary diffusion
–8 2
DAB = 2.2 × 10 m /s, coefficient of hydrogen in the nickel as 1.2 × 10–12 m2/s.
SAB = 3.12 × 10–3 kg-mole/(m3.bar)
Solution
CA, = 0,
2
To find : Diffusion flux of hydrogen per metre Given : Spherical container of nickel stores H2
length of tube. gas
D1 = 4.5 m or r1 = 2.25 m
r2 = r1 + t = 2.25 + 0.15 = 2.4 m
r1 = 12.5 mm T = 85°C = 358 K
CA,1 = 0.087 kg-mole/m3
CA, 2 = 0
H2 Gas
at 2 bar DAB = 1.2 × 10–12 m2/s
ar
1b To find : Mass diffusion rate of H2 gas through
r mm
20
r 2= spherical nickel container.
Fig. 15.10. Schematic for example 15.6 Assumptions :
1. Mass diffusion is steady and one dimensional.
Assumptions :
1. Partial pressure of Hydrogen on outer surface 2. No chemical reaction in the nickel shell.
tube is zero. 3. No accumulation of H2 gas in the container.
2. Steady diffusion through rubber tube. Analysis : The molar diffusion resistance of
3. Specific gas constant for hydrogen. spherical shell;
R H 2 = 4160 J/kg.K r2 − r1
Rm, sph =
4. Constant properties. 4 πr1 r2 DAB
MASS TRANSFER 569
2.4 − 2.25 Atmospheric air is the mixture of dry air and

= water vapour, and the atmospheric pressure is the sum
4π × 2.25 × 2.4 × 1.2 × 10 −12
of partial pressures of dry air and water vapour. The
= 1.842 × 109 s/m3 partial pressure of water vapour in air is called the
CA,1 = 0.087
vapour pressure pv The saturated air contains maximum
3 possible water vapour in moist air. The partial pressure
kg-mol/m
of water vapour in saturated air is equal to saturation
B
CA, 2 = 0 pressure psat of steam corresponding to the temperature
Pressurised of moist air.
H2 gas, The ratio of actual mass of water vapour to mass
at 85°C
mA of saturated vapour produced in a mixture of air and
water-vapour at same temperature and pressure is
called the relative humidity. It is denoted by φ (phi).
Fig. 15.11. Schematic for example 15.7 The vapour pressure, saturation pressure and
relative humidity are related as
The molar diffusion rate of hydrogen gas through
container is given by: pv = φ psat …(15.47)
The water vapour diffusion takes place from a
CA,1 − CA, 2 0.087 − 0 region of high vapour pressure to that of lower vapour
=
N =
A Rm, sph 1.842 × 109 pressure. Using eqn. (15.38); and eqn. (15.39) in
eqn. (15.42) then the mass flow rate of moisture through
= 47.23 × 10–12 kg-mole/s a plane layer of thickness L and normal area A can be
The mass diffusion rate expressed in terms of vapour pressures as
M
A = N
m pA, 1 − pA, 2
A A v = PA
m
L
= (47.23 × 10−12 kg-mole/s) × (2 kg/kg-mole) φ1 psat, 1 − φ2 psat, 2
= PA (kg/s)
= 9.446 kg/s or 2.98 gram/year. Ans. L
…(15.48)
15.8.2. Water Vapour Migration where P is the vapour permeability of the material on
The presence of water vapour in material affects the the mass basis, expressed in kg/(s.m.Pa). The
performance, durability, effective thermal conductivity, permeability of material per unit thickness is called the
specific heat and heat storage characteristic etc. During permeance, denoted by M.
a hot and humid day, water vapour may transfer Permeance,
through a wall and condense on the inner side, releasing Permeability P
latent heat of vaporization, while the process may M= = kg/(s.m2. Pa)
Thickness L
reverse during a cool night. …(15.49)
Moisture migration in the walls, floors, or ceiling The reciprocal of permeance is called vapour
is controlled by either vapour barriers or vapour resistance Rv and is expressed as
retarders. Vapour barriers are materials, which are Vapour resistance,
impermeable to moisture, and thus do not allow the 1
transfer of moisture through them. These are sheet Rv =
Permeance
metals, metal foils, and thick plastic sheets. Vapour
retarders are the materials, which retard or slow down 1 L
= = (s.m2.Pa/kg) …(15.50)
the current of moisture flow through the materials, but M P
do not completely eliminate it. Vapour retarders are The vapour resistance is the property of material,
available as solid, flexible and coating materials. The which offers the resistance to vapour transmission
reinforced plastic, thin metal foils, plastic films, treated through the material. The overall vapour resistance to
papers, and polymeric paints are some common vapour composite structure that consists of several layers in
retarders. The vapour retarders has very low permeance series is the sum of vapour resistances of individual
of 5.75 × 10–10 kg/s per m2. layers and is given by
Rv, total = Rv, 1 + Rv, 2 + Rv, 3 + …+ Rv, n The diffusion rate of vapour through gypsum
i=n plaster
= ∑ Rv, i …(15.51)
φ1 pv,1 − φ2 pv, 2
i =1
v = A
m
Then the rate of vapour diffusion through a Rv, total
composite structure can be expressed in an analogous
manner of heat transfer rate : 1404 – 0
= 24 ×
φ1 psat,1 − φ2 psat, 2 3.496 × 108
mv = A (kg/s) …(15.52)
Rv, total
= 9.64 × 10−5 (kg/s)
Example 15.8. A house is maintained at 20°C and 60%
RH at a location where atmospheric pressure is 97 kPa. In 24 hours period
The inside of the wall is finished with 9.5 mm thick v = 9. 64 × 10–5 × 24 × 3600
m
gypsum plaster. The vapour pressure at the outside of
= 8.32 kg/day. Ans.
the plaster is zero. Calculate the maximum amount of
water vapour that will diffuse through a 3 m × 8 m section 15.8.3. Equimolar Counter Diffusion
of a wall during 24 hour period. The permeance of the
In the distillation of two components, whose molar latent
9.5 mm thick gypsum plaster to water vapour is
heats of vaporisation are equal, a physical situation
2.86 × 10–9 kg/(s.m2.Pa).
encountered, that the flux of one gaseous component is
Solution
equal to but acting in opposite direction from other
Given : A layer of gypsum plaster
gaseous component. Such type of diffusion is termed as
L = 9.5 mm = 9.5 × 10–3 m
equimolar counter diffusion.
A = 3 m × 8 m = 24 m2
∆t = 24 h Consider two large chamber containing gas com-
ponent A and gas component B are connected by a
φ1 = 0.6, p1 = 97 kPa
passage as shown in Fig. 15.13 in such a way that the
T1 = 20°C, pv2 = 0 each molecule of gas A is replaced by a molecule of B
M = 2.86 × 10–9 kg/(s.m2.Pa) and viceversa.
Gypsum plaster The total pressure p = pA + pB (uniform through-
9.5 mm out)
Room Outside
20°C Chamber Chamber
97 kPa A B
60% RH Vapour
diffusion
NA NB
pA pB
x
CA CB
x0 x0
Fig. 15.12. Schematic for example 15.8 L
To find: Vapour diffusion rate through gypsum
layer. p = pA + p B
Analysis: The saturation pressure of water at A

pA, 1 pB, 2
Partial pressure
20°C (from steam tables) is 2340 Pa. Thus vapour B

pressure at inside of gypsum plaster pA(x)
pv, 1 = φ1psat, 1 = 0.6 × 2340 = 1404 Pa
pv, 2 = 0 pB, 1 pB(x) pA, 2
Vapour resistance,
1 1
Rv = = x
M 2.86 × 10−9
Fig. 15.13. Equimolar counter diffusion in a binary mixture
= 3.496 × 108 (s.m 2 .Pa/kg)
MASS TRANSFER 571
Using Fick’s law, the molar diffusion rate of Solution

component A and B are given by Given : Equimolar diffusion of CO2 and N2
N = – D A dC A ...(15.53) L = 0.5 m
A AB dx Ac = 0.1 m2
and N = – D A dC B ...(15.54) DAB = 0.17 × 10–4 m2/s
B BA dx
For steady state conditions p = 1 bar
T = 290 K.
=– N
N or +N
N =0
A B A B
2
and DAB = DBA Ac = 0.1 m
dC A dC B 20% CO2 80% CO2

we get =–
dx dx 80% N2 20% N2
Rearranging eqn. (15.53) and integrating

N
L
A ∫ dx = – DAB A
0 z C A, 2
C A, 1
dCA
A
0.5 m
B
L = – D A (C
N Fig. 15.14
A AB A, 2 – CA, 1)
D AB A(C A, 1 − C A, 2 ) To find : Diffusion rates of CO2 and N2.

or =
N ...(15.55)
A Analysis : The partial pressures of two gases in
L
For a perfect gas, the molar concentration of A is two tanks are :
related to partial pressure p = p1 + p2 and pi = xi p
nA ρ p pA,1 = 0.2 bar, pA,2 = 0.8 bar,
CA = = A = A
V M A R uT and pB,1 = 0.8 bar, pB,2 = 0.2 bar
For an ideal gas A, For rate of molar diffusion of CO2 using
eqn. (15.56(a))
N = D AB A ( pA , 1 − pA , 2 ) kg-mole/m2s
A
RuT L
= D AB A
N
LM p
A2 − pA 1 OP
Similarly, for ideal gas B
...(15.56(a)) A
R uT N L Q
= D BA A ( pB, 1 − pB, 2 ) kg-mole/m2s
N 0.17 × 10 −4 × 0.1 × (0.8 − 0.2) × 10 5
B
R uT L =
8314 × 290 × 0.5
...(15.56(b))
= 8.46 × 10–8 kg-mole/s
Equations (15.56(a)) and (15.56(b)) are equations
of steady state equimolar counter diffusion. and M = 8.46 × 10–8 × 44
A = N
m A A
It is noticed that the net molar flow rate through = 3.73 × 10–6 kg/s. Ans.
the channel is zero, but the net mass flow rate of the
Similarly for NB
mixture through the channel is not zero and it is sum of
two streams of mass flow. N =– N = 8.46 × 10–8 kg-mole/s
B A
A +m
= m
m M +N
B = N M =N
(M − M ) M = 8.46 × 10–8 × 28
B = N
m
A A B B A A B B B
…(15.57) = 2.37 × 10–6 kg/s. Ans.
It is also observed that the net mass flows in the Example 15.10. The mixture of benzene and toluene is
flow direction of the gas with the higher molar mass. being distilled in a distillation column at 1 bar and
Example 15.9. A tank contains a mixture of CO2 and 108°C. The liquid phase contains 20% mole of benzene
N2 in the mole proportion of 0.2 and 0.8 at 1 bar and and vapour phase contains 60% mole of benzene,
290 K. It is connected by a duct of cross-sectional area respectively. At the operating conditions, the vapour
0.1 m2, 0.5 m long to another tank containing mixture of pressure of toluene is 0.75 bar and its diffusivity is
CO2 and N2 in the molar proportion of 0.8 and 0.2 5.2 × 10–6 m2/s. Assuming the equimolar diffusion,
respectively. Calculate the diffusion rates of CO2 and N2. calculate molar diffusion flux of toluene, if the diffusion
Assume diffusivity coefficient DAB = 0.17 × 10–4 m2/s. zone is 0.2 mm thick.
Solution Assumptions :
Given : Equimolar diffusion of benzene and 1. Steady, one dimensional diffusion in the tube.
toluene. 2. Ammonia and atmospheric air are ideal gases.
p = 1 bar = 105 Pa, T = 108°C = 381 K 3. No chemical reaction occur in the tube.
γA = 0.2, γB = 0.6 4. Negligible mole fraction of air in the pipe line
pv, toluene = 0.75 bar, DAB = 5.2 × 10–6 m2/s and negligible mole fraction of ammonia in the
L = 0.2 mm = 2 × 10–4 m. atmosphere.
To find : Molar diffusion flux of toluene. 5. The molecular mass of ammonia is
Analysis : The partial pressure of toluene in liquid 17 kg/kg-mole and that of air is 28.97 kg/kg-mole.
phase Analysis : This is a typical equimolar counter
diffusion process between two large reservoirs.
pt1 = (1 – γA) p = (1 – 0.2) × 0.75 = 0.6 bar
The partial pressure of toluene in vapour phase Atmosphere B
25°C 1 atm
pt2 = (1 – γB) p = (1 – 0.6) × 0.75 = 0.3 bar Air Ammonia
For the equimolar diffusion, the molar diffusion
flux, eqn. (15.57)
D AB ( pt1 − pt2 ) 3 mm
Ntoluene =
R uT L
L = 15 m
5.2 × 10 −6 × (0.6 − 0.3) × 10 5
=
8314 × 381 × 2 × 10 −4
NH3
= 2.46 × 10–6 kg-mole/m2s. Ans.

Air
T = 25°C
Example 15.11. The pressure of ammonia gas flowing Ammonia
p = 1 atm
at the rate of 2 kg/s through an industrial pipeline is mA = 2 kg/s
A
maintained close to 1 atm by venting ammonia to
atmosphere air through a 3 mm diameter tube that
extends 15 m into the air. Assuming entire system is
operating at 25°C, determine : (a) Cross-sectional area of the vent tube:
(a) mass diffusion rate of ammonia lost to π 2 π
atmosphere through a tube, Ac = d = × (3 × 10 −3 )2
4 4
(b) mass flow rate of air that infiltrates into the
= 7.068 × 10−6 m2
pipeline,
For ammonia
(c) mole and mass fractions of air in the pipe,
pA, 0 = 1 atm
(d) the steady flow velocity at the bottom of the
tube, where it is attached to the pipeline. = 1.01325 × 102 kPa at the bottom of
vent tube
Take DAB = 2.8 × 10–5 m2/s.
pA, 1 = 0 at the top of vent tube,
Solution From eqn. (15.56(a)), molar diffusion rate of
Given : Venting of Ammonia pipeline to ammonia:
atmosphere
p = 1 atm, T = 25°C D A  pA, 0 − pA,1 
= AB × 
N 
L = 15 m, d = 3 mm
A Ru T  L 
DAB = 2.8 × 10–5 m2/s (2.8 × 10−5 m2 /s) × (7.068 × 10−6 m2 )
To find : =
8.314 (kJ/kg-mole K)× (298 K)
(a) Mass rate of ammonia lost through the vent.
(b) Mass rate of air infiltration into pipeline. (1.01325 × 102 − 0) (kPa)
×
(c) Mole and mass fraction of air in the pipeline. (15 m)
–13
= 5.395 × 10 kg-mole/s. Ans.
(d) The steady flow velocity at the bottom of tube.
MASS TRANSFER 573
Using molecular mass of ammonia, stagnant air as shown in Fig. 15.16. The free surface of
= N M = 5.395 ×10–13 × 17 water is exposed to air in the tank and air flowing over
m A A A the tank in perpendicular direction and it removes the
= 9.171 × 10–12 kg/s. Ans. water vapour which reaches to that level.
(b) Mass rate of air infiltration into pipeline is
evaluated from equimolar counter-diffusion process Gas mixture
Air
= −N
N = − 5.395 × 10−13 kg-mole/s A+B
B A
L x
with molecular mass of air, MB = 28.97 kg/kg-mole, the
Diffusion of
Diffusion of
mass rate of air
Bulk flow
water
air
m M = –5.395 × 10–13 × 28.97
B = –N B B
pw pA
= – 1.563 × 10–11 kg/s. Ans.
(c) For ammonia flow rate of 2 kg/s, the mass
fraction of air in the pipeline:
|m B| |mB|
xB = =
m total NH3 + m
(m A −m
B) p
Water
−11
1.563 × 10
=
(2 + 9.171 × 10−12 − 1.563 × 10−11 )
Fig. 15.16. Diffusion of water vapour into air
= 7.815 × 10−12 ≈ 0. Ans. We assume that
The molar flow rate of ammonia 1. System is isothermal and total pressure
A
m 2 kg/s remains constant.
n = M = (17 kg/kg-mole)
A 2. The system is in steady state and hence the
= 0.1176 kg-mole/s concentration profile in air does not change.
Mole fraction of air in the pipeline 3. Air and water vapour behave as an ideal gas.
|NB | 5.395 × 10−13 As water evaporates, it diffuses upward through
γB = =
n 0.1176 air and in steady state, the upward movement of water
vapour is balanced by a downward diffusion of air.
= 4.585 × 10−12 ≈ 0. Ans.
(d) Net mass flow rate through the tube is Therefore, the concentration at any location x
remains constant.
m net = mA +mB
The diffusion rate of air downward is given by
= 9.171 × 10−12 − 1.563 × 10−11 eqn. [15.24(a)]
= –6.46 × 10–12 kg/s D AB A M A dpA
Density of ammonia A = –
m ...(15.58)
R uT dx
p M 101.325 × 17
ρA = A A = where A = cross-section area of the tank
Ru T 8.314 × 298
MA = molecular weight of component A.
= 0.695 kg/m3 At the surface of water, the air cannot move
From continuity equation, the flow velocity downward ; hence there must be bulk mass movement
−6.46 × 10 −12 upward with a velocity to compensate for the mass
u = mnet = diffusion of air downward.
ρA A 0.695 × 7.068 × 10 −6
Upward mass transfer of air
= –1.31 × 10–6 m/s. Ans.
Flow in negative x direction i.e., towards pipeline. = – ρA uA A
pA
15.8.4. Diffusion Through a Stagnant Gas: Stefan’s Flow =– M A uA ...(15.59)
R uT A
The evaporation of the pure liquids such as benzene,
where uA is bulk mass velocity in upward direction.
acetone, carbon tetrachloride, gasolene, water in air are
some examples of diffusion through stagnant air. Equating the two eqns. (15.58) and (15.59)
D A M A dpA p
Consider the isothermal evaporation of water – AB = – A MA A uA
from a surface and its diffusion upward through a R uT dx R uT
D AB dpA D AB p M w Fp I
we get uA =
pA dx
...(15.60)
=
R uT L
ln GH p JK
A2
A1
...(15.65)
Diffusion rate of water upward is given as
The distribution of partial pressures of air and
m w = – D AB A M w dpw ...(15.61)
water vapour with distance x is shown in Fig. 15.17.
R uT dx
p = pw +pA
The bulk transport rate of water vapour upward;
Air pA2
p M
w )bulk
(m = ρw A uA = w w A uA
R uT
Partial pressure
Inserting uA from eqn. (15.60); pA1
D dpA
w )bulk = pw Mw A AB
(m ...(15.62) ps
R uT pA dx
The total mass transport rate in upward direction
= upward mass diffusion of water + water vapour p
carried away by bulk movement of moving air
w )total = –
D AB A M w dpw x
(m Fig. 15.17. Variation of partial pressures of air and
R uT dx
water during evaporation
pw M w A D AB dpA The diffusion of a substance through a stationary
+
pA Ru T dx medium in terms of concentrations can be expressed as :
DAB AMw  dpw p dpA  NA D AB C F
C − CA2 I mol/m s
or w )total = −
(m
Ru T

 dx
− w
pA dx 

A
=
L
ln GH
C − CA1
JK 2
...(15.63) ...(15.66)
The partial pressure of water vapour pw can be As some amount of water evaporates from the
expressed in terms of total pressure, by using Dalton’s free surface of water, it absorbs the latent heat of
law of partial pressures; vaporisation from the water thus the temperature of
pA + pw = p (constant) water decreases. In order to maintain the isothermal
condition in the tank during evaporation, the heat must
dpA dpw be supplied to the tank at the rate of
or =–
dx dx A hfg , A = jA A shfg , A
Q= m
Then total mass flow rate of water vapour,
D A M w ( pA + pw ) dpw = (J A MA ) A shfg , A …(15.67)
w )total = – AB
(m
R uT pA dx where JA = diffusional molar flux,
MA = molar mass,
D AB A M w p dpw
or w )total = –
(m jA = diffusional mass flux,
R uT p − pw dx
...(15.64) hfg, A = latent of vaporisation,
This relation is known as Stefan’s law, and the As = surface area of liquid water interface of
induced convective flow that enhances the mass diffusion species A.
is called Stefan’s flow. Integrating eqn. (15.64) Example 15.12. An open pan 20 cm in diameter 20 mm
w )total
(m z0
L
dx = −
D AB A M w
R uT
p zps
p∞ dpw
p − pw
deep is filled with water to a level of 10 mm and is exposed
to air at 25°C. Assuming mass diffusivity of
0.25 × 10–4 m2/s, calculate the time required for all the
D AB A M w F p− p I water to evaporate.
w )total L =
(m
R uT
GH p − p JK
p ln ∞
s Solution
w )total
(m D M p F p− p I Given : Evaporation of water from an open pan.
ln G
H p − p JK
AB w ∞
or = d = 20 cm = 0.2 m
A R TL u s
L = 20 mm – 10 mm = 10 mm = 0.01 m
MASS TRANSFER 575
T = 25°C = 298 K, 9m 2
DAB = 0.25 × 10–4 m2/s.
20 cm
40 m
10 mm
20 mm
Water
1

To find : Time required for all water to evaporate. To find : Diffusion rate of water from the well.
Assumption : Total pressure of 1 atm.
Analysis : The partial pressure of water vapour, Analysis : The saturation pressure ps of water
corresponding to saturation temperature of 298 K. vapour at level 1 corresponds to 25°C
ps = 3.169 kPa (from steam table) ps = 3.169 kPa
p∞ = 0 at the top of pan, dry air. Partial pressure of air at top of well
For water diffusion in stagnant air p∞ = RH × ps = 0.5 × 3.169 = 1.585 kPa
D AB A M w p F p− p I
w )total
(m = ln GH p − p JK
∞ The diffusion rate of water into air
R uT L s D AB A M w p F p− p I
π 2 π
A = d = × (0.2)2
w )total =
(m
R uT L
× ln GH p − p JK
∞
s
4 4 −5 2
= 0.0314 m2 2.58 × 10 × ( π / 4) × 9 × 18
=
Mw = 18, 8314 × 298
p = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2 1.01325 × 105 FG
101.325 − 1.585 IJ
0.25 × 10 −4 × 0.0314 × 18
×
40
× ln
H
101.325 − 3.169 K
∴ w )total =
(m = 1.1924 × 2533.125 × 0.0160
8314 × 298
= 4.835 × 10–7 kg/s. Ans.
1.01325 × 105 FG
101.32 − 0 IJ Example 15.14. Estimate the diffusion rate of water
×
0.01
× ln
H
101.325 − 3.169 K from the bottom of the test tube 1.5 cm in diameter and
= 1.869 × 10–6 kg/s 15 cm long into dry atmospheric air at 25°C.
Time for evaporation of total water Take diffusion coefficient of 25.6 × 10–6 m2/s.
w )total × t = Area × height of water × ρw
(m (V.T.U., July 2002 ; J.N.T.U., May 2004)
π Solution
1.869 × 10–6 × t = × (0.2)2 × 0.01 m × 1000
4 Given : Evaporation of water from a test tube.
or t = 168090 = 46.69 h. Ans. d = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
Example 15.13. A well is 40 m deep and 9 m in diameter L = 15 cm = 0.15 m
is exposed to atmosphere at 25°C. The air at the top has T = 25°C = 298 K
relative humidity of 50%. Calculate the rate of diffusion
DAB = 25.6 × 10–6 m2/s.
of water vapour through the wall.
To find : Diffusion rate of water.
Take DAB = 2.58 × 10–5 m2/s, Mw = 18 kg/kg-mole.
Analysis : The saturation pressure of water
Solution vapour at level 1, corresponds to temperature of 25°C
Given : The evaporation of water in stagnant air. ps = 3.169 kPa
L = 40 m, d=9m The partial pressure of water at the top of tube,
T = 25°C = 298 K, RH = 0.5 dry air
DAB = 2.58 × 10–5 m2/s, Mw = 18 kg/kg-mole. p∞ = 0
Air
F
C − CA2 I
2 NA
A
=
D AB
L
C ln GH
C − CA1
JK
1.24 × 10 −9 FG
55.55 − 0 IJ
Vapour 15 cm
=
1.5
× 55.55 × ln
H
55.55 − 5 K
–9 2
= 4.33 × 10 kg-mole/m s. Ans.
15.9. MASS DIFFUSION WITH HOMOGENEOUS

1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
When a homogeneous chemical reaction taken place, the
Fig. 15.20. Schematic for example 15.14 species concentration may be influenced. The steady
state, one dimension, x-directional molar diffusion
The diffusion rate of water from the tube
equation with uniform species generation per unit
F p− p I volume is reduced to
w )total =
(m
D AB A M w p
R uT L
ln GH p − p JK
∞
s d 2CA
DAB
+N A, g = 0 ...(15.68)
25.6 × 10 −6 × ( π/4 ) × (0.015)2 × 18 dx 2
=
8314 × 298
where N A, g is volumetric species generation rate. If
1.01325 × 105 FG
101.32 − 0 IJ
×
0.15
× ln
H
101.32 − 3.169 K N A, g is positive, the reaction results
generation; if it is negative, it results in species

in species
= 3.28 × 10–14 × 675500 × 0.0317

consumption. When chemical reaction occurs at constant
= 7.05 × 10–10 kg/s
rate, then its reaction order is considered to be zero
= 0.0025 gm/h. Ans. order; that is :
Example 15.15. In a solar pond, the salt is placed at
N A, g = k0
the bottom of the pond 1.5 m deep. The surface is flushed
constantly, so that the concentration of salt at the top and when the chemical reaction occurs that is
layer is zero. The salt concentration at the bottom layer proportional to local concentration, then it is first order
is 5 kg-mole/m3. Calculate the rate at which salt is reaction :
washed off at the top at steady state condition per

m2.Take DAB = 1.24 × 10–9 m2/s. Total concentration N A, g = –k1CA
= 55.55 kg-mole/m3. With first order chemical reaction, eqn. (15.68)
Solution yields to
Given : Diffusion of salt into a solar pond. d 2CA
DAB − k1C A = 0 ...(16.69)
L = 1.5 m, C A 2 = 0, dx 2
C A 1 = 5 kg-mole/m3 DAB = 1.24 × 10–9 m2/s, k1
Using m = , then above equation modifies
C = 55.55 kg-mole/m3 DAB
to
CA = 0
2
d 2CA
2
− m2CA = 0
dx
1.5 m
Salt, CA pond
It is second order, linear homogeneous differential
1
equation. Its generals solution is as in case of fins;
CA(x) = C1e–mx + C2emx ...(15.70)
where C1 and C2 are the constants of integrations, which
To find : Diffusion rate of salt. are evaluated with the help of prescribed boundary
Analysis : The diffusion rate of salt through solar conditions.
pond is given by
MASS TRANSFER 577
Gas A Solution
Given : First order reaction of NO2 with
CA,1 CA,1
0 atmospheric air to form smog.
k1 = 0.035–1 CA, 1 = 0 as x → ∞
Liquid B NA, x DAB = 0.18 × 10–4 m2/s
.
NA, g = – k1CA x
Sunlight
L
Impermeable boundary
Fig. 15.22. Diffusion and homogeneous reaction

of gas A in liquid B
Consider a situation shown in Fig. 15.22. The gas
A is solute in liquid B, where it experiences diffusion
process and first order chemical reaction. The
concentration of A at the interface is known to be CA, 1. Fig. 15.23. Schematic for example 15.16
The bottom of the container is impermeable to A, then
To find: Variation of NO2 concentration with
the boundary conditions are
height.
x=0 CA(x) = CA, 1
Assumptions :
dCA 1. Uniform reaction rate.
and at x=L =0
dx x =L
2. Stagnant atmosphere.
3. Atmospheric temperature as 300 K.
using these boundary conditions in eqn. (15.70), we get
Analysis : The molar concentration with first
cosh m(L − x ) degree of reaction is given by eqn. (15.70)
CA(x) = CA, 1 …(15.71) CA(x) = C1 e–mx + C2 emx
cosh mL
At x = L, we get k1 0.03
where m= = −4
= 40.82 m −1
C A,1 DAB 0.18 × 10
CA, L = …(15.72)
cosh mL using boundary condition well above ground x → ∞
Moreover, the molar flux at liquid-gas interface; 0 = C1 e–m × ∞ + C2em × ∞
It gives C2 = 0, then
dC A
NA, x (0) = −DAB CA(x) = C1e–mx
dx x =0
The molar flux at ground level is given by
= –DABCA, 1 m[sinh mx
dCA
– tanh mL cosh mx]x = 0 NA, 0 = −DAB
dx x =0
or NA, x (0) = DAB CA, 1 m tanh mL …(15.73)
= −DAB  −C1 me −m × 0 
Example 15.16. Consider the emission of NO2 from
automobiles. This NO2 reacts chemically in atmosphere = 40.82 × 0.18 × 10–4 C1
with unburned hydrocarbons (aided by sunlight) and or C1 = 1360.82 NA,
produces smog. The reaction is first order with k1 we get CA(x) = 1360.82 NA e–40.82 x. Ans.
= 0.03 (s)–1. Assume steady state condition. Obtain the
variation of NO2 concentration in altitude in terms of 15.10. CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER
surface flux NA of NO2 , if the concentration of NO2 well
above the ground is zero. Take Convective mass transfer involves the diffusion of a fluid
DAB = 0.18 × 10–4 m2/s. by bulk motion of mixture. When a fluid moves over a
surface, the transfer of mass occurs due to mass diffusion
and bulk movement of fluid. The situation is analogous

A
m dρ A
to convective heat transfer. The fluid movement jA = = − D AB
augments the mass transfer considerably, by replacing As dy y=0
the high concentration fluid near the surface by the low
concentration fluid. In absence of bulk motion of fluid, dx A
= − ρD AB …(15.76)
the mass convection reduces to mass diffusion. dy y=0
Convective mass transfer can also be classified From eqn. (15.75) and eqn. (15.76), we get
as free mass convection and forced mass convection. In
dρ A dx A
free mass convection, the concentration gradient changes −DAB −DAB
the density of the fluid, which may be acted upon by the dy dy
hmx = =
buoyancy force. The evaporation of alcohol or gasoline (ρA, s − ρA, ∞ ) ( x A, s − x A, ∞ )
are the examples of free mass convection. …(15.77)
In forced mass convection one fluid moves with The convection mass transfer coefficient can also
appreciable velocity over another fluid. The evaporation be defined in terms of molar flux and molar
of water from the ocean, cooling towers, and the exhaust concentrations.
gases from an automobile that are forceed to pass over dCA
a catalytic converter are some examples of forced mass −DAB
JA dy
convection. hmx = = (m/s)
(CA, s − CA, ∞ ) (CA, s − CA, ∞ )
The rate of mass convection is influenced by fluid
…(15.78)
properties, flow geometry, flow velocity, flow regimes
and composition. The mechanism of convection mass The average mass transfer coefficient can be
transfer is also intricated like convection heat transfer. evaluated from
Therefore, we rely on experimental relations to obtain 1
mass transfer rate. hm =
As ∫A s
hm x dA s …(15.79)
15.10.1. Mass Transfer Coefficient 15.10.2. Dimensionless Parameters in Convective Mass

Convective mass transfer coefficient hm can be defined Transfer
in similar manner that used for defining convective heat
The dimensionless parameters are often used to
transfer coefficient h. The rate of mass convention across
correlate convective transport data. In convection heat
the boundary can be expressed as
transfer, the Reynolds number. Prandtl number and
conv = hm A s (ρ A, s − ρ A, ∞ )
m Nusselt number were used. Some of these parameters
along with some newly defined dimensionless quantities
= hm As ρ( x A, s − xA, ∞ ) (kg/s) will be useful in correlation of convective mass transfer.
…(15.74) The molecular diffusivities of three transport
Where hm is the average mass transfer coefficient, phenomenon are :
measured in m/s, As is the surface area, (ρA, s – ρA, ∞) is µ
(i) Momentum diffusivity ν =
the mass concentration difference of species A across ρ
the boundary layer, ρ is average density of the fluid
k
in the boundary and product of hmρ is the mass transfer (ii) Thermal diffusivity, α =
ρC
conductance and measured in kg/m2.s. The local mass
(iii) Mass diffusivity, DAB.
conv ( x ) is expressed in terms of local mass
transfer rate m
All these diffusivities are measured in m2/s and
transfer coefficient hmx as thus ratio of any two diffusivities becomes
conv ( x ) = hmx As (ρA, s – ρA, ∞)
m dimensionless.
= hmx As ρ(xA, s – xA, ∞) …(15.75) Schmidt number : It is the ratio of momentum
diffusivity to the mass diffusivity. It is designated as Sc
Like heat convection at the boundary, there is no
and expressed as :
slip condition of species at the surface, therefore, the
species transfer at the surface (y = 0) is by diffusion Momentum diffusivity ν
Sc = =
only and the mass flux at the surface can be expressed Mass diffusivity D AB
by Fick’s law: ...(15.80)
MASS TRANSFER 579
The role of Schmidt number in convective mass A similar analysis for mass and momentum
transfer is analogous to role of Prandtl number in transfer for Sc = 1 results
convection heat transfer. It compares the relative Cf
Sh
thicknesses of velocity and concentration boundary = ...(15.84)
layers. Re Sc 2
Lewis number: It is the ratio of thermal hm L ν µ
using Sh = and Sc = =
diffusivity to mass diffusivity. It is designated as Le and D AB D AB ρ D AB
expressed as:
hm L Cf
Le =
Thermal diffusivity ∴
FG ρ u L IJ FG µ IJ =
2
H µ K H ρD K
m
Mass diffusivity D AB
AB
α k
= = …(15.81)
D AB ρC D AB hm Cf
The Lewis number compares the relative or = Stm = ...(15.85)
um 2
thicknesses of thermal and concentration boundary
layers. It comes in existance, when a process involves Reynolds Colburn analogy for tube flow may also
simultaneously convective transfer of mass and energy. be extended to mass transfer problems to express the
friction factor as :
Sherwood number: It is analogous to Nusselt
number in convection heat transfer and it may be f
Stm Sc2/3 = ...(15.86)
expressed as ratio of concentration gradient at the 8
surface to overall concentration gradient, it is also called which is analogous to
mass transfer Nusselt number NuAB. It is designated as
Sh. f
St Pr2/3 =
8
Concentration gradient
Sh = When Pr and Sc are not unity, Reynolds Colburn
Overall concentration gradient
equation for turbulent flow inside tubes is :
Molecular mass transport resistance
= Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr1/3
Convective mass transport resistance
The analogous relation for mass transfer in
hm Lc wetted wall column is given as
= = f (Re, Sc) ...(15.82)
D AB
Sh = 0.023 Re0.8 Sc1/3 ...(15.87)
where Lc is characteristic length. The Sherwood number
A wetted column means a vertical tube with liquid
signifies the effectiveness of mass convection at the
surface. flowing in a thin film down the inside wall of the tube
and a gas flowing upward in the tube.
Mass Transfer Stanton number: Mathemati-
cally, it is interpreted 15.10.4. Correlation for Convective Mass Transfer
hm Sh In convection heat transfer, it was observed that the
as Stm = = …(15.83)
um Re Sc energy and momentum equations for laminar boundary
where um is free stream velocity of fluid in external flow layer on a flat plate are :
and bulk mean velocity in internal flow. ∂ 2u
∂u ∂u
u +v =ν
15.10.3. Analogy between Heat and Mass Transfer ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
The mechanism of heat, momentum and mass transfers
are closely related and they are almost identical. ∂T ∂T ∂2T
and u +v =α
Therefore, data of one transfer operation should be used ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
to predict the rate of transfer in other operation.
If we consider laminar boundary layer on a flat
The heat and momentum transfers are
plate in which mass diffusion occurs, the equation for
interrelated by Reynolds analogy for fluids having
concentration can be written as :
Pr = 1.
Cf ∂ρ A ∂ρ A ∂ 2ρ A
Nu h u +v = DAB ...(15.88)
= = St = ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
Re Pr ρC pum 2
where ρA = mass concentration of component A, diffusing

hm d
through boundary layer. = 0.023 Re0.83 Sc0.44 ...(15.98)
D AB
The similarities between the governing equations
for heat, mass and momentum transfer suggest that the For diffusion over a sphere
empirical correlations for mass transfer coefficient Sh = 2(1 + 0.276 Re1/2 Sc1/3) ...(15.99)
would be similar to that of heat transfer coefficient.
Thus
15.11. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF CONVECTIVE
h x
Shx = mx = f(Rex, Sc) ...(15.89) MASS TRANSFER
D AB
For flow over a smooth flat plate, the local value As discussed in chapter 7, the dimensional analysis
of mass transfer coefficient can be obtained from relation predicts the various dimensionless parameters,
correlating the experimental data.
hmx x
Shx = = 0.332 Rex1/2 Sc1/3 ...(15.90) Forced mass convection stream. Consider the
D AB mass transfer from a walls of a circular tube to a fluid.
for laminar flow The mass transfer is the result of concentration gradient.
Re < 5 × 105 The variables affecting the phenomenon are listed with
their symbols and dimensions.
δ
and = Sc1/3 ...(15.91)
δc Variable Symbol, units Dimensions
where δ = thickness of velocity boundary layer Tube diameter d, m L
δc = thickness of concentration boundary layer. Fluid density ρ, kg/m3 ML–3
The corresponding average value Fluid viscosity µ kg/ms ML–1 t–1
Sh = 0.664 ReL1/2 Sc1/3 ...(15.92) Fluid velocity u, m/s L t–1
Mass diffusivity DAB, m2/s L2 t–1
or hm = 2hmx
Mass transfer coefficient hm m/s L t–1
For mixed boundary condition, the average value
of mass transfer coefficient, hm can be obtained from There are six variables affecting the forced
Sh = (0.037 ReL0.8 – 870) Sc1/3 ...(15.93) convection mass transfer phenomenon and they are
The mass transfer coefficient from a turbulent expressed in three primary dimensions (M, L and t).
boundary layer over a flat plate According to Buckingham π theorem, the number of
Shx = 0.0292 Rex0.8 Sc1/3 for Re > 5 × 105 independent dimensionless group formed as = 6 – 3 = 3
...(15.94)
or f(π1, π2, π3) = 0
The coefficient of friction for flow over a smooth
flat plate can be obtained from Reynolds analogy for The variables of core group are DAB, ρ, d and hm,
mass transfer u and µ are selected variables.
hmx C fx Thus
Laminar Sc2/3 =
u∞ 2 π1 = D aAB ρb dc hm
= 0.332 Rex–1/2 ...(15.95)
π2 = D dAB ρe df u
hmx C fx
Turbulent Sc2/3 = = 0.296 Re–1/5 g
u∞ 2 π3 = D AB ρh di µ
...(15.96) Writing π1 in dimensional form
When both heat and mass transfer are occur M0L0t0 = L2at–a MbL–3b Lc L t–1
simultaneously. The heat and mass transfer coefficient
may be related as Equating the exponents of dimensions on both
sides
h
= ρCp Le2/3 ...(15.97) M: 0=b
hm
L: 0 = 2a – 3b + c + 1
For turbulent flow through pipes, the mass
transfer coefficient is correlated as t: 0=–a–1
MASS TRANSFER 581
Solution of these simultaneous equations give L3c g ∆ρ A

a=–1 b=0 c=1 and π3 =
µ D AB
hm d Multiplying π2 and π3, we get
Thus π1 = = Sh (Sherwood number)
D AB FG ρD IJ × F L g ∆ρ I
3
H µ K GH µ D JK
AB c A
Similarly the π2 and π3 group yielding to π2π3 =
ΑΒ
ud
π2 = ρL3c g∆ρ A
D AB = = GrAB ...(15.100)
µ2
µ
and π3 = = Sc (Schmidt number) The GrAB is called the mass transfer Grashof
ρ D AB number.
Dividing π2 by π3, we get The natural convection mass transfer suggests
π2 ud ρ D AB ρud the correlation
= × = = Re.
π3 D AB µ µ Sh = f(GrAB, Sc) ...(15.101)
The result of dimensional analysis for forced which is analogous to the relation for natural convec-
convection mass transfer indicates, that tion heat transfer.
Sh = f(Re, Sc)
which is analogous to heat transfer correlation 15.12. EVAPORATION OF WATER INTO AIR
Nu = f(Re, Pr)
In the atmosphere, the continuous evaporation and
Natural convection mass transfer: The condensation of water with moving wind from the soil,
natural convection mass transfer phenomenon is ocean, rivers and lakes influence every activity of life
affected by the following variables : and provide variety of climate that governs the
environment on the earth. There are also several
Variables Symbol units Dimensions engineering situations, in which evaporation of water
along with heat transfer is important e.g., humidifiers,
Characteristic length Lc, m L
dehumidifiers, absorbers, desert coolers, wet bulb
Mass diffusivity DAB, m2/s L2 t–1 thermometers etc.
Fluid density ρ, kg/m3 ML–3 During the evaporation of water by moving air
Fluid viscosity µ, kg/ms M L–1 t–1 over the water surface (evaporative cooling), the energy
Buoyancy force g ∆ρA, kg/m2s2 M L–2 t–2 associated with the phase change is latent heat of
vaporisation of liquid. The energy required for
Mass transfer coefficient hm, m/s L t–1
evaporation must come from water by lowering its
There are six variables affecting the phenomenon temperature. However, under steady state conditions,
and they are expressed in three primary dimensions the latent heat supplied by water during its evaporation
thus, according to Buckingham π theorem, the is equal to heat supplied to water by surrounding air,
independent dimensionless group formed are : which in turn also gets cooled.
= 6 – 3 = 3, π1, π2, and π3 are : Under steady state conditions (Refer
Fig. 15.24), the energy balance at air water interface
π1 = D aAB Lb µc hm qconv = qevap
π2 = D dAB Le µf ρ w
m
g or h(T∞ – Ts) = hfg ...(15.102)
π3 = D AB Lh µi g ∆ρA A
Solving for three π groups, we get w
m
where = hm(ρs – ρ∞) from eqn. (15.74) and
hm L c A
π1 = = Sh (Sherwood number)
D AB m w = mass rate of water that evaporates.
h and hm = heat and mass transfer coefficients,
ρ D AB 1
π2 = = respectively
µ Sc
ρs and ρ∞ = mass concentrations at the surface
(Reciprocal of Schmidt number) and ambient, respectively
z Then eqn. (15.106) takes the form

qevap ω2 − ω1 Cp
Air water
= Le2/3 ...(15.107)
qconv interface T∞ − Ts hfg
Ts ps
Example 15.17. Air at 35°C and 1 atm flows at a velocity
of 60 m/s over
Water species A
(i) a flat plate 0.5 m long
(ii) a sphere 5 cm in diameter.
Calculate the mass transfer coefficient of water
vapour in air. Neglect the concentration of vapour in air.
Fig. 15.24. Diffusion of water into air from
a horizontal surface Solution
Rearranging eqn. (15.102) Given : Flow of air over the bodies with
p = 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2
h
(T∞ – Ts) = hfg (ρs – ρ∞) T∞ = 35°C = 308 K,
hm
u∞ = 60 m/s.
Using eqn. (15.97), we get
ρCp Le2/3 (T∞ – Ts) = hfg (ρs – ρ∞) ...(15.103) Air
This equation can be applied on wet bulb T¥ = 35°C
thermometer to obtain relative humidity or ambient u = 60 m/s
temperature. In terms of partial pressures
p = 1 atm
M p M p
ρs = w s and ρ∞ = w ∞
R u Ts R u T∞ 0.5 m
(a)
Mw hfg Fp p I
∴ (T∞ – Ts) =
R uρC p Le2/3
GH T s
s
− ∞
T∞
JK Air
p = 1 atm
cm
...(15.104) T¥ = 35°C =
5
d
The air properties should be used at Tf u¥ = 60 m/s
T + Ts
Tf = ∞ (b)
2
and Tf is approximately equal to Ts and T∞ Fig. 15.25. Schematics for example 15.17
hfg M w To find : Mass transfer coefficients.
Thus (T∞ – Ts) = (ps – p∞)
ρC p L e 2 / 3 R u T f Analysis : The diffusion coefficient of water
...(15.105) vapour in air
Replacing DAB = 0.256 × 10–4 m2/s
ρ RuTf = Mair p (From Appendix Table A-11)
hfg (M w / M air ) FG p − p IJ
s ∞ The properties of air at 35°C from Table A-4
Then (T∞ – Ts) =
C p Le 2/3
×
H p pK Density Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg.K,
...(15.106)
µ = 2 × 10–5 kg/ms, Pr = 0.706
where p is total pressure.
Introducing specific humidity 1.01325 × 10 5
ρ= = 1.146 kg/m3
mv M w pv 287 × 308
ω= =
mair M air p∞ Schmidt number
pv1 p∞ M µ
_
~ = ω1 air Sc =
p∞ p Mw ρD AB
pv2 ps M 2 × 10 −5
and ≈ = ω2 air = = 0.682
p∞ p Mw 1.146 × 0.256 × 10 −4
MASS TRANSFER 583
(i) Flow over flat plate, Air

p = 1 atm
Lc = 0.5 m
T¥ = 50°C
ρ u∞ L c 1.146 × 60 × 0.5
Re = = u = 2.3 m/s Saturated air
2 × 10 −5
Evaporation
µ 30°C
= 40%
= 1.719 × 10 6
greater than 5 × 105, thus flow is turbulent.

Using eqn. (15.94) Water reservoir
Sh = 0.0296 Re0.8 Sc1/3

0.65 m
hm × 0.5 Fig. 15.26. Schematic for example 15.18
or = 0.0296 × (1.719 × 106)0.8 × (0.632)1/3
0.256 × 10 −4 To find : Amount of water evaporation per hour
= 2472.2 per sq. m of the reservoir with direction of diffusion.
or hm = 0.1265 m/s. Ans. Assumption : Diffusion coefficient = 0.256 ×
10–4 m2/s (from Appendix Table A-11)
(ii) Flow over a sphere,
Analysis : Reynolds number of fluid flow
Lc = d = 0.05 m
ρu∞ L 1.105 × 2.3 × 0.65
ρu∞ d 1.146 × 60 × 0.05 Re = =
Re = = µ 1.943 × 10 −5
µ 2 × 10 −5
= 85.02 × 103
= 171900 It is less than the 5 × 105, thus flow is laminar.
Using correlation, eqn. (15.99) Schmidt number
Sh = 2 [1 + 0.276 Re1/2 Sc1/3]
µ 1.943 × 10 −5
hm × 0.05 Sc = =
= 2 × [1 + 0.276 × (171900)1/2 ρD AB 1.105 × 0.256 × 10 −4
0.256 × 10 −4
= 0.686
× (0.632)1/3]
= 198.4 Using correlation
or hm = 0.101 m/s. Ans. Sh = 0.664 ReL1/2 Sc1/3
Example 15.18. Air at 50°C and 1 atm flow over the hm × 0.65
or = 0.664 × (85.02 × 103)1/2 × (0.686)1/3
surface of a water reservoir at an average velocity of 0.256 × 10 −4
2.3 m/s. The water surface is 0.65 m long and 0.65 m = 170.75
wide. The water surface temperature is estimated at
or hm = 6.725 × 10–3 m/s
30°C. The relative humidity of air is 40%. The density of
air is 1.105 kg/m3 and its viscosity is 1.943 × 10–5 kg/ms. The partial pressure of water vapour at the air-
water interface, corresponds to saturation temperature
Calculate the amount of water vapour evaporates per of 30°C
hour per sq.m of water surface and state the direction of
diffusion. (V.T.U., March 2001) ps1 = 4.246 kPa
Solution Saturation pressure of water vapour at 50°C

Given : Evaporation from the surface of a water ps2 = 12.35 kPa
reservoir.
Partial pressure of water vapour in air at 50°C,
T∞ = 50°C, 40% RH
p = 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2, p∞ = φ × ps2 = 0.4 × 12.35 = 4.94 kPa.
u∞ = 2.3 m/s, L = 0.65 m, The concentrations
A = 0.65 × 0.65 = 0.4225 m2, ps1 Mw 4.246 × 18
ρw1 = ρs = =
Ts = 30°C = 303 K, φ = 0.4, Ru Ts 8.314 × 303
ρ = 1.105 kg/m3, µ = 1.943 × 10–5 kg/ms. = 0.0303 kg/m3
For air, ν = 15.89 × 10–6 m2/s

p∞ M w 4.94 × 18
ρw2 = ρ∞ = = = 0.0353 For water,
R u Ts 8.314 × 303
1
The mass flux of water vapour, evaporated vg = 22.93 m3/kg → ρA =
22.93
w
m = 0.0436 kg/m3
= hm(ρs – ρ∞)
A DAB = 0.26 × 10–4 m2/s
= 9.03 × 10–3 × (0.0303 – 0.0353) Schmidt number
= – 4.513 kg/m2s = – 0.162 kg/m2h.
Since ρ∞ > ρs, thus water vapour diffuses from ν 15.89 × 10 −6
Sc = = = 0.611
air to water. Ans. D AB 0.26 × 10 −4
Example 15.19. (i) The water in a 5 m × 15 m Reynolds number
outdoor swimming pool is maintained at a temperature
of 27°C. The average ambient temperature and relative u∞ L 2 × 15
ReL = = = 1887980
humidity are 27°C and 40%, respectively. Assuming a ν 15.89 × 10 −6
wind speed of 2 m/s in the direction of long side of the It is greater than 5 × 105, thus flow is turbulent.
pool, estimate the mass transfer coefficient for the
evaporation of water from the pool surface. For the mixed boundary conditions, using
correlation, eqn. (15.93)
(ii) If the air stream is at 50°C, while the wet bulb
temperature is at 22°C. Calculate the relative humidity ShL = (0.037 ReL0.8 – 870) Sc1/3
of air stream. (Anna Univ., March 2000) = [0.037 × (1887980)0.8 – 870] × (0.611)1/3
Solution = 2556
Given : (i) Evaporation of water from a swimming Further,
pool. hm L
L = 15 m, w = 5 m, ShL =
D AB
φ = 40%,
2556 × 0.26 × 10 −4
T∞ = T = 27°C = 300 K, or hm =
15
u∞ = 2 m/s = 4.43 × 10–3 m/s. Ans.
(ii) Ts = 22°C, T∞ = 50°C. (ii) The mean film temperature,
To find : Ts + T∞ 22 + 50
(i) Mass transfer coefficient for evaporation. Tf = = = 36°C
2 2
(ii) Relative humidity of air for change of state. From table at 36°C, the properties of air from
Table A-4
27°C
5m ρ = 1.14 kg/m3, Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg.K
Pr = 0.7 µ = 2 × 10–5 kg/ms
DAB = 0.26 × 10–4 m2/s (from Table A-11)
Schmidt number,
Air ν µ
Sc = =
m
T¥ = 27°C
D AB ρD AB
15
f = 40%
u¥ = 2 m/s 2 × 10 −5
= = 0.675
1.14 × 0.26 × 10 −4
Lewis number,
α Sc 0.675
Fig. 15.27. Schematic of swimming pool for example 15.19 Le = = = = 0.964
D AB Pr 0.7
Analysis : (i) Thermophysical properties of air and
water at 27°C (from appendix)
MASS TRANSFER 585
Properties of water at 22°C (from Table A-7) Analysis : The specific humidity of air ω1 can be
vg = 52.08 m3/kg, hfg = 2449 kJ/kg.K obtained from eqn. (15.107)
1 ω2 − ω1 Cp
ρs = = 0.01920 kg/m3 = Le2/3
vg T∞ − Ts hfg
Using eqn. (15.103) for energy transfer on wet
bulb Mw ps
where ω2 = × ,
ρCp Le2/3
(T∞ – Ts) = hfg (ρs – ρ∞) M air p − ps
where ρ, ρs, ρ∞ are density of air, water vapour at water during evaporation
surface and in air respectively, At 17°C from Table A-7
Using values ps = 1.917 kPa,
1.14 × 1.006 × (0.964)2/3 × (50 – 22) hfg = 2461 kJ/kg.K
= 2449 × (0.01920 – ρ∞) FG 18 IJ × 1.917
or ρ∞ = 0.01920 – 0.01295 = 0.00625 kg/m3 ∴ ω2 = H 28.9 K 101.32 − 1.917
The density of water vapour at 50°C, = 0.0120 kg/kg of dry air
1 1 and Lewis number
ρs = = = 0.0817 kg/m3
vg 12.23 Pr 0.74
Le = = = 1.233
Relative humidity, Sc 0.6
Then
ρ∞ 0.00625
φ= = 0.0120 − ω 1 1.004
ρs 0.0817 = × (1.233)2/3 = 0.00047
27 – 17 2461
= 0.0765 = 7.65%. Ans.
and ω1 = 0.0073 kg/kg of dry air. Ans.
Example 15.20. The dry bulb and wet bulb temperature
recorded by a thermometer in moist air are 27°C and Example 15.21. Air at 1 atm, 25°C containing small
17°C, respectively. Calculate the specific humidity of air, quantity of iodine flows with a velocity of 4 m/s inside a
assuming following values: 25 mm diameter tube. Calculate the mass transfer
coefficient for iodine transfer from gas stream to the wall
Pr = 0.74, Sc = 0.6,
surface. If Cm is mean concentration of the iodine in
Mw = 18, Mair = 29, kg-mole/m3 in air stream, calculate the rate of deposition
Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg.K, p = 1.0132 × 105 N/m2. of iodine on the tube surface, where the iodine concentra-
tion is zero.
Solution
Given : Temperature measured by dry bulb and Solution
wet bulb thermometers. Given : Flow of air containing iodine through a
T∞ = 27°C, Ts = 17°C. tube.
To find : Specific humidity of air. p = 1 atm = 1.01325 bar,
T = 25°C = 298 K,
u∞ = 4 m/s,
T¥ = 27°C d = 25 mm.
Ts = 17°C To find :
(i) Mass transfer coefficient of iodine.
(ii) Rate of deposition of iodine on the tube surface.
Analysis : (i) For air at 25°C at 1 atm, (from
wet
w Table A-4)
lo
ir f
A ν = 1.58 × 10–5 m2/s
For iodine
Fig. 15.28. Dry bulb and wet bulb thermomenters
for example 15.20 DAB = 0.826 × 10–5 m2/s (from Table A-11)
Wet surface
with a volatile
liquid
Dry air
Air + lodine T¥ = 40°C
mm
T = 25°C p¥ = 0
p = 1 atm
25
u¥ = 4 m/s
Fig. 15.29. Schematic for example 15.21 Fig. 15.30. Earthenware pot for example 15.22
Reynolds number To find : Water temperature inside the pot.
u∞ d 4 × 25 × 10 −3 Analysis : Assuming mean film temperature as
Re = = = 6329 300 K, from Table A-4, the properties of air
ν 1.58 × 10 −5
ρ = 1.16 kg/m3,
Schmidt number
Cp = 1.007 kJ/kg.K,
ν 1.58 × 10 −5 α = 22.5 × 10–6 m2/s.
Sc = = = 1.913
D AB 0.826 × 10 −5 22.5 × 10 −6
α
Then Le = = = 1.125
Using correlation, eqn. (15.98) D AB 0.2 × 10 −4
Sh = 0.023 Re0.83 (Sc)0.44 The evaporative cooling effect is given by
eqn. (15.104);
hm d
or
D AB
= 0.023 × (6329)0.83 × (1.913)0.44
T∞ – Ts =
M w hfg LM p
s
−
p∞ OP
= 43.73
R uρ C p Le 2/3
NTs Ts Q
Putting p∞ = 0 for dry air and rearranging, we
43.73 × 0.826 × 10 −5 get
or hm =
25 × 10 −3 hfg M w ps
Ts2 – Ts T∞ + =0
= 0.0144 m/s. Ans. R uρ C p Le 2 / 3
(ii) The rate of deposition of iodine 120 × 120 × 3530 × 10 −3
NA = hm (Cm – Cw) = 0.0144 × (Cm – 0) or Ts2 – 313 Ts + =0
8.314 × 1.16 × 1.007 × (1.125) 2/3
= 0.0144 Cm kg-mole/m2s. Ans.
or Ts2 – 313 Ts + 4838 = 0
Example 15.22. An earthenware pot cools water by
+ 313 ± 3132 − 4 × 4838
keeping its outside surface wet with a volatile liquid of Hence, Ts =
molecular weight 120 kg/kg-mole. If this pot is placed 2×1
= 296.7 K = 23.7°C. Ans.
in dry air at 40°C with heat and mass transfer occurring
simultaneously by forced convection. What is the steady Example 15.23. Calculate the temperature of dry air at
temperature of cold water inside the pot ? 1 atm, whose wet bulb temperature is 18.3°C.
Take hfg = 120 kJ/kg, ps = 3530 N/m2, If air stream temperature is 32.2°C and wet bulb
temperature remains 18.3°C, what would be the relative
DAB = 0.2 × 10–4 m2/s. humidity of air stream ? Take DAB = 0.26 × 10–4 m2/s,
Solution α = 0.221 × 10–4 m2/s for air, Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg.K.
Given : Evaporation from earthenware pot Solution
Mw = 120 kg/kg-mole, Given : Temperature measurement by wet bulb
hfg = 120 kJ/kg, thermometer.
(i) p = 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
T∞ = 40°C = 313 K,
Twb = 18.3°C
DAB = 0.2 × 10–4 m2/s,
(ii) T∞ = 32.2°C,
ps = 3530 N/m2. Ts = 18.3°C,
MASS TRANSFER 587
DAB = 0.26 × 10–4 m2/s, 2456 × (0.01536 − ρ ∞ )

(32.2 – 18.3) =
α = 0.221 × 10–4 m2/s, 1.212 × 1.004 × (0.85) 2 / 3
Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg.K. or 0.01536 – ρ∞ = 0.0062 or ρ∞ = 0.0092 kg/m3
To find : From steam table at 32.2°C
(i) Dry bulb temperature when Twb = 18.3°C vg = 29.24 m3/kg
(ii) R.H. when Tdb = 32.2°C, and Twb = 18.3°C. 1 1
∴ ρs = = = 0.0342 kg/m3
vg 29.24
The relative humidity
ρ∞ 0.0092
φ= = = 26.9%. Ans.
ρs 0.0342
Twb = 18.3°C
T¥ = 27°C
Ts = 18.3°C
wet wet
low
Air f
Fig. 15.31. (a) Schematice of wet bulb
thermometer for example 15.23 Fig. 15.31. (b) Dry bulb and wet bulb thermometers for
Analysis : (i) From steam table at 18.3°C example 15.23
pg = ps = 2.107 kPa, vg = 65.08 m3/kg Example 15.24. During an experimentation, the flow
hfg = 2456 kJ/kg of dry air at 25°C and 1 atm at a free stream velocity of
1 1 2 m/s over a softdrink bottle covered with a layer of wet
ρs = = = 0.01536 kg/m3
vg 65.08 cloth. It is observed that 15 gram of water has evaporated
For dry air ρ∞ = 0 in 15 minutes. The surface area of bottle is 0.3 m2. Both
Density of air the body and air are kept at 25°C during study. The
p 1.01325 × 100 vapour pressure of water at 25°C is 15 Pa and mass
ρ= = diffusivity of water in air at 25°C is 2.5 × 10–5 m2/s.
RT 0.287 × (18.3 + 273)
= 1.212 kg/m3 Calculate heat transfer coefficient under the same flow
Lewis number conditions over same geometry.
−4
α 0.221 × 10 Solution
Le = = = 0.85
D 0.26 × 10 −4 A softdrink bottle covered with layer of wet cloth.
Using eqn. (15.103) T∞ = 25°C, p = 1 atm,
ρCp (Le)2/3 (T∞ – Ts) = hfg (ρs – ρ∞) u∞ = 2 m/s, t = 15 min = 900 s
2456 × (0.01536 − 0) mev = 15 gram = 0.015 kg
or T∞ – 18.3 =
1.212 × 1.004 × (0.85) 2/3 A = 0.3 m2, Ts = 25°C
= 34.5°C –5 2
DAB = 2.5 × 10 m /s, pv = 15 pa
or Dry air temperature, To find : Heat transfer cofficient under identical
T∞ = 34.5 + 18.3 = 52.8°C. Ans. conditions over same geometry.
(ii) Relative humidity of air stream: Assumptions :
Here T∞ = 32.2°C, Ts = 18.3°C, 1. Both air and water vapour as an ideal gas.
ρ = 1.212 kg/m3, hfg = 2456 kJ/kg.K, 2. Motar mass of water is 18.
Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg.K, Le = 0.85 and ρ∞ ≠ 0 Analysis : Properties of dry air at 25°C and 1 atm
Using in eqn. (15.103), we get (from Table A-4)
ρ = 1.184 kg/m3, Cp = 1007 J/kg.K, 15.13. SUMMARY

–5 2
α = 2.141 × 10 m /s
The transport of mass on a microscopic level as a result
The mass concentration of water vapour in air of diffusion from a region of high concentration to that
of a lower concentration in called mass transfer.
pv M w (15 × 10 −3 kPa) × (18 kg/kg-mole.K)
ρs = = The mass can be transferred by molecular diffusion,
R uT (8.314 kJ/kg-mole.K) × (298 K)
convection and by change of phase. The diffusion of mass
= 1.089 × 10–4 kg/m3 transfer is a molecular phenomenon and diffusion
coefficient or mass diffusivity is a property.
A = 0.3 m
2 The Fick’s law states that the mass flux of a
constituent per unit area is proportional to the
Dry air concentration gradient.
T = 25°C Wet
mA dρ A
cloth jA = = – DAB
u = 2 m/s Water A dx
p = 1 atm
vapour Alternatively
dC A
JA = – DAB
dx
where A = mass flow rate of component A, kg/s
m
A = cross-sectional area, m2
ρA = mass concentration kg/m3
Fig. 15.32. Cooling of softdrink in desert conditions.
CA = molar concentration, kg-mole/m3
Mass concentration of water vapour in dry air NA = molar flux
ρ∞ = 0
DAB = mass diffusivity of component A in
Rate of evaporation of water component B, m2/s.
. mev 0.015 kg The three dimensional mass diffusion equation is:
mevap = = 1 ∂C A
∆t 900 s ∇2CA =
D AB ∂t
= 1.667 × 10–5 kg/s
The mass diffusion of water in stagnant gases is
The mass convection coefficient hm using eqn (15.74)
given as :
.
F
p − p∞ I
hm =
m evap
A(ρs − ρ ∞ )
w )total =
(m
D AB A M w p
R uT L
ln GH
p − ps
JK
where ps and p∞ are partial pressure of water at free
(1.667 × 10 –5 kg / s) water level and container level, respectively.
=
(0.3 m 2 ) × (1.089 × 10 −4 − 0) p is total pressure, Ru is universal gas constant,
DAB is diffusion coefficient and Mw is molecular weight
= 0.510 m/s
of water and T is absolute temperature.
Lewis number
The convective mass transfer involves the
α (2.141 × 10 –4 m 2 /s) diffusion of one fluid through the movement of the other
Le = = fluid. In free mass convection, the concentration gradient
D AB (2.5 × 10 −5 m 2 /s) changes the density of fluid, which may be acted upon
= 8.564 by buoyancy force. In forced mass convection, one fluid
is moving with an appreciable velocity over the other.
Using analogy between heat and mass transfer,
eqn. (15.97) The steady state diffusion through a plane
membrane is given as
h = ρCphmLe2/3
C A , 1 − C A, 2
= (1.184 kg/m3) × (1007 J/kg.K) JA =
R m, A
× (0.510 m/s) × (8.564)2/3
where Rm, A is known as diffusion resistance
= 2546.5 W/m2.K. Ans.
MASS TRANSFER 589
L 3. Explain Fick’s law of diffusion. What is mass

= for plane fluid column
AD AB diffusivity ? What is its dimension ?
FG r IJ
2
4. Compare Newton’s law of viscosity, Fourier law of
=
ln
Hr K
1 5.
heat conduction and Fick’s law of diffusion.
Define mass fraction, mole fraction, molar
2 πLD AB concentration, mass flux and molar flux.
for cylindrical fluid column. 6. Derive the generalised mass diffusion equation.
When diffusion fluxes of two components in a fluid 7. Explain the molecular diffusion through a Stagnant
mixture are equal but acting in opposite direction, then gas.
such diffusion is referred as equimolar counter diffusion
8. Explain steady state diffusion through a plane
and it is given as
membrane.
D (C − C A, 2 )
= ABA A,1
N 9. What is diffusion resistance ? What is convective mass
A
L transfer coefficient ? What is its dimension ?
The mass transfer coefficient hm is defined in
10. Explain equimolar counter diffusion.
terms of mass flux as
11. Define and explain the physical significance of
m A
hm = (i) Schmidt number,
A(ρ A, 1 − ρ A , 2 )
(ii) Lewis number, and
D (iii) Sherwood number.
= AB m/s
∆x 12. Explain the dimensional analysis for convective mass
In terms of molar flux transfer.
NA 13. Explain evaporation of water into air.
hm = m/s
(C A, 1 − C A, 2 ) 14. For simultaneous flow of heat and mass on a flat plate,
The Reynolds Colburn analogy for mass transfer prove that
rate yields to
h
hm f = ρ Cp Le0.67
Sc2/3 = hm
um 8
15. Derive an expression for diffusion of one gas through
and ShD = 0.023 ReD0.83 Sc0.44
a stagnant gas in terms of logarithmic mean partial
where Sc is the Schmidt number, a ratio of momentum pressures. Consider the pressure and temperature of
diffusivity to mass diffusivity. The other dimensionless the system to be constant.
numbers used in mass transfer are Lewis number, Le 16. Show that the total mass of water vapour diffused
and Sherwood number, Sh, defined as : from a water column to air passing over, it is given
Thermal diffusivity α by
Le = =
Mass diffusivity D AB
D AB A M w p F p− p I
and Sh =
Concentration gradient w )total =
(m
R uT ( x2 − x1)
ln GH p − p JK
w2
w1
Overall concentration gradient
The continuous evaporation of water into air where DAB = diffusion coefficient,
results into humidity increase in air and cooling of water A = cross-section area of water column,
simultaneously and yields into form Ru = universal gas constant,
ω2 − ω1 Cp Mw = molecular weight of water vapour,
= Le2/3
T∞ − Ts hfg x2 – x1 = height of container above water level,
where ω1 and ω2 are specific humidities before and after p = total pressure
evaporation. pw1 = partial pressure of water vapour
at water surface, and
REVIEW QUESTIONS
pw2 = partial pressure of water vapour at
1. Why is mass transfer take place ? the top of container.
2. State the modes of mass transfer with suitable 17. Derive the Stefan’s equation for the rate of
examples. evaporation from the surface of a lake.
PROBLEMS reservoirs. Take the mass diffusivity for N2-CO2

mixture as 0.16 × 10–4 m2/s.
1. Estimate the diffusion rate of oxygen through 1 cm2 [Ans. 0.71 × 10–8 kg-mole/s]
area, when it is diffusing through stagnant carbon
monoxide at 0°C and 1 atm under steady state 9. A deep narrow tube open at the top contains toluene
conditions. The partial pressure of oxygen at two at the bottom. Air inside the tube is motionless while
planes 0.3 cm apart is 100 mm of Hg and 25 mm of at the top toluene concentration is zero. The entire
Hg, respectively. system is at 1 atm, 18.7°C, when DAB = 0.826
× 10–4 m2/s. The saturated vapour pressure of toluene
Assume DAB = 0.185 cm2/s
at liquid surface is 0.026 atm. Determine the rate of
Ru = 8.314 kJ/kg-mole. K
evaporation of toluene per unit area, if the distance
[Ans. 2.962 × 10–6 gm-mol/s] from the liquid surface to the top is 1.524 m.
2. An open tank, 6 mm in diameter, contains 1 mm deep [Ans. 0.597 × 10–8 kg-mole/m2s]
layer of benzene (M = 78 kg/kg-mole) at its bottom.
10. One method of measuring diffusion coefficients of
The vapour pressure of benzene in the tank is
vapours is to measure the rate of evaporation of a
13.15 kPa and its diffusion takes place through a
liquid in narrow tubes. In one such experiment, a
stagnant air film 2.5 mm thick at the operating
glass tube 1 cm in diameter was filled with water at
temperature of 20°C. The diffusivity of the benzene
20°C to within 4 cm of the top. Dry air at 20°C and
in the tank is 8.0 × 10–6 m2/s. Calculate the diffusion
1.013 bar was blown across the top of the tube. At
rate of benzene.
the end of 24 hours of steady-state operation, the
If the density of the benzene is 880 kg/m3, calculate level of the water dropped 0.1 cm. Calculate the
the time taken for the entire benzene to evaporate. diffusivity of the air-vapour system at 20°C.
Take atmospheric pressure as 101.3 kPa.
[Ans. 2.644 × 10–5 m2/s]
[Ans. 0.04195 kg/s, 593 seconds]
11. Pure N2 gas at 1 atm and 25°C is flowing through a
3. At the bottom of a well 2.5 m in diameter, water is 10 m long, 3 cm inner diameter pipe made of 1 mm
5 m deep. Calculate the diffusion rate into dry thick rubber. Determine the rate at which N2 leaks
atmospheric air at 25°C and 1.032 bar. Take diffusion out of the pipe if the medium surrounding the pipe is
coefficient DAB = 0.0925 m2/h. (a) a vacuum and (b) atmospheric air at 1 atm and
[Ans. 2.122 × 10–3 kg/h] 25°C with 21 per cent O2 and 79 per cent N2.
4. Hydrogen gas is maintained at 5 bar and 1 bar on [Ans. (a) 4.48 × 10–10 kg-mole/s,
opposite of a plastic membrane, which is 0.3 mm thick. (b) 9.4 × 10–11 kg-mole/s]
The temperature is 25°C and the binary diffusion
12. Dry air at atmospheric pressure and 10°C flows over
coefficient of hydrogen in the plastic is 8.7 × 10–8 m2/s.
a flat plate with a velocity of 1 m/s. The plate is
The solubility of hydrogen in the membrane is
covered with a film of water which evaporates into
1.5 × 10–3 kg-mole/m3 bar. What is the mass flux of
the air steam. Determine the average mass transfer
hydrogen by diffusion through membrane ?
coefficient for the transfer of water vapour over a dis-
[Ans. 34.8 × 10–7 kg/m2s] tance of 0.6 m from the leading edge of the plate.
5. Calculate the mass diffusivity of the binary gas 13. Atmospheric air at 30°C flows over a wet bulb
mixture of air-water vapour at 273 K and 1 atm, and thermometer which reads 20°C. Calculate the
compare the result with that given in Table 10.2. concentration of water vapour in the air stream and
6. Calculate the diffusion coefficient for benzene in the relative humidity of the air.
atmospheric air at 25°C. [Ans. 0.01 kg/kg of dry air]
7. Estimate the diffusion rate of water from the bottom 14. Dry air at 25°C and atmospheric pressure blows over
of a test tube 10 mm in diameter and 15 cm long into a 30 cm2 surface of ice at a velocity of 1.5 m/s. Estimate
dry atmospheric air at 25°C. Given: DAB = 0.256 × the amount of moisture evaporated per hour, assuming
10–4 m2/s. [Ans. 1.131 × 10–10 kg/s] that the block of ice is perfectly insulated except for
8. Two large vessels contain uniform mixtures of the surface exposed to the air stream.
nitrogen (component A) and carbon dioxide (compo- 15. A thin plastic membrane is used to separate helium
nent B) at 1 atm, T = 289 K, but at different from a gas stream. Under steady-state conditions, the
concentrations. Vessel 1 contains 90% N2 and 10% concentration of helium in the membrane is known
CO2 by moles, whereas vessel 2 contains 20% N2 and to be 0.02 kg-mole/m3 and 0.005 kg-mole/m3 at the
80% CO2 by moles. The two vessels are connected by inner and outer surfaces, respectively. If the
a duct of 0.1524 m ID, and 1.22 m long. Determine membrane is 1 mm thick and the binary diffusion
the rate of transfer of nitrogen between the two coefficient of helium with respect to the plastic is
vessels by assuming that steady-state transfer takes 10–19 m2/s, what is the mass flux by diffusion ?
place in view of the large capacity of the two
[Ans. 6 × 10–8 kg/s.m2]
MASS TRANSFER 591
16. Oxygen gas is maintained at pressure of 2 bar and humidity, determine the temperature of the drink
1 bar on opposite sides of a rubber membrane that is when steady conditions are reached.
0.5 mm thick, and the entire system is at 25°C. What [Ans. 19.4°C]
is the molar diffusive flux of O2 through the
membrane ? What are the molar concentrations of REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
O2 on both sides of the membrane (outside the
rubber) ? [Ans. CA, 1 = 0.0807 kg-mole/m3 1. H. Perry, ed. “Chemical Engineer’s Handbook”. 4th
CA, 2 = 0.0404 kg-mole/m3] ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963.
17. Helium gas is stored at 20°C in a spherical container 2. F. Kreith, R.F. Boehm, et. Al., “Heat and Mass
of fused silica, which has an inner diameter of 0.20 m Transfer”, “Mechanical Engineering Handbook”, CRC
and a wall thickness of 2 mm. If the container is Press LLC, 1999.
charged to an initial pressure of 4 bar, what is the 3. J.P. Holman. “Heat Transfer”. 9th ed. McGraw-Hill,
rate at which this pressure decreases with time ? New York, 2010.
[Ans. 2.63 × 10–8 bar/s] 4. F.P. Incropera and D.P. De Witt. “Fundamentals of
18. A tray 40 cm long and 20 cm wide is full of water. Air Heat and Mass Transfer”, 5th ed. John Wiley & Sons,
at 30°C flows over the tray along the length at 2 m/s. New York, 2006.
The moving air at 1.013 bar and partial pressure of 5. W.M. Kays and M.E. Crawford. “Convective Heat and
water in the air is 0.007 bar. Calculate the rate of Mass Transfer”, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York,
evaporation, if the temperature of the water is 25°C. 1980.
Take for air ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, ν = 15 × 10–6 m2/s, DAB = 6. A.F. Mills and V. Ganeshan. “Heat Transfer”. 2nd ed.
0.145 m2/h. (Anna Univ., Dec. 1999) Pearson Education, New Delhi, 2009.
[Ans. 0.0827 kg/h] 7. M.M. Rathore. “Thermal Engineering”, McGraw-Hill
19. Dry air at 15°C and 92 kPa flows over a 2 m long wet Education, New Delhi, 2010.
surface with free stream velocity of 4 m/s. Determine 8. Yunus A. Cengel, “Heat Transfer”, A Practical
average mass transfer coefficient. Approach, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002.
[Ans. 0.00514 m/s] 9. R.M. Barrer. “Diffusion in and through Solids”,
20. Pure N2 gas at 1 atm and 25°C is flowing through a MacMillan, New York, 1941.
10 m long, 3 cm inner diameter pipe made of 1 mm 10. R.B. Bird. “Theory of Diffusion”. “Advances in
thick rubber. Determine the rate at which N2 leaks Chemical Engineering” vol. 1 (1956), p. 170.
out the pipe, if medium surrounding the pipe is (a) 11. A.H.P. Skelland. “Diffusional Mass Transfer”. John
vacuum and (b) atmosphere air at 1 atm and 25°C. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1974.
[Ans. (a) 4.48 × 10–10 kg-mole/s 12. W.F. Stoecker and J.W. Jones. “Refrigeration and Air
(b) 9.4 × 10–11 kg-mole/s] Conditioning”. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982.
21. During a hot summer day, a canned drink is to be cooled 13. L.C. Thomas. “Mass Transfer Supplement—Heat
by wrapping it in a cloth that is kept wet continually, Transfer”. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1991.
and blowing air to it by a fan. If the environment
14. C.J. Geankoplis. “Mass Transport Phenomena”. Holt,
conditions are 1 atm, 30°C, and 40 per cent relative
Rinehart, and Winston, New York, 1972.
Experiments in
Engineering Heat Transfer 16
Expt. 1 Thermal Conductivity of Metallic Rod. Expt. 2 Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Powder. Expt. 3 Thermal Conductivity
of Composite Wall. Expt. 4 Natural Convection Experiment. Expt. 5 Forced Convection Experiment. Expt. 6 Heat Transfer from Pin
Fins. Expt. 7 Stefan Boltzmann Constant. Expt. 8 Measurement of Emissivity of a Test Surface. Expt. 9 Heat Exchanger Experiment.
Expt. 10 Critical Heat Flux. Expt. 11 Heat Pipe. Expt. 12 Thermocouples Calibration Test Rig—Review Questions—References
Engineering education has placed a great emphasis on be headed with name and class of student, date of
the ability of an individual to perform experiments along experimentation, and name of experiment.
with a theoretical analysis of the problems. The This chapter provides a brief idea about write-up
experimental methods have their own importance. They for some common experiments in subject of heat
help in better understanding of the basic principles of transfer. These write-ups are based on specific design
the subject and to verify the result obtained analytically. of experimental setup. The design of experimental setup
Therefore, in engineering curiculla, the students are in some institute may differ from considered design.
expected to devote one laboratory period a week for Therfore, observation tables, thus calculations may
experimentation. The students are exposed to the basic differ in some cases, but experiments run on same basic
instruments and get acquainted with the methods used principles. Further, the list of experiments selected here
for measuring the physical properties. may also be incomplete.
The experimentation in subject of Engineering
Heat Transfer is for determination of thermal EXPT. 1 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
conductivities of conducting and non-conducting METALLIC ROD
materials, heat transfer coefficient in natural and forced
convection, emissivity of the surfaces, verification of 1.1. OBJECTIVE
value of Stefan Boltzmann constant, performance of heat
To determine thermal conductivity of a metallic rod.
exchangers, heat pipes etc.
1.2. APPARATUS
An experimental instructional sheet consists of
objective, prologue, experimental analysis i.e., Measuring flask, stop watch, thermocouples with
discription of set-up, schematic of apparatus, relevant temperature indicators.
theory, experimental procedure, specifications, and
1.3. PROLOGUE
observation table. The students are required to prepare
Thermal conductivity is an important thermo-physical
such instruction sheet before performing experiment.
property of conducting materials, by virtue of which the
After performing the experiments, they have to complete
material conducts the heat energy through it. From
the observation table and to make calculations, result, Fourier’s law of heat conduction, the thermal
and post processing of result. They must mention the conductivity is defined as,
salient feature of experiment concentrating on the result Q dT dT
and discussion. Each experimental write-up sheet must k= − =−q (W/m.K)
A dx dx
592
EXPERIMENTS IN ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER 593
where Q = heat transfer rate, watts,
Measuring
q = heat flux, W/m2,
flask
Water outlet
A = area normal to heat transfer, m², and
dT
= temperature gradient in the direction
dx
of heat flow.
The thermal conductivity for a given material
depends on its state and it varies with direction,
structure, humidity, pressure and temperature change.
Water inlet
The following Table 16.1 shows the thermal conductivity
of some commonly used materials.
T12
T11
TABLE 16.1 Thermal conductivities of some
Water jacket
typical metals
Sr. No. Metals Thermal Reference

Conductivity State
1 Silver 419 20°C
T6
2 Pure copper 386 20°C
T5
T10
T9
3 Aluminium 204 20°C
Valve
T4
4 Brass 111 20°C
T3
5 Pure iron 73 20°C
Water
in
6 Lead 35 20°C
T2
T8
T7
7 Stainless steel 16.2 20°C

T1
1.4. MECHANISM OF HEAT CONDUCTION IN

Glass wool
METALS
Thermocouples
Thermal energy can be transported in solids by two

means.
Heater
(1) Lattice vibration,

(2) Transport of free electrons.
Dimmerstat
In good conducting materials, a large number of

Main
Dimmer stat OFF
ON
indicator
free electrons move about their lattice structure of metal.

Digital
temp.
Control Pannel
These electrons move from higher temperature region

to lower temperature region, thus transport heat
240 VAC
50 Hz
energy. Further, the increased temperature increases

A
vibration energy of atoms in the lattice structure. Thus

Heater
in hotter portion of the solid, the atoms which have

OFF
ON
V
larger vibration energy, transfer a part of its energy to

the neighbouring low energy molecules and so on
Fig.16.1. Experimental setup for determination of thermal
throughout the whole length of the body. conductivity of metal bar
1.5. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS where L1 = spacing between section B-B and cooling
end,
1.5.1. Experimental Setup
kins = thermal conductivity of insulating
The experimental setup consists of a brass metallic bar. material packed around the test section,
The bar is horizontally placed and its test section is ro = radius at which thermocouple 10 is
surrounded by a thick layer of insulating material. The embedded,
bar is heated at its one end with the help of band type ri = radius at which thermocouple 9 is
electrical heater and other end of the bar is projected in attached,
the cooling water jacket
T10 = temperature of insulation at radius ro
Six thermocouples T1 to T6 are embedded at of section B-B,
known distances along the length of the bar in test
section and four thermocouples T7 to T10 are equipped T9 = inner temperature of insulation at
in the insulating cylinder in order to measure the heat radius ri of section B-B.
loss in radial direction. The inlet and outlet Further, the heat conduction rate at the section
temperatures of circulating water are measured by B-B is expressed as
thermocouple T11 and T12, respectively. Ï dT ¸
QBB = –kBA Ì ˝ ...(16.3)
Ó dx ˛BB
T where kB = thermal conductivity of bar at section
A B-B.
A = cross-section area of the bar, m2.
dT B  dT 
dx AA   = temperature gradient at section B-B.
 dx BB
dT
dx
From eqns. (16.2) and (16.3), we get
dT
A dT dx BB
2p L1 kins (T9 - T10 )
Qw +
dx ln(ro / ri )
kB = ...(16.4)
B Ï dT ¸
AÌ ˝
1 2 3 4 5 6 Thermocouple Ó dx ˛BB
0 x
position Similarly at section A-A heat conduction rate
2π L2 kins (T7 − T8 )
Fig. 16.2. Temperature distribution along QAA = QBB + ...(16.5)
ln(ro / ri )
the length of metal bar
where, L2 = length of bar between section A-A and B-B
1.5.2. Theory
The thermal conductivity of the bar material at
The bar is analysed at two sections along its length. section A-A in terms of heat conduction rate as :
According to the first law of thermodynamics at any
section, the rate of incoming energy must be equal to Ï dT ¸
QAA = –kAA Ì ˝ ...(16.6)
the rate of outgoing energy. Ó dx ˛AA
Rate of heat absorption by circulating water = Rate 2π L2 kins (T7 − T8 )
of heat conduction at free end of the rod QBB +
ln(ro / ri )
The rate of heat energy reaching to circulating and kA = ...(16.7)
 dT 
water A 
 dx AA
w C pw (T12 - T11 )
Qw = m ...(16.1) 1.5.3. Procedure
where, w = mass flow rate of water, kg/s,
m 1. Start the water supply through the water jacket
and regulate its uniform flow rate.
Cpw = specific heat of water in kJ/kg.K
2. Put on the heater switch and adjust the heater
T12 − T11 = temperature rise of circulating water,oC
input through dimmer-stat.
The rate of heat conduction through section B-B
3. Wait until steady state condition is reached.
4. Note down the reading of all thermocouples
QBB = Q + 2p L1 kins (T9 - T10 ) ...(16.2)
w
ln(ro / ri ) through selector switch, voltmeter and ammeter.
5. Plot the temperature against the location of obstruction in flow of free electrons caused due
thermocouples along the test section of the bar. to increase in amplitude of lattice vibration.
1.6. SPECIFICATIONS 1.11. PRECAUTIONS
1. Total length of the bar = mm 1. Wait till perfect steady state is reached.
2. Test length of the bar L = mm 2. Input supply voltage must be constant.
3. Diameter of the bar d = mm 3. Handle the change over switch of temperature
4. Temperature indicator = 0–300oC gently.
5. Radius ri of thermocouples T7 and T9 positions

6. Radius r0 of thermocouples T8 and T10 positions EXPT. 2 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
7. Thermocouple type = Chromel Alumel INSULATING POWDER
8. Measuring flask capacity = 0 to 1000 ml
2.1. OBJECTIVE
9. Spacing between thermocouple = mm
To determine thermal conductivity of an insulating
10. Specific heat of water, Cpw = 4187 J/kg.K
powder.
11. Thermal conductivity of insulating material,
2.2. PROLOGUE
kins = 0.15 W/m.K for asbestos powder,
There are many heat exchanger equipments, where heat
= 0.038 W/m.K for glass wool.
losses to the surroundings can be the subject of
1.7. OBSERVATION TABLE minimization. In such cases, the exterior surface of the
equipment is covered by a material of lower thermal
Sr. Mass Heater Thermocouple readings, oC
conductivity called as insulator. Because of demand of
No. flow input
such materials, many industries have come up to
(kg/s) V I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 produce such materials in different categories, shapes
and sizes. One important category of insulating material
is the powder form. The powder can take any
complicated shape between any two containing surfaces.
In addition, its thermal conductivity is much lower than
that of its basic solid form, because of the larger number
1.8. CALCULATION
of air gaps present within powder.
Use eqn. (16.1) to eqn. (16.7) explained above in
experiment theory to calculate the result. 2.3. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
1.9. RESULT 2.3.1. Experimental Setup
Take the average of two values of thermal conductivity The apparatus consists of two thin walled concentric
and put it as outcome of the experiment.
copper spheres. The inner sphere houses the heating
The average thermal conductivity of the brass coil. The insulating powder filled in the annular gap
= ...... W/m.K between two copper spheres, takes the form of a hollow
1.10. EPILOGUE sphere. The power supply to the heating coil is adjusted
1. Compare the value of thermal conductivity by dimmerstat and it is measured by voltmeter and
obtained by experimentation with standard ammeter. The eight chromel alumel thermocouples are
value. State the reason for deviation, if any. used to measure the temperature at inner and outer
2. From the experiment it is concluded that the surface of insulating powder sphere. The four
temperature goes on decreasing along the length thermocouples, numbered as T1 to T4 are embedded on
of the rod. outer surface of the inner sphere and four
3 The thermal conductivity of brass decreases with thermocouples, numbered as T5 to T8 are embedded on
increase in temperature. This is due to inner surface of the outer sphere.
1 Outer sphere 2. Wait until steady state condition is reached.

V A 3. Note down the reading of all thermocouples
Temp. Indicator 2 Inner sphere
through selector switch, voltmeter and ammeter.
T5 T6 3 Heater
ON Dimmer ON
2.4. SPECIFICATIONS
T1 T2
OFF OFF 1. Radius of inner copper sphere,
Control Pannel Asbestos ri = … mm
V
2. Radius of outer copper sphere,
T3 T4 T
T7 8 ro = … mm
3. Voltmeter = 0–100 / 200 Volt
4. Ammeter = 0–2 amp
Thermal conductivity
of insulating powder 5. Dimmer-stat = 0–260 Ω / 220 Volt
6. Heater capacity = W
7. Thermocouple type = Chromel Alumel
2.5. OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr. Heater Thermocouple readings, oC
No. input
Fig.16.3. Setup for thermal conductivity of
insulating powder V I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2.3.2. Theory
We assume that the insulating powder is an isotropic
material and its thermal conductivity to be constant in
all directions therefore, one-dimensional radial heat
conduction across the powder is considered. Consider
the heat transfer through hollow sphere formed by 2.6. CALCULATION
insulating powder layer packed between two copper
Temperature of inner surface of hollow insulating
spheres.
sphere
Let ri = inner radius of the sphere, m,
ro = outer radius of the sphere, m, T1 + T2 + T3 + T4
Ti = = oC
Ti = average temperature of inner surface 4
of hollow insulating sphere, oC, Temperature of outer surface of hollow insulating
sphere
To = average temperature of outer surface
of hollow insulating sphere, oC. T5 + T6 + T7 + T8
To = = oC
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 4
where Ti = and The energy input to heater
4
Q = V.I (watt)
T5 + T6 + T7 + T8 Thermal conductivity of insulating powder
To =
4
Q( ro – ri )
According to Fourier law of heat conduction, the k= (W/m.K)
unknown thermal conductivity can be determined as: 4 πro ri (Ti – To )
Q(ro – r1 ) 2.7. RESULT

k= ...(16.8)
4 πro ri (Ti – To ) The thermal conductivity of given insulating powder
where, Q = V.I k = ...... W/m.K.
2.3.3. Experimental Procedure 2.8. EPILOGUE
1. Put on the heater switch and adjust the heater The thermal conductivity for the given material depends
input through dimmer-stat. upon its states and it may vary with structure, pressure
and temperature changes. Thermal conductivity of heater while cooling water jacket is attached on
insulating powder increases with temperature rise. Its other side. 14 thermocouples ( T1 to T14 ) are
variation with temperature is shown in Fig. 16.4. embedded at different sections to record the
temperature. Three thermocouples ( T1 to T3 ) are
embedded on heater side of mild steel slab, three
(T4 to T6 ) on interface of mild steel and asbestos
slabs, three ( T7 to T9 ) on interface of asbestos and
brass slabs and three ( T10 to T12) on water side of
Temperature
brass slab. Two thermocouples T13 and T14 for

measuring water temperature at inlet and exit,
respectively. In order to minimise the heat loss from
the annular surface of the slabs, the glass wool
insulation is provided. The temperature readings T1
to T14 are displayed on a digital temperature indicator
Thermal conductivity with the help of selector switch.
Fig.16.4. Variation of thermal conductivity of insulating
material with temperature change
Temperature
V A indicator
2.9. PRECAUTIONS
ON
1. Wait till perfect steady state is reached. OFF
2. Input supply must be constant. Thermostate
3. Handle the change over switch of temperature
gently.
Glass
wool
EXPT. 3 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF Water Cooling
COMPOSITE WALL out jacket
Brass slab
Water in
3.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine thermal conductivity and temperature Asbestos
slab
distribution across the thickness of the composite wall. Mild steel
slab
3.2. PROLOGUE Wooden Heater
chamber
Many engineering situations involve the use of Insulation
composite materials which consist of two or more
materials of different thermal conductivities. Some Fig. 16.5. Setup for composite wall
situations involved are walls of a building, refrigerator,
furnace, cold storage, etc. The knowledge of thermal 3.3.2 Theory
conductivity of such composite medium helps in better At steady state, the rate of heat input to heater
design of equipments. Q = VI
3.3. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS Rate of heat dissipation to water
3.3.1. Experimental Setup Qw = m
w Cpw (T14 – T13) ...(16.9)
A typical experimental setup for composite wall is where w = mass flow rate of water,
m
shown in Fig. 16.5. It consists of composite walls of Cpw = specific heat of water,
three slabs of equal size and thickness, but of different
thermal conductivities. Three materials are brass, T13 = water inlet temperature to water jacket,
asbestos and mild steel. These slabs are clamped T14 = water exit temperature from water jacket.
together on both sides with the help of holding clamps, The average temperature of heated surface of
bolts and nuts. One side of the composite is exposed to mild steel slab;
T1 + T2 + T3 3.5. OBSERVATION TABLE

TH =
3
Sr. Heater Mass Thermocouple readings
The average temperature of cooled surface of
No. input flow
brass slab;
T10 +T11 +T12 V w 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
I rate, m
TC =
3
The thermal conductivity of composite slab may
be expressed as :
Qw L composite
kcomposite = ...(16.10)
A(TH – TC )
where Lcomposite = Lbrass + Lsteel +Lasbestos
The heat transfer area, 3.6. CALCULATION
π At steady state, the rate of heat input to heater
A= D²
4 Q = VI (watts)
where D is the diameter of plates, m.
Under steady state conditions, the heat is
Then total resistance of the composite wall per
dissipated to water at the same rate
unit area can be expressed as :
Qw = m
w Cpw(T14 – T13) = ... W
L brass Lsteel Lasbestos
ΣR th = + + ...(16.11) The average temperature of heated surface of
kbrass ksteel kasbestos
composite wall;
1 T1 +T2 +T3
U= TH = = ... °C
...(16.12) 3
AΣR th
The average temperature of cooled surface of
3.3.3. Procedure composite wall;
1. Switch on the heater and adjust the voltage input
to heater through dimmer-stat. T10 +T11 +T12
TC = = ... °C
2. Start the water flow and adjust its flow rate and 3
measure it with the help of measuring flask and The heat transfer area,
stop watch.
3. After reaching the steady state, take the readings π 2
A= D = ... m²
of 14 thermocouples, voltmeter and ammeter. 4
4. Repeat the procedure two to three times with Then total resistance of the composite wall per
different power input to heater and water flow unit area can be expressed as
rate.
L brass Lsteel Lasbestos
3.4. SPECIFICATIONS ΣR th = + + = (m2 °C/W)
kbrass ksteel kasbestos
1. Size of plates :
2. Width of plates : The overall heat transfer coefficient
3 . Rating of heater : 1
U= ... (W/m².K)
4. Type of thermocouples : Alumel-chromel AΣR th
5. Dimmerstat type :
The thermal conductivity of composite medium
6. Thermal conductivities, can be evaluated as
kbrass = 110 W/m.K,
Qw L composite
ksteel = 46 W/m.K, kcomposite = = ... (W/m.K)
A (TH − TC )
kasbestos = 0.15 W/m.K
3.7. RESULT 4.3. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS

The thermal conductivity of the composite slab is 4.3.1 Experimental Setup
k = ...... W/m.K. The experimental setup consists of a cylindrical tube
The overall heat transfer, U = ...... W/m².K fitted in a rectangular duct, vertically as shown in
3.8. EPILOGUE Fig.16.7. The duct is open at the top and bottom. An
electric heating element is kept in centre of vertical tube,
The temperature distribution in three materials is which in turn heats the tube surface longitudinally. The
shown in Fig. 16.6. The slope (temperature drop) in heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by
asbestos plate is large among three materials. natural convection. The temperature of vertical tube is
measured by six thermocouples at different locations
T
and thermocouple T7 measures the duct temperature.
The heat energy input is measured by ammeter and
voltmeter.
Cooled surface
Heated surface
Brass
Digital
V A
Mild steel
temp.
Asbestos
indicator
Water
0 x
ON Dimmer stat ON
Fig. 16.6. Temperature distribution in three plates
OFF OFF
The thermal conductivity for the composite Heater Main
medium is less than the avearge thermal conductivity
Control Pannel
of three materials. It is due to presence of air gaps and
contact resistance at interfaces. The composite material Controlled
provides insulating properties as well as good strength. voltage
Therefore, now a days its use is increasing.
3.9. PRECAUTIONS T6
1. Wait till perfect steady state is reached.
2. Input supply must be constant. T5
3. Handle the change over switch of temperature
gently. T4
T7
T3
EXPT. 4 NATURAL CONVECTION
EXPERIMENT T2
4.1. OBJECTIVE T1
To determine the heat transfer coefficient in natural

convection.
4.2. PROLOGUE
Fig.16.7. Experimental setup for determination
Convection is a mode of heat transfer, which generally of coefficient of heat-- transfer in natural convection
takes place in liquid and gases. Consider a fluid flow
over a heated surface the molecules of fluid adjacent to 4.3.2. Theory
the surface absorb heat and become hot. On heating, When a hot body is kept in still air, the heat is
the molecules become lighter due to decrease in density, transferred to surrounding fluid adjacent to hot body.
they rise up and the cold molecules of higher density The adjacent fluid gets heated, it rises up due to decrease
come down in contact of heated surface. In this way, a in its density and cold fluid rushes in to take place.
motion of molecules (convection current) sets up in fluid Thus the fluid motion is setup and heat transfer takes
due to developed density gradient. place from the surface.
The heat transfer rate from the surface by natural Ambient temperature
convection is expressed by Newton’s law as : T∞ = T7 = ......°C
Q = A s h(Ts − T∞ ) ...(16.13) Thus the convection coefficient can be evaluated
where As = surface area, as :
h = heat transfer coefficient, Q
h= = ...... W/m2.K
Ts = surface temperature, A s (Ts – T∞ )
T∞ = ambient temperature. The heat transfer coefficient h can also be
calculated from empirical relation:
Thus the convection coefficient can be evaluated
hL
as : = C (GrPr)n
kair
Q
h= W/m2.K ...(16.14) g β L3 ( ∆T)
A s (Ts − T∞ ) where, Grashof Number Gr = ...(16.15)
ν2
4.3.3. Experimental Procedure
µ Cp
1. Put on the heater switch and adjust the heater Prandtl Number Pr = ...(16.16)
input through dimmerstat. kair
2. Wait until steady state condition is reached. where, L = length of the vertical cylinder, m.
3. Note down the reading of all thermocouples kair = thermal conductivity of air, W/m.K.
through selector switch, voltmeter and ammeter. ν = kinematic viscosity of air, m²/s.
4. Repeat above procedure for next readings. µ = dynamic viscosity of air, kg/ms.
Cp = specific heat of air, J/kg.K.
4.4. SPECIFICATIONS
β = coefficient of volumetric expansion of
1. Diameter of tube, D = mm
air, K −1
2. Total length of the tube, L = mm
3. Capacity of heater =W g = 9.81 m/s²
4. Temperature indicator = 0–300oC ∆T = (Ts – T∞)°C.
C = 0.56 and n = 0.25 for 104 ≤ Gr Pr ≤ 108
(Multi-channel type calibrated for chromel,
C = 0.13 and n = 1/3 for 108 ≤ Gr Pr ≤ 1012
alumel, thermocouple)
The properties of fluid (air) are taken at film
4.5. OBSERVATION TABLE temperature at Tf , from properties of fluid Table A-4.
Ts + T∞
Sr. Heater input Thermocouple readings, oC Tf =
2
No.
4.7. RESULT
V I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Practical value of h = ………………W/m².K
2. Theoretical value of h = ………………W/m².K
4.8. GRAPH
The graph plotted for heat transfer coefficient vs location
of thermocouples is shown in Fig.16.8.
4.6. CALCULATIONS
The rate of energy input to heat the cylindrical rod
h(w/m . K)
Q = V I = ...... W
2
The average surface temperature of the brass

rod,
x
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 0
Ts = = ...... °C Fig.16.8. Variation of heat transfer coefficient along the
6
height of a vertical pipe
4.9. EPILOGUE T6
The heat transfer rate in natural convection is much
lower. Because, the heat is transferred due to density
gradient only, thus the value of heat transfer coefficient
Control valve
is also small. The phenomenon of natural convection also
depends upon viscosity, thermal conductivity, volumetric
expansion coefficient β, characteristic length etc.
In situation, where the heat is transferred by
natural convection then the fins are attached on heat
“U” Type manometer

transfer surface to enhance the heat transfer rate.
EXPT. 5 FORCED CONVECTION EXPERIMENT
T5
5.1. OBJECTIVE
R4
To determine the heat transfer coefficient in forced
convection.
Band Heater-1
T4
5.2. PROLOGUE
R3
The heat transfer in forced convection occurs
mechanically and depends on the motion of the fluid. T3
When a fluid motion is caused by some external means
R2
such as pump or blower, then the convection is referred
T2
as forced convection. In the forced convection, the velocity

gradients are more effective than density gradient. The
(Isolates vibration of blower)

R1
forced convection heat transfer occurs in heat exchangers

like automobile radiators, condensers, coolers etc.
Expansion below
T1
Blower
5.3. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
indicator
OFF
ON
Digital
temp.
5.3.1 Experimental Setup
Control Pannel
The experimental setup consist of a blower unit fitted
Main
OFF
ON
with test pipe as shown in Fig. 16.9. The four band
type nichrome heaters surround the test section of pipe A
Variac
Heater
Blower
wall. The heat generated in heaters is conducted
OFF
ON
through the pipe wall of test section and then to flowing V
air by forced convection.
Three thermocouples (T2 to T4 ) are attached on
Fig. 16.9. Setup for coefficient of heat transfer in
test section. Thermocouple T1 and T5 record the
forced convection
temperature of incoming and outgoing air. Thermo-
couple T6 measures temperature of atmospheric air. The where m = mass flow rate of air = V ρ,
a
test pipe is connected with the orifice to measure the Cp = specific heat of air,
flow rate of air through the pipe. A control valve is
∆T = temperature difference of air,
fitted in the delivery pipe in order to regulate the air
flow rate. The pressure drop accros orifice is measured h = heat transfer coefficient,
by U tube manometer in terms of water column. The As = surface area of the test pipe,
energy input to the heater is measured by voltmeter (Ts – T∞) = temperature difference between surface
and ammeter. Temperatures are displayed by digital and ambient.
temperature indicator with selection switch. The discharge (volume flow) rate, V of air through the
5.3.2. Theory orifice can be calculated as :
If Q is the rate of heat transfer to fluid
= π d 2 C 2 g H ρw
V
Q = m Cp ∆T = h As(Ts – T∞) ...(16.17) 4
o d w
ρa ...(16.18 )
where ρw = density of water, p

ρa = density of air, ρa =
RT∞
Cd = 0.64, coefficient of discharge for orifice,
The discharge (volume flow) rate of
air, V
do = diameter of orifice,
Hw = level difference of water in manometer through the orifice can be calculated as :
arms.
= π d 2 C 2 g H ρw
V
Now heat transfer coefficient is given by 4
o d w
ρa
Q where density of water, ρw = 1000 kg/m3
h= ...(16.19)
A s (Ts – T∞ )

the mass flow rate of air, m = ρw V
5.3.3. Procedure The heat transfer rate Q = m Cp ∆T (W)
1. Switch on the heater and adjust the voltage input where Cp = 1005 J/kg.K for air,
to heater through dimmer-stat. ∆T = (Ts − T∞ ) = temperature difference of air
2. Adjust air flow rate with the help of valve fitted in oC
in delivery valve.
Now heat transfer coefficient is given by
3. After reaching the steady state, take the readings
of all thermocouples, voltmeter, ammeter. Q
h=
4. Measure manometer deflection in U tube with A s (Ts – T∞ )
the help of attached scale. where As = πdL (m2)
5. Repeat the procedure two to three times with
T2 + T3 + T4
different power input to heater and air flow rate. Ts =
3
5.4. SPECIFICATIONS With use of empirical relations, the heat transfer
1. Pipe outer diameter, D = ...... mm coefficient can also be calculated as
2. Pipe inner diameter, d = ...... mm hd
= 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4
3. Length of test section, L = ...... cm kair
4. Orifice diameter, do = ...... mm
ρa um d
5.5. OBSERVATION TABLE where Re =
µ
o
Sr. Heater Manometer Thermocouple readings, C µC p
No. input reading, Pr =
kair
V I Hw 1 2 3 4 5 6

V
um =
( π/4)d 2
(Ts + T∞ )
The properties of air are taken at from
2
Table A-4 of Appendix A.
5.7. RESULT
The heat tansfer coefficient in forced convection = ......
5.6. CALCULATIONS W/m².K.
The density of atmospheric air at mean temperature of
5.8. GRAPH
T1 + T5
T∞ = Thermocouple location v/s heat transfer coefficient as
2 shown in Fig.16.10.
y
1
2
Connection
h(w/m . K) to manometer
2
x
3 T3 T2
T1 5
Fig. 16.10. Variation of heat transfer
coefficient in forced convection
T10
5.9. EPILOGUE 6
Heat transfer rate in forced convection is more than

natural convection. As flow rate of fluid increases, the 1 Delivery pipe 2 Orifice plate 3 Duct 4 Blower
value of heat transfer coefficient also increases. Further,
5 Heater 6 Fin rod T1 to T5 thermocouple positions
due to decrease in fluid density with the temperature
rise, the turbulence increases in the flow, which causes
an increase in heat transfer coefficient. Fig. 16.11. Schematic diagram of pin fin apparatus
Three identical cylindrical fins of materials : mild

steel, brass and aluminium are fitted at their one end
EXPT. 6 HEAT TRANSFER FROM PIN FINS to the heated metallic body and other end of these fins
are projected in the duct. The heat is conducted along
6.1. OBJECTIVE the length of these fins and at the same time, the heat
is also convected from the lateral surface of these fins.
To determine temperature distribution, heat transfer Three thermocouples are embedded along the length of
and fin efficiency of pin fins in natural and forced each fin as shown in Fig. 16.12 (a). Thus the nine
convection. thermocouples show the temperature distribution of
6.2. PROLOGUE three fins. Two thermocouples are located in the duct to
measure inlet and exit air temperature.
Extended surfaces or fins are used to increase the heat The duct is connected to delivery side of blower
transfer rate from a surface to a fluid where it is not for arranging the forced convection over the fins. The
possible to increase the value of heat transfer coefficient air flow rate through the duct can be measured by
or the temperature difference between the surface and using orifice which is fitted in duct with U tube
fluid. The extended surface normally a thin strip of metal manometer and scale.
is called a fin.
6.3.2. Theory
The use of fins is very common and they are
Consider a fin connected at its base to a heated wall
fabricated in variety of shapes. Circumferential fins are
and transferring heat by convection to the surroundings.
used around a cylinder of engine of the scooter and
Other end of fin projecting inside the ducts is considered
motorcycle and pin type fins are used on condenser tubes to be insulated.
of a refrigerator.
Let, A = cross-section area of fin,
P = circumference of the fin,
6.3.1. Experimental Setup L = length of the fin,
Experimental setup consists of a mild steel duct in which
T1 = temperature of the fin at heated end,
a metallic body is heated by a band type heater. The
input to this heater can be varied by dimmer-stat and T∞ = duct air temperature.
measured by digital voltmeter and ammeter. Fig.16.11 Temperature distribution at any location x in the
shows a schematic of pin fin apparatus. fin takes the form of ;
T1 T2 T3 4. In case of forced convection, blower is run during

the test and manometer deflection is also
recorded.
6.4. SPECIFICATION
a a
x 0.5 1. Duct size =
2. Diameter of fin
Heater terminals
d = ...... cm
3. Diameter of orifice,
Input (a) Location of thermocouple of a fin do = ...... cm
4. Coefficient of discharge,
Heated Fin tip
body Cd = 0.64
A 5. Conductivity of brass fin,
d
k = 110 W/m.K
dx
C 6. Conductivity of aluminium fin,
X
k = 210 W/m.K
L
(b) Details of pin fin 7. Conductivity of mild steel fin,
k = 46 W/m.K
Fig. 16.12
T( x ) – T∞ Cosh m (L – x )
= ...(16.20) Sr. Heater Manometer Thermocouple readings, oC
T1 – T∞ Cosh mL No. input reading
V I Hw 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
hP
where m= ...(16.21)
kA
h = heat transfer coefficient between fin
surface and surroundings, which can be
evaluated from empirical relations.
The heat transfer from a fin with insulated tip
fin can be obtained as :
Q = hPkA (Ts − T∞ )tanh mL ...(16.22)
The fin efficiency is given by 6.6. CALCULATION
(A) Calculation of value of h in natural convection :
tanh mL
η fin = ...(16.23) (i) For brass fin
mL
The average temperature of the fin
6.3.3. Procedure
T1 + T2 + T3
1. Electric supply is switched on and it is supplied Ts = = ... °C
3
to heater through dimmer-stat.
2. Steady state condition is waited, as it reaches Air mean temperature
the observations are made for:
T10 + T11
(a) Voltage from voltmeter, T∞ = = ... °C
2
(b) Current from ammeter,
(c) Temperatures indicated by eleven thermo- Bulk fluid mean temperature
couples through selector switch. Ts + T∞
Tf = = ... °C
3. Repeat the procedure for next observation. 2
The temperature difference After calculation of Nusselt number, the quantity

∆T = Ts − T∞ = ... °C m is calculated by using eqn.(16.21), the fin heat transfer
rate using eqn.(16.22) and fin efficiency by using
Grashof number
eqn. (16.23).
g β ∆T d 3
Gr = Repeat the procedure for mild steel and
ν2 aluminium fins.
µ Cp
Pr = 6.7. RESULT
Prandtl number
kair
(i) The efficiency of brass pin fin in natural
hd convection =
Nusselt number Nu =
kair The efficiency of brass pin fin in forced
The properties of air µ, Cp, kair, β, ν, and Pr are convection =
taken from Appendix Table A-4 at Tf. (ii) The efficiency of aluminium pin fin in natural
The empirical relations for free convection are: convection =
(a) Nu = 1.1(Gr Pr) 1/6 for 10–1 < Gr Pr < 104 The efficiency of aluminium pin fin in forced
(b) Nu = 0.53(Gr Pr)1/4 for 104 < Gr Pr < 109 convection =
(c) Nu = 0.13(Gr Pr)1/3 for 109 < Gr Pr < 1012 (iii) The efficiency of m.s. pin fin in natural
After calculation of Nusselt number, the quantity convection =
m is calculated by using eqn.(16.21), the fin heat transfer The efficiency of m.s. pin fin in forced
rate using eqn.(16.22) and fin efficiency by using convection =
eqn. (16.23).
Repeat the procedure for mild steel and 6.8. EPILOGUE
aluminium fins. The temperature distribution along the length of three
(B) Calculation of h in forced convection : fins is shown in Fig.16.13. Observations are :
(a) Nu = 0.16(Re)0.466 When 40 < Re < 4000 (i) It is observed that the temperature decreases
(b) Nu = 0.174(Re)0.618 When 4000 < Re < 40000 along the length of each fin. But the temperature drop
along the mild steel fin is large while along the
hd aluminium fin is least.
where Nu =
kair
ρum d
Re =
µ Brass fin
T
µC p Aluminium fin
Pr =
kair
The discharge rate of air through orifice
Mild steel
= π d 2 C 2 gH ρw
V
fins
o d w
4 ρa
where, Hw = difference of level in manometer = … m, x
ρw = density of water = 1000 kg/m³ Fig. 16.13. Temperature distribution in three fins
ρa = density of air = p (ii) The efficiency of each fin in natural convection

RT is more than that in forced convection. It proves that
orifice diameter do = ...... m. the use of fins on a surface can only be justified in natural
= um × duct cross-section area
Again, V convection environment only.
(iii) It is also evident that the fin efficiency and
The velocity of air across the fins
heat transfer rate for aluminium fin are highest among

V Tf + 273
um = × the three material fins. It suggests that the fin should
Duct C.S. Area T∞ + 273 be made of light, conducting materials only.
location in the hemisphere. A copper black coloured test

EXPT. 7 STEFAN BOLTZMANN CONSTANT disc fitted with a thermocouple T6 is inserted in the
bakellite plate at the centre of the hemisphere.
7.1. OBJECTIVE The hemisphere container is located in a
To determine Stefan Boltzmann constant of radiant heat cylindrical stainless steel tank equipped with an
transfer immersion heater. The water is filled in this tank. The
heater is controlled by temperature controller to keep
7.2. PROLOGUE
the inside temperature constant.
Stefan Boltzmann law is a basic law of radiation heat
transfer and it states that at thermal equilibrium, the 7.3.2. Theory
heat flux or emissive power for a black surface is directly Initially the temperature of disc is lower than the
proportional to fourth power of absolute temperature of hemisphere surface. Thus, when the test disc is inserted
the surface and it is given by : in its housing at the centre, the energy is radiated from
Eb = σT4 hemisphere surface to test disc.
or Q = A σT4 ...(16.24) The rate of radiation energy is given by
where σ is constant of proportionality and it is called Q = Ad (E1 – E2) = σ Ad (Ts4 – Td4 )
Stefan Boltzmann constant and its standard value is : ...(16.25)
2
σ = 5.667 × 10–08 W/m².K4 where, Ad = (π/4) d
Td = Initial temperature of test disk
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5
7.3.1. Experimental Setup Ts = °C
5
The experimental setup consists of a hemisphere having
a black surface covered with a flat bakellite plate on Due to this radiation heat exchange, the internal
the top of the tank as shown in Fig. 16.14. Five energy of disc increases and rate of internal energy
thermocouples (T1 to T5) are attached at different increase is given by :
dT
∆U = mC p ...(16.26)
Digital dt t =0
temp.
indicator where, m = mass of test disc,
WIH temp. controller Cp = specific heat of test disc,
dT
ON ON ON = slope of curve at t = 0.0 second
OFF OFF OFF
dx t=0
Heater Dimmer Main The energy balance on the disc

Control pannel dT 4 4
∆U = mC p = A d σ(Ts − Td )
dt t =0
Hot water in
Then Stefan Boltzmann constant
dT
mC p
dt t =0
Heater σ= ...(16.27)
Stainless A d (Ts4 – Td4 )
steel tank
7.3.3. Procedure
T3 Copper The following steps should be followed during
T2 T4 hemisphere experimentation
Water
out (i) Check level of the water in the tank and fill
T1
Sift Disc T6 T5 it till it overflows.
(ii) Set the thermo-stat to desired temperature
for water heating.
Bakellite plate (iii) Switch on the heater and wait till the water
Fig. 16.14. Apparatus for Stefan Boltzmann constant is heated to set temperature.
(iv) Record the five thermocouple readings fitted

to hemisphere surface.
T6
(v) Record the temperature of the test disc and
insert it in the bakellite plate.
(vi) Record the temperature of test disc at the
interval of each 10 seconds.
30
(vii) Plot temperature time history for the test disc
as shown in Fig. 16.15. dT
7.4. SPECIFICATIONS dt
1. Hemisphere enclosure diameter = ...... mm 25 s
2. Test disc diameter, d = ...... mm 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
3. Mass of the test disc, m = ...... gm Fig. 16.15. Temperature history for test disc
4. Specific heat of the test disc, Cp = 381 J/kg oC
7.7. RESULT
7.5. OBSERVATION TABLE The value of Stefan Boltzmann constant, σ = ......
Bulk temperature of water = ... o
C W/m².K4.
7.8. EPILOGUE
Time Thermocouple readings, oC
Explain if any variation is observed between calculated
(Seconds) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 value and standard value.
EXPT. 8 MEASUREMENT OF EMISSIVITY

OF A TEST SURFACE
8.1. OBJECTIVE
To measure the emissivity of the test surface in
comparision to black surface.
8.2. PROLOGUE
7.6. CALCULATIONS All substances at all temperatures emit thermal
radiation. Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic wave
The average surface temperature of the hemisphere
and does not require any material medium for
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 propagation. All bodies can emit radiation and have the
Ts = = ... °C
5 capacity to absorb all or a part of the radiation coming
The initial temperature of the test disc from the surrounding towards it.
Td = ... oC An idealised black surface is one which absorbs
all the incident radiation with reflectivity and
The initial slope of temperature rise of disc is transmissivity equal to zero. The radiant energy per unit
dT time per unit area from the surface of body is called as
= ... oC/s the emissive power and is usually denoted by E. The
dt t =0
emissivity of the surface is defined as the ratio of the
(From temperature time history of the test disc, emissive power of a surface to that of a black surface at
Fig. 16.15) the same temperature. It is denoted by ε.
The Stefan Boltzmann constant
E
dT Thus ε= ...(16.28)
mC p Eb
dt t=0
σ= 4
= ... W/m2.K4 where Eb = Emissive power of black body
A d (Ts4 − Td )
For a black body absorptivity, α = 1 and then The power input to two plates can be varied by
according to Kirchhoff’s law, the emissivity of the black separate dimmer-stats and is measured by using an
body becomes unity. ammeter and a voltmeter with the help of double throw
Emissivity being a property of the surface switch. The heat input to the black and test disc is to
depends on the nature of the surface and temperature. be adjusted in such a way that both discs should attain
It is obvious from the Stefan Boltzmann law that the the same temperature. The each disc is equipped with
prediction of emissive power of a surface requires the three thermocouples to measure temperature at
knowledge of its emissivity and therefore, much different locations. One thermocouple is kept in the
experimental research in radiation has been enclosure.
concentrated on measuring the value of emissivity as 8.3.2. Theory
function of surface temperature. The present
The heat energy input to the two discs is dissipated by
experimental setup is designed and fabricated to
conduction, convection and radiation. Both discs are
measure the emissivity of the test plate surface at
located in same environment and they cannot see each
various temperature.
other, thus at identical temperature and in steady state
8.3. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS conditions, the heat dissipation by conduction and
convection will be same for both discs. The difference in
the heater input readings is observed, it is because of
The experimental sets up consist of two similar circular the difference in the radiation characteristics of two
aluminium discs and are provided with heating coil surfaces.
sandwiched. One disc is blackened by thick layer of lamp Under steady state conditions, let
black to form the idealized black surface whereas the
Q1 = heater input to black plate = V1 I1
other disc having machined plane surface, whose
Q2 = heater input to test plate = V2 I2
emissivity is to be determined. The plates are mounted
on brackets and are kept in enclosure so as to provide π 2
A = area of disc = d + π dt
undisturbed natural convection surroundings. The 4
schematic of experimental arrangement is shown in t = thickness of discs
Fig. 16.16. Ts = surface temperature of discs
T∞ = ambient temperature of enclosure
V I εb = emissivity of black plate (To be
Temp. indicator assumed equal to unity)
Black
ε = emissivity of non black (test) disc
Selector switch
Test σ = stefan Boltzmann constant
2 4
= 5.667 × 10 −8 W/m .K
Dimmer Mains Dimmer
Q1 – Q2 = (εb – ε) σ A( Ts4 – T∞4) ...(16.29)
8.3.3. Procedure
1. Switch on the heater and adjust the voltage input
to both discs through dimmer-stat.
2. After reaching the steady state, take the readings
of thermocouples, voltmeter, ammeter.
3. Repeat the procedure two to three times with
different heat input rate.
8.4. SPECIFICATIONS
(i) Size of the enclosure =
(ii) Diameter of the discs, d = ...... mm
(iii) Thickness of discs, t = ...... mm
Fig. 16.16. Emissivity measurement apparatus (iv) Capacity of heater attached to plates = ......W
8.5. OBSERVATION TABLES 9.2. APPARATUS

Heat exchanger experimental setup, measuring flask,
Sr. Test disc Black disc Enclosure
stop watch, and thermometers.
No. V I T1 T2 T3 V I T4 T5 T6 T7
9.3. PROLOGUE
Heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transferred
from a hot fluid to a cold fluid. Heat exchangers are
used in various industries as well as in domestic use.
Radiators and condensers are the common heat
exchangers. The heat exchangers are classified in three
categories:
1. Direct contact type,
2. Indirect contact type,
8.6. CALCULATIONS
3. Storage type.
The heat input to black disc, In direct contact type of heat exchanger, the hot
Q1 = V1 I1 and cold fluids are brought in direct contact. A good
The heat input to test disc, example is jet condenser, where steam jet and cooling
Q2 = V2 I2 water contact physically for heat exchange.
Area of discs, An indirect contact or transfer type heat
π 2 exchanger is one in which hot and cold fluids do not
A= d + π dt = … m2 make direct contact, but they are separated by a
4
Surface temperature, partition wall, acts as heat transfer medium. In practice,
T + T2 + T3 most of the heat exchangers now used are transfer type.
Ts = 1 = ... °C One excellent example is shell and tube type heat
3
T∞ = ambient temperature of enclo- exchanger. The transfer type heat exchangers are
sure, oC further classified as :
Q1 – Q2 1. Parallel flow : Both fluids flow in same
ε = 1– direction.
σ A (Ts4 – T∞4 )
2. Counter flow : Hot and cold fluids flow in
8.7. RESULT opposite direction to each other.
The emissivity of the test plate is .............. 3. Cross flow : Hot and cold Fluids flow at right
angle to each other.
8.8. EPILOGUE
A simple transfer type heat exchanger is tube in
The emissivity of the test surface is lower than that of
tube or double pipe (concentric tubes) type arrangement.
black surface and the emissivity of test surface increases One fluid flows inside the centre tube and another fluid
with increase in temperature. flows in annular space formed between inner and outer
The emissivity of the test plate can be calculated tube.
at various surface temperatures of the discs. With In storage type or regenerative heat exchanger,
increase in temperature, the test surface becomes hot and cold fluids pass alternately on the same heat
somewhat dull and therefore, its emissivity increases transfer surface for their heat exchange.
with increase in surface temperature.
EXPT. 9 HEAT EXCHANGER EXPERIMENT Experimental setup consists of a concentric double pipe
heat exchanger as shown in Fig. 16.17. The hot fluid is
9.1. OBJECTIVE hot water, obtained from electric geyser and it flows
through inner copper tube while cold water flows in
To determine and compare LMTD, overall heat transfer annular space formed between inner and outer tube.
coefficient and effectiveness of a heat exchanger in The outer tube is provided with adequate insulation to
parallel flow and counter flow modes. minimise the heat loss to the surroundings.
1 4
2 3
V4
V2
V5
V3 V1
Parallel Counter
V1 Open Open
V2 Open Closed 5
V3 Closed Open
V4 Closed Open
V5 Open Closed
1. Main frame 2. Heat exchanger 3. Thermometer 4. Geyser 5. Stand
Fig. 16.17. Schematic of parallel flow counter flow heat exchanger
The hot water flows always in specified direction. Cold TC,i

A valve regulates the flow rate of hot water. With the Th,i Th,o
valves arrangement and their proper operation, the cold Hot
water can be admitted at either end of the annular space
to act as parallel flow or counter flow heat exchanger. Th,i Tc,o
Fig. 16.18 shows the temperature distribution in two Parallel flow
cases. Th,o
The minimum objective of the experiment is to DTi DTo
compare :
Tc,o
1. The temperature distribution in parallel flow
and counter flow arrangement. Tc,i
Length of the exchanger
2. Heat transfer rate in two types of heat
exchanger. Tc,o
3. Overall heat transfer coefficient. Th,i Th,o
4. To compare the effectiveness of heat exchanger Hot
in both arrangements.
9.4.2. Theory
Tc,i
1. The heat transfer rate is calculated as: Th,i Counter flow
For hot fluid as,
DTi Th,o
h C ph (Th,i – Th,o)
Qh = m …(16.30)
DTo
For cold fluid, Tc,o
Tc,i
c C pc (Tc,o – Tc,i)
Qc = m …(16.31) Length of the exchanger
where, suffix h for hot fluid and c for cold fluid. Fig. 16.18. Temperature distribution
The average heat transfer rate, Th , i + Th , o

Qc + Qh 2
Q = ...(16.32)
2 Similarly, the heat transfer coefficient ho can be
2. Log mean temperature difference (LMTD) obtained from the relation,
0.8
Nu(Di − do ) = 0.023 Re(D i − do )
Pr 0.4 ...(16.38)
∆Ti – ∆To
∆Tlm = ...(16.33)
 ∆T  ho (Di – do )
ln  i  where, Nu(Di − do ) =
 ∆To  kwater
where, ∆Ti = Th,i – Tc,i For parallel flow
4mc
= Th,i – Tc,o For counter flow Re(Di −do ) =
Π(Di − do )µ
∆To = Th,o – Tc,o For parallel flow
= Th,o – Tc,i For counter flow The properties of fluid are obtained at mean
temperature of cold water from Table A-7.
3. Overall heat transfer coefficient
Q = Ui Ai(∆T)lm ...(16.34(a) 9.4.3. Procedure
= Uo Ao(∆T)lm ...(16.34(b) 1. With the help of valve arrangement shown on
where, Ui = overall heat transfer coefficient based the apparatus, Fig. 16.17 it is made to act as
on inner surface, parallel flow heat exchanger.
Uo = overall heat transfer coefficient based 2. The heater is switch on and water flow rate for
on outer surface. hot and cold streams are kept constant with the
4. Effectiveness of heat exchanger controlled opening of valves.
3. The flow rate for both the fluids is measured by
Actual Heat Transfer rate
ε= measuring flask and stop watch.
Max. Possible Heat Transfer rate
...(16.35) 4. Steady state condition is waited, as it prevails,
the inlet and outlet temperatures of both fluids
5. Overall heat transfer coefficient can also be
can be measured by thermometers.
calculated as :
5. Same procedure is repeated for counter flow
1 1 ri  ro  ri arrangement.
= + × ln  + ...(16.36)
Ui hi k  ri  ro ho 9.5. SPECIFICATIONS
where, hi and ho are heat transfer coefficients based on (i) Inner diameter of inner tube,
inner and outer heat transfer surfaces, respectively, di = ... mm
k = thermal conductivity of tube material (copper) (ii) Outer diameter of inner tube,
= 380 W/m.K
do = ... mm
The heat transfer coefficient hi can be calculated
by correlation; (iii) Inner diameter of outer tube,
0.8
Di = ... mm
Nudi = 0.023Redi Pr 0.3 ...(16.37)
(iv) Outer diameter of outer tube,
hi di Do = ... mm
where, Nudi =
kwater (v) Length of the heat exchanger,
L = ... mm
4mh (vi) Conductivity of copper,
Redi =
π di µ
k = 380 W/m.K
The physical properties of water can be obtained (vii) Specific heat of hot and cold fluids,
from Table A-7 at mean hot water temperature
Cpc = Cph = 4180 J/kg.K

1. Parallel flow run
Hot water side Cold water side

Readings Flow rate Inlet Outlet Flow rate Inlet Outlet
h ( kg/s)
m Th,i oC Th,o oC c (kg/s)
m Tc,i oC Tc,o oC
Initial reading
Final reading
Corrected reading
2. Counter flow run
Hot water side Cold water side

Readings Flow rate Inlet Outlet Flow rate Inlet Outlet
h ( kg/s)
m Th,i oC Th,o oC m c (kg/s) Tc,i oC Tc,o oC
Initial reading
Final reading
Corrected reading
9.7. CALCULATIONS
Q
(A) For parallel flow ε=
C p )min (∆T)max
(m
h C ph (Th,i – Th,o)
Qh = m
(B) For counter flow
c C pc (Tc,o – Tc,i)
Qc = m Repeat above calculations as in similar way.
Qc + Qh 9.8. RESULTS
Q=
2 The following table shows computed values
∆Ti – ∆To
∆Tlm = Sr. Parameters Parallel Counter
 ∆T  No. flow flow
ln  i 
 ∆To  1 LMTD, oC
∆Ti = Th,i – Tc,i and ∆To = Th,o – Tc,o 2 Ui, W/m2. K (practical)
Overall heat transfer coefficient 3 Ui, W/m2. K (empirical)
Q 4 Uo, W/m2. K (practical)
Ui = = ... W/m2.K
A i ( ∆T)lm 5 Uo, W/m2. K (empirical)
Q 6 Effectiveness
and Uo = = ... W/m2.K
A o ( ∆T)lm
9.9. EPILOGUE
For effectiveness
The logmean temperature difference, heat transfer rate
C p )h = ... W/K
(m and effectiveness of heat exchanger in counter flow
C p )c = ... W/K arrangement are more than that in parallel flow
(m
arrangement. Therefore, most of the tubular heat
(∆T)max = (Th,i – Tc,i) = ... K exchangers are operated in counter flow mode.
temperature difference (Ts – Tsat) is called temperature

EXPT. 10 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX excess.
Depending upon the temperature excess, the
10.1. OBJECTIVE physical mechanism of boiling may be studied by
To study the pool boiling phenomenon and to determine different modes, or regimes as shown in Fig. 16.19. The
critical heat flux. heat flux supplied to the surface is plotted against
10.2. PROLOGUE temperature excess (Ts – Tsat). It is seen that boiling
curve obtained can be divided :
When evaporation occurs at a solid liquid interface, it is
1. Natural convection boiling,
termed to be boiling. The process occurs when the heated
surface temperature Ts exceeds the saturation 2. Nucleate boiling,
temperature Tsat corresponding to liquid pressure. The 3. Film boiling.
Nucleate
Free boiling Transition Stable Radiation and
convection film film boiling
I IIa IIb IIIa IIIb IV
7
10
Radiation
Critical point
enhancement
qmax C
6
10
Film
boiling
q (W/m )
5
2
10
B
4
D
10
A
3
10
1 5 10 30 120 1000
Temperature excess, DTe = (Ts – Tsat) (°C)
Fig. 16.19. Typical boiling curve for saturated water at 1 atmosphere
Natural Boiling the free surface. In the IIb part, the rate of bubble
The natural convection boiling is said to be exist, formation as well as the number of their locations,
if temperature excess ≅ 5oC. Heat transferred from the increase. At the end of nucleate boiling the heat flux
heated surface to liquid in this vicinity causes the liquid reaches to its maximum value. This maximum heat flux
to be superheated. The superheated vapours rise to free is called critical heat flux.
liquid surface by natural convection, where insufficient Film Boiling
vapour is produced by evaporation. As the excess With increase in temperature excess, a stage is
temperature increases, the bubble formation starts. In finally reached when the high bubble formation rate
this regime fluid motion depends on free convection causes them to merge and blanket the surface with the
effects. vapour film. This is the beginning of region III, namely
Nucleate Boiling film boiling. In the first part of this region, IIIa, the
As the temperature excess increases beyond 5 oC, vapour film is unstable, film boiling may occur on a
the nucleate boiling starts. In this region, it is observed portion on the heated surface area, while nucleate
that the bubbles starts to form at certain locations called boiling may occur on the remaining area. In the second
nucleation sites, on the heated surface. In the nucleate part, IIIb, a stable film covers the entire surface. The
boiling, two different flow regimes may be distinguished. temperature excess in this region is approximately
In the IIa the bubbles formed are a few in numbers and 100oC and consequently, the radiation heat transfer
small in size. They coalesce with liquid and do not reach across the vapour film is also significant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1 Thermometer 2 Glass pot 3 Bulk heater 4 Test heater 5 Stand 6 Lens 7 Board
Fig. 16.20. Schematic diagram of critical heat flux apparatus
It will be observed that the heat flux does not 10.4. SPECIFICATIONS
increase in a regular manner with the temperature 1. Glass container – Diameter = ... mm,
excess. In region I, the heat flux is proportional to
Height = ... mm
(Ts – Tsat)n, where n is slightly greater than unity
(approximately 1.3). When transition from natural 2. Heater for initial heating
convection to nucleate boiling occurs, the flux starts to – Nichrome wire heater = ... kW
increase more rapidly with temperature excess. At the 3. Diameter of wire, d = ... mm
end of region IIIa, inspite of increasing temperature
4. Length of Nichrome wire, L = ... mm
excess, the heat flux starts to decrease, because the
thermal resistance to heat flow increases with formation 5. Dimmer-stat –10 A, 230 Volts
of vapour film. The heat flux passes through minimum 6. Voltmeter – 0 to 50/100 Volts
value at point D at the end of region IIIa. It starts to 7. Ammeter – 0 to 10 A
increase again with temperature excess only when 8. Thermometer – 0 to 100oC
stable film boiling begins and radiation becomes
increasingly significant, surface heat flux again shoots 10.5. PROCEDURE
up to maximum. This peak heat flux is called critical 1. Switch the bulk heater to heat the water in the
heat flux. cylinder up to required temperature.
10.3. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS 2. With the help of dimmer-stat, the heater input
The apparatus consist of a cylindrical glass container to nichrome wire is gradually increased.
housing, the test heater and a heater coil for initial 3. Study the different types of boiling stages.
heating of water. This heater coil is directly connected 4. Observe the voltmeter and ammeter readings
to mains and test heater (Nichrome wire) is also continuously.
connected to mains via dimmer-stat, thus the energy 5. Record the voltage and ammeter reading at the
input to test wire can be varied. An ammeter is
instance when nichrome wire burns out.
connected in series while voltmeter across it to read. A
stand, is fixed on wooden platform, which supports the 6. Repeat the procedure for different bulk
apparatus. temperature.
10.6. OBSERVATION It does not require any power input. It transfers large
amount of heat energy through a small surface area
Sr. No. Bulk temperature Ammeter Voltmeter with very little temperature difference from its one end
to another.
A heat pipe is basically a sealed slender tube
containing a wick structure lined on the inner surface
and a small amount of fluid such as water at saturated
state. The heat pipe comprises of three sections:
evaporator section at one end, where heat is absorbed
and fluid is vaporised, a condenser section at the other
end, where vapour condeses and heat is rejected, and
10.7. CALCULATION the adiabatic section in between, where the vapour and
liquid phases of the working substance flow in opposite
The heat transfer area of the wire
directions through the central core and the wick,
A = πDL2 = m2 respectively.
A variety of fluid and pipe materials have been
The energy input to the heater
used for heat pipe construction. The basic structure of a
Q = V I = Watts ...(16.39)
heat pipe is shown in Fig. 16.21. Typical copper heat
Critical Heat Flux pipe using water as the working fluid can transport an
Q approximately 6500 kW/m² of heat flux in axial position.
q= = W/m2
A Tube wall
The critical heat flux obtained practically can also
be compared with peak heat flux in nucleate boiling
using Zuber’s analytical expression; Vapour
core
1/2
Q  π  1/2 1/4  ρ + ρv 
A =   ρv hfg [ σg (ρ − ρv ) ×  
 max 4  ρ  Wick (liquid flow
passage)
...(16.40)
Cross-section of a heat pipe
where ρ = density of saturated liquid kg/m3
ρv = density of sturated vapour kg/m3 Insulation
Liquid Copper
σ = surface tension on liquid-vapour Wick flow tube
interface, N/m
Heat
hfg = latent heat of vaporisation, J/kg Heat
out
in
Vapour flow
10.8. RESULT
The critical heat flux is ...... W/m2

10.9. EPILOGUE
Evaporation Adiabatic Condenser
The heat transfer rate during pool boiling is maximum section section section
due to increase rate of bubbles formation. Fig. 16.21. Basic parts of a heat pipe
Presently, the heat pipes are used in several
EXPT. 11 HEAT PIPE engineering applications e.g. cooling of microelectric
circuit, power transisters, cryogenic targets in nuclear
11.1. OBJECTIVE accelerators temperature control devices, etc.
Study the heat transfer phenomenon and to compare 11.3. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
the performance of heat pipe with two geometrical
similar pipes of copper and stainless steel.
The experimental setup as shown in Fig. 16.22,
11.2. PROLOGUE comprises of three identical (same diameter and same
A heat pipe is a very simple device without any moving height) heat pipes. One of them is seamless pipe with
part that can transfer heat energy over fairly large copper perforated sheet used as wicking material with
distance by using change of phase of working substance. pure distilled water. The two pipes are made of copper
and stainless steel. One end of these pipes is heated Energy input to heater in time ∆t ,
with help of electrical heaters. Other end is exposed to Q = V I ∆t
small capacity water tanks acting as heat sinks. Each Heat transferred to water,
tanks is provided with a thermometer to measure
Qw = mw C pw (Tfinal − Tinitial )
temperature of water. Four thermocouples are
embedded along the length of each pipe to measure the 11.3.3. Experimental Procedure
temperature distribution. The power input to the heater 1. Fill the known quantity of water in three heat
can be varied through dimmer-stats and can be sinks and measure its initial temperature.
measured by voltmeter and ammeter.
2. Switch on the mains and supply the same power
Q1 Q2 Q3 input to each heater equipped with three pipes.
– + – + – +
3. Wait for steady state conditions, and then note
down readings of thermocouples connected to
Heater pipes.
T1 T5 T9 4. Measure the final temperature of water in three
heat sinks.
T2 T6 T10 5. Repeat the experiment for different heat input.
11.4. SPECIFICATIONS
T3 T7 T11 (A) Standard heat pipe, A
Diameter of heat pipe, dA = ...... mm,
T4 T8 T12 Height of heat pipe, LA = ...... mm
Heat sink Mass of water heat sink mA = ...... kg
(B) Copper pipe, B
A B C Diameter of copper pipe, dB = ...... mm
Heat pipe Copper pipe Stainless steel pipe
Height of copper pipe, LB = ...... mm
Fig. 16.22. Setup for heat pipe demonstration
Mass of water heat sink mB = ...... kg
11.3.2. Theory (C) Stainless steel pipe, C
The performance of heat pipes can be studied by Diameter of stainless steel pipe, dC = ...... mm
measuring the temperature distribution along the
Height of stainless steel pipe, LC = ...... mm
length of the pipe and heat transfer characteristics of
each pipe. Under steady state for each heat pipe Mass of water heat sink, mC = ...... kg
11.5. OBSERVATION TABLES

(i) Heat pipe A
Sr. No. Heat input Readings of thermocouple along pipe, oC Heat sink temperature
V I T1 T2 T3 T4 Initial Final
1
2
3
(ii) Copper pipe B

Sr. No. Heat input Readings of thermocouple along pipe,oC Heat sink temperature
1
2
3
(iii) Stainless steel pipe C

Sr. No. Heat input Readings of thermocouple along pipe Heat sink temperature
1
2
3
11.6. CALCULATIONS
EXPT. 12 THERMOCOUPLES CALIBRATION
(i) Standard heat pipe A
TEST RIG
Energy input to heater in time ∆t,
QA = VA IA ∆t Objective. To study and calibrate thermocouples
Heat transferred to water, 12.1. PROLOGUE
Qw A = m A C pw (Tfinal − Tinitial ) A A thermocouple is a very simple temperature sensor,
Temperatures distribution in heat pipe consisting essentially of two dissimilar wires in thermal
contact. The operation of a thermocouple is based on
T1 = oC, T2 = oC,
the Seebeck effect, which results in the generation of a
T3 = oC, T4 = oC,
thermoelectric potential when two dissimilar metals are
(ii) Copper heat pipe B joined together to form a junction. The thermoelectric
Energy input to heater in time ∆t , effect is produced by diffusion of electrons across the
QB = VB IB ∆t interface between the two materials. The electric
potential of the material accepting electrons becomes
Heat transferred to water ,
negative at the interface, while the potential of the
Qw B = mBC pw (Tfinal − Tinitial )B material providing the electrons becomes positive. Thus,
Temperatures distribution in heat pipe an electric field is established by the flow of electrons
T5 = oC, T6 = oC, across the interface. When this electric field becomes
sufficient to balance the diffusion forces, a state of
T7 = oC, T8 = oC,
equilibrium with respect to electron migration is
(iii) Stainless steel heat pipe C
established. Since the magnitude of the diffusion force
Energy input to heater in time ∆t , is controlled by the temperature of the thermocouple
QC = VCIC ∆t junction, the electric potential developed at the junction
provides a measure of the temperature. The electric
Heat transferred to water,
potential is usually measured by introducing a reference
QwC = mCC pw (Tfinal − Tinitial )C junction in an electric circuit and measuring the voltage
Temperatures distribution in heat pipe E across one leg with a suitable voltmeter. The voltage
E across terminals measuring the temperature
T9 = oC, T10 = oC, difference T1 – T2 can be approximated by an empirical
T11 = oC, T12 = oC, equation in the form
11.7. RESULT E = C1(T1 – T2) + C2(T1 – T2) ...(16.41)

Where C1 and C2 are thermoelectric constants that
1. Compare heat transfer rate to water.
depend on the materials, T1 and T2 are junction
2. Plot the temperature distribution along the
temperatures.
length of three pipes.
In practice, junction 1 is used to sense an
11.8. EPILOGUE unknown temperature T1 while junction 2 is maintained
Comment on the heat transfer characteristics and at a known reference temperature T2. The unknown
temperature distribution of three pipes. temperature T1 is determined with the help of
Temperature T2 and measured voltage E. It is clear from No. 24 Gauge

Cu–Co Thermocouples
above that the response of a thermocouple is a nonlinear
function of the temperature. It is also observed that
eqn. (16.41) is not a sufficiently accurate representation
of the voltage-temperature relationship to be used with
confidence when precise measurement of temperature
is required. For this reason, the thermocouples are Clamped to
drill press
calibrated over the complete range of temperature for
which they are useful and tables are obtained which
Leg B
can be used to relate temperature T1 to the
Leg A
thermoelectric voltage E. Thermocouple tables are
available for different make of thermocouples.
Reference Junction Temperature

D
Since a thermocouple circuit responds to a
temperature difference (T1 – T2), it is essential that the 1”
reference junction be maintained at a constant and
accurately known temperature T2.
The simplest and most popular technique utilizes Glycerin
an ice and water bath, as illustrated in the reference
junction is immersed in a mixutre of ice and water in a
thermos bottle that is capped to prevent heat loss and
constant reference temperature. Asbestos plate
Heater
The ice bath method for maintaining a reference
temperature at 0°C(32°F). Water (sufficient only to fill Fig. 16.23. Experimental set-up for calibration
the voids) must be removed and ice must be replaced of thermocouples
periodically to maintain a constant reference 3. If a third metal C is inserted into either leg (A or
temperature. Such an ice bath can maintain the water B) of a thermocouple circuit, the output voltage
temperature (and thus the reference temperature) to E is not affected, provided the two new junctions
within 0.1°C (0.2°F) of the freezing point of water. A/C and C/A are maintained at the same
temperature (for example, temperature T3).
Principles of Thermocouple Behaviour
4. The insertion of an intermediate metal C into
1. A thermocouple circuit must contain at least two junction 1 does not affect the output voltage E,
dissimilar materials and at least two junctions. provided the two junctions formed by the
Typical situations encountered during use of insertion (A/C and C/B) are maintained at the
thermocouples. (a) Basic thermocouple circuit. same temperature T1.
(b) Output depends on (T1 – T2) only. (c) Inter- 5. A thermocouple circuit with temperatures T1 and
mediate metal in circuit. (d) Intermediate metal T2 produces an output voltage E1–2 = f(T1 – T2),
in junction. (e) Voltage addition from identical and one exposed to temperatures T2 and T3
thermocouples at different temperatures. produces an output voltage E2–3 = f(T2 – T3). If
(f ) Voltage addition from different thermocouples the same circuit is exposed to temperatures T1
at identical temperatures. and T3, the output voltage E1–3 = f(T1 – T3) =
2. The output voltage E of a thermocouple circuit E1–2 + E2–3
depends only on the difference between junction 6. A thermocouple circuit fabricated from materials
temperatures (T1 – T2) and is independent of the A and C generates an output voltage EA/C when
temperatures elsewhere in the circuit as shown exposed to temperatures T1 and T2, while a
in Fig. 16.23. similar circuit fabricated from materials C and B
generates an output voltage EC/B. Furthermore, 25. What is Stefan Boltzmann Law ?
a thermocouple fabricated from materials A and 26. What is heat convection ?
B generates an output voltage EA/B = EA/C + EC/B. 27. What is potential for heat convection ?
28. Defferentiate between forced convection and natural
REVIEW QUESTIONS convection.
29. Define Reynolds number, Prandtl number and
1. What is heat conduction ? Grashof number.
2. What is thermal conductivity ? 30. What is pool boiling, nucleate boiling and film
3. What is fundamental law of heat conduction ? boiling ?
4. State Fourier law. 31. What is critical heat flux ?
5. What is potential for heat conduction ? 32. What is the working principle of heat pipe ?
6. What is effect of temperature on thermal conductivity 33. What are the main parts of heat pipe ?
of metals ? 34. What are the applications of heat pipe ?
7. What is effect of temperature on thermal conductivity 35. What are the applications of longitudinal fins ?
of non-metals ? 36. What is the mechanism of heat conduction in solids ?
8. What are uses of insulating powders ? 37. On what basic thermodynamic principle, the Stefan
9. Why is thermal conductivity of insulating powders is Boltzmann apparatus works ?
less that their parent solids ? 38. What are classifications of heat exchangers ?
10. What do you understand by isotropic and unisotropic 39. Draw the temperature distribution for parallel flow
materials ? and counter flow heat exchangers.
11. What is a fin ? 40. What is LMTD ? Why it is more for counterflow heat
12. When a fin is called a pin fin ? exchanger ?
13. What do you understand by annular fin ? 41. Define for a heat exchanger: effectiveness and NTU.
14. What do you understand by longitudinal fin ?

REFERENCES
15. What is profile area of fin ?
16. Why is fin tip considered insulated in most of cases ? 1. Holman J.P., “Experimental Methods for Engineers”,
17. What is fin efficiency ? fifth edition, McGraw Hill, New York, 1989.
2. Doolittle J.S. , “Mechanical Engineering Laboratory”,
18. When the use of fin can be justified ? In forced or
McGraw Hill, New York, 1957.
natural convection.
3. Colclaser S.W., “Heat Pipe Theory and Practice”,
19. What is emissive power ? Hemisphere, Washington, DC, 1976.
20. What is emissivity ? 4. Experimental manuals for Heat Transfer Laboratory,
21. Define black body. from Hytech Educational Equipments Pvt. Ltd. Pune,
India.
22. What is gray body approximation? Why is it
5. Experimental manuals for Heat Transfer Laboratory,
important ?
from ARE Educational Equipments Pvt. Ltd. Miraj,
23. What is Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation ? India.
24. Why the red signal can be seen from large distance 6. Experimental manuals for Heat Transfer Laboratory,
in comparison to green signal ? from Promark Equipments Pvt. Ltd. Banglore, India.
Appendix
Thermophysical
Properties of Matter A
Table Page
A.1 Thermophysical Properties of Selected Metallic Solids ... 622
A.2 Thermophysical Properties of Selected Non-metallic Solids ... 626
A.3 Thermophysical Properties of Common Materials ... 628
(a) Structural Building Materials ... 628
(b) Insulating Materials and Systems ... 629
(c) Industrial Insulation ... 630
(d) Other Materials ... 632
(e) Properties of Common Materials ... 633
A.4 Thermophysical Properties of Gases at Atmospheric Pressure ... 634
A.5 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Liquids ... 638
A.6 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Liquid-Vapour, 1 atm ... 639
A.7 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Water ... 640
A.8 Thermophysical Properties of Liquid Metals ... 641
A.9 Emissivities of Some Surfaces ... 642
(a) Metals ... 642
(b) Non-metals ... 643
A.10 Solar Radiative Properties for Selected Materials ... 644
A.11 Diffusion Coefficient of Gases and Vapours in Air at 25°C
and 100 kPa ... 644
A.12 Molal Specific Volumes and Latent Heats of Vaporization for Selected Liquids at their
Normal Boiling Points ... 645
621
APPENDIX A 622
TABLE A.1 Thermophysical properties of selected metallic solids
Properties at various temperatures (K)

Properties at 300 K k(W/mK)/Cp (J/kg K)
Composition Melting ρ Cp k α × 106 100 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1500 2000 2500
point (K) (kg/m3) (J/kg. K) (W/m.K) (m2/s)
Aluminium
Pure 933 2702 903 237 97.1 302 237 240 231 218
482 798 949 1033 1146
Alloy 2024-T6 775 2770 875 177 73.0 65 163 186 186
(4.5% Cu, 473 787 925 1042
1.5% Mg,
0.6% Mn)
Alloy 195, Cast 2790 883 168 68.2 174 185
(4.5% Cu) — —
Beryllium 1550 1850 1825 200 59.2 990 301 161 126 106 90.8 78.7
203 1114 2191 2604 2823 3018 3227 3519
Bismuth 545 9780 122 7.86 6.59 16.5 9.69 7.04
112 120 127
Boron 2573 2500 1107 27.0 9.76 190 55.5 16.8 10.6 9.60 9.85
128 600 1463 1892 2160 2338
Cadmium 594 8650 231 96.8 48.4 203 99.3 94.7
198 222 242
Chromium 2118 7160 449 93.7 29.1 159 111 90.9 80.7 71.3 65.4 61.9 57.2 49.4
192 384 484 542 581 616 682 779 937
Cobalt 1769 8862 421 99.2 26.6 167 122 85.4 67.4 58.2 52.1 49.3 42.5
236 379 450 503 550 628 733 674
Copper
Pure 1358 8933 385 401 117 482 413 393 379 366 352 339
252 356 397 417 433 451 480
Commercial bronze 1293 8800 420 52 14 42 52 59
(90% Cu, 10% Al) 785 460 545
*Phosphor gear 1104 8780 355 54 17 41 65 74
bronze
(89% Cu, 11% Sn)
Cartridge brass 1188 8530 380 110 33.9 75 95 137 149
(70% Cu, 30% Zn) 360 395 425
Constantan 1493 8920 384 23 6.71 17 19
(55% Cu, 45% Ni) 237 362
Germanium 1211 5360 322 59.9 34.7 232 96.8 43.2 27.3 19.8 17.4 17.4
190 290 337 348 357 375 395
(Continued)
TABLE A.1 Continued

Gold 1336 19300 129 317 127 327 323 311 298 284 270 255
109 124 131 135 140 145 155
Iridium 2720 22500 130 147 50.3 172 153 144 138 132 126 120 111
90 122 133 138 144 153 161 172
Iron
Pure 1810 7870 447 80.2 23.1 134 94.0 69.5 54.7 43.3 32.8 28.3 32.1
216 384 490 574 680 975 609 654
Armco
(99.75% pure) 7870 447 72.7 20.7 95.6 80.6 65.7 53.1 42.2 32.3 28.7 31.4
215 384 490 574 680 975 609 654
Carbon steels
Plain carbon 7854 434 60.5 17.7 56.7 48.0 39.2 30.0
487 559 685 1169
APPENDIX A : THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
(Mn ≤ 1%),
Si ≤ 0.1%)
ALSL 1010 7832 434 63.9 18.8 58.7 48.8 39.2 31.3
(Mn ≤ 1% 487 559 685 1168
Carbon-silicon 7854 446 51.9 14.9 49.8 44.0 37.4 29.3
(Mn ≤ 1% 501 582 699 971
0.1% < Si ≤ 0.6%)
Carbon- 8131 434 41.0 11.6 42.2 39.7 35.0 27.6
manganese-
silicon 487 559 685 1090
(1% < Mn ≤ 1.65%,
0.1% < Si ≤ 0.6%)
Chromium (low) steels
1 1
2 Cr – 4 Mo – Si 7822 444 37.7 10.9 38.2 36.7 33.3 26.9
(0.18% C, 0.65% Cr, 492 575 688 969
0.23% Mo, 0.6% Si)
1 Cr – 21 Mo 7858 442 42.3 12.2 42.0 39.1 34.5 27.4

(0.16% C, 1% Cr, 492 575 688 969
0.54% Mo, 0.39% Si)
1 Cr-V 7836 443 48.9 14.1 46.8 42.1 36.3 28.2
(0.2% C, 1.02% Cr, 492 575 688 969
0.15% V)
Stainless steels
623
(Continued)
TABLE A.1 Continued
624
point (K) (kg/m3) (J/kg.K) (W/m.K) (m2/s)
AISI 302 8055 480 15.1 3.91 17.3 20.0 22.8 25.4
512 559 585 606
AISI 304 1670 7900 477 14.9 3.95 9.2 12.6 16.6 19.8 22.6 25.4 28.0 31.7
272 402 515 557 582 611 640 682
AISI 316 8238 468 13.4 3.48 15.2 18.3 21.3 24.2
504 550 576 602
AISI 347 7978 480 14.2 3.71 15.8 18.9 21.9 24.7
513 559 585 606
Lead 601 11340 129 35.3 24.1 39.7 36.7 34.0 31.4
118 125 132 142
Magnesium 923 1740 1024 156 87.6 169 159 153 149 146
649 934 1074 1170 1267
Molybdenum 2894 10240 251 138 53.7 179 143 134 126 118 112 105 98 90 86
141 224 261 275 285 295 308 330 380 459
Nickel
Pure 1728 8900 444 90.7 23.0 164 107 80.2 65.6 67.6 71.8 76.2 82.6
232 383 485 592 530 562 594 616
Nichrome 1672 8400 420 12 3.4 14 16 21
(80% Ni, 20% Cr) 480 525 545
Inconel X-750 1665 8510 439 11.7 3.1 8.7 10.3 13.5 17.0 20.5 24.0 27.6 33.0
(73% Ni, 15% Cr, — 372 473 510 546 626 — —
6.7% Fe)
Niobium 2741 8570 265 53.7 23.6 55.2 52.6 55.2 58.2 61.3 64.4 67.5 72.1 79.1
188 249 274 283 292 301 310 324 347
Palladium 1827 12020 244 71.8 24.5 76.5 71.6 73.6 79.7 86.9 94.2 102 110
168 227 251 261 271 281 291 307
Platinum
Pure 2045 21450 133 71.6 25.1 77.5 72.6 71.8 73.2 75.6 78.7 82.6 89.5 99.4
100 125 136 141 146 152 157 165 179
Alloy 60Pt-40Rh 1800 16630 162 47 17.4 52 59 65 69 73 76
(60% Pt, 40% Rh) — — — — — —
Rhenium 3453 21100 136 47.9 16.7 58.9 51.0 46.1 44.2 44.1 44.6 45.7 47.8 51.9
97 127 139 145 151 156 162 171 186
Rhodium 2236 12450 243 150 49.6 186 154 146 136 127 121 116 110 112
147 220 253 274 293 311 327 349 376
Silicon 1685 2330 712 148 89.2 884 264 98.9 61.9 42.2 31.2 25.7 22.7
259 556 790 867 913 946 967 992
(Continued)
TABLE A.1 Continued

Silver 1235 10500 235 429 174 444 430 425 412 396 379 361
187 225 239 250 262 277 292
Tantalum 3269 16600 140 57.5 24.7 59.2 57.5 57.8 58.6 59.4 60.2 61.0 62.2 64.1 65.6
110 133 144 146 149 152 155 160 172 189
Thorium 2023 11700 118 54.0 39.1 59.8 54.6 54.5 55.8 56.9 56.9 58.7
99 112 124 134 145 156 167
Tin 505 7310 227 66.6 40.1 85.2 73.3 62.2
188 215 243
Titanium 1953 4500 522 21.9 9.32 30.5 24.5 20.4 19.4 19.7 20.7 22.0 24.5
300 465 551 591 633 675 620 686
Tungsten 3660 19300 132 174 68.3 208 186 159 137 125 118 113 107 100 95
87 122 137 142 145 148 152 157 167 176
Uranium 1406 19070 116 27.6 12.5 21.7 25.1 29.6 34.0 38.8 43.9 49.0
94 108 125 146 176 180 161

Vanadium 2192 6100 489 30.7 10.3 35.8 31.3 31.3 33.3 35.7 38.2 40.8 44.6 50.9
258 430 515 540 563 597 645 714 867
Zinc 693 7140 389 116 41.8 117 118 111 103
297 367 402 436
Zirconium 2125 6570 278 22.7 12.4 33.2 25.2 21.6 20.7 21.6 23.7 26.0 28.8 33.0
205 264 300 322 342 362 344 344 344
625
TABLE A.2 Thermophysical properties of selected non-metallic solids
626
Properties at 300 K k(W/m.K)/Cp (J/kg. K)
point (K) (kg/m3) (J/kg.K) (W/m. K) (m2/s)
Alumium oxide, 2323 3970 765 46 15.1 450 82 32.4 18.9 13.0 10.5
sapphire — — 940 1110 1180 1225
Aluminum oxide, 2323 3970 765 36.0 11.9 133 55 26.4 15.8 10.4 7.85 6.55 5.66 6.00
polycrystalline — — 940 1110 1180 1225 — — —
Beryllium oxide 2725 3000 1030 272 88.0 196 111 70 47 33 21.5 15
1350 1690 1865 1975 2055 2145 2750
Boron 2573 2500 1105 27.6 9.99 190 52.5 18.7 11.3 8.1 6.3 5.2
— — 1490 1880 2135 2350 2555
Boron fibre epoxy 590 2080
(30% vol) composite
k, || to fibres 2.29 2.10 2.23 2.28
k ⊥ to fibres 0.59 0.37 0.49 0.60
Cp 1122 364 757 1431
Carbon
Amorphous 1500 1950 — 1.60 — 0.67 1.18 1.89 2.19 2.37 2.53 2.84 3.48
Diamond, — — — — — — — —
type IIa — 3500 509 2300 — 10000 4000 1540
insulator 21 194 853
Graphite, pyrolytic 2273 2210
k || to layers 1950 4970 3230 1390 892 667 534 448 357 262
k ⊥ to layers 5.70 16.8 9.23 4.09 2.68 2.01 1.60 1.34 1.08 0.81
Cp 709 136 411 992 1406 1650 1793 1890 1974 2043
Graphite fibre 450 1400
epoxy (25% vol)
composite
k, heat flow
|| to fibres 11.1 5.7 8.7 13.0
k,heat flow
⊥ to fibres 0.87 0.46 0.68 1.1
Cp 935 337 642 1216
Pyroceram 1623 2600 808 3.98 1.89 5.25 4.78 3.64 3.28 3.08 2.96 2.87 2.79
Corning 9606 — — 908 1038 1122 1197 1264 1498
Silicon carbide 3100 3160 675 490 230 — — — 87 58 30
880 1050 1135 1195 1243 1310
Silicon dioxide, 1883 2650
crystalline
(quartz)
k, || to C axis 10.4 39 16.4 7.6 5.0 4.2
k, ⊥ to C axis 6.21 20.8 9.5 4.70 3.4 3.1
Cp 745 — — 885 1075 1250
(Continued)
TABLE A.2 Continued

Properties at 300 K k(W/m.K)/Cp (J/kg. K)
point (K) (kg/m3) (J/kg.K) (W/m. K) (m2/s)
Silicon dioxide, 1883 2220 745 1.38 0.834 0.69 1.14 1.51 1.75 2.17 2.87 4.00
polycrystalline — — 905 1040 1105 1155 1195
(fused silicon)
Silicon nitride 2173 2400 691 16.0 9.65 — — 13.9 11.3 9.88 8.76 8.00 7.16 6.20
— 578 778 937 1063 1155 1226 1306 1377
Sulphur 392 2070 708 0.206 0.141 0.165 0.185
403 606
Thorium dioxide 3573 9110 235 13 6.1 10.2 6.6 4.7 3.68 3.12 2.73 2.5
255 274 285 295 303 315 330
Titanium dioxide, 2133 4175 710 8.4 2.8 7.01 5.02 3.94 3.46 3.28
polycrystalline 805 880 910 930 945
627
TABLE A.3 Thermophysical properties of common materials

(a) Structural building materials
Typical properties at 300 K

Description/composition Density, ρ Thermal conductivity, k Specific heat Cp
(kg/m3) (W/m. K) (J/kg.K)
Building boards
Asbestos—cement board 1920 0.58 —
Gypsum or plaster board 800 0.17 —
Plywood 545 0.12 1215
Sheathing, regular density 290 0.055 1300
Acoustic tile 290 0.058 1340
Hardboard, siding 640 0.094 1170
Hardboard, high density 1010 0.15 1380
Particle board, low density 590 0.078 1300
Particle board, high density 1000 0.170 1300
Woods
Hardwoods (oak, maple) 720 0.16 1255
Softwoods (fir, pine) 510 0.12 1380
Masonry materials
Cement mortar 1860 0.72 780
Brick, common 1920 0.72 835
Brick, face 2083 1.3 —
Clay tile, hollow
1 cell deep, 10 cm thick — 0.52 —
3 cells deep, 30 cm thick — 0.69 —
Concrete block, 3 oval cores
Sand/gravel, 20 cm thick — 1.0 —
Cinder aggregate, 20 cm thick — 0.67 —
Concrete block rectangular core
2 cores, 20 cm thick, 16 kg — 1.1 —
Same with filled cores — 0.60 —
Plastering materials
Cement plaster, sand aggregate 1860 0.72 —
Gypsum plaster, sand aggregate 1680 0.22 1085
Gypsum plaster, vermiculite aggregate 720 0.25 —
(Continued)
APPENDIX A : THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 629
TABLE A.3 Continued

(b) Insulating materials and systems
Typical properties at 300 K

Description/composition Density, ρ Thermal conductivity, k Specific heat Cp
(kg/m3) (W/m. K) (J/kg. K)
Blanket and batt
Glass fibre, paper faced 16 0.046 —
28 0.038 —
40 0.035 —
Glass fibre, coated ; duct liner 32 0.038 835
Board and slab
Cellular glass 145 0.058 1000
Glass fibre, organic bonded 105 0.036 795
Polystyrene, expanded
Extruded (R-12) 55 0.027 1210
Moulded beads 16 0.040 1210
Mineral fibreboard ; roofing material 265 0.049 —
Wood, shredded/cemented 350 0.087 1590
Cork 120 0.039 1800
Loose fill
Cork, granulated 160 0.045 —
Diatomaceous silica, coarse 350 0.069 —
Powder 400 0.091 —
Diatomaceous silica, fine powder 200 0.052 —
275 0.061 —
Glass fibre, poured or blown 16 0.043 835
Vermiculite, flakes 80 0.068 835
160 0.063 1000
Formed/foamed-in-place
Mineral wool granules with asbestos/ 190 0.046 —
inorganic binders, sprayed
Polyvinyl acetate cork mastic ; sprayed — 0.100 —
or trowelled
Urethane, two-part mixture, rigid foam 70 0.026 1045
Reflective
Aluminum foil separating fluffy glass 40 0.00016 —
mats ; 10–12 layers, evacuated ; for
cyrogenic applications (150 K)
Aluminum foil and glass paper 120 0.000017 —
laminate ; 75–150 layers ; evacuated ;
for cyrogenic application (150 K)
Typical silica powder, evacuated 160 0.0017 —
(Continued)
TABLE A.3 Continued
(c) Industrial insulation 630
Description/ Maximum service Typical density Typical thermal conductivity, k (W/m.K), at various temperatures (K)
composition temperature (K) (kg/m3) 200 215 230 240 255 270 285 300 310 365 420 530 645 750
Blankets
Blanket, mineral 920 96–192 0.038 0.046 0.056 0.078
fibre,
metal reinforced 815 40–96 0.035 0.045 0.058 0.088
Blanket, mineral 450 10 0.036 0.038 0.040 0.043 0.048 0.052 0.076
fibre, glass ;
fine fibre,
organic bonded 12 0.035 0.036 0.039 0.042 0.046 0.049 0.069
16 0.033 0.035 0.036 0.039 0.042 0.046 0.062
24 0.030 0.032 0.033 0.036 0.039 0.040 0.053
32 0.029 0.030 0.032 0.033 0.036 0.038 0.048
48 0.027 0.029 0.030 0.032 0.033 0.035 0.045
Blanket, alumina-
silica fiber 1530 48 0.071 0.105 0.150
64 0.059 0.087 0.125
96 0.052 0.076 0.100
128 0.049 0.068 0.091
Felt, semirigid ; 480 50–125 0.035 0.036 0.038 0.039 0.051 0.063
organic bonded 730 50 0.023 0.025 0.026 0.027 0.029 0.030 0.032 0.033 0.035 0.051 0.079
Felt, laminated ;
no binder 920 120 0.051 0.065 0.087
Blocks, boards and
pipe insulations
Asbestos paper,
laminated and
corrugated
4-ply 420 190 0.078 0.082 0.098
6-ply 420 255 0.071 0.074 0.085
8-ply 420 300 0.068 0.071 0.082
(Continued)
TABLE A.3 Continued
Industrial insulation (continued)
Description/ Maximum service Typical density Typical thermal conductivity, k (W/m.K), at various temperatures (K)
composition temperature (K) (kg/m3) 200 215 230 240 255 270 285 300 310 365 420 530 645 750
Magnesia, 85% 590 185 0.051 0.055 0.061

Calcium silicate 920 190 0.055 0.059 0.063 0.075 0.089 0.104
Cellular glass 700 145 0.046 0.048 0.05 0.052 0.055 0.058 0.062 0.069 0.079
Diatomaceous 1145 345 0.092 0.098 0.104
silica 1310 385 0.101 0.100 0.115
Polystyrene, rigid
Extruded (R-12) 350 56 0.023 0.023 0.022 0.023 0.023 0.025 0.026 0.027 0.029
Extruded (R-12) 350 35 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.025 0.025 0.026 0.027 0.029
Moulded beads 350 16 0.026 0.029 0.030 0.033 0.035 0.036 0.038 0.040
Rubber, rigid
foamed 340 70 0.029 0.030 0.032 0.033
Insulating cement
Mineral fibre
(rock, slag or glass)
With clay binder 1255 430 0.071 0.079 0.088 0.105 0.123
With hydraulic
setting binder 922 560 0.108 0.115 0.123 0.137
Loose fill
Cellulose, wood
or paper pulp — 45 0.038 0.039 0.042
Perlite, expanded — 105 0.036 0.039 0.042 0.043 0.046 0.049 0.051 0.053 0.056
Vermiculite,
expanded — 122 0.056 0.058 0.061 0.063 0.065 0.068 0.071
80 0.049 0.051 0.055 0.058 0.061 0.063 0.066
(Continued)
631
TABLE A.3 Properties of common materials

(d) Other materials
Density Thermal Specific

Description/Composition Temperature ρ conductivity k heat Cp
K kg/m3 W/(m.K) J/(kg .K)
Asphalt 300 2115 0.062 920

Bakelite 300 1300 1.4 1465
Brick, refractory
Carborundum 872 — 18.5 —
1672 — 11.0 —
Chrome brick 473 3010 2.3 835
823 2.5
1173 2.0
Diatomaceous 478 — 0.25 —
silica, fired 1145 — 0.30
Fire clay, burnt 1600 K 773 2050 1.0 960
1073 — 1.1
1373 — 1.1
Fire clay, burnt 1725 K 773 2325 1.3 960
1073 1.4
1373 1.4
Fire clay brick 478 2645 1.0 960
922 1.5
1478 1.8
Magnesite 478 — 3.8 1130
922 — 2.8
1478 1.9
Clay 300 1460 1.3 880
Coal, anthracite 300 1350 0.26 1260
Concrete (stone mix) 300 2300 1.4 880
Cotton 300 80 0.06 1300
Foodstuffs
Banana (75.7%
water content) 300 980 0.481 3350
Apple, red (75%
water content) 300 840 0.513 3600
Cake, butter 300 720 0.223 —
Cake, fully baked 300 280 0.121 —
Chicken meat, 198 — 1.60 —
(74.4% water content) 233 — 1.49
253 1.35
263 1.20
273 0.476
283 0.480
293 0.489
Glass
Plate (soda lime) 300 2500 1.4 750
Pyrex 300 2225 1.4 835
(Continued)
TABLE A.3 Continued

(e) Properties of common materials
Density Thermal Specific

Description/Composition Temperature ρ conductivity k heat Cp
K kg/m3 W/(m.K) J/(kg.K)
lce 273 920 1.88 2040

253 — 2.03 1945
Leather (sole) 300 998 0.159 —
Paper 300 930 0.180 1340
Paraffin 300 900 0.240 2890
Rock
Granite, Barre 300 2630 2.79 775
Limestone, Salem 300 2320 2.15 810
Marble, Halston 300 2680 2.80 830
Quartzite, Sioux 300 2640 5.38 1105
Sandstone, Berea 300 2150 2.90 745
Rubber, vulcanized
Soft 300 1100 0.13 2010
Hard 300 1190 0.16 —
Sand 300 1515 0.27 800
Soil 300 2050 0.52 1840
Snow 273 110 0.049 —
500 0.190 —
Teflon 300 2200 0.35 —
400 0.45 —
Tissue, human
Skin 300 — 0.37 —
Fat layer (adipose) 300 — 0.2 —
Muscle 300 — 0.41 —
Wood, cross-grain
Balsa 300 140 0.055 —
Cypress 300 465 0.097 —
Fir 300 415 0.11 2720
Oak 300 545 0.17 2385
Yellow pine 300 640 0.15 2805
White pine 300 435 0.11 —
Wood, radial
Oak 300 545 0.19 2385
Fir 300 420 0.14 2720
TABLE A.4 Thermophysical properties of gases at atmospheric pressure
µ × 107 ν × 106 k × 103 α × 106

T (K) ρ(kg/m3) Cp (kJ/kg.K) (Ns/m2) (m2/s) (W/m.K) (m2/s) Pr
Air
100 3.5562 1.032 71.1 2.00 9.34 2.54 0.786
150 2.3364 1.012 103.4 4.426 13.8 5.84 0.758
200 1.7458 1.007 132.5 7.590 18.1 10.3 0.737
250 1.3947 1.006 159.6 11.44 22.3 15.9 0.720
300 1.1614 1.007 184.6 15.89 26.3 22.5 0.707
350 0.9950 1.009 208.2 20.92 30.0 29.9 0.700
400 0.8711 1.014 230.1 26.41 33.8 38.3 0.690
450 0.7740 1.021 250.7 32.39 37.3 47.2 0.686
500 0.6964 1.030 270.1 38.79 40.7 56.7 0.684
550 0.6329 1.040 288.4 45.57 43.9 66.7 0.683
600 0.5804 1.051 305.8 52.69 46.9 76.9 0.685
650 0.5356 1.063 322.5 60.21 49.7 87.3 0.690
700 0.4975 1.075 338.8 68.10 52.4 98.0 0.695
750 0.4643 1.087 354.6 76.37 54.9 109 0.702
800 0.4354 1.099 369.8 84.93 57.3 120 0.709
850 0.4097 1.110 384.3 93.80 59.6 131 0.716
900 0.3868 1.121 398.1 102.9 62.0 143 0.720
950 0.3666 1.131 411.3 112.2 64.3 155 0.723
1000 0.3482 1.141 424.4 121.9 66.7 168 0.726
1100 0.3166 1.159 449.0 141.8 71.5 195 0.728
1200 0.2902 1.175 473.0 162.9 76.3 224 0.728
1300 0.2679 1.189 496.0 185.1 82 238 0.719
1400 0.2488 1.207 530 213 91 303 0.703
1500 0.2322 1.230 557 240 100 350 0.685
1600 0.2177 1.248 584 268 106 390 0.688
1700 0.2049 1.267 611 298 113 435 0.685
1800 0.1935 1.286 637 329 120 482 0.683
1900 0.1833 1.307 663 362 128 534 0.677
2000 0.1741 1.337 689 396 137 589 0.672
2100 0.1658 1.372 715 431 147 646 0.667
2200 0.1582 1.417 740 468 160 714 0.655
2300 0.1513 1.478 766 506 175 783 0.647
2400 0.1448 1.558 792 547 196 869 0.630
2500 0.1389 1.665 818 589 222 960 0.613
3000 0.1135 2.726 955 841 486 1570 0.536
Ammonia (NH3)
300 0.6894 2.158 101.5 14.7 24.7 16.6 0.887
320 0.6448 2.170 109 16.9 27.2 19.4 0.870
340 0.6059 2.192 116.5 19.2 29.3 22.1 0.872
360 0.5716 2.221 124 21.7 31.6 24.9 0.872
380 0.5410 2.254 131 24.2 34.0 27.9 0.869
400 0.5136 2.287 138 26.9 37.0 31.5 0.853
420 0.4888 2.322 145 29.7 40.4 35.6 0.833
(Continued)
TABLE A.4 Continued
µ × 107 ν × 106 k × 103 α × 106

T (K) ρ (kg/m3) Cp (kJ/kg.K) (Ns/m2) (m2/s) (W/m.K) (m2/s) Pr
Ammonia (NH3) (Continued)

440 0.4664 2.357 152.5 32.7 43.5 39.6 0.826
460 0.4460 2.393 159 35.7 46.3 43.4 0.822
480 0.4273 2.430 166.5 39.0 49.2 47.4 0.822
500 0.4101 2.467 173 42.2 52.5 51.9 0.813
520 0.3942 2.504 180 45.7 54.5 55.2 0.827
540 0.3795 2.540 186.5 49.1 57.5 59.7 0.824
560 0.3708 2.577 193 52.0 60.6 63.4 0.827
580 0.3533 2.613 199.5 56.5 63.8 69.1 0.817
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
280 1.9022 0.830 140 7.36 15.20 9.63 0.765
300 1.7730 0.851 149 8.40 16.55 11.0 0.766
320 1.6609 0.872 156 9.39 18.05 12.5 0.754
340 1.5618 0.891 165 10.6 19.70 14.2 0.746
360 1.4743 0.908 173 11.7 21.2 15.8 0.741
380 1.3961 0.926 181 13.0 22.75 17.6 0.737
400 1.3257 0.942 190 14.3 24.3 19.5 0.737
450 1.1782 0.981 210 17.8 28.3 24.5 0.728
500 1.0594 1.02 231 21.8 32.5 30.1 0.725
550 0.9625 1.05 251 26.1 36.6 36.2 0.721
600 0.8826 1.08 270 30.6 40.7 42.7 0.717
650 0.8143 1.10 288 35.4 44.5 49.7 0.712
700 0.7564 1.13 305 40.3 48.1 56.3 0.717
750 0.7057 1.15 321 45.5 51.7 63.7 0.714
800 0.6614 1.17 337 51.0 55.1 71.2 0.716
Carbon monoxide (CO)
200 1.6888 1.045 127 7.52 17.0 9.63 0.781
220 1.5341 1.044 137 8.93 19.0 11.9 0.753
240 1.4055 1.043 147 10.5 20.6 14.1 0.744
260 1.2967 1.043 157 12.1 22.1 16.3 0.741
280 1.2038 1.042 166 13.8 23.6 18.8 0.733
300 1.1233 1.043 175 15.6 25.0 21.3 0.730
320 1.0529 1.043 184 17.5 26.3 23.9 0.730
340 0.9909 1.044 193 19.5 27.8 26.9 0.725
360 0.9357 1.045 202 21.6 29.1 29.8 0.725
380 0.8864 1.047 210 23.7 30.5 32.9 0.729
400 0.8421 1.049 218 25.9 31.8 36.0 0.719
450 0.7483 1.055 237 31.7 35.0 44.3 0.714
500 0.67352 1.065 254 37.7 38.1 53.1 0.710
550 0.61226 1.076 271 44.3 41.1 62.4 0.710
600 0.56126 1.088 286 51.0 44.0 72.1 0.707
650 0.51806 1.101 301 58.1 47.0 82.4 0.705
700 0.48102 1.114 315 65.5 50.0 93.3 0.702
750 0.44899 1.127 329 73.3 52.8 104 0.702
800 0.42095 1.140 343 81.5 55.5 116 0.705
(Continued)
TABLE A.4 Continued
µ × 107 ν × 106 k × 103 α × 106

Helium (He)
100 0.4871 5.193 96.3 19.8 73.0 28.9 0.686
120 0.4060 5.193 107 26.4 81.9 38.8 0.679
140 0.3481 5.193 118 33.9 90.7 50.2 0.676
160 — 5.193 129 — 99.2 — —
180 0.2708 5.193 139 51.3 107.2 76.2 0.673
200 — 5.193 150 — 115.1 — —
220 0.2216 5.193 160 72.2 123.1 107 0.675
240 — 5.193 170 — 130 — —
260 0.1875 5.193 180 96.0 137 141 0.682
280 — 5.193 190 — 145 — —
300 0.1625 5.193 199 122 152 180 0.680
350 — 5.193 221 — 170 — —
400 0.1219 5.193 243 199 187 295 0.675
450 — 5.193 263 — 204 — —
500 0.09754 5.193 283 290 220 434 0.668
550 — 5.193 — — — — —
600 — 5.193 320 — 252 — —
650 — 5.193 332 — 264 — —
700 0.06969 5.193 350 502 278 768 0.654
750 — 5.193 364 — 291 — —
800 — 5.193 382 — 304 — —
900 — 5.193 414 — 330 — —
1000 0.04879 5.193 446 914 354 1400 0.654
Hydrogen (H2)
100 0.24255 11.23 42.1 17.4 67.0 24.6 0.707
150 0.16156 12.60 56.0 34.7 101 49.6 0.699
200 0.12115 13.54 68.1 56.2 131 79.9 0.704
250 0.09693 14.06 78.9 81.4 157 115 0.707
300 0.08078 14.31 89.6 111 183 158 0.701
350 0.06924 14.43 98.8 143 204 204 0.700
400 0.06059 14.48 108.2 179 226 258 0.695
450 0.05386 14.50 117.2 218 247 316 0.689
500 0.04848 14.52 126.4 261 266 378 0.691
550 0.04407 14.53 134.3 305 285 445 0.685
600 0.04040 14.55 142.4 352 305 519 0.678
700 0.03463 14.61 157.8 456 342 676 0.675
800 0.03030 14.70 172.4 569 378 849 0.670
900 0.02694 14.83 186.5 692 412 1030 0.671
1000 0.02424 14.99 201.3 830 448 1230 0.673
1100 0.02204 15.17 213.0 966 488 1460 0.662
1200 0.02020 15.37 226.2 1120 528 1700 0.659
1300 0.01865 15.59 238.5 1279 568 1955 0.655
1400 0.01732 15.81 250.7 1447 610 2230 0.650
(Continued)
TABLE A.4 Continued
µ × 107 ν × 106 k × 103 α × 106

Hydrogen (H2) (Continued)

1500 0.01616 16.02 262.7 1626 655 2530 0.643
1600 0.0152 16.28 273.7 1801 697 2815 0.639
1700 0.0143 16.58 284.9 1992 742 3130 0.637
1800 0.0135 16.96 296.1 2193 786 3435 0.639
1900 0.0128 17.49 307.2 2400 835 3730 0.643
2000 0.0121 18.25 318.2 2630 878 3975 0.661
Nitrogen (N2)
100 3.4388 1.070 68.8 2.00 9.58 2.60 0.768
150 2.2594 1.050 100.6 4.45 13.9 5.86 0.759
200 1.6883 1.043 129.2 7.65 18.3 10.4 0.736
250 1.3488 1.042 154.9 11.48 22.2 15.8 0.727
300 1.1233 1.041 178.2 15.86 25.9 22.1 0.716
350 0.9625 1.042 200.0 20.78 29.3 29.2 0.711
400 0.8425 1.045 220.4 26.16 32.7 37.1 0.704
450 0.7485 1.050 239.6 32.01 35.8 45.6 0.703
500 0.6739 1.056 257.7 38.24 38.9 54.7 0.700
550 0.6124 1.065 274.7 44.86 41.7 63.9 0.702
600 0.5615 1.075 290.8 51.79 44.6 73.9 0.701
700 0.4812 1.098 321.0 66.71 49.9 94.4 0.706
800 0.4211 1.22 349.1 82.90 54.8 116 0.715
900 0.3743 1.146 375.3 100.3 59.7 139 0.721
1000 0.3368 1.167 399.9 118.7 64.7 165 0.721
1100 0.3062 1.187 423.2 138.2 70.0 193 0.718
1200 0.2807 1.204 445.3 158.6 75.8 224 0.707
1300 0.2591 1.219 466.2 179.9 81.0 256 0.701
Oxygen (O2)
100 3.945 0.962 76.4 1.94 9.25 2.44 0.796
150 2.585 0.921 114.8 4.44 13.8 5.80 0.766
200 1.930 0.915 147.5 7.64 18.3 10.4 0.737
250 1.542 0.915 178.6 11.58 22.6 16.0 0.723
300 1.284 0.920 207.2 16.14 26.8 22.7 0.711
350 1.100 0.929 233.5 21.23 29.6 29.0 0.733
400 0.9620 0.942 258.2 26.84 33.0 36.4 0.737
450 0.8554 0.956 281.4 32.90 36.3 44.4 0.741
500 0.7698 0.972 303.3 39.40 41.2 55.1 0.716
550 0.6998 0.988 324.0 46.30 44.1 63.8 0.726
600 0.6414 1.003 343.7 53.59 47.3 73.5 0.729
700 0.5498 1.031 380.8 69.26 52.8 93.1 0.744
800 0.4810 1.054 415.2 86.32 58.9 116 0.743
900 0.4275 1.074 447.2 104.6 64.9 141 0.740
1000 0.3848 1.090 477.0 124.0 71.0 169 0.733
1100 0.3498 1.103 505.5 144.5 75.8 196 0.736
1200 0.3206 1.115 532.5 166.1 81.9 229 0.725
1300 0.2960 1.125 588.4 188.6 87.1 262 0.721
TABLE A.5 Thermophysical properties of saturated liquids 638
T (K) ρ (kg/m3) Cp (kJ/kg.K) µ × 102 (Ns/m2) ν × 106 (m2/s) k ×103 (W/m.K) α × 107 (m2/s) Pr β × 103 (K–1)
Engine oil (unused)

273 899.1 1.796 385 4280 147 0.910 47000 0.70
280 895.3 1.827 217 2430 144 0.880 27500 0.70
290 890.0 1.868 99.9 1120 145 0.872 12900 0.70
300 884.1 1.909 48.6 550 145 0.859 6400 0.70
310 877.9 1.951 25.3 288 145 0.847 3400 0.70
320 871.8 1.993 14.1 161 143 0.823 1965 0.70
330 865.8 2.035 8.36 96.6 141 0.800 1205 0.70
340 859.9 2.076 5.31 61.7 139 0.779 793 0.70
350 853.9 2.118 3.56 41.7 138 0.763 546 0.70
360 847.8 2.161 2.52 29.7 138 0.753 395 0.70
370 841.8 2.206 1.86 22.0 137 0.738 300 0.70
380 836.0 2.250 1.41 16.9 136 0.723 233 0.70
390 830.6 2.294 1.10 13.3 135 0.709 187 0.70
400 825.1 2.337 0.874 10.6 134 0.695 152 0.70
410 818.9 2.381 0.698 8.52 133 0.682 125 0.70
420 812.1 2.427 0.564 6.94 133 0.675 103 0.70
430 806.5 2.471 0.470 5.83 132 0.662 88 0.70
Ethylene glycol [C2H4(OH)2]
273 1130.8 2.294 6.51 57.6 242 0.933 617 0.65
280 1125.8 2.323 4.20 37.3 244 0.933 400 0.65
290 1118.8 2.368 2.47 22.1 248 0.936 236 0.65
300 1114.4 2.415 1.57 14.1 252 0.939 151 0.65
310 1103.7 2.460 1.07 9.65 255 0.939 103 0.65
320 1096.2 2.505 0.757 6.91 258 0.940 73.5 0.65
330 1089.5 2.549 0.561 5.15 260 0.936 55.0 0.65
340 1083.8 2.592 0.431 3.98 261 0.929 42.8 0.65
350 1079.0 2.637 0.342 3.17 261 0.917 34.6 0.65
360 1074.0 2.682 0.278 2.59 261 0.906 28.6 0.65
370 1066.7 2.728 0.228 2.14 262 0.900 23.7 0.65
373 1058.5 2.742 0.215 2.03 263 0.906 22.4 0.65
Glycerin [C3H5(OH)3]
273 1276.0 2.261 1060 8310 282 0.977 85000 0.47
280 1271.9 2.298 534 4200 284 0.972 43200 0.47
290 1265.8 2.367 185 1460 286 0.955 15300 0.48
300 1259.9 2.427 79.9 634 286 0.935 6780 0.48
310 1253.9 2.490 35.2 281 286 0.916 3060 0.49
320 1247.2 2.564 21.0 168 287 0.897 1870 0.50
(Continued)
TABLE A.5. Continued
T (K) ρ (kg/m3) Cp (kJ/kg.K) µ × 102 (Ns/m2) ν × 106 (m2/s) k ×103 (W/m.K) α × 107 (m2/s) Pr β × 103 (K–1)
Freon (Refrigerant-12) (CCl2F2)

230 1528.4 0.8816 0.0457 0.299 68 0.505 5.9 1.85
240 1498.0 0.8923 0.0385 0.257 69 0.516 5.0 1.90
250 1469.5 0.9037 0.0354 0.241 70 0.527 4.6 2.00
260 1439.0 0.9163 0.0322 0.224 73 0.554 4.0 2.10
270 1407.2 0.9301 0.0304 0.216 73 0.558 3.9 2.25
280 1374.4 0.9450 0.0283 0.206 73 0.562 3.7 2.35
290 1340.5 0.9609 0.0265 0.198 73 0.567 3.5 2.55
300 1305.8 0.9781 0.0254 0.195 72 0.564 3.5 2.75
310 1268.9 0.9963 0.0244 0.192 69 0.546 3.4 3.05
320 1228.6 1.0155 0.0233 0.190 68 0.545 3.5 3.5
Mercury (Hg)
273 13528 0.1404 0.1688 0.1240 8180 42.85 0.0290 0.181
300 13529 0.1393 0.1523 0.1125 8540 45.30 0.0248 0.181
350 13407 0.1377 0.1309 0.0976 9180 49.75 0.0196 0.181
400 13287 0.1365 0.1171 0.0882 9800 54.05 0.0163 0.181
450 13167 0.1357 0.1075 0.0816 10400 58.10 0.0140 0.181

500 13048 0.1353 0.1007 0.0771 10950 61.90 0.0125 0.182
550 12929 0.1352 0.0953 0.0737 11450 65.55 0.0112 0.184
600 12809 0.1355 0.0911 0.0711 11950 68.80 0.0103 0.187
TABLE A.6. Thermophysical properties of saturated liquid-vapour, 1 atm
Fluid Tsat (K) hfg (kJ/kg) ρf (kg/m3) ρg (kg/m3) σ × 103 (N/m)

Ethanol 351 846 757 1.44 17.7
Ethylene glycol 470 812 1111a — 32.7
Glycerin 563 974 1260 a — 63.0a
Mercury 630 301 12740 3.90 417
Refrigerant R-12 243 165 1488 6.32 15.8
Refrigerant R-113 321 147 1511 7.38 15.9
aProperty value corresponding to 300 K
639
TABLE A.7 Thermophysical properties of saturated water
640
Specific Specific Thermal
volume Heat of heat Viscosity conductivity Prandtl Surface Expansion
Tempera- Pressure, (m3/kg) vaporization, (kJ/kg.K) (N.s/m2) (W/m.K) number tension coefficient Tempera-
ture, T p hfg σf . 103 βf . 106 ture T
(K) (bar)a vf . 103 vg (kJ/kg ) Cp, f Cp, g µf . 106 µg . 106 kf . 103 kg . 103 PrfPrg (N/m) (K–1) (K)
273.15 0.00611 1.000 206.3 2502 4.217 1.854 1750 8.02 569 18.2 12.99 0.815 75.5 – 68.05 273.15
275 0.00697 1.000 181.7 2497 4.211 1.855 1652 8.09 574 18.3 12.22 0.817 75.3 – 32.74 275
280 0.00990 1.000 130.4 2485 4.198 1.858 1422 8.29 582 18.6 10.26 0.825 74.8 46.04 280
285 0.01387 1.000 99.4 2473 4.189 1.861 1225 8.49 590 18.9 8.81 0.833 74.3 114.1 285
290 0.01917 1.001 69.7 2461 4.184 1.864 1080 8.69 598 19.3 7.56 0.841 73.7 174.0 290
295 0.02617 1.002 51.94 2449 4.181 1.868 959 8.89 606 19.5 6.62 0.849 72.7 227.5 295
300 0.03531 1.003 39.13 2438 4.179 1.872 855 9.09 613 19.6 5.83 0.857 71.7 276.1 300
305 0.04712 1.005 27.90 2426 4.178 1.877 769 9.29 620 20.1 5.20 0.865 70.9 320.6 305
310 0.06221 1.007 22.93 2414 4.178 1.882 695 9.49 628 20.4 4.62 0.873 70.0 361.9 310
315 0.08132 1.009 17.82 2402 4.179 1.888 631 9.69 634 20.7 4.16 0.883 69.2 400.4 315
320 0.1053 1.011 13.98 2390 4.180 1.895 577 9.89 640 21.0 3.77 0.894 68.3 436.7 320
325 0.1351 1.013 11.06 2378 4.182 1.903 528 10.09 645 21.3 3.42 0.901 67.5 471.2 325
330 0.1719 1.016 8.82 2366 4.184 1.911 489 10.29 650 21.7 3.15 0.908 66.6 504.0 330
335 0.2167 1.018 7.09 2354 4.186 1.920 453 10.49 656 22.0 2.88 0.916 65.8 535.5 335
340 0.2713 1.021 5.74 2342 4.188 1.930 420 10.69 660 22.3 2.66 0.925 64.9 566.0 340
345 0.3372 1.024 4.683 2329 4.191 1.941 389 10.89 668 22.6 2.45 0.933 64.1 595.4 345
350 0.4163 1.027 3.846 2317 4.195 1.954 365 11.09 668 23.0 2.29 0.942 63.2 624.2 350
355 0.5100 1.030 3.180 2304 4.199 1.968 343 11.29 671 23.3 2.14 0.951 62.3 652.3 355
360 0.6209 1.034 2.645 2291 4.203 1.983 324 11.49 674 23.7 2.02 0.960 61.4 697.9 360
365 0.7514 1.038 2.212 2278 4.209 1.999 306 11.69 677 24.1 1.91 0.969 60.5 707.1 365
370 0.9040 1.041 1.861 2265 4.214 2.017 289 11.89 679 24.5 1.80 0.978 59.5 728.7 370
373.15 1.0133 1.044 1.679 2257 4.217 2.029 279 12.02 680 24.8 1.76 0.984 58.9 750.1 373.15
375 1.0815 1.045 1.574 2252 4.220 2.036 274 12.09 681 24.9 1.70 0.987 58.6 761 375
380 1.2869 1.049 1.337 2239 4.226 2.057 260 12.29 683 25.4 1.61 0.999 57.6 788 380
385 1.5233 1.053 1.142 2225 4.232 2.080 248 12.49 685 25.8 1.53 1.004 56.6 814 385
390 1.794 1.058 0.980 2212 4.239 2.104 237 12.69 686 26.3 1.47 1.013 55.6 841 390
400 2.455 1.067 0.731 2183 4.256 2.158 217 13.05 688 27.2 1.34 1.033 53.6 896 400
410 3.302 1.077 0.553 2153 4.278 2.221 200 13.42 688 28.2 1.24 1.054 51.5 952 410
420 4.370 1.088 0.425 2123 4.302 2.291 185 13.79 688 29.8 1.16 1.075 49.4 1010 420
430 5.699 1.099 0.331 2091 4.331 2.369 173 14.14 685 30.4 1.09 1.10 47.2 430
440 7.333 1.110 0.261 2059 4.36 2.46 162 14.50 682 31.7 1.04 1.12 45.1 440
450 9.319 1.123 0.208 2024 4.40 2.56 152 14.85 678 33.1 0.99 1.14 42.9 450
460 11.71 1.137 0.167 1989 4.44 2.68 143 15.19 673 34.6 0.95 1.17 40.7 460
470 14.55 1.152 0.136 1951 4.48 2.79 136 15.54 667 36.3 0 .92 1.20 38.5 470
480 17.90 1.167 0.111 1912 4.53 2.94 129 I5.88 660 38.1 0.89 1.23 36.2 480
490 21.83 1.184 0.0922 1870 4.59 3.10 124 16.23 651 40.1 0 .87 1.25 33.9 — 490
500 26.40 1.203 0.0766 1825 4.66 3.27 118 16.59 642 42.3 0.86 1.28 31.6 — 500
510 31.66 1.222 0.0631 1779 4.74 3.47 113 16.95 631 44.7 0.85 1.31 29.3 — 510
520 37.70 1.244 0.0525 1730 4.84 3.70 108 17.33 621 47.5 0.84 1.35 26.9 — 520
530 44.58 1.268 0.0445 1679 4.95 3.96 104 17.72 608 50.6 0.85 1.39 24.5 — 530
540 52.38 1.294 0.0375 1622 5.08 4.27 101 18.1 594 54.0 0.86 1.43 22.1 — 540
550 61.19 1.323 0 .0317 1564 5.24 4.64 97 18.6 580 58.3 0.87 1.47 19.7 — 550
560 71.08 1.355 0.0269 1499 5.43 5.09 94 19.1 563 63.7 0.90 1.52 17.3 — 560
570 82.16 1.392 0.0228 1429 5.68 5.67 91 19.7 548 76.7 0.94 1.59 15.0 — 570
580 94.51 1.433 0.0193 1353 6.00 6.40 88 20.4 528 76.7 0.99 1.68 12.8 — 580
(Continued)
TABLE A.7 Continued
Specific Specific Thermal

volume Heat of heat Viscosity conductivity Prandtl Surface Expansion
Tempera- Pressure, (m3/kg) vaporization, (kJ/kg.K) (N.s/m2) (W/m.K) number tension coefficient Tempera-
ture, T p hfg σf . 103 βf . 106 ture T
(K) (bar)a vf . 103 vg (kJ/kg) Cp, f Cp, g µf . 106 µg . 106 kf . 103 kg . 103 Prf Prg (N/m) (K–1) (K)
590 108.3 1.482 0.0163 1274 6.41 7.35 84 21.5 513 84.1 1.05 1.84 10.5 — 590
600 123.5 1.541 0.0137 1176 7.00 8.75 81 22.7 497 92.9 1.14 2.15 8.4 — 600
610 137.3 1.612 0.0115 1068 7.85 11.1 77 24.1 467 103 1.30 2.60 6.3 — 610
620 159.1 1.705 0.0094 941 9.35 15.4 72 25.9 444 114 1.52 3.46 4.5 — 620
625 169.1 1.778 0.0085 858 10.6 18.3 70 27.0 430 121 1.65 4.20 3.5 — 625
630 179.7 1.856 0.0075 781 12.6 22.1 67 28.0 412 130 2.0 4.8 2.6 — 630
635 190.9 1.935 0.0066 683 16.4 27.6 64 30.0 392 141 2.7 6.0 1.5 — 635
640 202.7 2.075 0.0057 560 26 42 59 32.0 367 155 4.2 9.6 0.8 — 640
645 215.2 2.351 0.0045 361 90 — 54 37.0 331 178 12 26 0.1 — 645
647.3a 221.2 3.170 0.0032 0 ∞ ∞ 45 45.0 238 238 ∞ ∞ 0.0 — 647.3b
a1 bar = 105 N/m2
bCritical temperature
TABLE A.8 Thermophysical properties of liquid metals

Melting
Composition point T ρ Cp ν × 107 k α × 105
(K) (K) (kg/m3) (kJ/kg.K) (m2/s) (W/m.K) (m2/s) Pr
Bismuth 544 589 10011 0.1444 1.617 16.4 0.138 0.0142

811 9739 0.1545 1.133 15.6 1.035 0.0110
1033 9467 0.1645 0.8343 15.6 1.001 0.0083
Lead 600 644 10540 0.159 2.276 16.1 1.084 0.024
755 10412 0.155 1.849 15.6 1.223 0.017
977 10140 — 1.347 14.9 — —
Potassium 337 422 807.3 0.80 4.608 45.0 6.99 0.0066
700 741.7 0.75 2.397 39.5 7.07 0.0034
977 674.4 0.75 1.905 33.1 6.55 0.0029
Sodium 371 366 929.1 1.38 7.516 86.2 6.71 0.011
644 860.2 1.30 3.270 72.3 6.48 0.0051
977 778.5 1.26 2.285 59.7 6.12 0.0037
NaK, 292 366 887.4 1.130 6.522 25.6 2.552 0.026
(45%/55%) 644 821.7 1.055 2.871 27.5 3.17 0.0091
977 740.1 1.043 2.174 28.9 3.74 0.0058
NaK, 262 366 849.0 0.946 5.797 24.4 3.05 0.019
(22%/78%) 672 775.3 0.879 2.666 26.7 3.92 0.0068
1033 690.4 0.883 2.118 — — —
PbBi, 398 422 10524 0.147 — 9.05 0.586 —
(44.5%/55.5%) 644 10236 0.147 1.496 11.86 0.790 0.189
922 9835 — 1.171 — — —
641
Mercury 234 See Table A.5

TABLE A.9 Emissivities of some surfaces (a) Metals
Material Temperature Emissivity ε

K
Aluminum
Polished 300–900 0.04–0.06
Commercial sheet 400 0.09
Heavily oxidized 400–800 0.20–0.33
Anodized 300 0.8
Bismuth, bright 350 0.34
Brass
Highly polished 500–650 0.03–0.04
Polished 350 0.09
Dull plate 300–600 0.22
Oxidized 450–800 0.6
Chromium, polished 300–1400 0.08–0.40
Copper
Highly polished 300 0.02
Polished 300–500 0.04–0.05
Commercial sheet 300 0.15
Oxidized 600–1000 0.5–0.8
Black oxidized 300 0.78
Gold
Bright foil 300 0.07
Iron
Cast iron 300 0.44
Wrought iron 300–500 0.28
Rusted 300 0.61
Oxidized 500–900 0.64–0.78
Lead
Polished 300–500 0.06–0.08
Unoxidized, rough 300 0.43
Oxidized 300 0.63
Magnesium, polished 300–500 0.07–0.13
Mercury 300–400 0.09–0.12
Molybdenum
Polished 300–2000 0.05–0.21
Oxidized 600–800 0.80–0.82
Nickel
Polished 500–1200 0.07 0.17
Oxidized 450–1000 0.37–0.57
Platinum, polished 500–1500 0.06–0.18
Silver, polished 300–1000 0.02–0.07
Stainless steel
Polished 300–1000 0.17–0.30
Lightly oxidized 600–1000 0.30–0.40
Highly oxidized 600–1000 0.70–0.80
Steel
Polished sheet 300–500 0.08–014
Commercial sheet 500–1200 0.20–0.32
Heavily oxidized 300 0.81
Tin, polished 300 0.05
Tungsten
Polished 300–2500 0.03–0.29
Filament 3500 0.39
Zinc
Polished 300–800 0.02–0.05
Oxidized 300 0.25
TABLE A.9 Emissivities of some surfaces (b) Non-metals
Material Temperature Emissivity ε

K
Ammonia 800–1400 0.65–0.45
Aluminum oxide 600–1500 0.69–0.41
Asbestos 300 0.96
Asphalt pavement 300 0.85–0.93
Brick
Common 300 0.93–0.96
Fireclay 1200 0.75
Carbon filament 2000 0.75–0.90
Cloth 300 0.75–0.90
Concrete 300 0.88–0.94
Glass
Window 300 0.90–0.95
Pyres 300–1200 0.82–0.62
Pyroceram 300–1500 0.85–0.57
Ice 273 0.95–0.99
Magnesium oxide 400–800 0.69–0.55
Masonry 300 0.80
Paints
Aluminum 300 0.40–0.50
Black, Iacquer, shiny 300 0.88
Oils, all colors 300 0.92–0.96
White acrylic 300 0.90
White enamel 300 0.90
Red primer 300 0.93
Paper, white 300 0.90
Plaster, white 300 0.93
Porcelain, glazed 300 0.92
Quartz, rough, fused 300 0.93
Rubber
Soft 300 0.86
Hard 300 0.93
Sand 300 0.90
Silicon carbide 600–1500 0.87–0.85
Skin, earth 300 0.95
Snow 273 0.80–0.90
Soil, earth 300 0.93–0.96
Soot 300–500 0.95
Teflon 300–500 0.85–0.92
Water, deep 273–373 0.95–0.96
Wood
Beech 300 0.94
Oak 300 0.90
TABLE A.10 Solar radiative properties for selected materials
Description/composition αs εa αs/ε τs
Aluminium
Polished 0.09 0.03 3.0
Anodised 0.14 0.84 0.17
Quartz overcoated 0.11 0.37 0.30
Foil 0.15 0.05 3.0
Brick, red (Purdue) 0.63 0.93 0.68
Concrete 0.60 0.88 0.68
Galvanised sheet metal
Clean, new 0.65 0.13 5.0
Oxidised, weathered 0.80 0.28 2.9
Glass, 3.2 mm thickness
Float or tempered 0.79
Low iron oxide type 0.88
Metal, plated
Black sulphide 0.92 0.10 9.2
Black cobalt oxide 0.93 0.30 3.1
Black nickel oxide 0.92 0.08 11
Black chrome 0.87 0.09 9.7
Mylar, 0.13 mm thickness 0.87
Paints
Black (Parsons) 0.98 0.98 1.0
White, acrylic 0.26 0.90 0.29
White, zinc oxide 0.16 0.93 0.17
Plexiglas, 3.2 mm thickness 0.90
Snow
Fine particles fresh 0.13 0.82 0.16
Ice granules 0.33 0.89 0.37
Tedlar, 0.10 mm thickness 0.92
Teflon, 0.13 mm thickness 0.92
The emissivity values in this table correspond to a surface temperature of approximately 300 K
TABLE A.11 Diffusion coefficient of gases and vapours in air at 25°C and 100 kPa
ν
Substance DAB, cm2/s Sc =
D
Ammonia 0.28 0.78

Carbon dioxide 0.164 0.94
Hydrogen 0.410 0.22
Oxygen 0.206 0.75
Water 0.256 0.60
Ethyl ether 0.093 1.66
Methanol 0.159 0.97
Ethyl alcohol 0.119 1.30
Formic acid 0.159 0.97
Acetic acid 0.133 1.16
Aniline 0.073 2.14
Benzene 0.088 1.76
Toluene 0.084 1.84
Ethyl benzene 0.077 2.01
Propyl benzene 0.059 2.62
Table A.12 Molal specific volumes and latent heats of vaporization for
selected liquids at their normal boiling points.
Substance Vm (m3/k-mol) hfg × 103 (kJ/k-mol)
Methanol 0.042 35.53

Ethanol 0.064 39.33
n-Propanol 0.081 41.97
Isopropanol 0.072 40.71
n-Butanol 0.103 43.76
tert-Butanol 0.103 40.63
n-Pentane 0.118 25.61
Cyclopentane 0.100 27.32
Isopentane 0.118 24.73
Neopentane 0.118 22.72
n-Hexane 0.141 28.85
Cyclohexane 0.117 33.03
n-Heptane 0.163 31.69
n-Octane 0.185 34.14
n-Nonane 0.207 36.53
n-Decane 0.229 39.33
Acetone 0.074 28.90
Benzene 0.096 30.76
Carbon tetrachloride 0.102 29.93
Ethyl bromide 0.075 27.41
Nitromethane 0.056 25.44
Water 0.0187 40.62
Index
A C
Absorptivity 405 Capacity rates 512, 513
Additive relation 436 Cellular insulations 15
Advection 234 Characteristic length 182
Adverse tilt 544 Chilton Colburn analogy 312
Angle factor 434
Coefficient of friction 268
Anisotropic material 12
Annular Fin 136 Coefficient of thermal 334
Annular flow regime 397 Colburn equation 312
Apparent thermal conductivity 15 Colburn’s factor 260
Apparent turbulent shear stress 258 Compact heat exchanger 488, 536
Archimedes principle 334 Concentric tube 487
Area density 488 Concurrent heat exchanger 488
Area weighted fin efficiency 153 Condensation 372
Atmospheric emission 425
Condensation number 377
Average emissivity 418
Axial power rating 545 Conduction 2, 180
Conduction resistance 43
B Configuration factor 434
Conservation of mass equation 3
Biot number 183
Black body 403, 406 Contact resistance 64
Black body radiation function 411 Continuity equation 3
Black body spectral emissive power 406 Convection 2
Boiling 385, 613 Convection resistance 44
Boiling crisis 387 Convective mass transfer 555
Boltzmann constant 407 Critical Grashof number 335
Bond number 389
Critical heat flux 387, 613
Boundary conditions 31
Critical point 390
Boundary layer 238
Bubbly flow regime 397 Critical radius of insulation 82, 88
Buckingham π theorem 250 Critical Reynolds number 240, 253
Buffer layer 240 Critical temperature excess 387
Buoyancy force 334 Critical thickness of insulation 82
Burnout point 387
647
D Fouling factor 491

Fourier equation 27
Diffuse reflection 405 Fourier number 183
Diffuse solar radiation 424 Free 2
Diffuse surface 417 Free convection 234
Diffusion 234 Free convection boiling 387
Diffusion velocity 556 Free convection current 333
Dimensional homogeneity 249 Free mass convection 578
Direct contact type heat exchanger 486 Free stream region 266
Direct solar radiation 424 Friction drag 282
Directional emissivity 416 Friction factor 296
Discharge rate 3 Friction length 154
Dittus-Boelter equation 312 Fully developed region 297
Double pipe heat exchanger 487 Fully developed velocity profile 294
Drag coefficient 268
Drag force 268 G
Drop wise condensation 372, 373
Geometric factor 434
E Geometrical factor 182
Global warming 425
Economic thickness of insulation 16 Graetz number 254, 310
Eddy diffusion 554 Granular insulations 15
Eddy viscosity 259 Grashof number 254, 334
Effective thermal conductivity 364 Gray body approximation 417
Effectiveness-NTU 512 Gray surface 417
Eigen values 200 Green house effect 425
Electrical analogy 43
Electromagnetic waves 402 H
Emissive power 404
Emissivity 7, 413 Heat 1
Equimolar counter diffusion 570 Heat transfer coefficient 5
Equivalent resistance 45 Heat capacity 17
Evaporation 385 Heat capacity rate 512
Expansion 334 Heat capacity ratio 497
External convection 235 Heat exchanger 486
External flow 266 Heat flux 1
Extraterrestrial solar irradiation 424 Heat pipe 543, 615
Heat transfer 1
F Heat transfer coefficient 235
Heat transfer rate 1
Faborable tilt 544 Hemispherical emissivity 414
Fibrous insulations 15 Hydraulic diameter 307
Film boiling 613 Hydrodynamic boundary layer 238
Film resistance 44 Hydrodynamic entrance region 294
Film wise condensation 372 Hydrodynamic entry length 294
Fin density 153 Hydrodynamically developed flow 293
Fin effectiveness 151 Hydrodynamically developing region 294
Fin efficiency 152
Finned tube type 488 I
Fins 136
First law of thermodynamics 3 Inclined cavity 362
Forced convection 2, 234, 235 Inflection point 387
Forced convection boiling 385, 396 Infrared region 403
Forced mass convection 578 Initial condition 31
INDEX 649
Instantaneous rate of cooling 182 Maxwell’s Theory 402

Instantaneous rate of heat transfer 182 Mean temperature 298
Insulation materials 14 Mean velocity 294
Insulator 595 Mist flow regime 397
Internal convection 235 Mixed flow 488
Irradiation 404 Modified grashof number 338
Isolated nucleate boiling 387 Molar concentration 555
Isothermal evaporation 573 Molar density 555
Isotropic material 12, 27 Molar flux 557
Mole fraction 556
J Molecular diffusion 554
Momentum equation 242
Jacob number 376, 389
Momentum flux 242
K Monochromatic emissive power 404
Monochromatic irradiation 405
Kirchhoff ’s Law 416
N
L
Natural 234
Laminar boundary layer 239 Natural convection 2, 333
Laminar sublayer 240 Natural convection heat transfer 333
Laplace equation 26, 27 Network method 456
Leidenfrost point 388 Nucleate boiling 387, 613
Lewis number 579 Nucleate sites 388
Local heat transfer coefficient 236 Nucleation 388
Local Nusselt Number 247 Number of transfer units (NTU) 512
Local skin friction coefficient 268 Nusselt analysis 373
Log mean area 70 Nusselt number 245, 254, 389
Log mean temperature difference 301, 495
Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) 486 O
Longitudinal fin 136
One shell pass and two tube pass 488
Lumped system analysis 180
Opaque body 406
M Optimum insulation thickness 17
Overall fin effectiveness 153
Mass concentration 555 Overall heat transfer coefficient 88, 486, 490
Mass continuity 242 Ozone layer 424
Mass density 555
Mass diffusivity 560 P
Mass flux 556
Partial pressure 556
Mass fraction 556
Peclet number 254, 310
Mass transfer 554
Penetration depth 221
Mass transfer coefficient 578
Penetration time 221
Mass transfer conductance 578
Permeance 569
Mass transfer Grashof number 581
Pin fin 136
Mass transfer Nusselt number 579
Poisson equation 26, 27
Mass transfer stanton number 579
Pool boiling 385
Mass velocity 537
Prandtl mixing length 258
Max Planck’s distribution law 407
Prandtl number 246, 253
Max Planck’s Theory 402
Pressure drag 282
Maximum heat flux 387
Product solution 222
Maximum spectral emissive power 408
Pumping power 296
Maxwell electromagnetic theory 402
R Steady state heat transfer 2

Stefan Boltzmann constant 7, 408
R-value 16 Stefan Boltzmann law 408
R-Value of insulation 16 Stefan’s law 574
Radiation from a surface 419 Steradian 419
Radiation heat transfer 402 Straight rectangular fin 136
Radiation intensity 420 Sub-cooled or local boiling 385
Radiation shields 470 Sublayer 311
Radiation view factor 434 Summation rule 436
Radiosity 421 Superinsulators 15
Rayleigh number 338 Superposition 436
Rayleigh’s method 249 Superposition rule 436
Reciprocity rule 436 Surface condensers 487
Reflection 405 Surface resistance 456
Reflectivity 405 Surface shear stress 238
Regenerators 487 Symmetry 437
Relative humidity 569
Repeating variables 250 T
Reradiating surface 458
Response of thermocouple 184 Taylor’s series 25
Reynolds analogy 260, 271, 312 TEMA 491
Reynolds colburn analogy 260, 271 Temperature excess 613
Reynolds number 240, 253, 281 Temperature gradient 2
Reynolds stress 258 Thermal boundary layer 238
Thermal conductance 44
S Thermal conductivity 592
Thermal conductivity 4, 8
Saturated air 569 Thermal diffusivity 17, 25
Saturated boiling 385 Thermal effectiveness 497
Schmidt number 578 Thermal entrance region 297
Second law of thermodynamics 3 Thermal entry length 297
Selective surfaces 426 Thermal grease 65
Semi infinite solid 219 Thermal insulation 14
Sensitivity of thermocouple 184 Thermal insulators 8
Separation point 282 Thermal radiation 2, 3, 403
Shape factor 434 Thermally developed region 297
Shell and tube type heat exchangers 487 Thermodynamics 1
Sherwood number 579 Thickness of velocity boundary layer 268
Sieder-Tate equation 312 Time constant 184
Skin friction coefficient 238, 268 Total emissivity 414
Slug flow regime 397 Total fin efficiency 153
Solar absorber 426 Total hemispherical emissivity 414
Solar constant 423 Total thermal resistance 44
Solar energy 423 Transfer type heat exchangers 487
Solar radiation 403, 423 Transient 180
Solid angle 419 Transient heat conduction 27
Space resistance 456 Transient heat transfer 2
Spectral emissivity 415 Transition boiling 387
Spectral intensity of radiation 419 Transition Grashof number 340
Spectral irradiation 405 Transmissivity 405
Specular 405 Tube in tube 487
Spine 136 Tubular heat exchangers 487
Stable nucleate boiling 387 Turbulent boundary layer 240
Stanton number 254 Turbulent diffusivity 259
INDEX 651
Turbulent layer 240 Vapour barriers 569

Turbulent Prandtl number 259 Vapour pressure 569
Turbulent viscosity 259 Vapour resistance 569
Two shell pass and four tube pass heat exchanger 488 Vapour retarders 569
Velocity boundary layer 238
U View factor 434
Viscous 311
Ultraviolet radiation 403
Visible radiation 403
Unidirectional fourier equation 25
Volume flow rate 3
Unidirectional governing equation for heat
Volumetric expansion coefficient 334
conduction 25
Von Karman integral equation 267
Unmixed flow 488
Unstable film boiling 387
W
Unsteady state heat transfer 2
White body 406
V Wien’s displacement law 407
Vaporisation 385

Rathore, Mahesh M. - Engineering Heat and Mass Transfer-University Science Press (2015) PDF

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Rathore, Mahesh M. - Engineering Heat and Mass Transfer-University Science Press (2015) PDF

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ENGINEERING

HEAT AND MASS

BENGALURU Ɣ CHENNAI Ɣ COCHIN Ɣ GUWAHATI Ɣ HYDERABAD

Copyright © by Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

Printed and bound in India

& Bangalore 080-26 75 69 30

& Hyderabad 040-27 55 53 83, 27 55 53 93

113, GOLDEN HOUSE, DARYAGANJ, & Ranchi 0651-220 44 64

1. CONCEPTS AND MECHANISMS OF HEAT FLOW 1–23

2. CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 24–41

3. STEADY STATE CONDUCTION WITHOUT HEAT GENERATION 42–99

4. STEADY STATE CONDUCTION WITH HEAT GENERATION 100–135

5. HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACES 136–179

6. TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION 180–233

7. PRINCIPLES OF CONVECTION 234–265

8. EXTERNAL FLOW 266–292

9. INTERNAL FLOW 293–332

10. NATURAL CONVECTION 333–371

11. CONDENSATION AND BOILING 372–401

12. THERMAL RADIATION: PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES 402–433

13. RADIATION EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES 434–485

14. HEAT EXCHANGERS 486–553

15. MASS TRANSFER 554–591

16. EXPERIMENTS IN ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER 592–619

A Area normal to heat transfer, m2 h Plank’s constant

Re Electrical resistance, ohms ν Kinematic viscosity, momentum diffusivity,

QUANTITY UNITS DIMENSION

A α Alpha I ι Iota P ρ Rho

Metric Weights and Measures

Objective of this chapter is to: 1.1. WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER ?

It is the conservation of mass equation for steady

where, Q = rate of heat transfer in W, dT (T1 − T2 )

Fig. 1.3. Schematic of furnace wall

T2 = tube wall temperature = 150°C, Q

Fig. 1.4. Hydrogen filled tube with concentric heating wire

To find : (i) Net heat flow rate, and T¥ = 100°C

Consider a surface of emissivity ε is maintained

1.6.1. Variation in Thermal Conductivity The thermal conductivity of alloys generally

Thermal conductivity, k (W/m.K)

Tungsten Temperature (K)

20 Stainless steel, 0.3

(iii) When constant α < 0, the slope or temperature

1.7. ISOTROPIC MATERIAL AND ANISOTROPIC

the direction of the heat flow, the material is called

thermal conductivity depends upon directions. For N 2 3 Q T1

To find : Heat loss per sq m through the wall. T2

T2 = 50°C Fig. 1.18. Schematic for example 1.11

Calculate the heat transfer rate, when the two ends

of the metal piece are maintained at temperatures of FT −T

Using numerical values : Integrating and rearranging, we get

Fig. 1.21. Range of thermal conductivities of thermal insulations

= 6750 + 5634.34 = 12384.34 = 148, 612 W

1.10. HEAT TRANSFER IN BOILING AND 1.11. MASS TRANSFER

TABLE 1.4. Summary of heat transfer rate processes

Mode Mechanism Governing equation Transport property

TABLE 1.5. Glossary of heat transfer terms

1. Determine the heat flow across a plane wall of 10 cm

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (c) Greater than that of conductor

(b) Brick, aluminium, copper, steel (a) Equal to unit

(c) Brick, steel, aluminium, copper (b) Less than unity

(a) Area (b) Thickness

The objective of this chapter is to provide a good The element having

∂t It is known as unidirectional Fourier equation.